The need for robots has increased in recent years due to high industrial demand.

What makes robots

suitable for any industry is their ability to perform repetitive tasks without getting bored or tired and
their high accuracy.
Robotics is the science that deals with designing and developing robots that can assist humans in their
daily lives. Based on this definition, robots can be divided into two categories, industrial and service
robots. Industrial robot according to the International Standard Organization (ISO) is defined as an
“automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose manipulator, programmable in three or more
axes, which can be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications. A service
robot, according to the International Federation of Robotics (IFR), can be defined as a “Robot which
operates semi- or fully autonomously to perform services useful to the well-being of humans and
equipment, excluding manufacturing operations”. Service robots have a wide range of applications, for
example repetitive pick-and-place actions in industry, hazardous tasks such as handling chemicals or
defusing bombs, hospital operations, military missions and office work. [1]
In this review, a brief overview of the history of robotics is given, a brief overview of robotics technology
is given, then the concept of collaborative robots and lightweight robots are discussed, and their
integration in laboratory applications. Finally, the requirements and concept development for interface
robots in life science laboratories are described.

1. History
The first robot was an industrial robot, namely UNIMATE 1954, which was the first
programmable robot designed by George C. Devol, who introduced a new concept of Teach-
in/Playback to control the machine. This machine was initially used to transport die castings from
an assembly line and weld them to car bodies. By giving this task to a robot, it helped the
workers by sparing them this dangerous part of the job that could physically harm them or
expose them to toxic fumes. [1] [2] [3]

Figure 1: George Devol and the Unimate [3]

In 1978, Unimation, together with General Motors, developed

another robot called PUMA (Programmable Universal Machine
for Assembly) or (Programmable Universal Manipulation Arm).
[1] [3]

Figure 2: PUMA robot [3]

In the same year, but on the other side of the planet, in Japan, another robot with a new technology was
invented by Hiroshi Makino of Yamanashi University. Its name was SCARA (Selective Compliance
Assembly Robot Arm). This robot was the first of its kind. It offered an innovative approach to
kinematics that allowed small parts to be collected. This robot was very fast and easy to control due to
its simple kinematic chain. Furthermore, the cost was relatively low compared to the previous ones.
These advantages of SCARA led Japan to become the largest robot manufacturer in the world in 1980.
[1] [3]

Figure 3: The first prototype of SCARA robot [3] Figure 4: SCARA design 2 [10] Figure 5: SCARA design 2 [10]

In the 1980's, the manufacturing robotics industry took off after receiving a lot of attention from
industrialists and researchers. In the second half of the 1980s, robots were able to perform complex
tasks thanks to the integration of sensors and robots. [3]

The Delta robot:

In the 1980’s also, a new design for kinematics was developed by professor Reymond Clavel at the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne). His design
proposed a new robot topology, which is parallel robot. This parallel topology consists of multiple serial
chains connecting the base to the end-effector. It was capable of performing tasks with high speed and
high accuracy due to its lightweight structure. [3]

Figure 6: Reymond Clavel (left) with a Delta robot [3]

2. Design Principles
Robots are usually formed by joints and links, which together form a kinematic chain. [4] A joint
connects two links together and allows either translational displacement or rotational motion.
[2] The number of degrees of freedom (DOFs), which defines the robot's ability to move in space,
is based on the number of joints and their types. [4]

2.1. Cartesian Coordinate Robot

This robot has a very simple design that allows it to move along
only the three-known axes (x,y,z). It is also called a linear robot
because it can only move in straight lines and cannot rotate. It can
move either up-down or in-out or back-forth. [1] In other words,
it has only three translational joints (TTT), which give it 3 DOFs.
[4] The workspace of this type of robot can vary between
small workspaces, such as liquid handling systems, and large Figure 7: Cartesian Coordinate Robot [1]

workspaces, such as gantry robots in factories, which are

characterized by using an additional X-axis (or base) to increase the robot's payload capacity.
Their simple design offers the advantage of better accuracy and higher load capacity
compared to other types. [5] Their high positioning accuracy and payload make them suitable
for pick-and-place applications. They are also widely used in computer numerical control
(CNC) machines, 3D printers, milling machines and plotters. [6]

