The Scientific Movement

The early years of the nineteenth century marked a period of rapid gains in
understanding physiology. Charles Bell (1794-1842) in England and Francois Magendie (1783-
1855) in France, working independently discovered that the nerves could be separated into
distinct sensory and motor functions. By severing the dorsal (back root of the spinal nerves), it
was observed that an animal would not move a limb when pricked with a pin. However, the
limb could be moved voluntarily by the animal. Thus, the dorsal messages are for bodily
sensations rather than with movement. Severing of the ventral (front) root eliminated any
movement, although the animal would show obvious distress if a painful stimulus was applied
to the useless limb. Bell further suggested that since the nerves seemed to serve only one
function (sensory nerves conducting toward the brain, motor nerves conducting away from the
brain), all nerves are capable of conduction in only one direction.
The discovery that nerves serve a specific function - sensory or motored to further
probing of nervous system specification. Johannes Muller (1801-1858) formulated his laws of
the specific energy of nerves, which state that the different senses are served by different
nerves. Muller further argued that all nerves probably work on the same principle; that is, all
nerves transmit messages using the same mechanism. Thus, the brain does not directly receive
colours or sounds, but learns about them indirectly through the activity of the nerves leading
from the eyes or the ears.
The law of the specific energy of nerves led neuro-physiologists to a new emphasis. The
problem became one of tracing the nervous system pathways of the various specialized nerves.
Charles Sherrington (1861-1952) an English physiologist, investigated many different reflexes
and concluded that there were direct connections between sensory and motor pathways in the
nervous system. Sherrington’s work on reflexes led him to talk about excitation suggests
inhibition within the nervous system. Excitation suggests that activity of some nerves results in
increased activity in the nervous system. Inhibition of some nerves block or reduce on-going
activities in the nervous system. The concept of inhibition is extremely important to
understanding the integrative action of the nervous system.
The recognition of specialization of nerves in the nervous system led to speculation
concerning specialization of areas in the brain. Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) and his student
Johann Sourzheim (1776-1832) are associated with the pseudo-science called phrenology.
Basically, phrenologists assume that different parts of the brain serve specific kinds of thought
functions. Thus, it is possible to locate the particular areas associated with love, mathematics,
logic, anger, etc.
Gall and his followers then argued that the more a specific area is used, the larger that
area must become (something like the effect of exercising on muscles). Since the brain is
tightly packed, in the skull, bumps on the head must reflect the expanded contours of the
underlying brain areas. The phrenologists claimed that it was possible to "read" an individual's
personality and capacities by measuring the bumps on his head.
On the basis of systematic studies, Pierre Flourens (1794-1867) noted that certain areas
of the brain seemed to be related to certain functions. For example, he pointed out that motor
reflexes could be observed when only the spinal cord was intact. Vital functions, such as
digestion and breathing, required the lower brain stem. The cerebellum seemed to be involved
with motor co-ordination, and the mid-brain areas were necessary for visual and auditory
reflexes. To the cortex, Flourens assigned the function of “higher mental processes”.
Paul Broca (1824-1880) conducted post-mortem examinations on aphasic (without
speech) patients and found lesions on the left side of the cortex. This "speech area" is still
known as Broca's area, although Broca went on to label numerically all areas of the cortex.
 Brocas numerical labels are still employed to specify the geography of the cortex (You shall
know more about these areas in later lectures).
The discovery that electricity might be the means by which the nervous system functions
allowed the possibility of electrically stimulating parts of the brain. Although, stimulation by
touching and dropping chemicals on the surface of the brain had generally led to inconclusive
findings, Fritsch and Hitzig in 1870 observed that specific movements of the body could be
caused by applying an electric current to certain areas of the cortex. Direct stimulation of the
brain with electric currents is now a procedure used by many investigators of brain function.
One of the more spectacular demonstrations is the research by Wilder Penfield (1935), who has
triggered specific memories by careful electrical stimulation of the cortex of conscious human
beings.
The electrical nature of the nervous system meant that it was also theoretically possible
to record the on-going electrical activity of the brain, known as brain waves. As instruments for
measuring electrical activity were refined, this theoretical fact became technologically possible.
Hans Berger (1929) made the first encephalogram and pioneered its clinical use in identifying
abnormalities associated with epilepsy. The alpha feedback devises that give feedback
information in sense relaxation training are an extension of Berger's discovery.
Alexander Bain a contemporary of Wundt, is generally considered the founder of
physiological psychology. He believed that the mind was simply a breadboard of electrical
circuitry. His most famous quote succinctly states, "No nerve currents, no mind", Bain, (1885).
Also, the man Wilhelm Wundt (1879) and his structuralism school of psychology contributed
towards the development of physiological psychology. Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory,
based on the principles of natural selection and the struggle for survival, and incorporated the
themes of variation among individuals continuity both intra and interspecies, and above all the
functional aspect of structures and abilities.

Summary of Sub-Lecture
Scientific research and experimentations were the order during the scientific era. How the messages
were transmitted from one part of the body to the other was discovered and the nerves were also
divided into the sensory and motor nerve fibres. Paul Broca's division of the cortex into specific
areas are of immense help to clinicians and neurologists as well as the use of electroencephalogram
by Has Berger.

