Daniel Defoe

Daniel Defoe (/dɪˈfoʊ/; born Daniel Foe; c. 1660 – 24 April

Daniel Defoe
1731)[1] was an English journalist, merchant, pamphleteer and spy.
He is most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe, published in
1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its
number of translations.[2] He has been seen as one of the earliest
proponents of the English novel, and helped to popularise the form
in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel
Richardson.[3] Defoe wrote many political tracts, was often in
trouble with the authorities, and spent a period in prison.
Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas
and sometimes consulted him.

Defoe was a prolific and versatile writer, producing more than

three hundred works[4]—books, pamphlets, and journals—on
diverse topics, including politics, crime, religion, marriage,
psychology and the supernatural. He was also a pioneer of
Born Daniel Foe
business journalism[5] and economic journalism.[6]
c. 1660
London, England
Early life Died 24 April 1731 (aged
70)
Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in Fore Street in London, England
the parish of St Giles Cripplegate, London.[7] Defoe later added
Resting Bunhill Fields
the aristocratic-sounding "De" to his name, and on occasion made place
the false claim of descent from a family named De Beau Faux.[8]
Occupation Journalist,
"De" is also a common prefix in Flemish surnames.[9] His
merchant,
birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from
pamphleteer, spy
1659 to 1662, with the summer or early autumn of 1660
considered the most likely.[10] His father, James Foe, was a Genre Adventure
prosperous tallow chandler of probable Flemish descent, [11][12][a] Spouse Mary Tuffley
and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In Defoe's
early childhood, he experienced some of the most unusual occurrences in English history: in 1665, seventy
thousand were killed by the Great Plague of London, and the next year, the Great Fire of London left only
Defoe's and two other houses standing in his neighbourhood.[16] In 1667, when he was probably about
seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked the town of Chatham in the
raid on the Medway. His mother, Alice, had died by the time he was about ten.[17][18]

Education

Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fisher's boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, Surrey.[19] His
parents were Presbyterian dissenters, and around the age of 14, he was sent to Charles Morton's dissenting
academy at Newington Green, then a village just north of London, where he is believed to have attended
the Dissenting church there.[20][21] He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now nos. 95–
103.[22] During this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the
established Church of England.

Business career
Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general
woollen goods, and wine. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate and a ship (as
well as civets to make perfume), though he was rarely out of debt. On 1 January 1684, Defoe married Mary
Tuffley at St Botolph's Aldgate.[23] She was the daughter of a London merchant, and brought with her a
dowry of £3,700—a huge amount by the standards of the day. Given his debts and political difficulties, the
marriage may have been troubled, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children.[17]

In 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the
Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned
in 1689, and Defoe became one of William's close allies and a secret agent.[17] Some of the new policies
led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe.[17] In 1692, he was
arrested for debts of £700 and, in the face of total debts that may have amounted to £17,000, was forced to
declare bankruptcy. He died with little wealth and evidently embroiled in lawsuits with the royal treasury.[2]

Following his release from debtors' prison, he probably travelled in Europe and Scotland,[24] and it may
have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto and Lisbon. By 1695, he was back in England,
now formally using the name "Defoe" and serving as a "commissioner of the glass duty", responsible for
collecting taxes on bottles. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex and lived
in the parish of Chadwell St Mary nearby.

Writing
As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious
pamphlets, and volumes.

Pamphleteering and prison

Defoe's first notable publication was An Essay Upon

Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic
improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he
defended the right of King William III to a standing army
during disarmament, after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had
ended the Nine Years' War (1688–1697). His most successful
poem, The True-Born Englishman (1701), defended William
against xenophobic attacks from his political enemies in
England, and English anti-immigration sentiments more
generally. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legion's Memorial
to Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons—
Daniel Defoe in the pillory, 1862 line
and his subsequent employer—while flanked by a guard of
engraving by James Charles Armytage after
sixteen gentlemen of quality. It demanded the release of the
Eyre Crowe
Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the
king in an imminent war against France.
The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, as the king was replaced by
Queen Anne who immediately began her offensive against Nonconformists.[17] Defoe was a natural target,
and his pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on 31 July
1703, principally on account of his December 1702 pamphlet entitled The Shortest-Way with the
Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church, purporting to argue for their
extermination.[25] In it, he ruthlessly satirised both the high church Tories and those Dissenters who
hypocritically practised so-called "occasional conformity", such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir
Thomas Abney. It was published anonymously, but the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe
was arrested.[17] He was charged with seditious libel and found guilty in a trial at the Old Bailey in front of
the notoriously sadistic judge Salathiel Lovell.[6] Lovell sentenced him to a punitive fine of 200 marks
(£336 then, £60,544 in 2023[26]), to public humiliation in a pillory, and to an indeterminate length of
imprisonment which would only end upon the discharge of the punitive fine.[6] According to legend, the
publication of his poem Hymn to the Pillory caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of
the customary harmful and noxious objects and to drink to his health. The truth of this story is questioned
by most scholars, although John Robert Moore later said that "no man in England but Defoe ever stood in
the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men".[18]

