1.

1 General description of Electrical Traction system in

India : Surface railway and metro railway.

Electric Traction Systems

The system which use electrical power for traction system i.e. for
railways, trams, trolleys, etc. is called electrical traction. The track
electrification refers to the type of source supply system that is used
while powering the electric locomotive systems. It can be AC or DC or a
composite supply.
Selecting the type of electrification depends on several factors like
availability of supply, type of an application area, or on the services like
urban, suburban and main line services, etc.
The three main types of electric traction systems that exist are as follows:
1. Direct Current (DC) electrification system
2. Alternating Current (AC) electrification system
3. Composite system.

1- DC Electrification System
The choice of selecting DC electrification system encompasses many
advantages, such as space and weight considerations, rapid acceleration
and braking of DC electric motors, less cost compared to AC systems,
less energy consumption and so on.
In this type of system, three-phase power received from the power grids
is de-escalated to low voltage and converted into DC by the rectifiers
and power-electronic converters.
 This type of DC supply is supplied to the vehicle through two different
ways:
 A. 3rd and 4 the rail system operate at low voltages (600-1200V)
 B. Overhead rail systems use high voltages (1500-3000V)
The supply systems of DC electrification include;
 300-500V supply for the special systems like battery systems.
 600-1200V for urban railways like tramways and light metro trains.
 1500-3000V for suburban and mainline services like light metros
and heavy metro trains.
Due to high starting torque and moderate speed control, the DC series
motors are extensively employed in the DC traction systems. They
provide high torque at low speeds and low torque at high speeds.
Advantages;
 In case of heavy trains that require frequent and rapid
accelerations, DC traction motors are better choice as compared AC
motors.
 DC train consumes less energy compared to AC unit for operating
same service conditions.
 The equipment in DC traction system is less costly, lighter and
more efficient than AC traction system.
 It causes no electrical interference with nearby communication
lines.
Disadvantages;
1. Expensive substations are required at frequent intervals.
2. The overhead wire or third rail must be relatively large and heavy.
3. Voltage goes on decreasing with increase in length.
 2- AC Electrification System
An AC traction system has become very popular nowadays, and it is
more often used in most of the traction systems due to several
advantages, such as quick availability and generation of AC that can be
easily stepped up or down, easy controlling of AC motors, less number of
substations requirement, and the presence of light overhead catenaries
that transfer low currents at high voltages, and so on.
The supply systems of AC electrification include single, three phase, and
composite systems. The Single phase systems consist of 11 to 15 KV
supply at 16.7Hz, and 25Hz to facilitate variable speed to AC
commutation motors. It uses step down transformer and frequency
converters to convert from the high voltages and fixed industrial
frequency.
The Single phase 25KV at 50Hz is the most commonly used configuration
for AC electrification. It is used for heavy haul systems and main line
services since it doesn’t require frequency conversion. This is one of the
widely used types of composite systems wherein the supply is converted
to DC to drive DC traction motors.

Three phase system uses three phase induction motor to drive the
locomotive, and it is rated at 3.3.KV, 16.7Hz. The high-voltage
distribution system at 50 Hz supply is converted to this electric motor
rating by transformers and frequency converters. This system employs
two overhead lines, and the track rail forms another phase, but this
raises many problems at crossings and junctions.
Advantages;
1. Fewer substations are required.
2. Lighter overhead current supply wire can be used.
3. Reduced weight of support structure.
4. Reduced capital cost of electrification.
Disadvantages;
1. Significant cost of electrification.
2. Increased maintainance cost of lines.
3. Overhead wires further limit clearance in tunnels.
4. Upgrading needs additional cost especially in case there are
brigdes and tunnels.
5. Railway traction needs immune power with no cuts.

3- Composite System
Composite System (or multi-system) trains are used to provide
continuous journeys along routes that are electrified using more than
one system. One way to accomplish this is by changing locomotives at
the switching stations. These stations have overhead wires that can be
switched from one voltage to another. Another way is to use multi-
system locomotives that can operate under several different voltages
and current types. In Europe, it is common to use four-system
locomotives. (1.5 kV DC, 3 kV DC, 15 kV 16⅔ Hz AC, 25 kV 50 Hz AC).
1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Drive, Diesel Electric
Drive, Battery Drive

What is Electric Drive ?

Introduction

It is a type of propulsion system or mechanism that uses electric power

to move a machine, drive a car, or run any other mechanical system.
Electrical energy is transformed into mechanical energy in this system to
generate motion or carry out tasks. This kind of drive is widely used in
railroads, electric cars (EVs), and other industrial applications. Typically,
they are made up of an electric motor, control electronics to regulate
power flow and motor functioning, and a power supply (such as
batteries or an electrical grid).

Advantages of Electric Drive

1. These drives are highly efficient.

2. These are environmental friendly.
3. The operating cost is also less.

Disadvantages of Electric Drive

1. It has limited driving range.

2. It has higher upfront cost.

What is Diesel Electric Drive ?

Introduction

A particular kind of electrical drive found in some locomotives, ships,

and specific industrial gear is called a diesel electric- drive system. Under
this setup, a diesel engine produces electricity, which powers electric
motors that move the machinery or vehicle. These systems are
renowned for their versatility and efficiency, which makes them ideal for
uses requiring torque control and variable power output. When it is not
possible to have a direct mechanical connection between the diesel
engine and the wheels or propellers, they are frequently utilized.

Advantages of Diesel Electric Drive

1. It has high torque.

2. Fuel efficiency is also higher than other.
3. Suitable for heavy duty applications.

Disadvantages of Diesel Electrical Drive

1. It produces noise.
2. Maintenance cost is very high.

What is a Battery Drive ?

Introduction

A typical electrical drive technology found in both electric and hybrid

vehicles is battery-drive, sometimes referred to as battery-electric drive.
An electric motor in a battery drive system is propelled by energy
contained in batteries. These batteries store electrical energy for use at
a later time. They can be nickel-metal hydride, lithium-ion, or other
varieties. The vehicle is propelled by its electric motor, which only
receives power from the batteries. While hybrid vehicles use a
 combination of internal combustion engines and batteries to power the
vehicle, battery electric vehicles (BEVs) just use electric power from the
batteries for propulsion.

Advantages of Battery Drive

1. These type of drives has zero emission.

2. It also has low operating cost.
3. Less noise.

Disadvantages of Battery Drive

1. Limited range can be covered because of charge.

2. Maintenance cost is also high.

1.3 Problems associated with AC Traction System and remedies for it |

Introduction

The AC transmission system used in railways and other modes of

transportation has its problems, but many of these problems can be
solved with various repair tools. Here are some common power quality
issues on the AC traction system that we are discuss and possible
solutions of it:

Power Quality Issues on AC Traction System

Problems associated with AC Traction System and remedies for it

Problem 1: Voltage Fluctuations and quality issues

Solution: Install voltage regulators and power regulators to stabilize the

AC power and ensure consistent voltage quality for traction systems.

Problem 2: Electromagnetic Interference

Solution: Use electromagnetic shielding techniques and filtering to

minimize interference from AC systems, ensuring proper operation of
signaling and communications equipment.

Problem 3: Overheating of Traction Motors and Other equipment.

Solution: Improve cooling and ventilation systems to prevent
overheating. Regular maintenance and monitoring can also help identify
and fix overheating problems.

Problem 4: Voltage sags and surges

Solution: Use surge protection devices and voltage regulation systems to

minimize the effects of voltage sags and surges on the AC drive system.

Problem 5: Insufficient regenerative braking

Solution: Improve the regenerative braking system to collect and store

excess energy during deceleration and braking, reducing energy
consumption and increasing efficiency.

1.4Voltage balance, current balance, production of harmonics. Metro rail system,

features.