2.2. Cylindrical Coordinate Robot

Its structure is very similar to the Cartesian robot, making it one of the variants of the
Cartesian coordinate robots. The only difference is that it can rotate along the Z-axis, which
gives it more movement options (RTT). [1] This rotary joint gives the robot more degrees of
freedom (3-4) than the Cartesian robot. [4] Cylindrical robots, due to their design, have some
limitations in terms of workspace that reduce their reach. Therefore, they can be used in
simple assembly applications, machine tending, or coating applications where tight
workspaces are common. [6]

Figure 8: 3D robot manipulators, a) Cartesian, b) Cylindrical [7]

2.3. SCARA Robot (Selective Compliance Articulated Robot Arm)

SCARA offered a new design which in more similar to the human arm. The idea that
characterized SCARA was that a joint can connect two links, which is why the term
"Articulated" is often used. Its arm was rigid in the Z-axis, but freely movable in the XY-plane.
This design allowed it to be faster and more accurate than the Cartesian robots, but it was
more expensive. [1] This robot design has four DOFs. [4] Their workspace does not reach the
versatility of Cartesian robots, but they are much faster. They can be used in assembly and
palletizing applications and also in biomedical applications. [6]

2.4. Articulated Robot

 It is a robot built with joints that are capable of rotating. The number of joints can vary from
two up to more than ten. [1] Most of the articulated robots have six DOFs. [4] The workspace
of an articulated arm robot depends on the length of the arm, which defines its reach. The
rotating base allows the robot to cover all possible points in its diameter. Applications
typically found for this type of robot include assembly, arc welding, material handling,
machine tending, and packaging. [6]

Figure 3: Articulated Robot [8]

2.5. Parallel Robot

Also called parallel manipulator. Features a combination of several serial chains that control
an end effector or carry a platform. The most famous parallel manipulator is the flight
simulator, which consists of six linear actuators supporting a moving platform. [1] The main
disadvantage of a parallel robot is its limited workspace. It has a very limited working area,
which is determined by the intersection of all its serial chains. On the other hand, its
structure endows it with a high payload, since all the serial chains supporting the end-
effector. Compared to serial robots, they have a significantly higher accuracy, since serial
robots accumulate errors (such as friction, flexibility, clearance, etc.) through their serial
joints. [9]

Figure 4: Parallel Robot, the Platform [10]

3. Control System
It gives the robot a sequence of subtasks or motions that it must perform in order to complete
the full task. There are two types of control systems, Point-to-Point and Continuous Path. [1]

3.1. Point-to-Point control system

This control system provides the robot with a series of points between which it must travel,
without taking into account the path it must take. This type of control system requires servo
position control for each link. Speed and acceleration are not controlled, but there is a
 maximum speed limit for each actuator. Each link travels at a constant speed between the
pre-programmed points. These types of arms, which use a point-to-point control system, are
not suitable for tasks that require speed control. [11] In the case of a pick-and-place task, this
type of control system stores the pickup point and the desired point at which the object is to
be released. This system is preferably used for applications that have only one start and one
end point and the task is always repeated. [1]

3.2. Continuous Path control system

In this control system, the robot follows an irregular path consisting of a series of closely
spaced points that have been previously programmed. It can follow smooth trajectories
exhibiting a continuous alteration in speed. This requires servo control for the speed of each
joint, whereas the point-to-point control system only requires servo control for the
positioning of the joints. [11]
This system is used when the robot is to follow a certain path, e.g., in applications like
welding and painting. [1]

4. Drive (Actuator)
The robot’s drive or actuator has the responsibility of converting the energy supplied to the
gripper into useful kinetic energy for moving and positioning it. It transfers a non-mechanical
power into a mechanical movement that can result in a change of position, velocity or force of
the controlled component. The input power source can be electric, hydraulic or pneumatic. [1]
[11]

4.1. Electric Actuation

It is the most commonly used method in the robotics industry. The majority of actuators used
in robots adopt servomotors and some of them stepper motors. Servomotors are divided
into DC servomotors and AC servomotors (brushless DC servo motors).