After his three days in the pillory, Defoe went into

Newgate Prison. Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and "Wherever God erects a house of prayer
Earl Mortimer, brokered his release in exchange for the Devil always builds a chapel there;
Defoe's cooperation as an intelligence agent for the And 't will be found, upon examination,
Tories. In exchange for such cooperation with the rival the latter has the largest congregation."
political side, Harley paid some of Defoe's outstanding
debts, improving his financial situation considerably.[17]
– Defoe's The True-Born Englishman, 1701
Within a week of his release from prison, Defoe
witnessed the Great Storm of 1703, which raged
through the night of 26/27 November. It caused severe damage to London and Bristol, uprooted millions of
trees, and killed more than 8,000 people, mostly at sea. The event became the subject of Defoe's The Storm
(1704), which includes a collection of witness accounts of the tempest.[27] Many regard it as one of the
world's first examples of modern journalism.[28]

In the same year, he set up his periodical A Review of the Affairs of France, which supported the Harley
Ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714). The Review ran three
times a week without interruption until 1713. Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital
state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit
treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair.

When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708, Defoe continued writing the Review to support
Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710–1714. The Tories fell
from power with the death of Queen Anne, but Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig
government, writing "Tory" pamphlets that undermined the Tory point of view.[17]

Not all of Defoe's pamphlet writing was political. One pamphlet was originally published anonymously,
entitled A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal the Next Day after her Death to One Mrs.
Bargrave at Canterbury The 8th of September, 1705. It deals with the interaction between the spiritual
realm and the physical realm and was most likely written in support of Charles Drelincourt's The Christian
Defence against the Fears of Death (1651). It describes Mrs. Bargrave's encounter with her old friend Mrs.
Veal after she had died. It is clear from this piece and other writings that the political portion of Defoe's life
was by no means his only focus.

Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707

In despair during his imprisonment for the seditious libel case,

Defoe wrote to William Paterson, the London Scot and founder of
the Bank of England and part instigator of the Darien scheme, who
was in the confidence of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and
Earl Mortimer, leading minister and spymaster in the English
government. Harley accepted Defoe's services and released him in
1703. He immediately published The Review, which appeared
weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself. This
was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting
the Act of Union 1707.[29]

Defoe began his campaign in The Review and other pamphlets

aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from
the north, gaining for the Treasury an "inexhaustible treasury of
men", a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By
September 1706, Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret Title page from Daniel Defoe's: The
agent to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence in the History of the Union of Great Britain
Treaty of Union. He was conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks dated 1709 and printed in Edinburgh
to books such as The Letters of Daniel Defoe (edited by G. H. by the Heirs of Anderson
Healey, Oxford 1955), far more is known about his activities than
is usual with such agents.

His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. "A Scots rabble is
the worst of its kind", he reported. Years later John Clerk of Penicuik, a leading Unionist, wrote in his
memoirs that it was not known at the time that Defoe had been sent by Godolphin:

… to give a faithful account to him from time to time how everything past here. He was
therefor a spy among us, but not known to be such, otherways the Mob of Edin. had pull him
to pieces.[30]

Defoe was a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, and as such he was accepted as
an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of
Scotland. He told Harley that he was "privy to all their folly" but "Perfectly unsuspected as with
corresponding with anybody in England". He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to
Parliament and reported,

Having had the honour to be always sent for the committee to whom these amendments were
referrèd,
I have had the good fortune to break their measures in two particulars via the bounty on Corn
and
proportion of the Excise.
For Scotland, he used different arguments, even the opposite of those which he used in England, usually
ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, for example, telling the Scots that they
could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to
be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion
of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which
some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give
his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union but always having the
last word for himself.