Voltage balance:

The traction transformer is supplied from two phases, normally at 220

kV or 110/132 kV voltage levels. In order to balance the load, traction
substations are fed from RY phase, YB phase and BR phases at equal
intervals.
What is the voltage of traction power?
Standardized traction voltages are 750 V DC, 1500 V DC and 3000 V DC.
The three-phase voltage from the local utility is stepped down and
rectified in the traction substations to provide the required DC voltage.
Current balance:
A new method of current balance compensation based on SVG and V/v
transformer is proposed to solve the problem of three-phase side
current asymmetry caused by traction power supply system of
electrified railway. The conditions for elimination of negative sequence
current are analyzed. In this compensation system, a total of three
single-phase voltage source inverters of SVG are respectively connected
to a, b and ab side of the V/v transformer. In this method, the structure
and compensation principle of this compensation system are introduced,
and the negative sequence current compensating reference detecting
 method for V/v transformer is proposed. To compensate negative
sequence current and maintain the DC voltage, the direct current control
and the DC voltage control of SVG is presented. The proposed topology
is simulated on the MATLAB/Simulink simulation platform to verify the
correctness and effectiveness of this compensation method.
Production of harmonics:
An AC train traction drive generates harmonics which are injected
into the traction supply lines and can be greatly amplified if they are
near a resonant frequency of the supply network. The paper analyses
the line resonant impedance.
Metro Railway In India

 Electrification: Third rails or overhead wires are used to power

trains in the majority of India’s fully electrified metro systems.
 Voltage and Systems: Like surface railroads, India’s metro systems
frequently employ 25 kV AC overhead wires. Third rail systems with 750
V DC are also used by several metro systems, such as the Delhi Metro.
 Rolling Stock: India’s metro trains, which provide a practical and
effective form of urban transit, are often propelled by electric motors.
 Urban Connectivity: In large Indian cities, metro railroads are an
essential means of transit that ease traffic jams and cut pollution.
 Extension: Several cities are expanding their metro networks to
cover a large amount of areas and connect more people.

What is Electric Traction?

Traction is the ability to pull something across a surface, particularly a

road or a track. It is the process of moving a vehicle using electricity
from overhead wires, third rails, storage batteries, or diesel generators
that are attached to the vehicle. To put it simply, electric traction refers
to traction systems that run on electric power.

Electric trains, tramcars, tram buses, and other hybrid cars all make
extensive use of electric traction technology.

Advantages of Electric Traction

The main advantages of this system are –

1. It has less starting time.

2. It has high starting torque.
3. Its traffic handling capability is also high.
4. It has high power to weight ratio.

Disadvantages of Electric Traction

The main disadvantages of this system are –

1. It requires high capital cost.

2. This system can be used at the places where electricity is available.
3. Power lines are cause disturbance.

UNIT 2

Electric Traction Drives

Definition: The drive which uses the electric power for moving forward,
such type of drive is called an electric traction drive. One of the major
application of an electric drive is to transport men and materials from
one place to another. The traction drives are mainly classified into two
types, i.e., the single phase AC traction drive and the DC traction drive.

Electric Traction Services

The electric traction services can be broadly classified as

1. Electric trains
 Main-Line Trains
 Suburban Trains
2. Electric buses, trams and trolleys.
3. Battery and solar powered vehicles
The electric traction services are explained below in details.

1. Electric Trains

The electric train run on fixed rails is further classified as main line train
and suburban train.

Main-Line Trains – In such type of train the power supplies to the motor
in two ways, i.e., either from an overhead line in an electric locomotive
or through diesel generator set in a diesel locomotive.

In electrical locomotive, the driving motor is placed in the locomotive.

The overhead transmission line is laid along or above the rail. The
current collector is attached over the locomotive has conductor strip
which slides against the supply conductor. Thus, maintain the contact
between the supply and the locomotive.The supply conductor is
normally known as contact wire. For ensuring the good contact between
the current collector and supply wire the catenary cable and dropper
wires are used.

In the high-speed train, the pantograph collector is used. The collector

has the shape of a pentagon and hence it is called pantograph collector.
The collector has the conducting strip, which is pressed against the
contact wire by springs.The collector strip is usually made of steel, and it
maintains the constant pressure between the collector strip and the
contact wire for preventing vertical oscillations.

The single phase supply is laid all along the track, and the current enters
into the locomotive through the collector.The power enters through the
primary of the step-down transformer and returns to supply earth
through locomotive wheels.The secondary of the power transformer
feeds the power modulator which in turns power the driving motor. The
secondary of the transformer also supply power for a lightning fan, air
conditioning, etc.
Suburban Trains – The suburban trains are used for travelling at small
distances. This train is also known as the local train.The suburban
train has a consecutive stop at a much smaller distance. This train
consists motorised coaches for increasing the ratio of the weight on
driving wheels and a total weight of the train due to which the
acceleration and de-acceleration of the train increase.

The each motor coach is equipped with electric drive and pantograph
collector. The usual pattern for using the power and unmotorised
coaches is in the ratio of 1:2. For high powered train, the ratio may be
increased from 1:1. The train which uses motorise coach and trailer
coach is also known as electrical multiple unit (EMU) train.The power
supply for the suburban train is similar to that of the main train except in
an underground train.

In the underground train, the DC supply is used because the DC supply

system required lesser clearance from the supply conductor of the train
body. Also, the power modulator becomes simpler and less expensive.
The underground trains do not use the overhead transmission line, and
hence the power is supplied from the running rails or on one side of the
tunnel.

2. Electric Buses, Trams and Trolleys

Such type of drive usually consists single motor driven coach. It takes the
supply from the low-voltage DC overhead line which is running along the
roadside. As the current is generally small, the collector consists of a rod
carrying at its end a grooved wheel or two rods bridged by a contact
bow.The collector system is provided with enough flexibility, and it also
provided an additional conductor for the return of current.
The trams are electric buses which run on rails, and it consists a single
motor coach. Sometimes, two or more unmotorised or trailer coaches
are added. Their current collection system is similar to buses, and its
return can be through one of the rails. The trams run on rails, and their
path through road is fixed.

Electric trolleys are used for transporting material in mines and factories.
It is mostly run on rails. They are similar to trams; only the shape is
different.

Important Features of electric traction drives

The important features of the electric traction drives are explained

below.

1. The traction drive required large torque during start and

acceleration to accelerate the heavy mass.
2. Because of economic reason single phase supply is used in AC
traction.
3. The supply has sharp voltage fluctuations, including discontinuity
when the locomotive crosses from one supply section to another.
4. The harmonics injected into the source, both in AC and DC
traction can cause interference in telephone lines and signals.
5. Traction drive mainly used dynamic braking. A mechanical brake is
also used when the drive is stationary.
Duty Cycle of an electricTraction Drives

The duty cycle of traction drive is explained below with the help of
speed-time curve and power torque time diagram. Consider the drive
travel between two consecutive stations on a level track. The train is
accelerated at the maximum possible torque, and the power increases
linearly with speed.
At time t1 the base speed and the maximum allowable power is reached.
Further acceleration occurs at constant power.The torque and
acceleration decrease with speed. At time t2 the drive torque equal to
the load torque, and steady speed is reached. The acceleration 0 to
t2 has two parts. From 0 to t1 the acceleration has constant torque, and
at t1 to t2 the acceleration has constant power.

From t2 and t3 train runs at a constant speed and constant drive power.
This duration is known as free running. At the suitable time t4, the brake
is applied to stop the train at the next station.

2.2 Speed Time Curve of Electrical Traction System

What is a Speed-Time Curve?

Speed-time curves are the most convenient means of studying the

movement of trains and their energy consumption. A speed-time
curve is defined as the graph plotted between the speed and time, by
taking speed (in km/hour) on the Y-axis and time (in seconds or minutes)
on X-axis. The speed-time curve provides complete information of the
motion of the train.

The speed-time curve gives the speed of the train at various time
instants after the start of the run directly. The slope of the curve at any
point gives the acceleration at the corresponding instant or speed.

The area covered by the speed-time curve, time axis and the ordinates
through the instants between which the time is taken, represents the
distance covered in the corresponding time.

Parts of a Speed-Time Curve

A typical speed-time curve (refer the figure) mainly consists of the

following −

 Initial Acceleration
 Constant Speed Run or Free Run
 Coasting
 Retardation

Initial Acceleration

The acceleration consists of two parts −


Constant Acceleration or Acceleration during Notching Up –
During the notching up period (0 to t0), the current to the motor is
maintained approximately constant and the voltage across the
motor is gradually increased by cutting out the starting resistance.
Therefore, the tractive effort is constant and hence the
acceleration remains constant during this period.


Speed Curve Running or Acceleration on Speed Curve – During
the speed curve running (1 to 2), the voltage across the motor
 remains constant and the current starts decreasing with the
increase in the speed according to the characteristics of the motor
and finally the current taken by the motor becomes constant.
During this period, though the train accelerates but the
acceleration decreases with the increase in speed and finally
becomes zero at the speed at which the tractive effort developed
by the motor becomes exactly equal to the resistance to motion
of the train.