4.1.1. DC Servomotors
The majority of existing robots use this type of actuation. It is composed of a stator, which
consists of permanent magnets, and a rotor, formed by wound wires. The permanent magnet
generates a magnetic field that turns the rotor by the influence of the electromagnetic force.
To keep the rotor spinning, a commutator ensures that the polarity of the current in the
winding wires alternates. DC motors have different geometries, some of which are shown in
the figure below. [11]

Figure 5: DC Motor geometries [11]

 Conventional motors are best able to endure high torques and other stresses. Disc and bell
motors can deliver higher acceleration due to their low inertia. Selection of the motor to be
used may depend on the space conditions, on the fact that disc motors are short and thick
with respect to conventional motors. [11]

4.1.2. AC Servomotors (Brushless DC Motors)

Their structure is reversed compared to DC motors. The permanent magnet forms the rotor,
and the windings are attached to the stator. Commutation is done electronically by switching
the current in the windings. To generate the alternating current for commutation, an
electronic controller is required. AC servomotors are more reliable than DC motors. Their
structure causes low friction, which means longer life. Since they do not have a commutator,
they have the advantage of being quieter. They produce higher torque than DC motors. [11]

4.1.3. Stepper Motors

A stepper motor has a rotating shaft composed of a multi-pole permanent magnet and
stationary electromagnets surrounding the rotor. The number of poles determines the
resolution and positioning accuracy. More poles mean higher precision in positioning. An
important advantage in the context of robotics is that a stepper motor always has a fixed
angle for each step, so its position is known from the number of steps, which means that no
joint angle sensor is required. The current in the stator windings is either on or off. During
the switching of the current through the windings, the rotor continues to rotate. The faster
the polarization, the higher the speed. Stepper motors usually have limited speed and torque
and low performance. However, there are powerful stepper motors, but their power-to-
weight ratio is very poor. [11]

4.2. Pneumatic Actuation

It is about the conversion of the energy from the compressed air or gas into a mechanical
motion. This mechanical movement can be either linear or rotary. Pneumatic actuators are
often used in industrial robots for pick-and-place applications. They are preferably used in
grippers because they are very light, and the force applied can be limited. The availability of
air compressors in many factories also facilitated the integration of this type of actuation.
The most common design is composed of a piston and a rod-less cylinder. The compressed
air moves the piston in the cylinder and builds up pressure. Hereby a linear force in
proportion to the pressure difference of the piston multiplied by its surface area is
generated, which is used to move a load linearly. [11] [12]

4.3. Hydraulic Actuation

This type of actuation is distinguished mainly by its high payload, as they can carry several
tons, because the force generated can be extremely high given a small volume. Hydraulic
actuators are often used in large industrial robots. Their design is very similar to pneumatic
actuators. The difference is that the cylinder is double-acting. An equal force can be
generated on both sides of the cylinder. [11]

5. End effectors
The term end effector is often used to describe the end part of a robot arm, which is usually
either a gripper or a tool. A gripper has the task of grasping (picking up) an object and depositing
it elsewhere in the work area. A tool is used when the robot needs to perform a task with a
specific tool, such as drilling and welding. [1] [4]
Grippers for industrial robots come in many designs, such as two-jaw grippers, special purpose
mechanical grippers, vacuum and magnetic grippers. [11]
5.1. Two-Jaw Grippers
This type of gripper is rarely used because they are not efficient when gripping objects with
only two jaws. Because of this drawback of slipping, it is recommended to use a pneumatic
actuator as it is flexible to hold the workpiece when it starts to displace. However, they can
be operated with any type of power source. [11]

5.2. Special Purpose Mechanical Grippers

These are grippers that are specially designed to pick up specific objects, such as car wheels
or doors. The majority of these grippers grip by friction or mechanical fitting. While some of
them use other methods like adhesive tape or spikes for soft materials. [11]

