Runoff

 What is runoff ?
Runoff is often defined as the portion of rainfall, that runs over
and under the soil surface toward the stream

1
COMPONENTS OF Runoff or STREAM FLOW

2
 Cont….

• The types of runoff or flow or stream flow are

 Overland flow is a thin sheet of water that flows over the

land surface

 Underflow (subsurface flow) or interflow is the movement of

water in the subsoil laterally

 Base flow is the ground water flow to the stream

 Speed of flow: overland flow> interflow> base flow.

 Direct surface runoff = overland flow + interflow

 To total runoff = Overland flow + interflow + base flow

3
 Catchment or drainage basin or Watershed
Characteristics

 The concept of a watershed is basic to all hydrologic designs. Since

large watersheds are made up of many smaller watersheds, it is
necessary to define the watershed in terms of a point this point is
usually the location at which the design is being made and is referred
to as the watershed "outlet."

 With respect to the outlet, the watershed consists of all land area that
sheds water to the outlet during a rainstorm.

 Using the concept that "water runs downhill," a watershed is defined

by all points enclosed within an area from which rain falling at these
points will contribute water to the outlet.
4
 A watershed with outlets at point A and B

Outlet

outlet
5
 Factors that affect runoff
1. WATERSHED GEOMORPHOLOGY
 Drainage Area
 The drainage area (A) is probably the single most important
watershed characteristic for hydrologic design. It reflects the
volume of water that can be generated from rainfall.
Main
stream

Watershed
boundary

outlet 6
 Cont…

• It probably comes as no surprise that when rain falls in a

uniform manner over a larger basin and a smaller basin, the
larger basin produces more runoff volume

7
 Cont….

• Of course many storms will cover only part of a basin. So for

most situations, the runoff volume will be determined by the
contributing area—that part of the basin covered by a storm—
not the total size of a basin.
8
Cont….

 Watershed Length
 The length (L) of a watershed is the second watershed
characteristic of interest. While the length increases as the
drainage area increases, the length of a watershed is important
in hydrologic computations; for example, it is used in time-of-
concentration calculations
 Watershed length is usually defined as the distance measured
along the main channel from the watershed outlet to the basin
divide
 The length is measured along flow path

9
 Cont…

• consider two similarly shaped basins, with one larger than the
other. Runoff traveling from most upstream point of the larger
basin will travel a longer path, and therefore take longer to reach
the basin outlet than runoff traveling from the farthest point in the
smaller basin. In addition, a single thunderstorm will likely only
impact a portion of the large basin at any given time, but it may
envelope the entire small basin.

10
Cont…
 Watershed Slope
 Watershed slope reflects the rate of change of elevation with
respect to distance along the principal flow path.

 Typically, the principal flow path is delineated, and the

watershed slope (S) is computed as the difference in elevation
(E)between the end points of the principal flow path divided
by the hydrologic length of the flow path (L):

 Watershed Shape : watershed have a lot of different shapes

though the shapes are not directly used in hydrological design

11
 Cont…

• As the slope of the land increases several factors come into play. The first is that
water contact to the surface is no longer perpendicular. With the land sloping,
gravity no longer pulls the water directly into the ground, so more water is
likely to become surface runoff.
• Another factor is the movement of water across the land surface. As the ground
becomes increasingly steep, water will move faster and will have less time in
contact with the ground surface, reducing the time during which it could
infiltrate

12
 Cont….

• Basin shape also has an influence on magnitude and timing of the peak
flow at the basin outlet.
• Consider two basins of equal area where one is long and narrow, and the
other is more round. Then consider runoff traveling from the farthest point
in each basin to their respective outlets. The runoff in the more round basin
will arrive more quickly at the basin outlet.

13
 Cont…

2. Land Cover and Use

 Different land covers and use have different runoff

coefficients and affect the rate of runoff

3. Soil type

 As soil types varies spatially, the property of runoff also varies

4. Climatic factors

14
 How land use and cover affect runoff

Low runoff
High Runoff
to a stream
to a stream

15
 ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF

 The run off from a catchment can be computed daily, monthly or yearly.
The following are some of the methods for estimating the runoff :
 By linear or exponential regression
 Empirical formulae, curves and tables
 Rational method
 Infiltration method
 Unit hydrograph method
 Lumped Modeling
 Semi- distributed Modeling
 Distributed modeling

16
 By linear regression method

 By Regression analysis
• Regression analysis is a procedure for fitting an equation to a
set of data. Specifically, given a set of measurements on two
random variables, y and x, regression provides a means for
finding the values of the coefficients, b0 and b, for the straight
line (y = b0 + bx) that best fits the data
• The mathematical model relates a random variable, called the
criterion or dependent variable, to the unknowns and the
predictor variable x, which is sometimes called the independent
variable. The predictor variable usually has a causal relationship
with the criterion variable.