Constant Speed Run or Free Run

At the end of speed curve running, i.e., at 2, the train attains the
maximum speed. During this period, the train runs with constant speed
attained at the time instant t2 and constant power is drawn by the motor.

Coasting

At the end of constant speed run or free running period, i.e., at 3, the
power supply is cut off and the train is allowed to run under its own
momentum. The speed of the train starts decreasing on account of
resistance to the motion of train. The rate of decrease of speed during
the coasting period is termed as coasting retardation.

Retardation or Braking Period

At the end of coasting period, i.e., at 4, the brakes are applied to bring
the train to rest. During this period, the speed decreases rapidly and
finally reaches to zero.

2.3 Tractive Effort for Propulsion of Train

What is Tractive Effort?

The effective force required for propelling a train at the wheel of

locomotive is known as the tractive effort. It is denoted by and is
measured in Newton. It is a vector quantity always acting tangential to
the wheels of the locomotive.

Tractive Effort for Propulsion of Train

The total tractive effort required to propel the train on the track is equal
to the sum of −


Tractive effort required for linear and angular acceleration ().


Tractive effort to overcome the effect of gravity ().


Tractive effort to overcome the train resistance ().


Therefore, the total tractive effort is given as,

Ft=Fa±Fg±Fr⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (1)��=��±��±��⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (1)

Tractive Effort for Linear and Angular Acceleration

According to the laws of dynamics, the force required to accelerate the

motion of the body is given by,

Force,F=Mass(m)×Acceleration(α)Force,�=Mass(�)×Acceleration(�)

Now, consider a train of weight W tons being accelerated at α kmphps,

then,

Massoftrain=1000WkgMassoftrain=1000�kg

Acceleration,α=αkmphps=α×10003600m/s2=0.2778αm/s2Acceleration,
�=�kmphps=�×10003600m/s2=0.2778�m/s2

Therefore, the tractive effort required for linear acceleration is,

Fa=mα=1000W×0.2778α=277.8WαNewtons��=��=1000�×0.2778�=277.
8��Newtons

With the linear acceleration of the train, the rotating parts of the train
like wheels and motor shafts also accelerate in an angular direction.
Therefore, the tractive effort required is equal to the arithmetic sum of
tractive effort required to have the linear acceleration and the tractive
effort required to have the angular acceleration of rotating parts.

Actually, the tractive effort required to have the angular acceleration

depends upon the individual weight, radius of gyration, etc. of the
rotating parts requiring angular acceleration. Thus, the equivalent
accelerating weight of the train is taken as which is 8% to 15% higher
than W.

Therefore, the tractive effort required for linear and angular

acceleration is given by,

Fa=277.8WeαNewtons⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (2)��=277.8���Newtons⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (2)

Tractive Effort for Overcoming the Effect of Gravity

When a train is on a gradient (or slope), a force of gravity equal to the

component of the dead weight along the slope acts on the train and
tends to cause its motion down. Therefore, the force due to gradient is
given by,

Fg=mgsinθ=1000Wgsinθ��=��sin�=1000��sin�

But, in railway work, the gradient is expressed as rise in meters in a track

distance of 100 meters and is denoted as percentage gradient (G%).
Now from the figure, we have,

SlopeorGradient,G=sinθ=Elelvation(BC)Distancealongthetrack(AC)Slopeo
rGradient,G=sin�=Elelvation(BC)Distancealongthetrack(AC)

%G=sinθ×100%G=sin�×100

⇒sinθ=G100⇒sin�=�100

Therefore,

Fg=1000Wg×G100=10WG×9.81��=1000��×�100=10��×9.81

⇒Fg=9.81WGNewton⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (3)⇒��=9.81��Newton⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (3)

Where, g = 9.81 m/s2, acceleration due to gravity.

Tractive Effort Required for Overcoming Train Resistance

The train resistance consists of all the forces resisting the motion of a
train when it is running at uniform speed on a straight and level track.
Under these conditions, the entire energy output from the driving axles
is expended against train resistance.

The train resistance is mainly due to −


The friction at the various parts of the rolling stock.


The friction at the track.


Air resistance.


Here, the first two components constitute the mechanical resistance

component of the train resistance. Also, the train resistance depends
upon various factors like shape, size and condition of the track, etc. and
it is expressed in Newton per ton of the dead weight. For a normal train,
the value of specific resistance varies from 40 to 70 N/ton.

Thus, the general expression for the train resistance is,

R=k1+k2V+k3V2�=�1+�2�+�3�2

Where, 1, 2 and 3 are the constants whose value depends upon the train
and track. R is the resistance in Newton and V is the speed in kmph.

Hence, the tractive effort required to overcome the train resistance is

Fr=W×r⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (4)��=�×�⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (4)

Where,
Therefore, on substituting the values from equations (2), (3) & (4) in eqn.
(1), we get the total tractive effort required to run the train as,

Ft=Fa±Fr=277.8Weα±98.1WG+Wr⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (5)��=��±��=277.8���±98.1��+��
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (5)

Here, +ve sign is for the motion up the gradient and –ve sign for the
motion down the gradient.

2.4 What is Specific Energy Consumption in Electric Traction?

Specific Energy Consumption

The amount of energy input to the traction motors is known as energy

consumption of the train. It is the energy consumed for the propelling
the train. The total energy drawn from the distribution system is greater
than this energy and is equal to the energy consumed by the various
parts of the train and the quantity of the energy required for lighting,
heating, control and braking, etc.

This amount of energy consumed by the various parts of the train per
ton per kilometer is termed as specific energy consumption and is
expressed in watt-hours per ton per km. Therefore,

Specificenergyconsumption=TotalenergyconsumptioninWhWeightoftrai
ninton×distanceconveredbytraininkm

Factors Affecting Specific Energy Consumption of Electric Train

The specific energy consumption of an electric train operating at a given

schedule speed is affected by the following factors −

 Distance between stops

 Acceleration
 Retardation
 Maximum speed
 Specific resistance of train
 Gradient or slope
 Distance travelled by the train while power is on
 Nature of route
  Type of train equipment

The specific energy consumption is equal to the specific energy output

divided by the overall efficiency of the locomotive, hence the specific
energy consumption depends upon the overall efficiency of the electric
train. Greater the overall efficiency lesser will be the specific energy
consumption for a given specific energy output at axles.

Here, the specific energy consumption by the train depends upon the
above mentioned factors as −


The greater the distance between the stops lesser will be the
specific energy consumption.


For a given run at a schedule speed, greater the value of
acceleration and retardation, more will be the period of coasting
and hence lesser the period during which power is on. Therefore,
the specific energy consumption will be less.


Steep gradient or slope will cause specific energy consumption.


If the specific resistance of the train is more, the greater will be
the specific energy consumption.


For suburban railway services, the typical values of the specific energy
consumption are 50 to 75 watt-hours per ton-km. While for main line
services, it is 20 to 30 watt-hours per ton-km.

The variation of the specific energy consumption with the increase in

value of acceleration or retardation and the distance of run is illustrated
in the following figures.

2.5 Mechanics of Train Movement and Derivation for Tractive Effort

Mechanism of Train Movement

The essential mechanism of an electric locomotive is shown in the figure
below.

Here, the armature of the driving motor has a pinion of the diameter d1
attached to it. The tractive effort at the edge of the pinion is transferred
to the driving wheel by means of a gearwheel.

Coefficient of Adhesion

The coefficient of adhesion is defined as the ratio of the maximum

tractive effort that can be applied without slipping of wheels to the
adhesive weight, the coefficient of adhesion decreases with the increase
in speed. The normal value of the coefficient of adhesion with the clean
and dry rails is 0.25 and with wet or greasy rails it is as low as 0.08.

Since the higher value of tractive effort can be used in electric traction
so that the electric train can be made to accelerate at a faster rate. This
results in saving of time, especially, when the distance between the
stops is small.

UNIT 3
3.1 Electrical Substation Equipment
For transferring of electrical power from generating unit to distributing
units various types of electrical equipment are required. The equipment
like bus bars, isolator, power transformer etc., are assembled together in
the electrical substation through which consumers get electrical supply.
The main equipment required for the substation installations is
explained below in details:

Lightning Arrestor

Lightning Arrestor is the first member of the electrical substations. It

protects the substation equipment from transient high voltage and also
limits the duration and amplitude of the flow of current. The Lightning
arrestor is connected between line and earth, i.e., in parallel with the
equipment under protection at the substation.The lightning arrester
diverts, the current of the surges to the earth and hence protects the
insulation and conductor of the system from damage. The lightning
arresters are several types and they are classified on the basis of the
duties they perform.

