The Dawn of Reason: Observational Profiling of Children Aged 5-6 years in Lagos, Nigeria

by

Arymson Wuraolami 210904529, Obisesan Temitope Ayobami 160702018

Ekwoaba Amarachi Gold 210904526, Olowokure Moyosolaoluwa Oluwabusola 210904527,

Anidugbe Temiloluwa O 190904053, Adenuga Oladimeji Oladapo 180808037,

Ojodu Arafat Oluwaseun 161101546, Osinuga David Adeoluwa 170313075,

Akinrele Pelumi 180404054, Onifade Habeeb Ademola 180404054,

Salami Ibrahim Ayobami 180814065, Okunlola Moses Oluwamayowa 180801044,

Ajike Temiloluwa Rejoice 190904026, Ojo Samuel Temitope 190904031,

Olaito Ewaoluwa Grace 190904036, Bada Oluwanifesimi Mary 190904055,

Ogundipe Nurudeen Owolabi 190904056, Giwa Oluwadamilola O. 190904060,

Oyegoke Oyewole Austin 190904078, Akinromoju Temilloluwa 190904086,

Ibrahim Praise Ifedapo 190904087, Donatus Micheal John 190904090,

Nkamigbo Christabel Ogozirim 190904092, Adekoya Ayomikun Samson 190909098

and Daranwaenyi Onyekachi Eudora 210904521

Department of Psychology, University of Lagos

PSY224: Developmental Psychology II

Dr. Bada

1st May, 2023

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………….... 1

Major Theories of Childhood Development ………………...…………..………………...…...... 1

Empirical Studies/Literature Review ………………………………………………...……….…. 1

Observed Physical Development of Children aged 5-6 ..………………………..……….….….. 1

Observed Cognitive Development of Children aged 5-6 ...………….………………………..… 1

Observed Social Development of Children aged 5-6 …......………..……………..………….… 1

Observed Personality Development of Children aged 5-6 …...……..…….………..……….……1

Conclusion …………….……………………………………………………………...…………. 1

References ………………………………………………………..…………………...…………. 1
 Introduction

Childhood development is concerned with the anticipated cognitive, physical, social and

psychological changes that occur in a human being from the moment of conception until the

terminus of adolescence. (National Academies Press (US), 1984) Generally speaking, there are

five developmental stages of a child:

new-born (0–3 months), infant (3–12 months), toddler (1-3 years), preschool (3-5 years), and school-age

(5–17 years) (Kumar,2022). The ages between 5 and 7 are known in some cultures to be the age of

reason (National Academies Press (US), 1984). This paper will attempt to explore how this notion applies

within the context of Lagos, Nigeria.

The development of the child’s body, mind, social skills, and personality has been the

subject of several theories. Using these theories as a foundation, we embarked on the observation

of x children between the ages of 5-6 years in Lagos, Nigeria to see the extent to which their

developmental milestones tally (or do not tally) with the anticipated developmental milestones

outlined in these theories.

Numerous children have been studied by Gesell Arnold and his work led to the

formulation of his physical development theory in 1928. According to his theory, "Children

develop according to a generic timetable that is significantly influenced by their environment.”

This implies that there is a specific chronological sequence of development that children undergo

but the rate at which the child develops can be influenced by the environment. To define,

identify, and explain developmental milestones related to chronological age, developmental

theories have been created. One of such theories is Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive

development. According to Jean Piaget, "A child's cognition develops in four stages, beginning

at age zero and reaching full maturity between ages 11 and 15." Organic variables such as genes

and prenatal and post natal conditions can affect child development causing problems and delays.
Inadequate nutrition and emotional support are two other environmental factors that can

contribute to child development.

Children reach milestones in their growth and development and these milestones act as

vivid growth indicators and watch points for development. From age 5 to 6, children are in a

critical developmental stage as they transition from preschool to school age. During this time,

you acquire many important skills and abilities that will affect your future.

Physical development during this period includes physical growth, the acquisition of fine and

gross motor skills, and the development of physical abilities such as balance, coordination, and

strength.

Cognitive development includes developing thinking, problem-solving, and decision-

making skills. Children begin to understand more complex concepts and ideas and develop the

ability to analyse, reason, and think critically.

Social and emotional development includes the development of relationships, empathy, self-

awareness, and emotion regulation. Children learn to navigate social situations and understand

their feelings and those of others.

Through this report, we will explore the milestones commonly reached by children

between ages 5-6 years by providing detailed insight into the typical physical, cognitive, social,

emotional, and personality developmental milestones that children within this age range reach.

By understanding these milestones, parents, caregivers, and educators can better support and

encourage a child's growth and development during this critical period of their lives.