17
 Cont….

• The most frequently used linear model relates a criterion

variable y to a single predictor variable x by the equation

Where
b0, is the intercept coefficient and b1 is the slope. The
coefficients are often called regression coefficients because they
are obtained from a regression analysis. As an example, one may
attempt to relate runoff (R), the dependent variable to the
predictor precipitation (P) using the linear model
R= b0 + b1*P

18
 Cont….

 The linear multivariate model relates a criterion variable to

two or more predictor variables:

Where
The predictors variables can be precipitation, area, slope etc
The coefficients are found by least square method as we have
seen in chapter two
 Some times a non linear relationship between precipitation
(P) and runoff (R) can be developed
R= c𝑃𝐷
Where C and D are coefficients

19
 Example

In the table below data for precipitation and runoff both in depths
of cm are given for June during ten years from 1960 to 1969.
Develop a linear equation relating precipitation and runoff

20
 solution

• The data were analyzed using regression analysis. Based on

the summations given in Table below the slope and intercept
coefficients are

21
 Cont….

There fore, the linear equation is R = 0.0892+ 0.2657P

or

Runoff = 0.0892 + 0.2657*precipitation

22
 The Rational Method

 Amongst various types of empirical relations, rational formula

is the most rational method of calculating peak discharge for
small catchments.
Qp = CiA
Where
Qp= peak runoff ( m3/s)
C= runoff coefficient
i= Average rainfall intensity
A= Average drainage area
 Note:
if the units for intensity and area are given in other
metric measurements, the units should be changed to m/s and m2
respectively in order to get a metric measure for Q in m3/s

23
 Run coefficient C
 Runoff coefficient is a highly critical element that serves the
purpose of converting the average rainfall rate of a particular
recurrence interval to the peak runoff intensity of the same
frequency
 Its magnitude depends upon the following factors
I. Antecedent moisture condition
II. Ground slope
III. Ground cover
IV. Depression storage
V. Soil moisture
VI. Intensity of rainfall
VII.Geology of the catchment

24
 Cont…

• In spite of all the above factors that affect the runoff

coefficient, its value is generally considered fixed for any

drainage area, depending only on the surface type

• The following tables suggests ranges of C values for various

categories of ground cover for urban and rural areas

25
Runoff Coefficients for Urban Watersheds

26
Cont… runoff coefficients for urban water sheds

27
Runoff Coefficient for Rural Watersheds

28
 Cont…..

• Runoff coefficients, listed in for urban and rural watersheds

and others apply to storms of two-year, five-year, and 10-year
frequencies. Higher frequency storms require modifying the
runoff coefficient because infiltration and other abstractions
have a proportionally smaller effect on runoff. Adjust the
runoff coefficient by the factor Cf as indicated in the table
below. Runoff Coefficient Adjustment Factors for Rational
Method. The product of C and Cf should not exceed 1.0.

29
 Rainfall Intensity(i)

 The rainfall intensity (i) is the average rainfall rate for a specific
rainfall duration and a selected frequency. The duration is
assumed to be equal to the time of concentration. you may
compute the rainfall intensity using intensity-duration-
frequency (IDF) curve.

30
 Rational Method Procedure

 The following procedure outlines the Rational method for

estimating peak discharge:
1. Determine the watershed area
2. Determine the time of concentration, with consideration for
future characteristics of the watershed.
3. Determine the rainfall intensity or
4. Use IDF curve in your study are to determine rainfall
intensity
5. Assure consistency with the assumptions and limitations for
application of the Rational Method.
6. Select or develop appropriate runoff coefficients for the
watershed. Where the watershed comprises more than one
characteristic, you must estimate C values for each area
segment individually. You may then estimate a weighted Cw

31
 Cont…

• The weighted runoff coefficient is calculated as follows

7. Calculate the peak discharge for the watershed for the desired
frequency using the rational method equation

32
 Limitations of Rational formula

I. The formula gives good results only for small catchments,

having area up to 50km2
II. It is applicable only if the duration of rainfall is equal to or
more than the time of concentration (tc)
III. Rainfall intensity (i) should be constant over the entire
catchment, during the time of concentration
IV. It assumes constant value of C for a given area, for all storms,
which is not reasonable
V. If a plot is made between peak flow and intensity , a straight
line is obtained with zero intercept. Nature does not follow
such a linear relationships
VI. Due to the above limitations, the rational formula is generally
used in the design of urban drainage system, small culverts,
and bridges etc.
33
 Some of the uses of the rational method are