Power Transformer

Power transformers are used for stepping up the voltage for

transmission at generating station and for stepping down the voltage for
further distribution at main step-down transformer substations. Usually
naturally cooled, oil immersed type two winding, three phase
transformers, are used for rating up to 10 MVA. The transformer for
rating more than 10 MVA, are usually air blast cooled. For very high
rating, the force oil, water cooling and air blast cooling may be used.

Such type of transformer operated at full load, and it is disconnected at

light load hours. The power transformers are arranged in banks and can
be thrown in parallel with other units. Thus, the efficiency of the power
transformer is maximum at full load (i.e., with iron loss to full load
copper loss ratio 1:1).

Instrument Transformer

Instrument transformer is used to reduced high voltages and currents to

a safe and practical value which can be measured by conventional
instruments (normally range is 1A or 5A for current and 110 V for
voltage). It is also used for actuating the AC type protective relay by
supplying the current and voltage by the current and potential
transformer. Instrument transformers are classified into two types
 Current Transformer – A current transformer is a device for the
transformation of current from a higher value to a lower value. It is
used in parallel with AC instruments, meters or control apparatus so
that the meter or instrument coil cannot conveniently be made of
sufficient current carrying capacity.
 Instrument Transformer – A voltage transformer may be defined
as an instrument transformer for the transformation of voltage from
a higher value to the lower value.
Bus-Bar

It is one of the most important elements in an electrical power

substation. It is a type of conductor carrying an electrical current to
which many connections are made. In order words, bus-bar is a type of
electrical junction in which the incoming and outgoing of electrical
current take place.

When the fault occurs in the bus- bar, then all the circuit equipment
connected to that section must be tripped out to give complete isolation
in the shortest possible time e.g. (60ms) so that the damage is avoided
to the installation due to heating of conductors.

Wave Trapper

It is placed on incoming lines for trapping the high-frequency wave. The

high-frequency wave which is coming from the remote substation
disturbs the waves of voltage and current. Wave trapper trips the high-
frequency wave and diverts them to the telecom panel.

Isolator

It is a type of switches which is employed only for isolating the circuit

when the current has only been interrupted. The isolator is called
disconnected switches operates under no load condition. They are not
equipped with arc-quenching devices. They do not have any specified
current breaking capacity or current making capacity. In some cases, it is
used for breaking the charging current of the transmission line.

Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker is a type of electrical switches which is used for

opening or closing of electrical circuit whenever faults occur in the
system. It consists of two moving contacts which are normally closed.
Whenever the fault occurs in the system, the relay sends the tripping
command to the circuit breaker and hence their contacts are moved
apart. Thus, the fault occurs in the system becomes clear.

Batteries

In electric power stations and large capacity substations, the operation

and automatic control circuits the protective relay system, as well as
emergency lighting circuits, are supplied by station batteries. Station
battery is assembled of a certain number accumulator cell depending on
the operating voltage of the respective DC circuit.

Storage batteries are two types lead acid battery and acid-alkaline
batteries. Lead acid battery is most commonly used in power stations
and substations because their voltage is high and very cheap low voltage

Capacitor Bank

Capacitor bank consists capacitors connected either in series or parallel.

It stored the electrical energy in the form of electrical charges. Capacitor
bank draws leading current which increases the power factor of the
network and also the power transfer capability of the system increases.

Switchyard

The switch yards, houses transformers, circuit breakers and switches for
connecting and disconnecting the transformers and circuit breakers. It
also has lightning arrestors for the protection of the power station
against lightning strokes.

Indicating and metering Instruments

Ammeters, Voltmeters, Wattmeters, kWh meters, KVARH meters, power

factor meters reactive volt-amperes meters are installed in substations
to control and maintain a watch over the current flowing through the
circuits and over the power loads.

Carrier-current Equipment

Such equipment is installed in the substations for communication,

relaying, telemetered or for supervisory control. The equipment is
suitably mounted in a room known as carrier room and connected to the
high voltage power circuit.
Relay

It protects the power system component against abnormal conditions

such as faults. The relay is a sensing device which senses the fault, then
determines its location and finally, it sends tripping commands to the
circuit. The circuit breaker after getting the command from the relay
disconnects the faulted element. Relays protect the equipment from
damage and hence subsequent hazards like fire, the risk to the life are
reduced by removing the particularly faulted section.

Insulator

It is used in generating stations and substations to fix and insulate the

bus bars systems. They may be subdivided into post and bushing type. A
post insulator consists of porcelain body and their cap is made up of cast
iron. It is directly bolted to the busbars by means of bus-bar clamps. A
bushing or through insulator consists of porcelain-shell body, upper and
lower locating washes used for fixing the position of bus-bar or rod in a
shell.

Traction Substation Layout 132/25 KV

Generally the substation used in generation, transmission and
distribution for power supply system arrangement, but the substation
specially used for traction purpose is called as traction substation. So in
this article we explain the traction substation layout of 132/25 KV.
Layout of Traction Substation

Feeding Post (FP):

It is a supply control post, where the incoming feeder link from grid
substation are terminated. Each feeder supplies the OHE on one side of
the feeding post through interrupters controlling supply to the individual
lines.

Feeding and Sectioning Arrangement

Power generation and transmission systems of supply authorities are of
3-phase type. Electric traction on the other hand needs single phase
supply.
If all the traction load is put on one phase only, it would bring about
unbalanced conditions.
This, besides causing inconvenience to other consumers due to phase
shift, is very harmful to the alternator as it produces lot of rotor heating
due to double frequency currents induced in the rotor by rotating
magnetic field produced by negative phase sequence currents.
3.1.4 Sub-Sectioning And Paralleling post

Each section is subdivided by the provision of one or more sub-

sectioning and paralleling posts normally at a distance of every 10 to 15
km. This facilitates isolation of faulty sections.
Each sub-sectioning and paralleling post consists of two interrupters
usually 600 amps capacity, bridging adjacent sub-section and one
interrupter for paralleling the up and down tracks.
At some stations with large yards, change over switches are sometimes
provided so that supply may be derived either from OHE of one
subsection or the other. Normally, it is locked in one position but in an
emergency it can be changed over after taking necessary precautions.
Sub-sectioning Post:
This is same as sub-sectioning and paralleling post except that there is
no interrupter for paralleling the up and down tracks. This is provided
very rarely.
Elementary Section:
Subsection distance of 10 to 15 km is also too long in case of fault
requiring repairs and maintenance of long duration. Therefore, with a
view to ensure rapid isolation of fault on OHE and to facilitate
maintenance work each subsection is further divided into elementary
sections. Two adjacent elementary sections are separated by insulated
overlap bridged by isolators which are manually operated on no load.
3.1.8 Protection of Catenary system
Protection system for 25 KV catenary has to fulfil some special
requirements. As we know that the maximum load current is more than
the short circuit current if it fault/ short circuit takes place at the farthest
point.
As such over current protection based on current peak discrimination
will not be suitable. Similarly the working impedance is less than the
short circuit impedance. As such plain impedance relay will also not be
suitable.
Phase angle of traction load lies in between 40 to 60° and that for both
types of short circuits lies in between 70 to 90°. Therefore, relay making
use of impedance phase angle will be successful in obtaining proper
discrimination. 25 KV catenary protection scheme is shown in Fig.:

(a) MHO relay.:

