1

Inner product spaces

Definition 1.1. An inner product on a vector space V over the field F is a

function (bilinear form) ⟨·, ·⟩ : V × V → R with the properties:

1. ⟨v, v⟩ ≥ 0 and ⟨v, v⟩ = 0 iff v = 0. - (positivity and definiteness)

2. ⟨u + v, w⟩ = ⟨u, w⟩ + ⟨v, w⟩, for all u, v, w ∈ V. - additivity in the first slot

3. ⟨αv, w⟩ = α⟨v, w⟩ for all α ∈ F and v, w ∈ V. - homogeneity in the first

slot

4. ⟨v, w⟩ = ⟨w, v⟩ for all v, w ∈ V. - conjugate symmetry.

An inner product space is a pair (V, ⟨·, ·⟩), where V is vector space and ⟨·, ·⟩ is
an inner product on V .

Example 1.2. 1. The most important example of an inner product space is Rn .

Let v = (v1 , . . . , vn ) and w = (w1 , . . . wn ) and define the inner product by

⟨v, w⟩ = v1 w1 + · · · + vn wn .

1
Inner product spaces 2

This is the typical example of an inner product, called the Euclidean inner
product, and when Rn is referred to as an inner product space, one should
assume that the inner product is the Euclidean one, unless explicitly stated
otherwise.
 
a b
2. Let A ∈ M2 (R), A =   be a positive definite matrix, that is a >
b c
0, det(A) > 0.

 
  u1
⟨u, v⟩ = v1 v2 A .
u2

It can easily be verified that ⟨·, ·⟩ is an inner product on the real linear space
R2 .

If A = I2 we obtain the usual inner product

⟨u, v⟩ = u1 v1 + u2 v2 .

Properties. From the definition one can easily deduce the following properties
of an inner product:

1. ⟨v, 0⟩ = ⟨0, v⟩ = 0,

2. ⟨u, v + w⟩ = ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨u, w⟩,

3. ⟨u, αv⟩ = α⟨u, v⟩,

for all u, v, w ∈ V and α ∈ R.

Inner product spaces 3

Norm and distances

Definition 1.3. Let V be a vector space over R. A function

∥·∥:V →R

is called a norm on V if:

1. ∥v∥ ≥ 0, v ∈ V, ∥v∥ = 0 ⇔ v = 0V - positivity

2. ∥αv∥ = |α| · ∥v∥, ∀α ∈ F, ∀v ∈ V - homogeneity

3. ∥u + v∥ ≤ ∥u∥ + ∥v∥, ∀u, v ∈ V - triangle inequality

A normed space is a pair (V, ∥ · ∥), where V is a vector space and ∥ · ∥ is a

norm on V .

Example 1.4. 1. On the real linear space Rn one can define a norm in several
ways.

2. Indeed, for any x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn define its norm as

q
∥x∥2 = x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n .

3. One can easily verify that the axioms in the definition of norm are satisfied.
This norm is called the Euclidian norm.

4. More generally, for any p ∈ R, p ≥ 1 we can define

1
∥x∥p = (|x1 |p + |x2 |p + · · · + |xn |p ) p ,

the so called p−norm on Rn .

Inner product spaces 4

5. Another way to define a norm on Rn is

∥x∥max = max{|x1 |, |x2 |, . . . , |xn |}.

This is the so called maximum norm.

Definition 1.5. Let X be a nonempty set. A function d : X × X → R satisfying

the following properties:

ˆ d(x, y) ≥ 0, ∀x, y ∈ X and d(x, y) = 0 ⇔ x = y - positivity

ˆ d(x, y) = d(y, x), ∀x, y ∈ X - symmetry

ˆ d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y), ∀x, y, z ∈ X - triangle inequality

is called a metric or distance on X.

A set X with a metric defined on it is called a metric space.

Example 1.6. 1. Let X be an arbitrary set. One can define a distance on X by


 0, if x = y
d(x, y) =
 1, otherwise.

This metric is called the discrete metric on X.

2. On Rn the Chebyshev distance is defined as

d(x, y) = max |xi − yi |, x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) ∈ Rn .

1≤i≤n

Definition 1.7. Two vectors u, v ∈ V are said to be orthogonal and we denote

u⊥v if ⟨u, v⟩ = 0.

