ATOMS & NUCLII

Thomson’s Atom model – Plum Pudding model

A sphere of size 10‾¹⁰ m, consists equal number of +ve and – ve charges. And it is electrically neutral.
Alpha scattering – Geiger – Marsden Experiment
Alpha particles emitted from radium with 10⁷ m/s allowed to incident on gold foil of thickness
10‾⁴ mm. And the scattered alpha was observed by a detector.
Most of them scattered through small angles (ie) θ< 90°
1 out of 8000 scattered through large angles ( ie) θ> 90°
A very small number passes through the foil (ie) θ=180°
1
(ie) N ∝
sin ⁴ θ/2
Impact Parameter (b): The minimum distance to which the alpha particles would have approached
the nucleus. It is the perpendicular distance between velocity vector of alpha and centre of the
1 2 e Ze
nucleus. (ie) b=
4 π ε 0 1/2 m v α ²
Rutherford Atom model
The +ve charges are embedded in to a small sphere of size 10‾¹⁵ m ( 1 fermi) is known as Nucleus.
Ans an equivalent number of –ve charges ( electrons) are enclosed in an another sphere of size
10‾⁸ m revolving the nucleus.
Draw backs : This atom model failed to explain
1. Due to the rotation of electrons, they radiate energy and moves in a spiral path and finally they
can enter into the nucleus, is not possible.
2. The atomic spectrum
Bohr’s Atom Model
Postulates:-
1. For an atom, Z number of protons and A – Z number of neutrons are enclosed in nucleus and Z
number of electrons are revolving round the nucleus through permitted circular orbits known as
stationary orbits.
2. They possess both angular momentum and energy.
h nh
3. The angular momentum is an integer multiple of ; (ie) L= ; n –principle quantum number
2π 2π
4. The electrostatic force of attraction between electros and nucleus is equal to centripetal force of
1 Ze ² mv ²
Repulsion of electrons. (ie) = ………(i)
4 π ε0 r ² r
5. Electrons jumps or falls from orbits to orbit, by radiation or absorption of energy.
When they radiate , then it falls from higher to lower and vice versa.
E2−E 1
6. The energy radiate or absorbed, E2− E1=hʋ∨ʋ= , is Bohr frequency condition
h
Bohr Theory
1 Ze ² mv ² 1 Ze ²
According to Bohr, for an atom, = ; r= …….(1)
4 π ε0 r ² r 4 π ε 0 mv ²
nh 1 Ze ²
mvr= & put (1) ; ∴ v= …….(2)
2π 4 π ε 0 nh/2 π
÷ ing Nr and Dr by “c” and rearrange, then, v= [
c 1 Ze ²
] c
= α …….(3)
n 4 π ε 0 hc /2 π n
1 Ze ² 1
Since , α = = known as fine structure .
4 π ε 0 hc/2 π 137

Total Energy of an electron

For an electron its total energy, E = K + U
1 1 1 Ze ²
From (i) , K= mv ²= …..(a)
2 2 4 π ε0 r
−1 Ze ²
U =−eV = ……(b)
4 π ε0 r
−1 1 Ze ² −1 2 2
−1 m c α −13.6
E= = −K= mv ² ……..(c) and from (3), E= = 2 eV …..(d)
2 4 π ε0 r 2 2 n
2
n
Hydrogen Spectrum
Consider an electron in the higher energy state ‘n₂’ of energy ‘E₂’ to lower energy state ‘n₁’ of energy
‘E₁’. According to Bohr frequency condition, the radiated energy,
2 2 2 2 2
−1 m c α 1 m c α Z
hʋ=E2−E1 = 2
+ ( for Hydrogen Z = 1 ) since E = −13.6 2 eV
2 n2 2 n21 n

[ ] [ ]
2 2 2 2
mc α 1 1 c mc α 1 1
(ie) ʋ= − ∨ = −
2h n1 ² n2 ² λ 2h n1 ² n 2 ²

[ ]
2
1 mcα 1 1
(ie) wave number, =ῡ= −
λ 2h n1 ² n2 ²
2
mc α 7
Put =R H =1.09 ×1 0 /mknown as Rydberg constant
2h
1
(ie) =ῡ=R H
λ n
1
1 ²
−
n
1
2 ² [ ] 1
and for other atoms =ῡ=Z ² R H
λ n
1
1 ²
−
n
1
2²
[ ]
Energy Level Diagram