He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by ignoring him. Nor does he
account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to
the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government
side in the decisive final stages of the debate.

Aftermath

In 1709, Defoe authored a rather lengthy book entitled The History of the Union of Great Britain, an
Edinburgh publication printed by the Heirs of Anderson.[31] The book cites Defoe twice as being its
author,[32][33] and gives details leading up to the Acts of Union 1707 by means of presenting information
that dates all the way back to 6 December 1604 when King James I was presented with a proposal for
unification.[34] And so, such a so-called "first draft" for unification took place just a little over 100 years
before the signing of the 1707 accord, which, respectively, preceded the commencement of Robinson
Crusoe by another ten years.

Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its
independence from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his
paymasters and of course no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish
experience to write his Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain, published in 1726, where he admitted
that the increase of trade and population in Scotland which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union
was "not the case, but rather the contrary".

Defoe's description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a "Dear

Green Place" has often been misquoted as a Gaelic
translation for the town's name. The Gaelic Glas
could mean grey or green, while chu means dog or
hollow. Glaschu probably means "Green Hollow".
The "Dear Green Place", like much of Scotland, was
a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local Tron
minister urged his congregation "to up and anent for
the City of God".
Glasgow Bridge as Defoe might have seen it in the
The "Dear Green Place" and "City of God" required 18th century
government troops to put down the rioters tearing up
copies of the Treaty at almost every mercat cross in
Scotland. When Defoe visited in the mid-1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was
"because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed
against".[35]

Late writing
The extent and particulars are widely contested concerning Defoe's writing in the period from the Tory fall
in 1714 to the publication of Robinson Crusoe in 1719. Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute tracts
of uncertain authorship to him in his apologia Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715), a defence of his part in
Harley's Tory ministry (1710–1714). Other works that anticipate his novelistic career include The Family
Instructor (1715), a conduct manual on religious duty; Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr. Mesnager
(1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager, the French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty
of Utrecht (1713); and A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (1718), a satire of European
politics and religion, ostensibly written by a Muslim in Paris.

From 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is famous
(see below). In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals,
including Religious Courtship (1722), The Complete English Tradesman
(1726) and The New Family Instructor (1727). He published a number of
books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as The Great Law
of Subordination Considered (1724) and Everybody's Business is Nobody's
Business (1725) and works on the supernatural, like The Political History
of the Devil (1726), A System of Magick (1727) and An Essay on the
History and Reality of Apparitions (1727). His works on foreign travel and
trade include A General History of Discoveries and Improvements (1727)
and Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis (1728). Perhaps his most
significant work, apart from the novels, is A Tour thro' the Whole Island of
Great Britain (1724–1727), which provided a panoramic survey of British
Memorial to "Daniel De-
trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution.
Foe", Bunhill Fields, City
Road, Borough of Islington,
The Complete English Tradesman London

Published in 1726, The Complete English Tradesman is an example of

Defoe's political works. In the work, Defoe discussed the role of the tradesman in England in comparison
to tradesmen internationally, arguing that the British system of trade is far superior.[36] Defoe also implied
that trade was the backbone of the British economy: "estate's a pond, but trade's a spring." [36] In the work,
Defoe praised the practicality of trade not only within the economy but the social stratification as well.
Defoe argued that most of the British gentry was at one time or another inextricably linked with the
institution of trade, either through personal experience, marriage or genealogy.[36] Oftentimes younger
members of noble families entered into trade, and marriages to a tradesman's daughter by a nobleman was
also common. Overall, Defoe demonstrated a high respect for tradesmen, being one himself.