It combines directional element with impedance measuring element and
is adjusted for 25 ohm impedance and phase angle of 70°.
Basically MHO relay is an induction type relay. As shown in Fig. 4.7 it
consists of following circuits.
(i) Potential circuit having phase angle of 60° and fed from P.T connected
in 25 KV line.
(ii) Current circuit fed from C.T connected in 25 KV line.
(iii) Polarisation circuit with variable capacitors connected in series.
Phase angle adjustment is done by means of these capacitors.
Operating torque is exerted by current circuit and restoring torque by
potential circuit. Since ZT, locus of point at which resultant torque
exerted is zero will be a circle.
For any value of impedance falling within the impedance circle, net
torque will be positive and the trip points will be bridged. For the values
of impedance falling outside the circle, torque exerted will be in negative
direction.
The function of the polarisation circuit is to give an off set to the
impedance circle. Impedance characteristic of MHO relay is shown in Fig.
4.8:

where point A corresponds to normal working condition, ‘point B

corresponds to short circuit condition at the farthest point and point C
corresponds to short circuit conditions nearest to substation.
Point A should be outside the impedance circle and both the points B
and C will be within the circle.
It should be noted that the relay is more sensitive for impedance values
whose location is towards the centre of the impedance circle, O
Sensitivity becomes less and less for impedance location nearest
circumference as shown in Fig. 4.9.
It is, therefore, seen that MHO’s relay is not efficient for short circuits
either nearest t substation or very far off.
(b) Over current relay:
There is sufficient difference in the magnitude of full load current and
short circuit current when it takes place near sub station.
As such over current relay will serve the purpose of protection against
faults near substation very efficiently.
(c) Under voltage relay:
To have an efficient protection against faults far away from the
substation beyond neutral section, under voltage relay is used to trip the
bridging interrupter if the voltage drops below pre-set value of say
17000 V.
Fig. 4:10 shows the range of operation of various relays which has to be
over lapping.
(d) For the protection against inadvertent coupling of two adjacent
sections of OHE fed from different phases, another MHO’s relay with 60
ohm impedance setting and phase angle of 120° is used.
OVER HEAD EQUIPMENT (OHE):
 A simple polygonal type of overhead equipment is comprising of a
single 65 sq. mm. size Catenary wire of Cadmium Copper and a hard
drawn grooved copper Contact wire of 107 sq. mm. size suspended
from the Catenary by 5 mm dia copper dropper wire spaced 9
meters apart. The OHE is supported by swiveling type Cantilever
bracket assembly. A tension of 1000 kgs is given in each conductors
i.e., Catenary and Contact wire. This tension is kept constant,
automatically compensating the variations in conductor length due
to change in temperature through the regulating equipment erected
at the termination of conductors, also known as Automatic
Tensioning Device.
 The Catenary wire comprises of 19 strands of cadmium copper, each
strand of 2.10 mm dia, with overall dia of 10.5 mm having about 80%
conductivity and 65 sq. mm cross-sectional area. The contact wire is
a solid hard drawn grooved electrolytic copper of 12.24 mm dia and
107 sq. mm cross-sectional area. Total current carrying capacity of
both wires is 600 Amps. The condemning size of contact wire is 8.25
mm.
 The OHE span varies between 72 Meters and 27 Meters with a step
of 4.5 M. The maximum span of 72 M is adopted on section having
wind pressure of 112.5 kgs/ M2 and 75 kgs/M2 only. The span is
reduced on curvature depending upon the degree of curvature.
3.2.2 What are the different types of Pantograph collectors?

The pantograph is a common type of current collector; typically, a

single or double wire is used, with the return current running through
the rails. Other types of current collectors include the bow collector and
the trolley pole.
3.2.2 What is a trolley collector in overhead system?
The trolley collector is universally employed with tramways and
trolleybuses. It consists of a grooved gunmetal wheel or grooved slider
shoe with a carbon insert carried at the end of a long pole. The other
end of this pole is hinged to a swiveling base fixed to the roof of the
vehicle.

3.2.2 What is a bow collector in traction system?

The bow collector is one of the simplest and most reliable methods of
current collection used on tramways. The very earliest versions were
simply very heavy-gauge wire or steel bars bent into a rectangular shape
and mounted long-side-down on the tramcar roof.

Classification and Nomenclature of Electric Locomotive.

Classification:
Locomotives were classified by track gauge, motive power, function and
power (or model number) in a four- or five-letter code. The first letter
denotes the track gauge. The second letter denotes motive power
(diesel or electric), and the third letter denotes use (goods, passenger,
mixed or shunting). The fourth letter denotes a locomotive's
chronological model number.
In 2002, a new classification system was adopted. For newer diesel
locomotives, the fourth letter denotes their horsepower range. Not all
diesel locomotives were reclassified, and the fourth letter continues to
denotes their model number.
A locomotive may have a fifth letter, generally denoting a technical
variant, subclass or subtype: a variation in the basic model or series, or a
different motor or manufacturer. Under the new system, the fifth letter
further refines horsepower in 100-hp increments: A for 100 hp, B for
200 hp, C for 300 hp and so on. A WDP-3A is a 3,100 hp (2,300 kW)
locomotive, and a WDM-3F is 3,600 hp (2,700 kW).
The system does not apply to steam locomotives, which are no longer
used on main lines. They retain their original class names, such as M-
or WP-class.
Nomenclature:

 First letter (gauge):

o W – Broad gauge (wide) – 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm)
o Y – Metre gauge (yard) – 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in)
o Z – 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) narrow gauge
o N – 2 ft (610 mm) narrow (toy) gauge
 Second letter (motive power):

o D – Diesel
o C – DC electric (DC overhead line)
o A – AC electric (AC overhead line)
o CA – DC and AC (AC or DC overhead line); CA is considered
one letter
o B – Battery (rare)
 Third letter (usage):

o G – Goods
o P – Passenger
o M – Mixed (goods and passenger)
o S – Shunting (switching)
o U – Multiple unit (electric or diesel)
o R – Railcar

4.2 Block Diagram of an AC Locomotive

 Fig: 1

The various components of an ac locomotive running on single-phase

25-kV, 50-Hz ac supply are numbered in Fig. 1.

1. OH contact wire

2. pantograph

3. circuit breakers

4. on-load tap-changers

5. transformer

6. rectifier

7. smoothing choke

8. dc traction motors.

Auxiliary Machines and Equipments in Electric Locomotives

 Introduction
  Transformer Auxiliaries
 Rectifier Block Auxiliaries
 Smoothing Reactor Auxiliaries
 Traction Motor Auxiliaries
 Other Auxiliaries
 Switching Sequence
 Power Supply

Electric locos derive tractive effort from Traction Motors which are
usually placed in the bogie of the locomotive. Usually one motor is
provided per axle but in some older generation of locos two axles were
driven by a single Traction Motor also.

However apart from Traction Motors, many other motors and

equipments are provided in electric locos. These motors are collectively
known as the Auxiliaries. The aim of this article is to provide an insight
into the various Auxiliary Machines provided in the Electric Locos
operational on the Indian Railways.

Auxiliaries of the Transformer

Transformer Oil Circulating Pump (MPH)

The transformer tank is filled with oil which serves two purposes. It
provides enhanced insulation to the transformer and its surroundings
and the oil absorbs the heat generated in the transformer and takes it
away to the Transformer Oil Cooling Radiator. The circulation of this oil is
carried out by the MPH.

A flow valve with an electrical contact is provided in the oil circulating

pipe. As long as the oil is circulating properly, the contacts on the relay
remain closed. However, in case the MPH fails or stops the relay contacts
open which in turn trips master auxiliary protection relay Q-118. This
trips the main circuit-breaker(DJ) of the loco. Thus the transformer is
protected.

Transformer Oil Cooling Radiator Blower (MVRH)

The MPH circulates the transformer oil through a radiator array on top of
the transformer. Air is blown over the radiator by the MVRH. This
discharges the heat from the radiator into the atmosphere. A flow
detecting relay is provided in the air-stream of the MVRH. The flow
detector is a diaphragm type device. The flow of air presses the
diaphragm which closes an electrical contact. This relay is known as the
QVRH. In case the MVRH blower fails the the QVRH releases and trips the
DJ through the relay Q-118.

Auxiliaries of the Rectifier Block (RSI 1 & 2)

Rectifier Cooling Blowers-MVSI-1 and MVSI-2

One blower is provided for each of the rectifier blocks. As rectifiers are
semiconductor devices, they are very sensitive to heat and hence must
be cooled continously. The switching sequence of the MVSI blowers is
setup in such a way that unless the blowers are running, traction cannot
be achieved. A detection relay of diaphragm type is also provided in the
air stream of these blowers. However, the detection relay (QVSI-1 &
2)are interlocked with a different relay known as Q-44. This is a much
faster acting relay with a time delay of only 0.6 seconds. Hence the
failure of a MVSI blower would trip the DJ in less than 1 second.

Auxiliaries of the Smoothing Reactors (MVSL 1 & 2)

In WAM-4 locos only one MVSL blower is provided for the cooling of the
Smoothing Reactors SL 1 & 2. However in WAG-5 and other locos two
blowers namely MVSL 1&2 are provided for each of the SL's. Their
running is "proved*"by the Q-118 relay.

