UNIT 3 QUALITATIVE DATA Qualitative Data

Collection Methods
COLLECTION METHODS AND and Devices

DEVICES

Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Qualitative Data - Meaning and Concept
3.3 Methods and Techniques of Qualitative Data Collection
3.4 Features of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Keywords
3.7 Bibliography and Selected Readings
3.8 Check Your Progress – Possible Answers

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Data collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Data
collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about the
subject of our study (people, objects, phenomena), and about the
environment. In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are
collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our research questions in
a conclusive way. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study
and ultimately lead to invalid results.

After studying this unit, you should be able to

• discuss the meaning and concept of qualitative data

• describe the features of various methods and devices used for qualitative
data collection
• explain the uses and limitations of various qualitative data collection
methods.

3.2 QUALITATIVE DATA - MEANING AND

CONCEPT
Qualitative research is grounded in the assumption that individuals construct
social reality in the form of meanings and interpretations, and that these
constructions tend to be transitory and situational. Qualitative research
typically involves qualitative data, i.e., data obtained through methods such
interviews, on-site observations, and focus groups that is in narrative rather
than numerical form. Such data are analyzed by looking for themes and
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Use of Basic patterns. It involves reading, re-reading, and exploring the data. How the data
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are gathered will greatly affect the ease of analysis and utility of findings.

Qualitative data are descriptive in nature and can be statistically analyzed

only after processing and after having them classified into some appropriate
categories. Qualitative data can, however, facilitate in-depth analysis of a
social situation. There are certain situations where qualitative research alone
can provide the researcher with all insights needed to make decisions and
take actions; while in some other cases quantitative research might be needed
as well.

3.3 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
Qualitative methods are ways of collecting data which are concerned with
describing meaning, rather than with drawing statistical inferences. They
provide in-depth and rich descriptions. In this section, a detailed description
and comparison of the most commonly used qualitative methods employed in
social science research is given.

3.3.1 Observation Method

In our daily life we observe many things and events around us, but this sort of
observation is not scientific. Observational techniques are methods by which
an individual or individuals gather first hand data on programs, processes, or
behaviours being studied. They provide evaluators with an opportunity to
collect data on a wide range of behaviours, to capture a great variety of
interactions, and to openly explore the evaluation topic. By directly observing
operations and activities, the evaluator can develop a holistic perspective, i.e.,
an understanding of the context within which the project operates. This may
be especially important where it is not the event that is of interest, but rather
how that event may fit into, or be impacted by, a sequence of events.

Scientific observation is a methodical way of recognizing and noting a fact or

occurrence, often involving some sort of measurement. Scientific
observations should be specific, and recorded immediately. Understanding
the culture of the people and the ability to interact with them are essential for
good observation. Researches may be based solely on observation, but in
most cases observation precedes other methods of data collection.

When to use observations: Observations can be useful during both the

formative and summative phases of evaluation. For example, during the
formative phase, observations can be useful in determining whether or not the
project is being delivered and operated as planned. In the hypothetical
project, observations could be used to describe the faculty development
sessions, examining the extent to which participants understand the concepts,
ask the right questions, and are engaged in appropriate interactions. Such
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formative observations could also provide valuable insights into the teaching Qualitative Data
Collection Methods
styles of the presenters and how they are covering the material. and Devices

Advantages

i. Subjective bias may be eliminated, if observation is done accurately

ii. Information relates to current state of affairs; and
iii. It is independent of respondents' willingness or capability to respond.

Limitations

i. A time consuming and expensive method

ii. A limited amount of information may be available; and
iii. Extraneous factors may interfere with the task of observation.

Types of observation:

Structured and unstructured observation: in case the observation is

characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the manner
of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of
observation, and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the
observation is called as structured observation. But, when the observation is
conducted without these features thought out in advance, the same is termed
an unstructured observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate
in descriptive studies, whereas, in an exploratory study, the observational
procedure should be relatively unstructured.