Not only did Defoe elevate individual British tradesmen to the level of gentleman, but he praised the
entirety of British trade as a superior system to other systems of trade.[36] Trade, Defoe argues, is a much
better catalyst for social and economic change than war. Defoe also argued that through the expansion of
the British Empire and British mercantile influence, Britain would be able to "increase commerce at home"
through job creations and increased consumption.[36] He wrote in the work that increased consumption, by
laws of supply and demand, increases production and in turn raises wages for the poor therefore lifting part
of British society further out of poverty.[36]

Novels

Robinson Crusoe
Published when Defoe was in his late fifties,[37] Robinson Crusoe
relates the story of a man's shipwreck on a desert island for twenty-
eight years and his subsequent adventures. Throughout its episodic
narrative, Crusoe's struggles with faith are apparent as he bargains
with God in times of life-threatening crises, but time and again he
turns his back after his deliverances. He is finally content with his
lot in life, separated from society, following a more genuine
conversion experience.
A house where Defoe once lived,
In the opening pages of The Farther Adventures of Robinson
near London, England
Crusoe, the author describes how Crusoe settled in Bedfordshire,
married and produced a family, and that when his wife died, he
went off on these further adventures. Bedford is also the place where the brother of "H. F." in A Journal of
the Plague Year retired to avoid the danger of the plague, so that by implication, if these works were not
fiction, Defoe's family met Crusoe in Bedford, from whence the information in these books was gathered.
Defoe went to school Newington Green with a friend named Caruso.

The novel has been assumed to be based in part on the story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk,
who spent four years stranded in the Juan Fernández Islands,[17] but his experience is inconsistent with the
details of the narrative. The island Selkirk lived on, Más a Tierra (Closer to Land) was renamed Robinson
Crusoe Island in 1966. It has been supposed that Defoe may have also been inspired by a translation of a
book by the Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath Ibn Tufail, who was known as "Abubacer" in Europe. The
Latin edition was entitled Philosophus Autodidactus;[38][39][40][41] Simon Ockley published an English
translation in 1708, entitled The improvement of human reason, exhibited in the life of Hai ebn Yokdhan.

Captain Singleton

Defoe's next novel was Captain Singleton (1720), an adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of
Africa which anticipated subsequent discoveries by David Livingstone and whose second half taps into the
contemporary fascination with piracy. The novel has been commended for its sensitive depiction of the
close relationship between the hero and his religious mentor, Quaker William Walters. Its description of the
geography of Africa and some of its fauna does not use the language or knowledge of a fiction writer and
suggests an eyewitness experience.

Memoirs of a Cavalier

Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720) is set during the Thirty Years' War and the English Civil War.

A Journal of the Plague Year

A Journal of the Plague Year, published in 1722, can be read both as novel and as nonfiction. It is an
account of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which is undersigned by the initials "H. F.", suggesting the
author's uncle Henry Foe as its primary source. It is a historical account of the events based on extensive
research and written as if by an eyewitness, even though Defoe was only about five years old when it
occurred.[42][43][44][45]

Colonel Jack
Colonel Jack (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to prosperity in the colonies,
military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, driven by a problematic notion of becoming a
"gentleman."

Moll Flanders

Also in 1722, Defoe wrote Moll Flanders, another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual
redemption, both material and spiritual, of a lone woman in 17th-century England. The titular heroine
appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in The Mint, commits adultery and incest, and yet manages to
retain the reader's sympathy. Her savvy manipulation of both men and wealth earns her a life of trials but
ultimately an ending in reward. Although Moll struggles with the morality of some of her actions and
decisions, religion seems to be far from her concerns throughout most of her story. However, like Robinson
Crusoe, she finally repents. Moll Flanders is an important work in the development of the novel, as it
challenged the common perception of femininity and gender roles in 18th-century British society.[23] More
recently it has come to be misunderstood as an example of erotica.[46][47]

Roxana

Defoe's final novel, Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724), which narrates the moral and spiritual decline
of a high society courtesan, differs from other Defoe works because the main character does not exhibit a
conversion experience, even though she claims to be a penitent later in her life, at the time that she is
relating her story.[48]

Patterns

In Defoe's writings, especially in his fiction, are traits that can be seen across his works. Defoe was well
known for his didacticism, with most of his works aiming to convey a message of some kind to the readers
(typically a moral one, stemming from his religious background).[49] Connected to Defoe's didacticism is
his use of the genre of spiritual autobiography, particularly in Robinson Crusoe.[50] Another common
feature of Defoe's fictional works is that he claimed them to be the true stories of their subjects.