Auxiliaries of Traction Motors (MVMT 1 & 2)

In the course of normal operation the traction motors also generate a lot
of heat. This heat is dissipated by two blowers namely MVMT 1 & 2
which force air through a duct into the traction motors of Bogie-1 namely
TM-1, TM-2, TM-3 and Bogie-2 namely TM-4, 5, 6 respectively. The
traction motor cooling blowers require a large quantity of air which is
taken from vents in the side-wall of the loco. Body-side filters are
provided to minimise the ingress of dust into the loco. Their running is
detected by Air-Flow sensing relay QVMT 1 & 2 (Pic-2) which in turn give
there feed to the Q-118 relay.

Other Auxiliaries

Air Compressors (MCP 1, MCP-2, MCP-3)

Electric locos need compressed at a pressure ranging from 6 kg/cm2 to
10 kg/cm2. Compressed air is used for the loco's own air brake system as
also for the train brakes, for raising the pantograph, for operating the
power switchgear inside the loco such as the power contactors, change-
over switches, windscreen wipers, sanders, etc.

This compressed air is obtained by providing three air compressors, each

having a capacity to pump 1000 litres of air per minute. However
depending on the current requirement, more than two compressors are
rarely needed.

Vacuum Pumps (MPV 1 & 2)

In locos equipped to haul vacuum braked trains, two vacuum pumps are
also provided of which at least one is running in normal service and
sometimes both may have to be run if train brakes are required to be
released in a hurry.

Dynamic Braking resistance Cooling Blower (MVRF)

In locos equipped with internal dynamic braking resistances, MVRF

blower is provided for cooling the resistances during braking. While all
the Auxiliary machines run on the power supply provided by the Arno
convertor / Static Convertor / Motor-Alternator set, the MVRF blower
runs off the supply derived from the output of the Traction Motor itself
and is connected in parallel to the Dynamic Braking Resistances.

Main Starting Resistance Cooling Blowers (MVMSR)

These blowers(four in number)are provided in WCAM-1, WCAM-2,

WCAM-3 locos and are used during DC line working to cool the Main
Starting Resistances(MSR). The MSR is used for regulating the voltage
supplied to the Traction Motors during DC line working and carry the
whole current of the traction motors which results in a lot of heat
generation which must be continously dissipated. The working of the
MVMSR's is also proved by respective sensing relays(QVMSR's) of the
diaphragm type which in turn are interlocked with the relay Q-118 in the
manner described later in this article.

RAILWAY BRAKING DISTANCE •

 Braking distance refers to the distance a train will travel from the
point when its brakes are fully applied to when it comes to a complete
stop • It is primarily affected by the original speed of the vehicle and the
coefficient of friction between the wheel rim surface and the rail surface
• and negligibly by the rolling resistance and train's air drag • The type of
brake system in use also affect, if the brake system cannot supply
enough force to match the static frictional force
Loco bogie classification according to wheel arrangements.

Introduction :
A bogie or truck is a wheeled wagon or trolley. In mechanics terms,
a bogie is a chassis or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle,
thus serving as a modular subassembly of wheels and axles.

body to negotiate the curves.

A small length of bogie is desirable. The length of bogie is decided by the
distance between the centre of extreme wheels of a bogie is known as
bogie wheel base.

Function of bogies :


To support the traction motors and enable them to transfer power
to wheels.
 It provides guidance to wheel sets.
 To facilitate necessary rotation with respect to body while
negotiating curves.
 To transmit tractive and braking forces to the drawbar. In doing so
the weight transfer be kept to minimum.

Bogie classification according to wheel arrangements:

Bogies are classified based on - 1. No. of axles 2.Type of axle drive
The type of axle drive and no. of axles in a bogie is also called the wheel
arrangement.
Different type of wheel arrangement is available on existing fleet of
Indian Railway Locomotives are as under:
B – B : WAG1-WAG4
Bo – Bo : WAP/5
Co-Co : WAM/4, WAP/1, WAP/4, WAP/7,
WAG/5,WAG/6C,WAG/7,WAG/9, WCAM/2, WCAM/3,
WCAG/1,WCM/6

Bo-Bo-Bo : WAG/6A, WAG/6B

What is locomotive maintenance?

The locomotive maintenance team perform a variety of services such
as preventative maintenance, service inspections, engine overhaul,
painting, traction motor replacements and electrical upgrades and
diagnostics.

5.1 Desirable Characteristics of Traction Motors

The electric motors that generate power to rotate the wheels of the
train are known as traction motors. The turning force produced by the
traction motor is transmitted to the wheels of the train through the
driving gear unit and axle. Traction motors should have high efficiency.

Desirable Characteristics of Traction Motors

The desirable characteristics and features of the electric motors used for
traction purpose are described below.

Suitable Speed-Torque Characteristics

The traction motor should have suitable speed-torque characteristics. In

a traction system, the torque required at start is very high, while during
the constant speed, the torque requirement is not high because kinetic
energy is developed and the tractive effort required is only for
overcoming the track resistance and gravity component.

Therefore, the requirement is that the traction motor should develop

very high starting torque which should fall off at high speeds.

High Overload Capacity

Traction motors should have high overload capacity. Traction motors are
subjected to heavy loads that cause large rush of current. This high
current may produce large armature reaction and bad commutation.
The arcing produced on commutator surface may exceed over the whole
periphery and flashover may occur, which is to be avoided at all costs.

Therefore, the traction motor should be capable of taking heavy loads

without flashover.

Operate in Parallel

Traction motors should be capable of operating in parallel. In traction

work, several motors operate at the same time. Therefore, the traction
motors should be capable of operating in parallel.

However, there occurs a small difference in rotational speed of various

motors because of uneven wear and tear of wheels. This should not
produce wide variations in torques developed and current drawn by
various motors.

Robust Construction

A traction motor must be robust in construction, so that it is capable to

withstand continuous vibrations since these motors are subjected to
severe conditions. Traction motors should be further provided with
mechanical protection to prevent dirt, water, mud, etc.

Withstand Voltage Fluctuations

In traction work, on account of heavy current in rush at starting,

considerable voltage fluctuation of supply line is a normal feature.
Therefore, the traction motor should be capable of withstanding these
voltage fluctuations without adverse effect on their performance.

Weight of Traction Motor

The weight of the traction motor should be minimum in order to

increase the payload capacity of the vehicle. Also, the traction motor
should have high power to weight ratio.

Small Dimension

Generally, the physical size of the motor depends on the type of

insulation used. The traction motors are wound with class-H insulation.
Also, the traction motor is located underneath a motor coach and the
space underneath the motor coach is limited by the size of driving
wheels and the track gauge. Therefore, the traction motor must be small
in overall dimensions.

Simple Speed Control

Traction motors should have simple speed control. As the electric trains
have to be started and stopped very often, the traction motor should be
amenable to simple speed control methods.

Self-Relieving Property

Traction motor should have self-relieving property. The speed-torque

characteristics of the traction motor should be such that the speed may
reduce with the increase in load.

Where, T and N be the toque and speed, respectively.

The motors having such speed-torque characteristics are self-protective

against excessive overloading as the power output of the motor is
proportional to product of torque and speed.

Hence, this gives a self-relieving property to a traction motor.

Withstand Temporary Interruption of Supply

There can be temporary interruption of supply when section insulators

and cross-overs are crossed with the controller ON. Hence, the traction
motor should withstand these fluctuations without heavy inrush of
current.

Dynamic or Regenerative Braking

A traction motor should be amenable to easy and simple methods of

dynamic or regenerative braking.