• For the design of culverts

34
 Cont..

• For the design of urban drainage, storm sewers ets

35
 Cont…
• For the design of bridges

36
 Example 1 on Rational Formula Method
• A small watershed consists of 3.2 km2 of cultivated area with
C= 0.22, 4.8m2 under forest with C= 0.12 and 1.8 km2 under
grass cover with C= 0.32. The water course, 2.4 km in length
has a fall of 30m. The IDF relation for the area is expressed by
the following relation
78𝑇 0.22
• i= (𝑡+12)0.45
where i is in cm/h, T (return period)
is in yours , t is in minutes and time of concentration (tc) is
given by the following equation
• tc= 0.000323𝐿0.77 𝑆 −0.385 where tc is in hours
,Length (L) is in meters and S is slope
Estimate the peak runoff for 30 years return period using the
rational method formula.

37
 solution
∆𝐻 30 1
• Slope of water course , S= 𝐿
= =
2400 80
1
• Time of concentration t=tc= 0.00032324000.77 (80)−0.385
= 0.6993 hours = 42 minutes
78(30)0.22
• Intensity, i= =27.38 cm/h
(42+12)0.45
𝐴1∗𝐶1+𝐴2∗𝐶2+𝐴3∗𝐶3
• Weighted runoff coefficient, = =
𝐴1+𝐴2+𝐴3

3.2∗0.22+4.8∗0.12+1.8∗0.32
= 3.2+4.8+1.8
= 0.189
• Qpeak = CwiA= 0.189* 27.38cm/h* 9.8km2 = 141.2 m3/s
which is a design flow

38
 Assignment on Rational Formula Method (5%)
A storm drain, 150 m long, drains a residential area. The drainage
area to the upstream end is 6 hectares and there is an additional 8
hectares before the downstream end. The ground is sloped at 1.0%.
For 10 year return period the rainfall intensity (mm/hr) is given by
i = 77𝑒 −0.0277𝑡𝑐 ,tc is time of concentration in
minutes, the runoff coefficients ,time of concentrations and travel
time in the pipe between inlet 1 and inlet 2 are given in the figure
below.

39
 cont… on assignment

1. Determine the design flow( peak runoff) at outlet 1

2. Assuming a pipe roughness, n= 0.013, find the diameter of

the pipe at outlet 1

3. What is the design flow (peak runoff) at the downstream of

outlet 2

4. Assuming a pipe roughness, n= 0.013, find the diameter of

the pipe at the down stream of outlet 2

40
 166

8. Hydrology of midsize watersheds

The following characteristics describe a midsize watershed: (1) rainfall intensity

varies within the storm duration, (2) rainfall can be assumed to be uniformly
distributed in space, (3) runoff is by overland flow and stream channel flow, and
(4) channel storage processes is negligible.

For midsize watersheds, runoff response is primarily a function of the

characteristics of the storm hyetograph, with concentration time playing a
secondary role. Watershed values ranging from few 100 km2 to 5000 km2 may be
considered as midsize watersheds. The lower limit however could go up to 50 ha
depending on the design guideline followed for a specific purpose.

Commonly used hydrological techniques for estimating flood hydrograph from

midsize watershed are the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and the unit
hydrograph methods.

8.1 The SCS method

The SCS method is widely used for estimating floods on small to medium-sized
ungaged drainage basins around the world (Graphical presentation is given in
Figure 8.1) . The method was developed based on 24-hr rainfall runoff data in
USA. In its derivation it is assumed that no runoff occurs until rainfall equals an
initial abstraction (that is losses before runoff begins) Ia, and also satisfies
cumulative infiltration F (the actual retention before runoff begins) or water
retained in the drainage basin, excluding Ia. The potential retention (the potential
retention before runoff begins ) S is the value that (F + Ia) would reach in a very
long storm.

If Pe is the effective storm rainfall equal to (P - Ia), and rd = depth of runoff

the basic assumption in the method is
F rd
 (8.1)
S Pe
 167

Figure 8-1: SCS Relation between Direct Runoff, Curve Number and Precipitation

Eq. (8.1) states that the ratio of actual retention to potential retention is equal to
the ratio of actual runoff to potential runoff. The empirical relation Ia = 0.2S was
 168

adopted as the best approximation from observed data, and so P e = (P - 0.2S). For
convenience and to standardize application of SCS method, the potential retention
is expressed in the form of a dimensionless runoff curve number CN.