5.3. Vacuum and Magnetic Grippers

Vacuum grippers use suction cups to grip an object. There are two ways to create a vacuum.
The first way is to feed compressed air to a venturi. This method is simple and inexpensive,
but it makes noise and consumes power. The second way is to use a vacuum pump, which is
quieter and produces a better vacuum. Vacuum grippers work very well with smooth, flat
surfaces, but have problems with irregular shapes. To overcome these problems, a design
was developed with several small suction cups attached with rotating joints to give them
more flexibility. [11]
Magnetic grippers use either permanent magnets or electromagnets. Electromagnets are
preferred because they can be easily detached by switching them off, but it is necessary to
apply a reverse current during detachment to cancel the magnetization that is induced in the
workpiece and ensure rapid release. On the other hand, permanent magnet grippers require
an additional mechanical device to release the object being held. If the workpieces to be
picked up are thin and layered, the permanent magnet can be designed to produce low
magnetic penetration to pick up only the top layer. [11]
Both magnetic and vacuum grippers have a low payload, and they require a continuous
power supply. [11]

5.4. Tools
As mentioned above, not only can the robot be used to collect objects, but a tool can also be
installed on the end of the robot arm to perform a specific task, such as drilling, screwing,
spot welding, spraying, and so on. The selection of a tool depends on several factors that are
important to consider in order to determine the suitability of a tool for a robot. Some of
these are weight, positional and angular accuracy, required sensors, and reliability. The
rigidity of the tool is also important when it comes to tasks that have a large reaction on the
robot, such as grinding and wrenching. [11]

6. Lightweight robots
They are robots that can be used in a collaborative workspace, where they can interact safely
with human workers. They do not weigh significantly compared to heavy industrial robots. To
successfully integrate lightweight robots into different applications, it is necessary to further
explore possible collaboration scenarios and safety requirements. What characterizes
lightweight robots is that they are more flexible compared to heavy robots, because of their
fence-less design. Therefore, they are more compatible for assembly applications. They can be
easily programmed by non-specialists depending on the desired application. They are easy to
reallocate due to their light weight. They are more cost-effective due to their lower direct unit
production cost. It is noted that a higher degree of collaboration has a great impact on
 throughput. The throughput also depends on another important factor, which is the assembly
process considered, where it may be higher than for conventional systems. [14] [15]

Table 1: Comparison between collaborative systems and traditional robots in different applications [15]

Application Collaborative Systems Traditional industrial Robot

Assembly Combines the flexibility of the Flexibility and dexterity could be
human with the productivity of unreachable
the robot
Placement Lower repeatability High repeatability and payload
Handling Low payload High payload and speed
Picking Low payload High payload and repeatability

As shown in Table 1, traditional robots are very reliable in performing various applications due to
their high repeatability, speed, and payload, but they lack flexibility and dexterity, Therefore,
there are a growing number of collaborative systems to fill this gap. [15]

6.1. Why lightweight robots?

In countries with high wages, hiring workers for assembly is an economic burden on small
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). In addition, the diversity of products and products
which are specific to a single customer prevent a fully automated system.
Lightweight robots are relatively affordable robots that can be operated in collaborative
workspaces with humans without safety fencing. [13]In such workspaces where humans and
robots work together, the productivity and preciseness of the robot can be used in
combination with the flexibility of humans. [14]

6.2. Operation Modes of Lightweight Robots

To learn more about collaborative workspaces between humans and robots, this review
looks at different work environments.

Figure 6: The various levels of cooperation [15]

Cell
Here, the robot is operated behind a fenced cage and safety requirements should be
considered. In this method, there are no cooperation scenarios between the robot and
the human operator. [13]

Coexistence
Here, the robot is operated without a cage, but without interaction with the human
operator. Each of them works in a separate workspace next to the other. [13]
 Synchronized
In this method, the robot and the human share the same workspace and work together
to complete one task each. In other words, they share the workspace but work at
different times. [13]

Cooperation
They share the same workplace and work at the same time, but they do not work on the
same products. Each of them has their own tasks that need to be done. [13]

Collaboration
In this method, the human and the robot work at the same time and on the same product
in a common workspace. [13]