Participant and non-participant observation: this depends on the degree of

involvement of the researcher with the situation being observed. In
participant observation, the researcher who may be an outsider, while
observing the group, also plays the role of a group member. It is necessary to
have the observation in an unbiased way, without getting emotionally
involved in the affairs of the group or the community. The main advantage of
participant observation is that, it helps the observer to get an intimate
knowledge of the group or the community being observed, under natural
condition. For example, if one wants to study the fishermen community,
reliable information may be obtained through the method of participant
observation. Participant observation, however, requires longer time, greater
resources, and there may be loss of objectivity, if not properly done. In
non-participant observation, the researcher observes the group or the
community, while maintaining physical and psychological isolation from
them. This ensures collection of information in an objective way.

Controlled and uncontrolled observation: when observation takes place

according to a definite pre-arranged plan involving experimental procedure,
the same is termed as a controlled observation. The aim of a controlled
observation is to check any bias due to faulty perception, incomplete
information and effect of external stimuli on a specific situation. An 205
Use of Basic uncontrolled observation on the other hand, is one where the researcher
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observes the behaviour and activities of a group under natural conditions (as
they are) without any stimulation from the outside. This method provides a
wide range of information and helps in developing an insight about the group
or community. Care should, however, be taken against subjective
interpretation of observed phenomenon.

Recording Observational Data

Observations are carried out using a carefully developed set of steps and
instruments. The observer is more than just an onlooker, but, rather, comes to
the scene with a set of target concepts, definitions, and criteria for describing
events. While, in some studies, observers may simply record and describe, in
the majority of evaluations, their descriptions are, or eventually will be,
judged against a continuum of expectations.

Observations usually are guided by a structured protocol. The protocol can

take a variety of forms, ranging from the request for a narrative, describing
events seen to a checklist or a rating scale of specific behaviours/activities
that address the evaluation question of interest. The use of a protocol helps
assure that all observers are gathering the pertinent information and, with
appropriate training, applying the same criteria in the evaluation. For
example, an observational approach is selected to gather data on the faculty
training sessions, the instrument developed would explicitly guide the
observer to examine the kinds of activities in which participants were
interacting, the role(s) of the trainers and the participants, the types of
materials provided and used, the opportunity for hands-on interaction, etc.

Field notes are frequently used to provide more in-depth background or to

help the observer remember salient events if some forms are not completed at
the time of observation. Field notes contain the description of what has been
observed. The descriptions must be factual, accurate, and thorough without
being judgmental and cluttered by trivia. The date and time of the
observation should be recorded, and everything that the observer believes to
be worth noting should be included. No information should be trusted to
future recall.

Technological tools, such as a battery-operated tape recorder or a

Dictaphone, laptop computer, camera, and video camera, can make the
collection of field notes more efficient and the notes themselves more
comprehensive. Informed consent must be obtained from participants before
any observational data are gathered.

3.3.2 Case Study Method

The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and
involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a
person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, or, even the entire
206 community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case
study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events Qualitative Data
Collection Methods
or conditions and their interrelations. The case study deals with the processes and Devices
that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, a case study is essentially an
intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The
objective of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the
behaviour patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.

Pauline V. Young describes case study as "a comprehensive study of a social

unit be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a
community."' In brief, we can say that the case study method is a form of
qualitative analysis where careful and complete observation of an individual,
situation, or an institution is done; efforts are made to study each and every
aspect of the concerned unit in minute detail, and then, from case data,
generalizations and inferences are drawn.

Characteristics: the important characteristics of the case study method are

listed below.

i. In this method, the researcher can take a single social unit or more such
units for his study purpose.
ii. Here the selected unit is studied intensively, i.e., it is studied in minute
detail. Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to
ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough
information for drawing correct inferences.
iii. In the context of this method we make a complete study of the social unit
covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand the
complexities of factors that are operative within a social unit as an
integrated totality.
iv. Using this method, the approach happens to be qualitative and not
quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. Every
possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of
life. As such, the case study method deepens our perception and gives us
a clear insight into life. For instance, in the case study method, we not
only study how many crimes a man has committed, but we peep into the
factors that forced him to commit crimes when we are making a case
study of a man who is a criminal. The objective of the study may be to
suggest ways to reform the criminal.
v. In respect of the case study method, an effort is made to know the mutual
inter-relationship of causal factors.
vi. We study behaviour pattern of the concerned unit directly, and not by an
indirect and abstract approach.
vii. The case study method results in fruitful hypotheses, along with the data
which may be helpful in testing them, and, thus, this method enables
generalized knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence,
generalized social science may get handicapped. 207
Use of Basic Assumptions: the case study method is based on several assumptions. The
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important assumptions may be listed as follows.

i. The assumption of uniformity in basic human nature, in spite of the fact

that human behaviour may vary according to situations.
ii. The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.
iii. The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.