Major Theories of Childhood Development

developmental milestones of children aged 5-6. Some noteworthy ones are:

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development:

According to Piaget, children in this age group are in the pre-operational stage of

cognitive development. At this age, they develop their cognitive abilities through play,

exploration and interaction with their environment. They are able to use symbols to represent

objects and ideas, engage in pretend play, less reliant on concrete experiences and use language

to communicate. Children at this age have difficulties understanding that others have different

perspectives and beliefs than their own, they struggle with the concept of conservation i. e they

struggle with understanding amount of substance doesn't change regardless if it's shape and

appearance change and they begging to understand the concept of cause-and-effect relationship.

However, they still have issues with logical thinking and may struggle to understand abstract

concepts. Piaget's theory suggests that children between this age group are actively constructing

their own understanding of the world around them through experiences and interactions.

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development:

Erikson's theory suggests that children aged 5-6 are in the stage of "Industry vs.

Inferiority." During this stage, children are developing a sense of competence and mystery over

their environment, learning new skills and taking on new responsibilities, which help them build

confidence and self-esteem. They begin to develop a sense of accomplishment as they learn new

skills and tackle challenges. However, they may also feel inferior or inadequate if they do not

feel successful in their endeavours.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

in child development. According to this theory, children in this age group are developing their

"ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT". which is the range of tasks that they can perform

with the help of a more knowledgeable person. This mean children at this age benefit from social

interactions with more knowledgeable others, such as parents, teachers, and more skilled peers,

who can provide guidance and support as they learn new skills and concepts. At age 5-6,

Vygotsky believed that children have already acquired skills that allows then interact with their

surroundings. He also argued that at this age, this children are focused on refining those skills.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner's theory suggests that child development is influenced by multiple

interacting systems, including the microsystem (immediate environment), mesosystem

(connections between microsystems), exosystem (indirect influences), and macrosystem (cultural

and societal values). Children in this age group are influenced by their family, school, and

community environments, as well as broader cultural and societal values.

Attachment Theory

Attachment theory emphasizes the importance of secure attachments between children

and their caregivers for healthy development. Children aged 5-6 who have secured attachments

with their caregivers are more likely to have positive relationships with others and better

emotional regulation skills.

Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory emphasizes the role of observation and imitation in learning.

Children aged 5-6 are learning new behaviours and skills by observing others and imitating their
actions. This means that children at this age are particularly influenced by the behaviour of their

parents, peers and other role models.

These theories offer different perspectives on the developmental milestones of children

between ages 5-6, provide a framework for understanding the cognitive, social, emotional, and

physical development of children aged 5-6 and the milestones that are typically achieved during

this stage of development. Nonetheless, it is clear that these ages involve a continued

development of cognitive abilities, sophisticated thinking and reasoning as they mark the end of

pre-school.

Observed Physical Development of Children aged 5-6

As they transition from toddlers to school-aged children, children between the ages of 5 and 6

exhibit significant physical development. Most of the observed children showed the ability to

hop and skip, perform a summersault, use a spoon, stand on one foot for at least 10 seconds, use

the toilet independently, swing and climb, and walk on a straight line. Only three children were

able to do summersaults but this is not something to worry about as skills may develop in

different ages or times (raisingchildren.net.au, 2022). While these physical milestones are

indicative of typical development, children may also display a sense of recklessness due to their

exploration of the world around them.

Toilet-use

Children of this age were able to use the toilet independently

Increased Injuries

Parents and guardians must be careful at this time as there is a tendency for increased

injuries. A study by Santagati et al shows that two-thirds of children in Italy experience

unintentional injuries and more than half of them are boys, the leading cause is falls and majority
of it occurs at home, also parents who do not believe their children can get injured are more

likely to have a child injured. During observation, it was found that most children can be reckless

during exploration. Although, middle childhood is generally a time of perfect health (Finkelstein

& Feigelman, 2019).

Observed Cognitive Development of Children aged 5-6

Digital Natives

Children in this age group are fascinated by exploring the Internet but majority of them

are not good at it, but they are comfortable with computers as an integral part of their lives and

can use the mouse to navigate. Some of them grew up with educational software and computer

games and are intuitive learners. Corroborating this skill with the milestones provided by Piaget

in his theory might just be nearly impossible due to the level of technology at the time Piaget

conducted some of his experiment. However, an interaction between cognitive and physical

milestones can be observed. The improved fine motor skills allow children aged 5-6 to use

computer navigation tools like the mouse and keyboard, but the children still lack a good

understanding of the world of the internet and might need to grow older to gain better

understanding. It is important to note that familiarization with the internet virtual environment

might make some children relatively better at performing digital activities than others. It is also

interesting to note that only 50% of observed children could perform the observed task,

indicating that inability to perform digital activities without help might not be a cause for alarm.