Attribution and de-attribution

Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names.[51] It was a very common practice in eighteenth-
century novel publishing to initially publish works under a pen name, with most other authors at the time
publishing their works anonymously.[52] As a result of the anonymous ways in which most of his works
were published, it has been a challenge for scholars over the years to properly credit Defoe for all of the
works that he wrote in his lifetime. If counting only works that Defoe published under his own name, or his
known pen name "the author of the True-Born Englishman," there would be about 75 works that could be
attributed to him.[53]

Beyond these 75 works, scholars have used a variety of strategies to determine what other works should be
attributed to Defoe. Writer George Chalmers was the first to begin the work of attributing anonymously
published works to Defoe. In History of the Union, he created an expanded list with over a hundred titles
that he attributed to Defoe, alongside twenty additional works that he designated as "Books which are
supposed to be De Foe's."[54] Chalmers included works in his canon of Defoe that were particularly in line
with his style and way of thinking, and ultimately attributed 174 works to Defoe.[53] Many of the
attributions of Defoe’s novels came long after his death. Notably, Moll Flanders and Roxana were
piublished anonymously for over fifty years until Francis Noble named Daniel Defoe on their title pages in
edition publication in 1775 and 1774.[55]

Biographer P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens built upon this canon, also relying on what they believed
could be Defoe's work, without a means to be absolutely certain.[56] In the Cambridge History of English
Literature, the section on Defoe by author William P. Trent attributes 370 works to Defoe. J.R. Moore
generated the largest list of Defoe's work, with approximately five hundred and fifty works that he
attributed to Defoe.[54]

Death
Defoe died on 24 April 1731, probably while in hiding from
his creditors. He was often in debtors' prison.[57] The cause
of his death was labelled as lethargy, but he probably
experienced a stroke.[2] He was interred in Bunhill Fields
(today Bunhill Fields Burial and Gardens), just outside the
medieval boundaries of the City of London, in what is now
the Borough of Islington, where a monument was erected to
his memory in 1870.[58] A street in the Bronx, New York is
named in his honour (De Foe Place).[59]

Selected works Bunhill Fields monument detail

Novels
The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions from the World in the Moon:
Translated from the Lunar Language (1705)[60]
Robinson Crusoe (1719) – originally published in two volumes:[60]
The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who
Lived Eight and Twenty Years [...]
The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: Being the Second and Last Part of His Life
[...]
Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: With his
Vision of the Angelick World (1720)
Captain Singleton (1720)
Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720)
A Journal of the Plague Year (1722)
Colonel Jack (1722)
Moll Flanders (1722)
Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724)
The Four Years Voyages of Capt. George Roberts (1726)

Nonfiction
An Essay Upon Projects (1697) – subsections of the text include: "The History of Projects,"
"Of Projectors," "Of Banks," "Of the Highways," "Of Assurances," "Of Friendly Societies,"
 "The Proposal is for a Pension Office," "Of Wagering," "Of Fools," "A Charity-Lottery," "Of
Bankrupts," "Of Academies" (including a section proposing an academy for women), "Of a
Court Merchant," and "Of Seamen."
The Storm (1704) – describes the worst storm ever to hit Britain in recorded times. Includes
eyewitness accounts.
Atlantis Major (1711)
The Family Instructor (1715)
Memoirs of the Church of Scotland (1717)
The History of the Remarkable Life of John Sheppard (1724) – describing Sheppard's life of
crime and concluding with the miraculous escapes from prison for which he had become a
public sensation.
A Narrative of All The Robberies, Escapes, &c. of John Sheppard (1724) – written by or
taken from Sheppard himself in the condemned cell before he was hanged for theft,
apparently by way of conclusion to the Defoe work. According to the Introduction to Volume
16 of the works of Defoe published by J M Dent in 1895, Sheppard handed the manuscript to
the publisher Applebee from the prisoners' cart as he was taken away to be hanged. It
included a correction of a factual detail and an explanation of how his escapes from prison
were achieved.
A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain, divided into circuits or journies (1724–1727)
A New Voyage Round the World (1724)
The Political History of the Devil (1726)
The Complete English Tradesman (1726)
A treatise concerning the use and abuse of the marriage bed... (1727)
A Plan of the English Commerce (1728) – describes how the English woolen textile
industrial base was developed by protectionist policies by Tudor monarchs, especially by
Henry VII of England and Elizabeth I, including such policies as high tariffs on the
importation of finished woolen goods, high taxes on raw wool leaving England, bringing in
artisans skilled in wool textile manufacturing from the Low Countries, selective government-
granted monopoly rights, and government-sponsored industrial espionage.