In a real inner product space we can define the angle of two vectors as

\ ⟨v, w⟩
(v, w) = arccos
∥v∥ · ∥w∥
Inner product spaces 5

We have
\ π
v⊥w ⇔ ⟨v, w⟩ = 0 ⇔ (v, w) = .
2
Theorem 1.8. (Parallelogram law) Let V be an inner product space and u, v ∈
V . Then

∥u + v∥2 + ∥u − v∥2 = 2(∥u∥2 + ∥v∥2 ).

Proof.

||u + v||2 = ⟨u + v, u + v⟩ (1.1)

= ⟨u, u + v⟩ + ⟨v, u + v⟩

= ⟨u, u⟩ + ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨v, u⟩ + ⟨v, v⟩

= ||u||2 + ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨v, u⟩ + ||v||2

||u − v||2 = ⟨u − v, u − v⟩ (1.2)

= ⟨u, u − v⟩ − ⟨v, u − v⟩

= ⟨u, u⟩ − ⟨u, v⟩ − (⟨v, u⟩ − ⟨v, v⟩)

= ||u||2 − ⟨u, v⟩ − ⟨v, u⟩ + ||v||2

We obtain the desired relation by adding the last form for (1.1) and (1.2).

Theorem 1.9. (Pythagorean Theorem) Let V be an inner product space, and

u, v ∈ V orthogonal vectors. Then

∥u + v∥2 = ∥u∥2 + ∥v∥2 .

Inner product spaces 6

Proof.

||u + v||2 = ⟨u + v, u + v⟩

= ⟨u, u + v⟩ + ⟨v, u + v⟩

= ⟨u, u⟩ + ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨v, u⟩ + ⟨v, v⟩

= ||u||2 + ⟨u, v⟩ + ⟨v, u⟩ + ||v||2 .

Since u ⊥ v then ⟨u, v⟩ = 0 so, we have ||u + v||2 = ||u||2 + ||v||2 .

Orthonormal Bases
Definition 1.10. Let (V, ⟨·, ·⟩) be an inner product space and let I be an arbitrary
index set. A family of vectors A = {ei ∈ V |i ∈ I} is called an orthogonal family,
if ⟨ei , ej ⟩ = 0 for every i, j ∈ I, i ̸= j. The family A is called orthonormal if it is
orthogonal and ∥ei ∥ = 1 for every i ∈ I.

One of the reason that one studies orthonormal families is that in such special
bases the computations are much more simple.

Propozition 1.11. If (e1 , e2 , . . . , em ) is an orthonormal family of vectors in V , then

∥α1 e1 + α2 e2 + · · · + αm em ∥2 = |α1 |2 + |α2 |2 + · · · + |αm |2

for all α1 , α2 , . . . , αm ∈ F.

Proof. From Pythagorean Theorem we have

||α1 e1 + α2 e2 + · · · + αm em ||2 = ||α1 e1 ||2 + ||α2 e2 ||2 + · · · + ||αm em ||2

= |α1 |2 ||e1 ||2 + |α2 |2 ||e2 ||2 + · · · + |αm |2 ||em ||2

= |α1 |2 + |α2 |2 + · · · + |αm |2 .

Inner product spaces 7

Corolary 1.12. Every orthonormal list of vectors is linearly independent.

Proof. Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } an othonormal family. Then, by definitions, vi ⊥ vj for

all i ̸= j, i, j = 1, n, and ||ei || = 1, ∀i = 1, n.
The vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are linearly independent if

α1 e1 + α2 e2 + · · · + αn en = 0V ⇐⇒ α1 = α2 = · · · = αn = 0.

||α1 e1 + α2 e2 + · · · + αn en ||2 = ||0V ||2 = 0 ⇐⇒ |α1 |2 + |α2 |2 + · · · + |αm |2 = 0.

Since |αi |2 ≥ 0 ∀i = 1, n, we have that α1 = α2 = · · · = αn = 0 which implies that
the vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are linearly independent.

Theorem 1.13. (Gram-Schmidt) If (v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ) is a linearly independent set

of vectors in V , then there exists an orthonormal set of vectors (e1 , . . . , ek ) in V,
such that
span(v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ) = span(e1 , e2 . . . , ek )

for every k ∈ {1, 2, . . . , m}.