Major phases involved

i. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon to be

investigated or the unit of attention.
ii. Collection of data, examination, and history of the given phenomenon.
iii. Diagnosis and identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial
developmental treatment.
iv. Application of remedial measures, i.e., treatment and therapy (this phase
is often characterized as case work).
v. Follow-up programme to determine effectiveness of the treatment
applied.

Check Your Progress1

Note:
a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
Q.1. Write the types of observations
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Q.2. List out the important assumptions of the case study method.
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3.3.3 Focus Groups Qualitative Data
Collection Methods
and Devices
Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant
observation. The focus group session is an interview, not a discussion group,
a problem solving session, or a decision making group. At the same time,
focus groups capitalize on group dynamics. The hallmark of focus groups is
the explicit use of group interaction to generate data and insights that would
be unlikely to emerge without the interaction found in a group. The technique
inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand
insights into the respondents’ behaviours, attitudes, language, etc.

Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some

characteristics relevant to the evaluation. Originally used as a market research
tool to investigate the appeal of various products, the focus group technique
has been adopted by other fields, such as education, as a tool for data
gathering on a given topic. Focus groups, conducted by experts, generally
take place in a focus group facility that includes recording apparatus (audio
and/or visual) and an attached room with a one-way mirror for observation.
There is an official recorder who may or may not be in the room. Participants
are paid for attendance and provided with refreshments. As the focus group
technique has also been adopted by fields other than marketing, some of
these features, such as payment or refreshment, have been eliminated.

When to use focus groups: When conducting evaluations, focus groups are
useful in answering the same type of questions as in-depth interviews.
Specific applications of the focus group method in evaluations include

• identifying and defining problems in project implementation

• identifying project strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations
• assisting with interpretation of quantitative findings
• obtaining perceptions of project outcomes and impacts
• generating new ideas.

Although focus groups and in-depth interviews share many characteristics,

they should not be used interchangeably.

Developing a Focus Group

An important aspect of conducting focus groups is the topic guide. The topic
guide, a list of topics or question areas, serves as a summary statement of the
issues and objectives to be covered by the focus group. The topic guide also
serves as a road map and as a memory aid for the focus group leader, called a
moderator. The topic guide also provides the initial outline for the report of
findings.

Focus group participants are typically asked to reflect on the questions asked
by the moderator. Participants are permitted to hear each other’s responses
and to make additional comments beyond their own original responses as 209
Use of Basic they hear what other people have to say. It is not necessary for the group to
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reach any kind of consensus, nor is it necessary for people to disagree. The
moderator must keep the discussion flowing and make sure that one or two
persons do not dominate the discussion. As a rule, the focus group session
should not last longer than 1 ½ hours to 2 hours. When very specific
information is required, the session may be as short as 40 minutes. The
objective is to get high quality data in a social context where people can
consider their own views in the context of the views of others, and, where
new ideas and perspectives can be introduced.

3.3.4 Content Analysis

Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documents, such as
books, magazines, newspapers, and the contents of all other verbal materials,
either spoken or printed. Content analysis prior to 1940's was mostly
quantitative documentary materials concerning certain characteristics that can
be identified and counted. But since the 1950's, content analysis is mostly
qualitative analysis, concerning the general importance of the existing
documents.

The analysis of content is a central activity whenever one is concerned with

the nature of the verbal materials. A review of research in any area, for
instance, involves an analysis of the contents of research articles that have
been published. The analysis may be at a simple level, or, it may be a subtle
one. It is at a simple level when we pursue it on the basis of certain
characteristics of the document, or, verbal materials that can be identified and
counted (such as on the basis of major scientific concepts in a book). It is at a
subtle level when researcher uncovers the attitude, say of the press towards
education by feature writers.