Pamphlets or essays in prose

The Poor Man's Plea (1698)
The History of the Kentish Petition (1701)
The Shortest Way with the Dissenters (1702)
The Great Law of Subordination Consider'd (1704)
Giving Alms No Charity, and Employing the Poor (1704)
The Apparition of Mrs. Veal (1706)
An Appeal to Honour and Justice, Tho' it be of his Worst Enemies, by Daniel Defoe, Being a
True Account of His Conduct in Publick Affairs (1715)
A Vindication of the Press: Or, An Essay on the Usefulness of Writing, on Criticism, and the
Qualification of Authors (1718)
Every-body's Business, Is No-body's Business (1725)
The Protestant Monastery (1726)
Parochial Tyranny (1727)
Augusta Triumphans (1728)
Second Thoughts are Best (1729)
An Essay Upon Literature (1726)
 Mere Nature Delineated (1726)
Conjugal Lewdness (1727) – Anti-Contraception Essay

Pamphlets or essays in verse

The True-Born Englishman: A Satyr (1701)
Hymn to the Pillory (1703)
An Essay on the Late Storm (1704)

Some contested works attributed to Defoe

A Friendly Epistle by way of reproof from one of the people called Quakers, to T. B., a dealer
in many words (1715).
The King of Pirates (1719) – purporting to be an account of the pirate Henry Avery.
The Pirate Gow (1725) – an account of John Gow.
A General History of the Pyrates (1724, 1725, 1726, 1828) – published in two volumes by
Charles Rivington, who had a shop near St. Paul's Cathedral, London. Published under the
name of Captain Charles Johnson, it sold in many editions.
Captain Carleton's Memoirs of an English Officer (1728).[61]
The life and adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call'd Mother Ross (1740) –
published anonymously; printed and sold by R. Montagu in London; and attributed to Defoe
but more recently not accepted.[62]

See also
Apprentice complex
Moubray House
Robert Drury (sailor) - whose book has been suggested by some was written by Defoe

Notes
a. The surname Defoe is of Flemish origin, probably derived from Faux[13] or one of its
variants, such as Defauw.[14] Defoe lauded Elizabeth for encouraging the Flemings.[13] It is
thought that he was aware of his origins[13] and it is possible that he understood some
Flemish/Dutch, since his library had Dutch titles.[15]