Humphery
Pfund
Bracket
Paschen
n=2
Balmer
n=1 E = - 13.6 eV
Lyman
Drawbacks of Bohr atom model
Not Explained
1. Elliptical orbits
2. Component lines like H α , H β , H γ like spectral lines
3. Fine structure of spectral lines
4. Intensity of spectral lines
5. Production of spectrum of higher elements
6. Wave nature of electrons
7. Distribution of electron in orbits.
Nuclear Physics
Atomic mass unit ( a m u ) :- Is 1/12’the mass of a C – 12 atom
1
(ie) 1 amu = ×1.992678 ×10 ‾ ² ⁶=1.66 ×10 ‾ ² ⁷ kg
12
Nucleus :- A small sphere of size 1 fermi consists of Z number of protons and A – Z number of
neutrons. It divided into number of Nucleons consists of equal number of protons and neutrons.
Isotopes :- Elements of same Z but different A; Eg: ₁H¹ , ₁H² , ₁H³
Isobars :- Elements of same A but different Z ; Eg: O,N,C

Isotones :- Nuclei with same number of neutrons ; Eg: C and N

Isomers :- Elements with same Z and A but different radioactivity ; Eg: UX₂ and UZ

Nuclear Force
It is the force of attraction between the nucleons in the nucleus.
1. They are very strongest in nature. F N : F E : F G=1 :10 ² :10³⁸
2. They are very short ranged. It is in between 1.2 to 4.2 fermi.
Less than 1.2 fermi, the force behaves like repulsive and more than 4.2 fermi, the force is negligible.

D
3. It is a non central force ( not along the axis of nuclei)
4. It is charge independent
5. It shows saturation effect ( only between adjacent neighbours)
6. The force is exchange force, is due to exchange of π mesons.
1/ 3
Size of the Nucleus : R ∝ A 1/3 Or R=R 0 A
R0 is the minimum value or the closest approach to a nucleus, is 1.1 fermi
Mass Defect ( ∆ m ) :- The mass difference between total mass of the nucleons and the rest mass of
the nucleus. (ie) ∆ m=[ Z mP +(A−Z) mN ] −M 0
Binding Energy (B) :- It is the energy required to split a nucleus into nucleons. It is the energy
equivalent of mass defect. (ie) B=∆ mc ² J =931 ∆ m MeV
B
Binding energy per nucleon: B= ( refer the graph from Text )
A
For greater value of B, the nucleus is stable. From A = 40 to 120, Its maximum value is 8.5 MeV for
Fe.
Radio Activity :- The spontaneous emission (10‾⁸ s )of radioactive radiations like α , βand γ from
an element of A ¿ 206.
Properties of α , β∧γ refer from text book.
Alpha Decay
An alpha particle is similar that of a He nucleus. Due to the disintegration of an alpha, the nuclei loses
4 units from A and 2 units from Z. Then a daughter atom and an energy Q will be developed.
here, Q = ( m X −mY −mHe ) c ²
A 4 A −4
(ie) X Z → He2 ( α ) +Y Z−2 +Q ;
It obeys law of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy
m He
(ie) m Y v Y =m He v He and v Y= × v He …….(i)
mY
1 1 1 mY
mHe v He ²+ m Y v Y ²=Q ; from (i) , mHe v He ²= Q ……….(ii)
2 2 2 mY + mHe

Put m He=4∧mY =A−4 (ie) K α = ( A−4

A )
Q

Beta Decay
Beta particles are identical that of electrons. And due to the disintegration of beta, the parent atom
gains one positive charge (ie, Z increases by 1 unit) and A remains same.
A A
X Z → e ‾ ( β ) +Y Z +1+ῡ (anti neutrino)
The antineutrino was sharing the energy with beta and obeying the law of conservation.
Gama Decay
Due to alpha and beta disintegration the parent atom be in an excited state, at which the disintegration
is not possible. Then due to the gama disintegration, it pull back the nucleus into ground state and
helps to continue the disintegration. (ie) Gama is associating both alpha and beta.
Law of Decay
The rate of disintegration per second is directly proportional to the total number of atoms present at
dN dN
the time of disintegration. (ie) ∝−N ; =− λN (−ve represents t−N relation)
dt dt
1
dN =−λ dt ; integrating , log e N =−λt + c …..(i)
N
At, t = 0, N = N 0 (ie) log e N 0=c…….(ii)