Pre-numerate skills
 Children between the ages of 5 and 6 are in the pre-operational stage, which is

characterized by the development of symbolic thinking. They begin to understand that objects

can be represented by words or symbols and can be counted. They can count up to 10 objects

accurately, and sometimes up to 20 or more identify it correctly but their counting abilities may

not be fully developed, and they may not have a deep understanding of what counting means.

The ability to count at this age represents a prelude to the ability to solve more complex

mathematical problems in the concrete operational stage of development. Children between the

age of 5-6 also are also at the intuitive sub stage and this connotes an ability to understand the

complex concept of time. This is why it is expected that children at this stage should be able to

tell the time. However, many of the children observed were not able to tell the time, evincing a

chasm in the understanding of the concept of time. Only one child could tell the time, and this

might be attributed to environmental stimulation due to familiarization with the concept of time.

Conceptual understanding

Children at this stage are developing their ability to reason logically and understand

abstract concepts necessary for comprehending ideas such as money and food, identifying with at

least 4 colours and naming then correctly. They may understand that money is used to buy

things, but they may not yet fully comprehend its value. A lot of concepts that kids understand at

this age is as a result of their own personal experiences based on the social milieu into which

they are born. The idea that money can be used to purchase items is a social construct as there

have been other means of exchanging value. This shows another interaction between cognitive

milestones and social milestones. Accepting the idea that money can buy things evinces a

cognitive ability to accept that objects can represent other things (in this case money represents
value). Proceeding to use money in their interactions with other people evinces the social ability

to conform to social norms.

They may have basic knowledge about nutrition and the importance of eating a balanced

diet. All the children observed were able to grasp the concept of money, and food items. Perhaps,

this is a result of the prevalence of these items in daily life.

Artistic Development

Children between the ages of 5 and 6 are in a critical period for developing their artistic

skills. They engage in more complex forms of artistic expression, including drawing people with

at least six body parts, copying a triangle and other geo- metric shapes, printing letters and

numbers. This development is related to several cognitive and motor milestones. Around this

age, children have developed fine motor skills as complex as threading needles and sewing

stiches. This is also reflected in their ability to create improved visually artistic impressions.

Many of the observed children also had a common pattern of drawing individuals, with their

drawings of people sharing some similarities. At the age of 5-6, children are capable of drawing

both 2D and 3D images. They could draw a person with at least 6 body parts, write some letters

and numbers and draw geometric shapes. They can also recognize names and colours. However,

their 3D drawings may not be as detailed or realistic as those of adults, and they may still

struggle with certain aspects of depth perception, such as foreshortening or overlapping objects.

It is not uncommon for young children to draw objects or scenes in a simplified or flattened way,

where the objects are not fully represented in three dimensions. However, with practice and

experience, their drawings typically become more sophisticated and realistic over time.

Attention, Focus and Memory

their attention between different tasks more easily, their memory capacity has improved that they

can retain information for longer periods of time using strategies like reptition and visualisation

to aid recall. By 5-6 years old, children's attention spans have usually developed to the point

where they can concentrate on a task for longer periods of time, usually up to 15-20 minutes.

They are better able to filter out distractions and focus on a particular task or activity, even in the

presence of environmental noise or other stimuli. This can be attributed to the neurological

improvements and the end of infantile amnesia. (Alberini & Travaglia, 2017)

Language Development

Children at this age were observed to be able to speak clearly using sentences of five or

more words, communicate their thoughts and ideas clearly, using future tense such as "I will be

there ". This indicates that they have reached the pragmatic stage of language development () as

they understand more complex grammar than their previous stage of development. They can say

their names, a few can mention their address, they can tell stories as well but not all can tell in a

complete sentence. In their earlier years, children may engage in basic storytelling by stringing

together a series of events or describing familiar experiences, but their narratives are often

disjointed and lack a clear structure or plot. They may have difficulty organizing their thoughts

and expressing themselves clearly.

By 5-6 years old, children's storytelling abilities have generally become more

sophisticated. They are more capable of developing a coherent storyline with a beginning,

middle, and end, and are better able to sequence events in a logical order. They are also more

likely to use descriptive language and expressive gestures to convey their ideas and emotions.

Creativity and mental representation

creative ideas. It is “filled with fantasy and drama” (raisingchildren.net.au, 2022). They are able

to create mental images and ideas, both non-inherited and the ones inherited from the ancestors

situated in the collective unconscious. This improved ability for mental representation and

creativity is seen manifested in the desire of children to showcase their artistic abilities every

chance they get (to the peril of their parents). The improvement in fine motor skills is also

another reason for the obvious nature of creative improvements at this age.