Proof. We will determine first an orthogonal set of vectors, u1 , u2 , . . . , uk .

Let e1 = v1 and we will determine u2 from v2 i.e. u2 = v2 + α1 u1 such that
u1 ⊥ u2 .
We have ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = 0 ⇐⇒ ⟨v2 + αu1 , u1 ⟩ = 0 ⇐⇒ ⟨v2 , u1 ⟩ + α⟨u1 , u1 ⟩ = 0 =⇒
⟨v2 ,u1 ⟩
α = − ⟨u1 ,u1 ⟩
.
⟨v2 ,u1 ⟩
So, u2 = v2 − u,
⟨u1 ,u1 ⟩ 1
and we have that u1 ⊥ u2 ⇐⇒ ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = 0.
For u3 we will write v3 using both u1 and u2 such that u3 ⊥ u1 and u3 ⊥ u2 , i.e.
u3 = v3 + α1 u1 + α2 u2 and ⟨u3 , u1 ⟩ = 0, ⟨u3 , u2 ⟩ = 0.
Inner product spaces 8

⟨u3 , u1 ⟩ = 0 ⇐⇒ ⟨v3 + α1 u1 + α2 u2 , u1 ⟩ = 0

⇐⇒ ⟨v3 , u1 ⟩ + α1 ⟨u1 , u1 ⟩ + α2 ⟨u2 , u1 ⟩ = 0

⇐⇒ ⟨v3 , u1 ⟩ + α1 ⟨u1 , u1 ⟩ = 0
⟨v3 , u1 ⟩
⇐⇒ α1 = − .
⟨u1 , u1 ⟩

⟨u3 , u2 ⟩ = 0 ⇐⇒ ⟨v3 + α1 u1 + α2 u2 , u2 ⟩ = 0

⇐⇒ ⟨v3 , u2 ⟩ + α1 ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ + α2 ⟨u2 , u2 ⟩ = 0

⇐⇒ ⟨v3 , u2 ⟩ + α2 ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = 0
⟨v3 , u2 ⟩
⇐⇒ α2 = − .
⟨u2 , u2 ⟩
⟨v3 ,u1 ⟩ ⟨v3 ,u2 ⟩
So, u3 = v3 − u
⟨u1 ,u1 ⟩ 1
− u,
⟨u2 ,u2 ⟩ 2
and u3 ⊥ u1 , u3 ⊥ u2 .
By induction, we will have that
⟨vk ,u1 ⟩ ⟨vk ,u2 ⟩ ⟨vk ,uk−1 ⟩
uk = vk − u
⟨u1 ,u1 ⟩ 1
− u
⟨u2 ,u2 ⟩ 2
− ··· − u .
⟨uk−1 ,uk−1 ⟩ k−1
u1
Because the set {u1 , u2 , . . . , uk } is orthogonal, then the set {e1 = ,e
||u2 || 2
=
u2 uk
||u2 ||
. . . , ek = ||uk ||
} is orthonormal.

Corolary 1.14. Every finitely dimensional inner product space has an orhtonormal
basis.

Orthogonal complement
Let U ⊆ V be a subset of an inner product space V . The orthogonal complement of
U , denoted by U ⊥ is the set of all vectors in V which are orthogonal to every vector
in U i.e.:
U ⊥ = {v ∈ V |⟨v, u⟩ = 0, ∀u ∈ U }.
Inner product spaces 9

Theorem 1.15. If U is a subspace of V , then

V = U ⊕ U⊥

Definition 1.16. Let V be a vector space and U1 , U2 ⊂ V subspaces. The sum

U1 + U2 is called direct sum and is denoted by U1 ⊕ U2 , if every u ∈ U1 + U2 can
be written uniquely as u = u1 + u2 where u1 ∈ U1 , u2 ∈ U2 .

The next proposition characterizes the direct sum of two subspaces.

Propozition 1.17. Let V be a vector space and U, W ⊂ V be subspaces. The sum

U + W is a direct sum iff U ∩ W = {0V }.

Solved Problems
Problem 1.1. Let R4 be the inner product space with the canonical inner product.
Apply the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization method to construct orthogonal basis
for the subspace

V = span{(1, 2, 2, −1); (1, 1, −5, 3); (3, 2, 8, −7)}.