N N −λt − λt
Put (ii) in (i) ; log e =− λt ∨ =e ∨N=N 0 e ……..(iii)
N0 N0
Half life (T)
N0 N0 −λT 1 1 0.6931
At, t = T , N = (ie) =N 0 e ∨ = λT ; λT =log e 2∨T =
2 2 2 e λ
1
Mean Life (T m ¿=
λ
Units :- Curie ( I Ci = 3.7 × 10 ¹⁰ Dis / sec) and Rutherford ( 1 Rd = 10⁶ Dis / Sec )
Transmutation :- Conversion of one element into another one is transmutation. It is possible by
radioactivity.
Nuclear Fission :- It is the disintegration process, in which a heavier nucleus ( A ¿ 230 ¿ gets splits
into two or more lighter nuclei, with the release of huge amount of energy.
₉₂ U ² ³⁵+₀ n ¹→ ₅₆ Ba ¹⁴¹ +₃₆ Kr ⁹ ²+3 ₀ n ¹+ Q (10⁷ ℃∧200 MeV
Fission is classified into two types.
1. Uncontrolled chain reaction Eg: Atom Bomb 2. Controlled chain reaction Eg: Atomic reactors
Fuels : Fissionable substance like U – 235 , Th – 232 , Pu – 239 , Pu – 240
Moderators : Materials used to convert the fast neutrons to slowdown neutrons (thermal neutrons) .
(From 2×10⁴ km/s & 0.1 to 3 MeV to 2.2 km/s & 0.025 eV )
Eg: Heavy Water ( D₂O) , Graphite , Beryllium
Control Rods : The materials used to control the excess neutrons from reaction.
Eg: Cadmium , Boron rods
Coolants : the materials used to control the heat energy developed in the reactor (10⁷ ⁰C)
Eg: Ordinary water (H₂O) , CO₂ , Molten metals and alloys
Safety Shields : The surroundings of the reactor are to be protected from neutrons and harmful
radioactive radiations like α , β , γ by covering by concrete walls.
Breeder Reactors : The reactor one which produces more fissionable fuel from non-fissionable
substance with nuclear fission reactions.
1. ₉₂ U ² ³⁸+₀ n ¹ →₉₂ U ² ³⁹ → ₉₃ Np² ³⁹+ β ‾ ¹+ ῡ → ₉₄ Pu ² ³⁹ + β ‾ ¹+ῡ ( Pu – 239 is fissionable)
2. ₉₀Th²³² + ₀n¹→ ₉₀Th²³³→ ₉₁Pa²³³ + β ‾ ¹+ῡ →₉₂ U ² ³³+ β ‾ ¹+ ῡ (U – 233 is fissionable)
Nuclear Fusion :- When two or more lighter nuclei ( A ¿ 8 ) combine to form a heaver one, one part
of mass is converted to energy is nuclear fusion. For this process it requires 10⁷ ⁰C. Because it is not
possible at ordinary conditions. At this temperature all matter forms (solid,liquid and gas ) converted
into plasma ( ionic form). ₁H¹ + ₁H¹ + ₁H¹ + ₁H¹ (At 10⁷ ⁰C) → ₂He⁴ + 26.7 MeV
Eg: Hydrogen Bomb : ₃Li⁶ + ₁H¹ →₂He⁴ + ₂He⁴ + 26.7 MeV ( 1000 times of an atom bomb)
Solar energy : In Sun, huge quantity of heat energy will be developed due to two types cyclic process
1. C – C Cycle : ₆C¹² + ₁H¹ → ₇N¹³ + γ ; ₇N¹³ → ₆C¹³ + ₁e⁰ + ῡ ; ₆C¹³ + ₁H¹ → ₇N¹⁴ + γ
₇N¹⁴ + ₁H¹ → ₈O¹⁵ + ; ₈O¹⁵ → ₇N¹⁵ + ₁e⁰ + ῡ ; ₇N¹⁵ + ₁H¹ → ₆C¹² + ₂He⁴ + 26.7 MeV
2. Proton – Proton Cycle : ₁H¹ + ₁H¹ → ₁H² + ₁e⁰ + γ + ῡ ; ₁H² + ₁H¹ → ₂He³ + γ ….. (I)
REPEAT (I) AGAIN then , ₂He³ + ₂He³ → ₂He⁴ + ₁H¹ + ₁H¹ + 26.7 MeV