8.1.1 SCS Peak discharge and flood hydrograph determination

The peak discharge in the SCS method is derived from the triangular
approximation to the hydrograph shown in Figure 8.2 resulting from rainfall
excess of duration D.

Rainfall excess
La
Peak flow
Direct runoff
qp

D 1.67 Tp
Tp
2.67 Tp

Figure 8.2: SCS triangular hydrograph

The lag La of the peak flow, time from the centroid of rainfall excess to the peak
of the hydrograph, is assumed to be 0.6t c. Then the time of rise Tp to the peak of
the hydrograph is

Tp = 0.5D  0.6tc (8.2)

The base length of the hydrograph is assumed to be 2.67Tp. Then from a

triangular hydrograph assumption (excess rainfall depth = runoff depth) the peak
discharge can then be estimated from
 169

0.208 Ard
qp = (8.3)
0.5D  0.6t c
Where:
qp = peak discharge (m3/s)
rd = the excess rainfall depth (mm) determined from Eq. (8.4)
A = watershed area (km2)
tc = time of concentration (hr)
D = duration of excess rainfall (hr)

The depth of runoff resulting from a required return period rainfall depth of
duration corresponding to the time of concentration t c is estimated by

(P - 0.2S ) 2
rd = (8.4)
P + 0.8S
where:
rd = depth of runoff equal to depth of excess rainfall (mm)
S = the potential retention (mm)
P = design rainfall amount of duration t c corresponding to T years return period (mm)

and S (mm) is estimated using

100
S = 254( - 1) (8.5)
CN

To estimate the time of concentration t c the Kirpich formula (Chapter 7) may be

used, that is
t c = 3.97 L0.77 G -0.385
where:
L = the length of the river from the divide to the outlet (km)
G = the average river slope (m/m)
tc = time of concentration (min)

The explicit consideration of the various factors that are thought to affect flood
runoff makes the method attractive. Designers however may have uncertainties in
choosing the CN and in determining the method for t c. It is found that assumed
antecedent moisture condition had major effect and that results were better for
bare soil or sparse vegetation than for dense vegetation. Therefore care is required
in its application, and there is a need for checking of the method against observed
 170

flood data for the region of interest or with other methods. Table 8.1 & Table 8.2
provide experimental values of CN for different land use or crop, treatment
practice, hydrological soil group and antecedent moisture conditions. The use of
SCS method is illustrated by Example 8.1.

Example 8.1 A certain watershed experienced 12.7 cm heavy storm in a single day. The
watershed is covered by pasture with medium grazing, and 32 % of B soils and 68 % of C
soils. This event has been preceded by 6.35 cm of rainfall in the last 5 days. Following
the SCS methodology, determine the direct runoff for the 12.7 cm rainfall event.

Solution. From Table 8.1, for pasture range fair hydrologic condition for B soil the CN =
68 and for C soil the CN = 79. The weighted curve number for the AMC II is

CN = 0.32*68 + 0.68*79 = 76

AMC III is taken because for the last 5 days there was substantial rainfall. The CN for
the AMC III is
CN II
CN III =
0.43  0.0057CN II

76
CN III =  88
0.43  0.0057 * 76

Then S is calculated using

100
S = 254( - 1)
CN
= 254(100/88 - 1) = 35 mm

The direct runoff depth is

(P - 0.2S ) 2
rd =
P + 0.8S

( 127 - 0.2 * 35 )2
=  93 mm
127 + 0.8 * 35

The direct runoff produced by the 127 mm heavy storm is thus 93 mm. It is 73 % of the
total rainfall. If this rainfall would have occurred on the AMC I - dry condition then

76
CN I =  58
2.3  0.013 * 76
 171

100
S = 254( - 1)
CN
= 254(100/58 - 1) = 183 mm
(P - 0.2S ) 2 ( 127 - 0.2 * 183 ) 2
rd = =  29mm
P + 0.8S 127 + 0.8 * 183
which is 29/127=23 % of the total rainfall. The AMC III and AMC I gave results of
dramatic difference.