The goal is to create a fully collaborative workspace between humans and robots where there
should be no safety requirements. To achieve this goal, some of the safety challenges should be
considered in the robot design and work methodology. According to the international standard UNI
EN ISO 10218 1 and 2, which is explained in more detail in ISO 15066:2016 ISO/TS 15066:2016
defines four classes of safety requirements for collaborative robots:
• Safety-rated monitored stop (SMS) that stops the robot when a human worker enters the
collaborative workspace. [14] [15]
• Hand-guiding (HG), which allows the operator to control the robot with a hand-guided
device. [14] [15]
• Speed and separation monitoring (SSM) is a system that attempts to maintain a safe distance
between the human operator and the robot by stopping the robot when the worker exceeds
this safe distance and regenerating it when this distance is not trespassed. [14] [15]
• Power and force limiting (PFL), in which the robot is designed not to exceed the limits to
ensure human safety and reduce the risk of an accident. [14] [15]

In addition to the above requirements, there are some limitations, such as limiting the maximum
speed to 0.25 m/s, the maximum force to 150 N and the maximum dynamic power to 80. [14]

Besides ensuring the physical safety of humans, the social acceptance of these types of robots
interacting with humans may become more important than completing a task. It is preferable for
a robot to stop doing a task if the only ways to do it would cause fear, surprise, inconvenience, or
create an uncomfortable social situation, even if the robot does not cause any physical harm.
[16]

Human-robot collaboration is still a research area for many researchers to improve the
performance of the robot in the presence of human. The experience gained in this area is still
poor. [14]

6.3. Industrial Heavy Robots:

 They are characterized by high precision of less than one-millimeter, high rigidity and high
payload, which can reach one ton. They are used in many manufacturing industries, such as
metal fabrication, food production, and even in the entertainment sector. In the Figure
below a KUKA robot, a FANUC robot, and an ABB robot are shown. Their tremendous force
can lead to serious injury, so they need special treatment to be integrated into a
collaborative work environment. [14]

Figure 7: Selection of industrial heavy robots [14]

6.4. Commercially available Lightweight Robots

The common feature of this type of robots is that they are small and have a light weight.
They all meet the previously mentioned safety standards to be suitable for collaborative
work environments. The following table lists some of the lightweight robots available on the
market.

Table 2: Features of some of the lightweight robots available on the market [14] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21]

UR5 FANUC KUKA ABB YUMI YASKAWA KINOVA

CR-35IA IIWA HC10 JACO
WEIGHT 18.4 kg 990 kg Approx. 38 kg 58 kg 5.2 kg
23.9 - 29.9
kg
MAX. LOAD 5 kg 35 kg 7 – 14 kg 0.5 kg pro 10 kg 1.6 kg
Arm
DOFS 6 6 7 7 for each 6 6
arm
REPEATABILITY ±0.1 ±0.03 mm ±0.1–0.15 ±0.02 mm ±0.1 -
mm

PRICE ~ 27,000 EUR 28,000 – 31,000 50,000 – ~50,000 ~35,000 ~35000 EUR
EUR 100,000 EUR EUR
EUR
APPLICATIONS Machine Heavy Assembly Small parts Assembly Assistive
tending workpieces assembly robotic arm
transfer for disabled
Parts,
Assembly
SPECIAL - Safe and soft - Strong Arm Max. linear
SAFETY cover that magnesium designed to speed 20
FEATURES reduces impact skeleton avoid pinch cm/s,
and absorbs with a points
 forces from plastic (finger Firm and
unexpected sheath that protection) secure grip,
collisions is covered Safety area
with a soft to protect
protective the user that
padding can be
that individually
absorbs programmed
forces from
unexpected
collisions

Figure 8: A selection of collaborative lightweight robots [14]

Mainly these robots are used in assembly applications, but some of them can be used in other
applications such as arc welding, spraying, drilling, etc. with the appropriate tooling.