Solution: We will apply Gram-Schmidt method on v1 , v2 , v3 .

u1 = v1 = (1, 2, 2, −1).
⟨v2 , u1 ⟩
u2 = v2 − u1
⟨u1 , u1 ⟩
⟨(1, 1, −5, 3), (1, 2, 2, −1)⟩
= (1, 1, −5, 3) − (1, 1, −5, 3)
⟨(1, 1, −5, 3), (1, 1, −5, 3)⟩
1 + 2 − 10 − 3
= (1, 1, −5, 1) − (1, 2, 2, −1)
1+4+4+1
= (1, 1, −5, 3) + (1, 2, 2, −1)

= (2, 3, −3, 2).

Inner product spaces 10

⟨v3 , u1 ⟩ ⟨v3 , u2 ⟩
u3 = v3 − u1 − u2
⟨u1 , u1 ⟩ ⟨u2 , u2 ⟩
3 + 4 + 16 + 7 6 + 6 − 24 − 14
= (3, 2, 8, −7) − (1, 2, 2, −1) − (2, 3, −3, 2)
1+4+4+1 4+9+9+4
= (3, 2, 8, −7) − 3(1, 2, 2, −1) + (2, 3, −3, 2)

= (2, −1, −1, −2).

We can easily verify that u1 ⊥ u2 , u1 ⊥ u3 and u2 ⊥ u3 by computing ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = 0,

⟨u1 , u3 ⟩ = 0 and ⟨u2 , u3 ⟩ = 0.
So, an orthogonal basis for V = span{(1, 2, 2, −1); (1, 1, −5, 3); (3, 2, 8, −7)} is
BV = {(1, 2, 2, −1), (2, 3, −3, 2), (2, −1, −1, −2)}.

Problem 1.2. Let S be the solutions of the system


x+y+z−t=0






(S) : x + 2y + 3z + w = 0




x − y − 3z − 3t − 2w = 0.


Find an orthonormal basis in S.

Solution: We will determine first a basis from the general solution of the
system
 (S)   
1 1 1 −1 0 0 1 1 1 −1 0 0
  L −L ,L −L   2L +L
 1 2 1 3  2 3
≃  0 −1 −2 −1 −1 0  ≃
 
 1 2 3 0 1 0 
   
1 −1 −3 −3 −2 0 0 2 4 2 2 0
 
1 1 1 −1 0 0
 
 0 −1 −2 −1 −1 0  .
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
rank (A) = 2 and there are 5 unknowns, so z
= α, t= β and w = γ are free
x + y = −α + β − γ

variables. We can determine x and y solving the system .
−y = 2α + β + γ

Inner product spaces 11

Hence, x = α + 2β + γ and y = −2α − β − γ.

S ={(α + 2β + γ, −2α − β − γ, α, β, γ) | α, β, γ ∈ R}

= {α(1, −2, 1, 0, 0) + β(2, −1, 0, 1, 0) + γ(1, −1, 0, 0, 1) | α, β, γ ∈ R}

= span{s1 = (1, −2, 1, 0, 0), s2 = (2, −1, 0, 1, 0), s3 = (1, −1, 0, 0, 1)}

BS = {s1 , s2 , s3 } is a basis for S.

In order to obtain an orthogonal basis, we will apply Gram-Schmidt algorithm.
u1 = s3 = (1, −1, 0, 0, 1).

⟨s2 , u1 ⟩
u2 = s2 − u1
⟨u1 , u1 ⟩
3
= (2, −1, 0, 1, 0) − (1, −1, 0, 0, 1)
3
= (1, 0, 0, 1, −1).

⟨s3 , u1 ⟩ ⟨s3 , u2 ⟩
u′3 = s1 − u1 − u2
⟨u1 , u1 ⟩ ⟨u2 , u2 ⟩
3 1
= (1, −2, 1, 0, 0) − (1, −1, 0, 0, 1) − (1, 0, 0, 1, −1)
3 3
1
= (1, −2, 1, 0, 0) − (1, −1, 0, 0, 1) − (1, 0, 0, 1, −1)
3
1 1 2
= (− , −1, 1, − , ).
3 3 3

Now we can choose u3 = 3u′3 = (−1, −3, 3, −1, −2).