Different Types Of Traction Motors

A traction motor is basically an electric motor that generates the power

to rotate the wheels of the train. The rotating force produced by the
 traction motor is transmitted to the wheels of the vehicle through the
pinion and gear wheel. The various types of traction motors used are,

 DC Series Motor,
 AC Series Motor,
 Three Phase Induction Motor,
 Linear Induction Motor.
DC Series Motor :

The aspects pertaining to the suitability of a dc series motor for traction

duty are given below,

 It generates high torque at low speeds and low torque at high

speeds which is required to accelerate the vehicle.
 Speed-torque and speed-current characteristics of a dc series
motor are steep. So, the difference in speed of motors due to different
wear of driving wheels is less.
 As field flux is directly proportional to armature current, torque
for a given current will not be affected by voltage fluctuations.
 Series speed torque curve gives stable operation because as the
speed increases, torque decreases.
 If armature current increases (due to heavy load torque), then
speed decreases. Therefore, the emf induced decreases and spark-less
commutation can be obtained.
 Since torque is proportional to the square of armature current,
less current is needed to increase the torque. Therefore, the series
motor can withstand heavy load torque.
 For a given increase in torque, the horsepower (power = torque x
speed, as torque increases, speed decreases) remains almost constant.
This indicates the self-relieving property of the series motor.
 Series motor is amenable to various speed control methods.
 Without special arrangements, a series motor cannot be used for
regenerative braking.
 Since the series field time constant is low, the back emf becomes
zero in case of power failure. So, the initial rush of current on temporary
interruption of supply is more in the series motor.
Applications of Series Motor :
 Due to low weight and high starting torque, series motors can develop
high starting torque. Therefore, they are suitable for urban and
suburban services where a high rate of acceleration is required which
can be met by a series motor. In a 1500V dc system, the dc series motor
may be operated either at 1500V or 750V by connecting them in series
permanently.

DC Shunt Motor :

Shunt motors are not suitable for traction purposes due to the following
reasons.

 A dc shunt motor is a constant speed motor. But for traction

purposes, the speed should fall with an increase in load. Thus, the dc
shunt motor does not meet this requirement.
 In the case of a shunt motor, speed is constant and independent
of load torque. As power output is directly proportional to torque, thus
for a given overload, a shunt motor requires a greater amount of power
as compared to a series motor.
 With the increase in load, the shunt motor besides getting
overloaded and develops commutation problems.
 In a shunt motor, field flux depends upon supply voltage. Thus the
torque developed is considerably affected by supply voltage variations.
 Speed-torque and speed-current characteristics of shunt motors
are flat and if they are run in parallel the difference in currents drawn
from supply mains due to small difference will be considerable.
 In the case of dc shunt motors, the field flux remains constant
thus torque developed is directly proportional to the armature current.
Hence for a given increase in torque developed current drawn from the
supply by dc shunt motor is more as compared to dc series motor.
Single Phase AC Series Motor :

If an ordinary dc series motor is fed from an ac supply, it would operate

as ac series motor but not very satisfactorily owing to the following
reasons,

 Since the field and armature currents both reverse every half cycle,
the torque would be exerted at a double frequency in one direction.
 The alternating flux set up by the field winding due to alternating
current causes excessive eddy current losses in fixed core and yokes,
 thereby increasing the motor temperature and decreasing the operating
efficiency.
 The inductance of field and armature winding decreases the
power factor and causes some abnormal voltage drops which in turn
affects the performance of the motor.
 There will be heavy sparking at the brushes undergoing
commutation.
Hence, some modifications are necessary for a dc series motor for the
satisfactory operation with ac supply.

 In order to reduce the reactance of the series field, ac series

motors are built with as few turns as possible.
 Reduction in the number of turns on the field winding results in
the reduction of flux per pole leading to an increase in the speed for a
given current and therefore there would be a reduction in the load
torque available for a given current. Hence to develop the required load
torque, the number of armature conductor have to be increased
proportionately.
 The increase in armature conductors would increase inductive
reactance of the armature which can be neutralized by providing the
compensating winding (compensating winding neutralizes completely
the armature MMF).
 The air gap is made very small because of a very weak field which
is necessary to obtain a high power factor.
 The yoke and field of the motor are laminated in order to reduce
eddy current losses.
 To reduce sparking, brush width is decreased.
 Series inductive reactance is directly proportional to the
frequency, so ac series motor characteristics are better at low
frequencies.
The operating characteristics of an ac series motor are similar to a series
motor. In which speed is inversely proportional to the armature current
and the torque produced will be equal to the square of the armature
current.

In a traction system, an ac series motor of several hundred KW is

usually employed. Due to poor power factor at starting, ac series motor
has low starting torque compared to dc motor. So, they are not suitable
for urban and suburban services where high starting torque is needed.
So they can be employed for mainline traction service.

5.3 Control of Traction motors: Series-parallel starting; drum controller;

contactor type controller; Thyristor control.

 Series - Parallel Starting of motor:

In traction work, 2 or more similar motors are employed. Consider 2

series motors started by series parallel method, which results in saving
of energy. (a) Series operation. The 2 motors, are started in series with
the help of Rs.

 Drum Controller in Traction system

The controller is in the form of a rotating drum having insulated and

inter-connected segment in the form of stripes, which makes contact
with the fixed point known as “fingers”. The drum controller has 8
positions – four positions for series and four positions for parallel
running. The working position of the controller is known as “notches”
are shown by vertical dotted lines. The segments on the rotating drum
are shown by black rectangles. Fixed contacts known as fingers, are
shown by vertical row of large circular dots on the left. Across these
fingers, starting resistance and reversing contacts are connected. The
reversing arrangement is provided by providing an additional rotating
drum known as “reversing drum”.

USES–

A series-parallel controller (with shunt transition) for two series motors

is shown in the above figure. In addition to its primary function of
providing series-parallel operation of DC series traction motor, it also
controls
1. Speed and direction of motion of vehicle
2. magnitude of retardation during the breaking period
3. Provides means to remove faulty motor if any fault occurs during the
operation

and
4. If possible it must also provide means to prevent it’s moving backward
when stopped on a steep gradient.
 Contactor Type Controller in Electric Traction:

Contactor Type Controller – Schematic power diagram of a 1,500 V dc

train equipment consisting of 4 dc series motors wired for series-parallel
operation during starting, in its simplified form is shown in Fig. 13.12.

 The Thyristor

The thyristor is a development of the diode. It acts like a diode in

that it allows current to flow in only one direction but differs from the
diode in that it will only permit the current to flow after it has been
switched on or "gated". Once it has been gated and the current is
flowing, the only way it can be turned off is to send current in the
opposite direction. This cancels the original gating command. It's simple
to achieve on an AC locomotive because the current switches its
direction during each cycle. With this development, controllable
rectifiers became possible and tap changers quickly became history. A
thyristor controlled version of the 25 kV AC electric locomotive traction
system looks like the diagram here on the left.

A tapping is taken off the transformer for each DC motor and each has
its own controlling thyristors and diodes. The AC from the transformer is
rectified to DC by chopping the cycles, so to speak, so that they appear
in the raw as half cycles of AC as shown on the left.

In reality, a smoothing circuit is added to remove most of the "ripple"

and provide a more constant power flow as shown in the diagram (left).
Meanwhile, the power level for the motor is controlled by varying the
point in each rectified cycle at which the thyristors are fired. The later in
the cycle the thyristor is gated, the lower the current available to the
motor. As the gating is advanced, so the amount of current increases
until the thyristors are "on" for the full cycle. This form of control is
known as "phase angle control".

5.4 What is Braking? Types of Braking | Regenerative Plugging Dynamic

Braking
The term braking comes from the term brake. We know that brake is an
equipment to reduce the speed of any moving or rotating equipment,
like vehicles, locomotives. The process of applying brakes can be termed
as braking. Now coming to the term or question what is braking. First of
all we can classify the term braking in two parts

1. Mechanical Braking
2. Electrical Braking

Types of Braking:
Brakes are used to reduce or cease the speed of motors. We know that
there are various types of motors available (DC motors, induction
motors, synchronous motors, single phase motors etc.) and the specialty
and properties of these motors are different from each other, hence this
braking methods also differs from each other. But we can divide braking
in to three parts mainly, which are applicable for almost every type of
motors.

1. Regenerative Braking.
2. Plugging type braking.
3. Dynamic braking.
Regenerative Braking
Regenerative braking takes place whenever the speed of the motor
exceeds the synchronous speed. This baking method is called
regenerative baking because here the motor works as generator and
supply itself is given power from the load, i.e. motors. The main criteria
for regenerative braking is that the rotor has to rotate at a speed higher
than synchronous speed, only then the motor will act as a generator and
the direction of current flow through the circuit and direction of the
torque reverses and braking takes place. The only disadvantage of this
type of braking is that the motor has to run at super synchronous speed
which may damage the motor mechanically and electrically, but
regenerative braking can be done at sub synchronous speed if the
variable frequency source is available.
 Plugging Type Braking
Another type of braking is Plugging type braking. In this method the
terminals of supply are reversed, as a result the generator torque also
reverses which resists the normal rotation of the motor and as a result
the speed decreases. During plugging external resistance is also
introduced into the circuit to limit the flowing current. The main
disadvantage of this method is that here power is wasted.