7. The Integration of lightweight robots in laboratory applications

Three factors have led to the increased development of automated laboratories, namely the
increasing workload, the reduction in costs and the fact that finding good skilled personnel has
always been a problem. It will also lead to a massive reduction in errors and higher throughput.
[22]

In the following section, only the integration of robotic arms in analytical laboratories and
various concepts and requirements for their integration in life science laboratories are examined.
The tasks to be performed by a robotic arm are mainly pick-and-place applications.
The first use of a robotic arm at a laboratory workstation was in the pharmaceutical industry in
the study of drug dosage. Then they were used by pioneering clinical laboratories that used the
robot to perform highly complex clinical tests. Two types of robots were majorly used in
laboratory applications: cylindrical robot and articulated robot. They were either installed on a
stationary base, where their reach was limited to either a hemispherical (in the case of the
articulated robot) or cylindrical space (in the case of the cylindrical robot), or they were mounted
on a movable track that provided the robot with a greater range of motion. [23]

Which system is used depends on the type of process being automated and how flexible the
system is required to be? Flexibility is a crucial issue. The decision that should be made depends
on whether the desired system is to be used only for a specific process that cannot be changed
(in this case, the system used will be relatively inexpensive and highly effective), or whether its
configuration can be changed in the future, which will be very complex and costly to change, if it
was not considered that the system should have been flexible from the beginning. In the
majority of life science applications, flexibility is important due to the constantly changing
workflows, which puts further financial pressure as systems with such a high degree of flexibility
are relatively expensive to deploy. [4]

Robotic arms are characterized by their ability to perform tasks repeatedly and with high
accuracy, which helps the laboratory sector overcome the shortage of qualified personnel.
However, they present another challenge, namely finding workers who know how to work with a
robot and how to modify it so that it can be used for specific tasks, especially when its
configurations need to be changed. [23]

The integration of robots in life science laboratories is still low compared to their integration in
industry, although both fields share the same goals of increasing productivity, reducing human
error, and relieving humans from dangerous ergonomics and repetitive tasks. An exception is
their applications in the pharmaceutical industry. The development of the drug industry drove
the development of laboratory automation in the 1990s. By contrast, the classic analytical or
chemical laboratories were still operated manually. [4]
One of the processes in life sciences, namely the preparation of samples before chemical
analysis, is usually partially automated. To develop fully automated solutions for life science
laboratories, some obstacles and challenges need to be overcome. These include the low
investment in this area, the high programming complexity of these types of systems, which
require highly skilled personnel, and the flexibility in changing patterns and types of applications.
Therefore, a laboratory with a high degree of automation is rare to find. Fully automated
solutions can be found in large laboratories, such as medical diagnostic laboratories. [4] [24]
The need for life science laboratory development has grown due to increasing financial
pressures, increasing numbers of specimens, and an increasing shortage of skilled labor. [4]
The need for automated classical laboratories increased during the last pandemic, where many
test samples had to be performed, which put a lot of pressure (financial and workload) on the
manual laboratories. [4]
Choosing a robot for a laboratory follows some procedures. The selection parameters that
should be checked include the required accuracy for the operation, the maximum possible
payload, the process duration and the required flexibility of the robot, which is defined by its
degrees of freedom. The most important parameter is the number of degrees of freedom,
because the more degrees of freedom the robot has, the more complex and error-prone it will
become. [4]
 The high demand for accuracy in pharmaceutical, chemical and medical laboratories has paved
the way for the integration of lightweight robots in these laboratories. Cobots (Collaborative
Robots) like UR cobot, ABB Yumi and Automata Labs Eva provide a solution for laboratories to
increase their throughput with highly precise results.
Copenhagen University Hospital in Denmark uses UR5 in its laboratory to perform blood tests,
which involves optimizing, handling and sorting blood samples for analysis. By using UR5 in their
lab, they were able to deliver more than 90% of the results within an hour. With only two UR5
cobots, 3000 samples are taken every day. [25]
Automata Labs Eva is a lightweight robot designed by Automata to be used in a variety of
laboratories, including diagnostics (PCR and LAMP), drug discovery, and biotechnology. Life
science laboratories can also benefit from this type of robot, as it performs most repeatable
tasks with a repeatability of ±0.5 mm. [26]

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