They are learning to manipulate symbols and the engage in symbolic play although they do not

understand concrete logic (Piaget, 1971). They can also recognize names and colours. Children

at the preoperational stage at this age have conservation which means they understand that

quantity stays the same even if you change the shape or size of the container; it is in (Lewis,

2020). School makes increasing cognitive demands on the child as cognitive abilities interact

with a wide array of attitudinal and emotional factors in determining classroom performance

(Finkelstein & Feigelman, 2019).

Overall, cognitive development in children between the ages of 5 and 6 is a critical

period that reflects their growing abilities to think logically and abstractly, and also communicate

effectively. During this time, children develop symbolic thinking, mental representation, and a

better understanding of social interactions

Observed Social Development of Children aged 5-6

This stage features significant social development as they transit from being pre-

schoolers to school-aged children. Here are some key observations on their social development:

Increased Interest in Socializing

are often keen to participate in group activities. They already show social discernment and begin

to talk differently to a younger child.() Play is rule governed at this stage (Piaget and Inhelder,

1969). Although our observation shows that not all children agree to rules so easily.

Developing Social Skills

Children learn to share, take turns, express their likes and dislikes, and cooperate with

others. They demonstrate demanding and cooperative behaviours as well as understanding the

importance of following rules and respecting the feelings of others. Carrying out the observation,

there were exceptions were children didn't agree to rules easily, they believe in what they have in

mind to do.

Friendship Formation

Children begin to form close friendships with peers, they want to please thier friends and

may have a "best friend." They often engage in pretend play, imaginative games, and

conversations with their friends, they love to sing, act and a few can dance at this age. They also

want to be like their friends.

Developing empathy

Children at this age became more aware of other people's feelings and start to show

empathy and concern for others. They may comfort a crying friend or help someone who is hurt.

Show increased independency

Children at this age begin to assert their independence and may resist adult authority or

instructions. They also start to develop a sense of self and may seek recognition and approval

from adults.
 Overall, children between this age 5-6 undergo significant social development as they

learn to navigate social situations, form relationships, and develop empathy and independence.

Observed Personality Developments of Children aged 5-6

A Sense of Morality

Children aged 5-6 are starting to understand the concepts of right and wrong develop

sense of ideal and may become upset when they see others being treated unfairly. They may

follow directions and start to take responsibility for their own actions.

More adventurous

They are eager to try out new things, seek new experiences and take risks, learn from

successes and failures of others. They are more interested in exploring their surroundings and

they are curious about the world around them. Seeking new experience helps them enhance their

productivity, build self-confidence and resilience to cope with unfamiliar situations.This

coincides with Freud’s latency stage ( where sexual energy is repressed and their focus is now on

school and their hobbies) and Erik Erikson’s Industry vs Inferiority Stage.

Understanding gender roles

Children of this age began to understand and adopt gender roles, which may impact their

play preferences and social interactions with peers. They could identify and different sex of a

boy and a girl. In one observation, an observer intentionally sang a popular nursery rhyme which

had the phrase “mommy in the kitchen cooking rice”. The observer sang “daddy in the kitchen

cooking rice” and was immediately corrected by one of the children being observed. This

buttresses the notion that children of this age between to understand gender roles and this

understanding influences their self-perception (Oedipus/ Electra complex).

Self-awareness
 At this age, children are starting to become more self-aware, socially-adept and may have

a better understanding of their emotions and how to express them. They are also beginning to

recognize their strengths and weaknesses. Observations also showed that these children have

developed their self-concept. valued self and psychological self. Lack of appreciation at this

stage can lead to them not valuing themselves while the psychological self grows increasingly

complex in aspects such as temperament and abstract thinking

It is important to note that children develop at different rates and have unique

personalities and development in every area, so progress may vary among individual. Providing

age-appropriate support and guidance can help foster healthy physical and psycho-social

development during this critical stage.

References

Alberini, C. M., & Travaglia, A. (2017). Infantile Amnesia: A Critical Period o Learning to

Learn and Remember. The Journal of Neuroscience, 37(24), 578-579.

https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.0324-17.2017

National Academies Press (US). (1984). Introduction. Development During Middle Childhood -

NCBI Bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK216770/

Kumar, J. (2022, July 7). The 5 Stages of Early Childhood Development - Children’s Medical.

Children’s Medical. https://www.npcmc.com/2022/07/08/the-5-stages-of-early-

childhood-development/