References
1. Duguid, Paul (2 October 2006). "Limits of self-organization: Peer production and "laws of
quality" " (https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/1405/1323). First Monday. 11
(10). doi:10.5210/fm.v11i10.1405 (https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v11i10.1405). ISSN 1396-
0466 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1396-0466). Retrieved 17 November 2022. "Most
reliable sources hold that the date of Defoe's birth was uncertain and may have fallen in
1659 or 1661. The day of his death is also uncertain."
 2. Backscheider, Paula R. (January 2008) [2004]. "Daniel Defoe (1660?–1731)" (http://www.oxf
orddnb.com/view/article/7421). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford
University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/7421 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F74
21). (Subscription or UK public library membership (https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#pub
lic) required.)
3. "Defoe", The Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Margaret Drabble. (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1996), p. 265.
4. Backscheider (2008/2004). "Even the most conservative lists of Defoe's works include 318
titles, and most Defoe scholars would credit him with at least 50 more."
5. Margarett A. James and Dorothy F. Tucker. "Daniel Defoe, Journalist." Business History
Review 2.1 (1928): 2–6.
6. Adams, Gavin John (2012). Letters to John Law (https://web.archive.org/web/201401020744
01/http://books.google.com/books?id=espxkAw-5bsC&pg=PR53). Newton Page. pp. liii–lv.
ISBN 978-1-934619-08-7. Archived from the original (https://books.google.com/books?id=es
pxkAw-5bsC&pg=PR53) on 2 January 2014.
7. Hibbert, Christopher; Weinreb, Ben; Keay, John; Keay, Julia (2010). The London
Encyclopaedia (https://books.google.com/books?id=xa0D0PqiwfEC&pg=PA304). London:
Pan Macmillan. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-230-73878-2.
8. Stephanson, Raymond (2013). Raymond Stephanson, Darren N. Wagner (ed.). The Secrets
of Generation Reproduction in the Long Eighteenth Century (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=4nAhCwAAQBAJ). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-4426-
6693-1.
9. Torselli, Stefano. "Daniel Defoe" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170803152602/http://www.b
aroque.it/cultura-del-periodo-barocco/letteratura/scrittori-e-letterati/daniel-defoe.html).
www.baroque.it. Archived from the original (https://www.baroque.it/cultura-del-periodo-baroc
co/letteratura/scrittori-e-letterati/daniel-defoe.html) on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 17 October
2021.
10. Bastian, F. (1981). Defoe's Early Years (https://books.google.com/books?id=yNquCwAAQB
AJ&q=%22early+autumn+of+1660%22&pg=PA8). London: Macmillan Press. p. 8.
ISBN 978-0-333-27432-3. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
11. Schaff, Barbara (2020). Handbook of British Travel Writing (https://books.google.com/books?
id=NrH8DwAAQBAJ). Berlin: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-049705-2.
12. Mutter, Reginald P.C. "Daniel Defoe – English author" (https://web.archive.org/web/2021101
7103647/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Daniel-Defoe). Britannica. Archived from the
original (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Daniel-Defoe) on 17 October 2021. Retrieved
17 October 2021.
13. Wright, Thomas (1894). The Life of Daniel Defoe Volume 1 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=YxhAAAAAYAAJ). Cassell. p. 2.
14. Stevelinck, Ernest; De Roover, Raymond (1970). De comptabiliteit door de eeuwen heen
tentoonstelling in de Koninklijke Bibliotheek Albert I (https://books.google.com/books?id=cx
YjAQAAMAAJ). Brussels: Royal Library of Belgium. p. 150.
15. van Ginneken, Jaap (2007). Screening Difference How Hollywood's Blockbuster Films
Imagine Race, Ethnicity, and Culture (https://books.google.com/books?id=MU97AAAAQBA
J). Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-4616-4329-6.
16. Richard West (1998) Daniel Defoe: The Life and Strange, Surprising Adventures. New York:
Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-7867-0557-3.
17. Black, Joseph Laurence, ed. (2006). The Broadview Anthology of Literature: The
Restoration and the Eighteenth Century. Toronto: Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-611-
2.
18. Richetti, John (2005). The Life of Daniel Defoe. doi:10.1002/9780470754665 (https://doi.org/
10.1002%2F9780470754665). ISBN 978-0-631-19529-0.
19. Bastian, F. (1965). "Defoe's Journal of the Plague Year Reconsidered". The Review of
English Studies. 16 (62): 151–173. JSTOR 513101 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/513101).
20. Biography of Daniel Defoe (1659?–1731) (http://www.gradesaver.com/author/daniel-defoe/).
Retrieved 1 August 2013.
21. "Defoe in Stoke Newington". Arthur Secord, P.M.L.A. Vol. 66, p. 211, 1951. Cited in
Thorncroft, p. 9, who identifies him as "an American scholar".
22. London County Council (6 October 2020). "Daniel Defoe – Blue Plaques" (https://www.engli
sh-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/daniel-defoe/). English Heritage. Retrieved 13 October
2020.
23. Novak, Maximillian (2001). Daniel Defoe : master of fictions : his life and ideas (https://archiv
e.org/details/danieldefoemaste00maxi). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-926154-3. OCLC 51963527 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/51963527).
24. Backscheider, Paula (1989). Daniel Defoe : his life. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4512-3. OCLC 59911734 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5991173