3.3.5 Other Qualitative Data Collection Methods

This section outlines less common but, nonetheless, potentially useful
qualitative methods for project evaluation. These methods include document
studies, key informants and alternative (authentic) assessment.

i. Document Studies: Existing records often provide insights into a setting

and/or group of people that cannot be observed or noted in another way.
This information can be found in document form. A document can be
defined as "any written or recorded material" not prepared for the
purposes of the evaluation, or, at the request of the inquirer. Documents
can be divided into two major categories: public records, and personal
documents.
a) Public records: are materials created and kept for the purpose of
"attesting to an event or providing an accounting". Public records
can be collected from outside (external) or within (internal) the
setting in which the evaluation is taking place. Examples of external
210 records are census and vital statistics reports, district office records,
 newspaper archives, and local business records that can assist an Qualitative Data
Collection Methods
evaluator in gathering information about the larger community and and Devices
relevant trends. Such materials can be helpful in better
understanding the project participants and making comparisons
between groups/communities.
For the evaluation of educational innovations, internal records
include documents such as student transcripts and records, historical
accounts, institutional mission statements, annual reports, budgets,
grade and standardized test reports, minutes of meetings, internal
memoranda, policy manuals, institutional histories,
college/university catalogues, faculty and student handbooks,
official correspondence, demographic material, mass media reports
and presentations, and descriptions of program development and
evaluation. They are particularly useful in describing institutional
characteristics, such as the backgrounds and academic performance
of students, and in identifying institutional strengths and
weaknesses. They can help the evaluator understand the institution’s
resources, values, processes, priorities, and concerns. Furthermore,
they provide a record or history that is not subject to recall bias.
b) Personal documents: are first-person accounts of events and
experiences. These "documents of life" include diaries, portfolios,
photographs, artwork, schedules, scrapbooks, poetry, letters to the
paper, etc. Personal documents can help the evaluator understand
how the participant sees the world and what she or he wants to
communicate to an audience. And, unlike other sources of
qualitative data, collecting data from documents is relatively
invisible to, and requires minimal cooperation from, persons within
the setting being studied.
The usefulness of existing sources varies depending on whether they
are accessible and accurate. In the hypothetical project, documents
can provide the evaluator with useful information about the culture
of the institution and participants involved in the project, which in
turn can assist in the development of evaluation questions.
Information from documents also can be used to generate interview
questions or to identify events to be observed. Furthermore, existing
records can be useful for making comparisons (e.g., comparing
project participants to project applicants, project proposal to
implementation records, or documentation of institutional policies
and program descriptions prior to, and, following the
implementation of project interventions and activities).
ii. Key Informant: A key informant is a person (or, group of persons) who
has unique skills or professional background related to the
issue/intervention being evaluated, is knowledgeable about the project
participants, or has access to other information of interest to the
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Use of Basic evaluator. A key informant can also be someone who has a way of
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communicating that represents, or, captures the essence of what the
participants say and do. Key informants can help the evaluation team
better understand the issue being evaluated, as well as the project
participants, their backgrounds, behaviours, and attitudes, and, any
language or ethnic considerations. They can offer expertise beyond the
evaluation team. They are also very useful for assisting with the
evaluation of curricula and other educational materials. Key informants
can be surveyed or interviewed individually or through focus groups.
In the hypothetical project, key informants (i.e., expert faculty on main
campus, deans, and department chairs) can assist with: (1) developing
evaluation questions, and; (2) answering formative and summative
evaluation questions.
iii. Performance Assessment: the performance assessment movement is
impacting education from pre-schools to professional schools. At the
heart of this upheaval is the belief that for all of their virtues -
particularly efficiency and economy - traditional objective, norm-
referenced tests may fail to tell us what we most want to know about
student achievement. In addition, these same tests exert a powerful and,
in the eyes of many educators, detrimental influence on curriculum and
instruction. The search for alternatives to traditional tests has generated a
number of new approaches to assessment under such names as
alternative assessment, performance assessment, holistic assessment, and
authentic assessment. While each label suggests slightly different
emphases, they all imply a movement toward assessment that supports
exemplary teaching. Performance assessment appears to be the most
popular term because it emphasizes the development of assessment tools
that involve students in tasks that are worthwhile, significant, and
meaningful. Such tasks involve higher order thinking skills and the
coordination of a broad range of knowledge.
Performance assessment may involve qualitative activities such as oral
interviews, group problem-solving tasks, portfolios, or personal
documents/creations (poetry, artwork, stories). The quality of this
product is assessed (at least, before and after training) in light of the goal
of the professional development program. The actual performance of
students on the assessment measures provides additional information on
impact.