We can easily verify that u1 ⊥ u2 , u1 ⊥ u3 and u2 ⊥ u3 by computing ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = 0,
⟨u1 , u3 ⟩ = 0 and ⟨u2 , u3 ⟩ = 0.
For an orthonormal basis we divide each of u1 , u2 , u3 by its norm, i.e.
u1 √1 (1, −1, 0, 0, 1)
n1 = ∥u1 ∥
= 3
= ( √13 , − √13 , 0, 0, √13 ),
Inner product spaces 12

u2 √1 (1, 0, 0, 1, −1) = ( √1 , 0, 0, √1 , − √1 ),
n2 = ∥u2 ∥
= 3 3 3 3
u3 1
n3 = ∥u3 ∥
= √
2 6
(−1, −3, 3, −1, −2) = (− 2 6 , − 2√3 6 , 2√3 6 , − 2√1 6 , − √16 ).
√1

Therefore, an orthonormal basis for S is Bn = {n1 , n2 , n3 }.

Problem 1.3. Let S = {(x, y, z, t) ∈ R4 |2x − y − z + 3t = 0} be a vector subspace

of R4 . Determine bases in S and in the orthogonal complement S ⊥ .

Solution: The general solution of the equation 2x − y − z + 3t = 0 can be

written if one choose x = α, z = β and t = γ and we calculate y = 2α − β + 3γ.

S = {(α, 2α − β + 3γ, β, γ) | α, β, γ ∈ R}

= {α(1, 2, 0, 0) + β(0, −1, 1, 0) + γ(0, 3, 0, 1) | α, β, γ ∈ R}

= span{s1 = (1, 2, 0, 0), s2 = (0, −1, 1, 0), s3 = (0, 3, 0, 1)}

In order to obtain an orthogonal basis, we will apply Gram-Schmidt algorithm

on s1 , s2 and s3 .
u1 = s2 = (0, −1, 1, 0).
⟨s1 , u1 ⟩
u2 = s1 − u1
⟨u1 , u1 ⟩
−2
= (1, 2, 0, 0) − (0, −1, 1, 0)
2
= (1, 1, 1, 0).

⟨s3 , u1 ⟩ ⟨s3 , u2 ⟩
u′3 = s3 − u1 − u2
⟨u1 , u1 ⟩ ⟨u2 , u2 ⟩
−3 3
= (0, 3, 0, 1) − (0, −1, 1, 0) − (1, 1, 1, 0)
2 3
3 3
= (0, 3, 0, 1) + (0, − , , 0) + (−1, −1, −1, 0)
2 2
1 1
= (−1, , , 1).
2 2
Inner product spaces 13

Now we can choose u3 = 2u′3 = (−2, 1, 1, 2).

We can easily verify that u1 ⊥ u2 , u1 ⊥ u3 and u2 ⊥ u3 by computing ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = 0,
⟨u1 , u3 ⟩ = 0 and ⟨u2 , u3 ⟩ = 0.
For an orthonormal basis we divide each of u1 , u2 , u3 by its norm, i.e.
u1 √1 (0, −1, 1, 0) = (0, − √1 , √1 , 0),
n1 = ∥u1 ∥
= 2 2 2
u2 √ (1, 0, 0, 1, −1) = ( √ , 0, 0, √1 , − √1 ),
1 1
n2 = ∥u2 ∥
= 3 3 3 3
u3 √ (−2, 1, 1, 2) = (− √ , √ , √ , √2 ).
1 2 1 1
n3 = ∥u3 ∥
= 10 10 10 10 10

Therefore, an orthonormal basis for S is Bn = {n1 , n2 , n3 }.

We have that dim S = 3 so, dim S ⊥ = 4 − 3 = 1.

S ⊥ = {v ∈ R4 |⟨v, s⟩ = 0, ∀s ∈ S}

= {v ∈ R4 |⟨v, s1 ⟩ = 0, ⟨v, s2 ⟩ = 0, ⟨v, s3 ⟩ = 0}

= {v = (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) ∈ R4 |x1 + 2x2 = 0, −x2 + x3 = 0, 3x2 + x4 = 0}.