Modern Trends
During the twentieth century, several general trends were apparent in the development of
physiological psychology. Emphasis was on understanding the rules of organization within the
nervous system. Thus, the discovery of spinal reflexes and of excitatory and inhibitory
connections between the nerves, and the location of specific functions in certain brain areas, all
led to the increasing understanding of the hereditary circuitry in the brain. This line of
investigation is continuing. At the moment, research is being conducted on the highly
specialized function of individual nerve cells. At the same time, there has been a branching of
interest, with researchers now trying to determine some of the dynamic characteristic of the
nervous system. For example, physiological research is attempting to determine the kinds of
neurological changes that occur during the learning process as wel1 as what mechanisms
account for memory. Some of the earliest speculations on this topic were formulated by the
great Russian physiologist Ivan Sechenov (1829 - 1905), who believed that reflexes could be
modified during the life of the organism. In fact, Schenov thought that all behaviour-
movements, thoughts, emotion, etc., represented nothing other than elaborate reflexive activity
 of the brain. Sechonov's ideas reached fruition in the work of another Russian, Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936), who discovered, named, and thoroughly researched the conditioned reflex. The
conditioned reflex is an example of new neural circuits being created in response to
environmental events. Today, research into physiological mechanisms of learning range from
conditioned reflexes through human creative thought.
Karl Lashley (1890-1958) argued against the notion of specific locations for specific
functions. In his experiments, he removed parts of the brains of animals and then observed the
kinds of behaviour losses that resulted. Lashley concluded that the most important factor was
the amount of cortical material removed, irrespective of where the removal was made.
Lashley coined the terms mass action and equipotentiality for two principles, respectively:
(a) the brain works as an integrated whole rather than as a series of separate units; and
(b) any part of the brain is capable of serving a specific function as any factor.

Summary of Sub-Lecture
In the 19th and 20th century, physiological psychologists and other research scientists in the field
of physiological psychology began to witness the emergence of the location of specific functions
in certain brain areas. Also, the work of Ivan Sechenov and Ivan Pavlov are particularly interesting
in putting physiological psychology on the right path of progress. Karl Lashley advanced his two
famous laws of mass action and equipotentiality.

Relationship to Other Disciplines

Physiological psychology is a very obvious hybrid discipline and embraces a number of
other hybrids such as neuropsychology, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, neurochemistry,
clinical geropsychology, as well as psychopharmacology, molecular biology, neurology,
biochemistry, psychiatry and general medicine, behavioural genetics, psychoendocrinology and
psychoneuroimmunology. Although, a good deal of effort has been directed toward establishing
psychology as a descriptive science, physiological psychology has grown up with the aim of
explaining happenings in the psychological world rather than simply describing their spatio-
temporal features. Consequently, physiological psychology is pre-occupied with the question of
why things happen, together with the constant search for mechanisms underlying the way people
feel and act. Naturally, the explanations are sought through the simultaneous consideration of
data from physiological and psychological spheres of discourse.

Summary of Sub-Lecture
Physiological psychology is related to such disciplines as psychiatry and general medicine,
behavioural genetics, clinical geropsychology, neurophysiology, neurochemistry, etc.

Summary
Physiological psychology contributes a body of knowledge and provides a general theme which
attempts to comprehend human behaviour from a biological point of view. Physiological
psychology is thus the scientific study of how body structure and function, primarily the nervous
system can affect and control the overt and subjective behavioural characteristics of an organism.
The early Greek philosophers and French philosophers all contributed toward our understanding
of scientific physiological psychology. Also, the scientists such as Charles Bell, Sherrington, Hans
Berger, Alexander Bain, Karl Lashley, etc. have all contributed immensely toward our
understanding of physiological psychology.

Post-Test
1. Physiological psychology is:
A. The scientific study of behaviour.
B. The scientific study of the interaction between physiology and behaviour.
C. The scientific study of brain-behaviour interaction.
D. The study of the Central Nervous System (CNS).

2. Physiological psychology has emerged to:

A. Solve the “brain-behaviour” problem.
B. Resolve the “mind-body” dualism.
C. Solve the “physiology-psychology” problem.
D. Resolve the “mind-body” problem.
3. Physiological psychology is related to all the following except:
A. Geography
B. Genetics
C. Physiology
D. Psychopharmacology.

4. The statement, "No nerve current, no mind" is credited to:

A. Wilhelm Wundt
B. Alexander Bain
C. Eric Byrne
D. William James.

5. These men were associated with the emergence of physiologica1 psychology except:
A. Paul Broca
B. Pierre Flourens
C. Joseph Gall
D. Eric H. Erikson.

6. Physiological psychology could contribute to your knowledge of:

A. Human behaviours
B. Sleep
C. Dreams
D. Hormones.
7. Physiological psychology covers such areas below except:
A. Perceptual problems
B. Learning and memory
C. Emotional states
D. Digestive products.

8. A closely related discipline to physiological psychology is:

A. Neurophysiology
B. Neuropsychology
C. Clinical psychology
D. Neurology .

9. Physiological psychology studies:

 A. The CNS
B. The Hormones
C. A and B
D. The PNS
10. The study of physiological psychology will enable me to:
A. Know myself better
B. Counsel clients with neurological problems
C. Understand the biological bases of human behaviour.
D. B and C.

References
Blundell, J. Physiological Psychology. London: Methuen and Company Limited, 1975.
Lashley. K.S., Brain Mechanisms cJiJ Intelligence. New York, Dover Publication Inc,
1963.
3. Morgan, C.T. Physiological Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1943.
Morgan, C.J. Physiological Psychology. (3rd edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965.
Thompson, R.F. Foundations of Physiological Psychology. New York: Harper and
Row,
1967.