3.4 FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE AND

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
In unit 2, we discussed various aspects of quantitative data collection
methods. Let us now see the main differences between qualitative and
quantitative methods.
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 Qualitative research Quantitative research Qualitative Data
Collection Methods
Mainly for exploratory purposes and Used to obtain descriptive data and Devices

to generate hypotheses
Usual purpose is to generate a range Usual purpose is to consolidate the
and variety of data data and obtain a clear picture of the
situation
The methods of inquiry are informal All methods are carefully planned
and flexible tightly controlled
The researcher usually starts with The research is confined to a list of
only a broad indication of the research objectives which set out
information objectives of the project, what information is required
but with clear understanding of the
overall purpose of the research
The researcher usually works from a The interviewer uses a questionnaire,
list of the topics to be covered, but which must be followed exactly as
the course of each ‘interview’ will be instructed in every interview
influenced by the respondent
Based on small numbers of Based on larger numbers of
respondents who take part respondents; data are collected from
individually or in small groups each person individually
It cannot be known how true the May be possible to estimate how
findings are of the population from reliable the findings are. It depends
which the respondents are drawn on which sampling method is used
Data collection is usually handled by Usually done by trained interviewers
research professionals or through self-completion
questionnaires
A qualitative project cannot be Can usually be replicated, because
repeated exactly, because every data every interview in the project follows
collection event in a project is the same procedure
different
The findings can rarely be expressed Findings are expressed in number
in statistical form and can be analysed using statistical
techniques
Analysis and conclusion rely heavily Because statistical procedures are
on the researcher’s perceptions and used the analysis is less likely to be
interpretation skills disputed

Source: John Boyce, Marketing Research, MacGraw Hill Pvt Ltd, Australia,
2005.

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3.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we discussed the meaning and concept of qualitative data
collection and found that the selection of appropriate method for data
collection and research design depends on nature, scope and objective of
enquiry. Each method of data collection, however, does not suit all categories
of research design. The selection and preparation of tools for collecting data
depends upon the types of data to be collected. Qualitative data are
descriptive in nature and can be statistically analyzed only after processing,
and, after having them classified into some appropriate categories.
Qualitative data can facilitate in-depth analysis of a social situation. We also
discussed the various methods and techniques of qualitative data collection.
Finally the differences between qualitative and quantitative research have
also been discussed.

3.6 KEYWORDS
Key Informant: A key informant is a person (or group of persons) who has
unique skills or professional background related to the issue/intervention
being evaluated, is knowledgeable about the project participants, or has
access to other information of interest to the evaluator.

Content analysis: Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of

document, such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all
other verbal materials either spoken or printed.

Sociometry: Sociometry is a technique for describing the social relationships

among individuals in a group.

Case study: The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative
analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be
that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, or even the entire
community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.

Pre-testing: Pre-testing means testing the interview schedule/questionnaire

in advance to find out whether it is capable of eliciting appropriate responses
from respondents.

3.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SELECTED

READINGS
Festinger L. and Katn D. 1953. Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., New York.

Goode W.J. and Hatt P.K. 1981. Methods in Social Research. McGraw- Hill
Book Company, Singapore.

Boyce J. (2005), Marketing Research, MacGraw Hill Pvt Ltd, Australia.

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Kothari C.R. 1996. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Qualitative Data
Collection Methods
Wishwa prakashan, New Delhi. and Devices

Mulay S. and Sabarathanam V.E. 1980. Research Methods in Extension

Education. Manasayan, New Delhi.

Young P.V. 1996. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. Prentice –Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

3.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS – POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1

Answer 1: Types of observations are Structured and unstructured

observation, Participant and non-participant observation and Controlled and
uncontrolled observation:

Answer 2:

i. The assumption of uniformity in basic human nature, in spite of the fact

that human behaviour may vary according to situations.
ii. The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.
iii. The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.

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