Table 8.1: Runoff curve numbers for hydrological soil-cover complexes for antecedent
rainfall condition II and Ia = 0.2S. For Conditions I and III see Table 8.2 (Maidment, 1993)
Land use or Treatment or Hydrologic Hydrologic soil group
Crop practice condition A B C D
Fallow Straight row - 77 86 91 94
Row crops Straight row Poor 72 81 88 91
Straight row Good 67 78 85 89
Contoured Poor 70 97 84 88
Contoured Good 65 75 82 86
Terraced Poor 66 74 80 82
Terraced Good 62 71 78 81
Small grain Straight row Poor 65 76 84 88
Straight row Good 63 75 83 87
Contoured Poor 63 74 82 85
Contoured Good 61 73 81 84
Terraced Poor 61 72 79 82
Terraced Good 59 70 78 81
Close-seeded Straight row Poor 66 77 85 89
legumes or rotation Straight row Good 58 72 81 85
meadow
Contoured Poor 64 75 83 85
Contoured Good 55 69 78 83
Terraced Poor 63 73 80 83
Terraced Good 51 67 76 80
Pasture range Poor 68 79 86 89
Fair 49 68 79 84
Good 39 61 74 80
Contoured Poor 47 67 81 88
Contoured Fair 25 59 75 83
Contoured Good 6 35 70 79
Meadow (permanent) Good 30 58 71 78
Wood (farm woodlots) Poor 45 66 77 83
Fair 36 60 73 79
Good 25 55 70 77
Farmsteads --- 59 74 82 86
74 84 90 92
 172

Soil Group Description Final infiltration

rate (mm/hr)
A Lowest runoff potential. Include deep sands with 8-12
very little silt and clay, also deep loess and
aggregated silt.
B Moderately low runoff potential: mostly sandy soils 4-8
less deep than A and loess less deep and aggregated
than A, but the group as a whole has above-average
infiltration after thorough wetting.
C Moderately high runoff potential: comprises shallow 1-4
soils and soils containing considerable clay and
colloids, though less than those of group D. Clay
loams, Shallow sandy loam, The group has below
average infiltration after pre-saturation
D Highest runoff potential. Includes mostly clays of 0-1
high swelling soil, heavy plastic clays, but the group
also includes some shallow soils with nearly
impermeable sub-horizons near the surface

Table 8.2 Antecedent rainfall conditions and curve numbers (for Ia = 0.2S)
Curve number for Factor to convert curve number for condition II to
Condition II Condition I Condition III
10 0.40 2.22
20 0.45 1.85
30 0.50 1.67
40 0.55 1.50
50 0.62 1.40
60 0.67 1.30
70 0.73 1.21
80 0.79 1.14
90 0.87 1.07
100 1.00 1.00
5-day antecedent rainfall (mm)
Dormant Growing
Condition General description Season Season
I Optimum soil condition from about < 13 < 36
lower plastic limit to wilting point
II Average value for annual floods 13 – 28 36 – 53
III Heavy rainfall or light rainfall and > 28 > 53
low temperatures within 5 days prior
to the given storm
 173

Note that the dry and wet antecedent moisture conditions, AMC I and AMC III may be
calculated from

CN II CN II
CN I = , CN III =
2.3  0.013CN II 0.43  0.0057CN II
(8.7)

or estimated using the coefficients given in Table 8.1

Example 8.2 Determine (a) the design peak runoff rate, for a 50-year return period
storm from a 120 km2 watershed having IDF curve (I in mm/hr, T in years and t c in
minutes) given by

500T 0.18
I=
(t c  20) 0.78

and with the following characteristics:

Subarea Topography Soil group Land use, treatment, and

(km2) Slope (%) hydrological condition
75 10-35 C Row crop, contoured, good
45 20-45 B Woodland, good

The maximum length of flow is 15 km and the difference in elevation along this path is
450 m.
Solution.

First we estimate the time of concentration:

0.77 -0.385
t c = 3.97 L S

0.77 -0.385
t c = 3.97 15 (450 / 15000)
= 123 min.

for the return period of 50 years and tc = 123 min, the design intensity of rainfall is
estimated by
 174

500T 0.18
I=
(t c  20) 0.78

500 * 50 0.18
I=
(123  20) 0.78

= 22 mm/hr

The average curve number CN for the watershed is

75 45
CN = CN1  CN 2
120 120
From Table 8.1 and 8.2 CNI for the soil group C and Row crop, contoured, good
condition is 82, CNII for the soil group B and wood land and good condition is 55, and
CN = 72. Estimating s with

100
S = 254( - 1)
CN
100
S = 254( - 1)
72
= 98.7 mm
The net rainfall estimated from

(P - 0.2S )2
rd =
P + 0.8S

( 22 * 2 - 0.2 * 98.7 )2
rd =
44 + 0.8 * 98.7

= 4.8 mm

The peak discharge then is

0.208 Ard
qp =
0.5D  0.6t c

0.208 *120 * 4.8

qp =
0.5 * 2  0.6 * 2
= 54 m3/s