Dynamic Braking
Another method of reversing the direction of torque and braking the
motor is dynamic braking. In this method of braking the motor which is
at a running condition is disconnected from the source and connected
across a resistance. When the motor is disconnected from the source,
the rotor keeps rotating due to inertia and it works as a self-excited
generator. When the motor works as a generator the flow of the current
and torque reverses. During braking to maintain the steady torque
sectional resistances are cut out one by one.

5.5 Systems of train lighting, Single battery, double battery parallel

block system Self Generation (SG), Head On Generation (HOG), End on
generation (EOG).

Train lighting
 1. TRAIN LIGHTING SYSTEM
 2. is one of the important
passenger amenities which influence the image of Rail
ran on 16th April 1853, train lighting system came to Indian Railway in

designed and developed to suit the requirement of AC and non-AC

ctors considered for development of such
systems are as under. • Coach load • Speed of the train • Weight of the
equipment • Available technology for reliable equipment etc
 3. TY Self-generating • Axle driven system
-on-generation • MOG with 415V, 3
-on-generation • EOG
with 415V,3 phase generation, and 110V AC utilization • EOG with 750V,
3 phase generation and 415 & 110V AC utilization
 4. Head-on-generation • Power feeding
–light & fan works on
 – —light &
fan works on 141 V AC • Power feeding from HOG for Hotel Loads (Loco):

load power supply taken directly from OHE through a separate

pantograph mounted on the power car.
 5. The power supply arrangement
of SG coach has under slung alternator, which is driven by the running
axles of the coach with the belt of the coach. The voltage of the
alternator which varies with the speed of the train is regulated with the
help of RRU and converted to 110 V DC and is used for charging the
battery. The electrical load of the coach is supplied through the 110 v DC

mode of traction. • As each coach has a battery, so no additional source

is required. • The problem/defect in any particular coach does not affect
the others. • The system can be designed to suit its specific requirement.
• It gives better flexibility in rake formation majority of SG type coach is
more.
 6. SELF GENERATION SYSTE Disadvantages: • The electrical
load of the coach is restricted by the limitation of the capacity of
generation i.e. 2*25 kW per coach at present. • The power is not
generated during standing or slow movement of the train, therefore
bulky batteries are provided. • There is no standby source for alternator
and batteries, so system became poor reliability. • The system requires
the extensive maintenance of alternator, batteries, belts, tensioning
device etc. • The system has the very poor efficiency of 57%for power it
receives from the locomotive.
 7. SELF GENERATION SYSTEM: BASIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
 8. END ON GENERATION
cars with 2 nos. of DA sets in each. The power is fed by any two DA sets
through IVC. The power is supplied at 3 phase, 750V, which is stepped
down in an individual coach to 3 phase,415 V for supplying various loads
like RMPU, WRA etc. The 110v AC supply for lights and fans is obtained
by further stepping down the 415v supply. A 24 V battery is used for

The system does not require the use of bulky batteries and alternators in
individual coaches. • The system has higher reliability due to standby DA
sets and reduced number of equipment. • Due to an elimination of
heavy equipment, the dead weight of the coach is reduced. • The system
is independent of the type of traction i.e. diesel or electric locomotive. •
 The system has better energy efficiency as compared to the self-
generating system. • Low maintenance.
 9. END ON GENERATION
energy is high due to fuel cost. • Even with 750V, 3 phase, there is still
an effect of voltage drop at the farthest end of the train. • Noise and
smoke pollution are generated from power cars.
 10. MID ON GENERATION
adopted by IR for slow-moving passenger trains which have the very low
generation to non-generation ratio. These trains had one power car in
the middle of the train, which fed power supply to the coaches at either
side of power car. The power car coach had two DA set of 30 KVA each
out of which one was used as standby. The power car coach also had
one 3 phase, 30 KVA step down transformer of 415/110 V. The 110 V AC
supplied to the coaches through couplers. The system was discontinued

system was most suitable for slow-moving branch line passenger trains.
Light and fan of all the coaches had centralized control in power car
coach. Fan and lights were working on AC supply. There was no need for

and smoke; pollution due to DA set working. • The operator was

required to power car coach. • Some valuable passenger spaces were
occupied by DA sets.
 11. HEAD ON GENERATION
used power supply by R
for the coaches is either received from the locomotive or it is directly

considered to provide cost-effective, reliable and energy efficient supply

a separate pantograph mounted on the power car. The second system is

not considered technically feasible for Indian Railways due to some
limitations.
 12. HEAD ON GENERATION
received directly from locomotive through couplers. The supply from
locomotive can be a 750v, 3 phase supply or a single phase supply
received from loco is regulated and stepped down in individual AC
coaches, with the help of converters to provide a regulated 415 V, 3
pha
can be stepped down and regulated to provide single phase, 110 V AC
 which can supply power to the coaches in case of failure of a locomotive.
 13. HEAD ON GENERATION SYSTEM:
 14. HEAD ON GENERATION ntage: • Cheaper cost
of power as compared to EOG & SG system. • Pollution is less as
compared to EOG system. • One power car may be replaced by trailer
coach, revenue increased. • Escorting staff will be reduced to one power
car. • The net dead weight of the train is reduced as compared to SG
system. • HOG type AC coaches can be used in EOG type trains. • This
system is compatible with diesel and electric traction. • Maintenance

Disadvantages: • While working with electric locomotive there are

power interruptions for short durations to various electrical equipment
except for lights while through the neutral section. • One power car is
still required for supplying power during failure of OHE supply or
locomotive etc.HOG type coaches require rake integrity of coaches
similar to EOG system.

SIGNALLING

Introduction :

The signaling system shall provide the means for an efficient train
control, ensuring safety in train movements. It assists in optimization of
metro infrastructure investment and running of efficient train services
on the network.

System Description and Specifications:

 The Signalling and Train Control system shall be as below. Sub-system/
components will conform to international standards like CENELEC, IEEE,
IEC, BS, IS, ITU-T etc:

Continuous Automatic Train Control:

Continuous Automatic Train Control based on CBTC will consist of - ATP

(Automatic Train Protection), ATO (Automatic Train Operation) and ATS
(Automatic Train Supervision) sub-systems:

(i) Automatic Train Protection (ATP):

Automatic Train Protection is the primary function of the train

control systems. This subsystem will be inherently capable of achieving
the following objectives in a fail-safe manner. Line side signals will be
provided at diverging routes (i.e. at points & crossings) as well as other
required locations, which shall serve as backup signalling in case of
failure of ATP system.

(ii) Automatic Train Operation (ATO):

This system will operate the trains automatically from station to

station while remaining within the safety envelope of ATP & open the
train doors. Driver will close the train doors and press a button when
ready to depart. In conjunction with ATP/ ATS, ATO can control dwell
time at stations and train running in accordance with headway/
timetable.

(iii) Automatic Train Supervision (ATS):

A train supervision system will be installed to facilitate the

monitoring of train operation and also remote control of the station. The
train supervision will log each train movement and display it on the
workstations with each Traffic Controller at the OCC and on one
workstation placed in the Station Control room (SCR) with each Station
Controller.

6.2 What are the different types of track circuits?

DC track circuits are typically categorized into two types: occupied and
unoccupied track circuits. An occupied track circuit indicates the
presence of a train, triggering the signaling system to display signals
accordingly. On the other hand, an unoccupied track circuit denotes that
the section is clear of any trains.

6.3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of remote controls?

Remote controls have several advantages and disadvantages. One
advantage is that they provide convenience and flexibility in controlling
devices wirelessly . Another advantage is that they can be easily adhered
to surfaces containing metals, eliminating the need for storage or
recognition issues . Additionally, remote controls that can be
manipulated by stroking their surface offer familiarity, function
awareness, and ease of use without looking at buttons . On the other
hand, a disadvantage of remote controls is that they can be affected by
interference or security issues . Another disadvantage is that some
remote controls require batteries, which can be wasteful and
environmentally unfriendly . Overall, remote controls provide
convenience and ease of use, but they also have limitations and
potential drawbacks.
6.4 What are the advantages of the metro rail system?
Metro systems are superior to other modes because they provide higher
carrying capacity, faster, smoother and safer travel, occupy less space,
are non-polluting and energy-efficient.