The matrix system has the rank 3, so one of the unknowns become free variable,
x2 = α, and we can determine x1 = −2α, x3 = α and x4 = −3α.
S ⊥ = {(−2α, α, α, −3α) | α ∈ R} = span{(−2, 1, 1, −3)}.
An orthogonal basis for BS⊥ = {s4 = (−2, 1, 1, −3)}, an orthonormal basis is
s4 √1 (−2, 1, 1, −3)
BnS ⊥ = {n4 }, where n4 = ∥s4 ∥
= 15
= (− √215 , √115 , √115 , − √315 ).

Problem 1.4. Verify that the vectors v1 = (1, 0, 2, −1), v2 = (1, 2, 0, 1) are orthog-
onal and complete them to form orthogonal basis of R4 .

Solution: Because ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩ = 1 · 1 + 0 · 2 + 2 · 0 + (−1) · 1 = 0 we can conclude

that v1 and v2 are orthogonal.
Because dim R4 = 4 we will choose another two vectors v3 and v4 such that each
of v3 and v4 is orthogonal on both v1 and v2 .
Let v = (x, y, z, t) ∈ R4 such that
Inner product spaces 14

  
v ⊥ v 1
 ⟨v, v1 ⟩ = 0
 x + 2z − t = 0

⇐⇒ ⇐⇒ .
v ⊥ v 2
 ⟨v, v2 ⟩ = 0
 x + 2y + t = 0


The general solution of the system if we denote y = α and z = β is

S = {(−α − β, α, β, β − α) | α, β ∈ R}

= {α(−1, 1, 0, −1) + β(−1, 0, 1, 1) | α, β ∈ R}

= span{u1 = (−1, 1, 0, −1), u2 = (−1, 0, 1, 1)}.

Because ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ = 0 =⇒ u1 ⊥ u2 , and we can choose v3 = u1 and v4 = u2 .

We can conclude that {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } is an orthogonal basis of R4 .
Remark. If ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩ =
̸ 0 then we need to apply Gram Schmitd orthogonalization
method to obtain two orthogonal vectors.

Problems
Problem 1.5. Let S be the solutions of the system. Find an orthonormal basis in
S if:

x+y+z−t=0






1. (S) : x + 2y + 3z = 0




x − y − 3z − 3t = 0;






 x+y+t=0


2. (S) : 2x + y + z = 0




x − y + 2z − 3t = 0;

Inner product spaces 15


x+y−z+t=0






3. (S) : x − y − z + 2t = 0




x + 3y − z = 0.


Problem 1.6. Let S be the set of solutions of the following systems and find bases
in S and in the orthogonal complement S ⊥ if:




 x + y + 2z = 0


1. (S) : 2x + 3y + z = 0




x + 2y − z = 0;



2x − y − z + t = 0

2. (S) :
x + y + 3z − t = 0



x+y−z+t=0






3. (S) : x + y + 3z − t = 0




x + y − 5z + 3t = 0.


Problem 1.7. Verify that the following sets of vectors are orthogonal and complete
them to form orthogonal basis of R4 :

a) v1 = (−2, 1, 3, 1), v2 = (1, −2, 1, 1) and v3 = (1, 1, 0, 1);

b) v1 = (1, 1, −1, −2) and v2 = (2, −3, 1, −1);

c) v1 = (1, −1, 1, 2) and v2 = (1, −2, 3, −3);

d) v1 = (−1, 0, −2, 1) and v2 = (−1, 1, 1, 1);

Inner product spaces 16

Problem 1.8. Let R4 be the inner product space with the canonical inner product.
Apply the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalizations to construct orthogonal bases for the
subspaces spanned by the following sets of vectors:

a) (1, 2, −2, −1); (1, 1, 5, 3); (3, 2, −8, −7);

b) (−1, 1, −1, −2); (−5, 8, −2, −3); (−3, 9, 3, 8);

c) (1, −1, 1, 0);(1,2,1,1);(1,-1,1,1);(1,-11,0,1);

d) (1, −1, 1, −1);(1,-2,-2,-3);(-5,2,-2,-5).


x + 2y − z − t = 0






Problem 1.9. Let S be the set of solutions of the system x + y − z + 2w = 0




x − y + 2z − t + w = 0.


Find an orthonormal basis in S ⊥ .

Problem 1.10. Let U = {(x, y, z, t) ∈ R4 |x − y − 3z + 2t = 0} be a vector subspace

of R4 . Find an orthonormal basis for S and for S ⊥ .