4).
25. Defoe, Daniel (1702). "The shortest way with the Dissenters" (http://www.bartleby.com/27/1
2.html). Retrieved 18 September 2010.
26. UK Retail Price Index inflation figures are based on data from Clark, Gregory (2017). "The
Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)" (https://measuri
ngworth.com/datasets/ukearncpi/). MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
27. The Storm: or, a collection of the most remarkable casualties and disasters which happen'd
in the late dreadful tempest, both by sea and land. London: 1704.
28. John J. Miller (13 August 2011) "Writing Up a Storm" (https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001
424053111904800304576476142821212156?KEYWORDS=masterpiece), The Wall Street
Journal.
29. Downie, J. A. "Robert Harley and the Press" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190125183319/
https://theses.ncl.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/10443/165/1/downie76.pdf) (PDF). University of
Newcastle eTheses. University of Newcastle. Archived from the original (https://theses.ncl.a
c.uk/dspace/bitstream/10443/165/1/downie76.pdf) (PDF) on 25 January 2019. Retrieved
24 January 2019.
30. Clerk, John (1892). Gray, John Miller (ed.). Memoirs of the life of Sir John Clerk of Penicuik,
baronet, baron of the Exchequer, extracted by himself from his own journals, 1676–1755 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/memoirslifesirj01clergoog). Edinburgh: Scottish Historical Society.
pp. 63–64. In a side-note at this point Clerk recommends Defoe's History of the Union of
Great Britain : "This History of the Union deserves to be read. It was published in folio. There
is not one fact in it which I can challenge"
31. The History Of The Union Of Great Britain, 1709; Edinburgh, Heirs of Anderson (https://trues
cans.com/BeginnersFolder/Defoe.htm) at TrueScans.
32. First Defoe book author reference – cited as DANIEL DEFOE (http://truescans.com/Beginner
sFolder/Images/Defoe_1709/DSCN9162.JPG) at truescans.com.
33. Second Defoe book author reference – cited as D. DE FOE (http://truescans.com/Beginners
Folder/Images/Defoe_1709/DSCN9166.JPG) at truescans.com.
34. Book reference to 6th December of 1604 (http://truescans.com/BeginnersFolder/Images/Def
oe_1709/DSCN9167A.JPG) at truescans.com.
35. Swenson, Rivka (2015). Essential Scots and the Idea of Unionism in Anglo-Scottish
Literature, 1603–1832 (ebook ed.). Bucknell University Press. p. 58.
36. [Defoe, Daniel. The complete English tradesman. London: Tegg, 1841. Print.]
37. Minto, William (1879). Daniel Defoe (https://archive.org/details/cu31924013179902). New
York: Harper & Bros. OCLC 562533988 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/562533988).
38. Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an
early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
39. Cyril Glassé (2001), The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Rowman Altamira, p. 202, ISBN 0-
7591-0190-6.
40. Haque, Amber (2004). "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim
Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists". Journal of Religion and
Health. 43 (4): 357–377 [369]. doi:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs
10943-004-4302-z). JSTOR 27512819 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/27512819).
S2CID 38740431 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38740431).
41. Martin Wainwright (22 March 2003) Desert island scripts (http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/
story/0,12084,918454,00.html), The Guardian.
42. Zimmerman, Everett (1972). "H. F.'s Meditations: A Journal of the Plague Year". PMLA. 87
(3): 417–423. doi:10.2307/460900 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F460900). JSTOR 460900 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/460900). S2CID 164093586 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
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43. Mayer, Robert (1990). "The Reception of a Journal of the Plague Year and the Nexus of
Fiction and History in the Novel". ELH. 57 (3): 529–555. doi:10.2307/2873233 (https://doi.or
g/10.2307%2F2873233). JSTOR 2873233 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2873233).
44. Seager, Nicholas (2008). "Lies, Damned Lies, and Statistics: Epistemology and Fiction in
Defoe's "A Journal of the Plague Year" ". Modern Language Review. 103 (3): 639–653.
doi:10.1353/mlr.2008.0112 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fmlr.2008.0112). JSTOR 20467902 (h
ttps://www.jstor.org/stable/20467902). S2CID 246643865 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Co
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The Stratford Co., 1919.
46. "Moll: The Life and Times of Moll Flanders" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190428084347/h
ttps://www.historyextra.com/period/moll-the-life-and-times-of-moll-flanders/). History Extra.
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47. Kibbie, Ann Louise (1995). "Monstrous Generation: The Birth of Capital in Defoe's Moll
Flanders and Roxana". PMLA. 110 (5): 1023–1034. doi:10.2307/463027 (https://doi.org/10.2
307%2F463027). JSTOR 463027 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/463027). S2CID 163996973
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1670-1730 (ebook ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 118.
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51. "The appendices offer even more: a listing of Voltaire's and Daniel Defoe's numerous
pseudonyms (178 and 198, respectively) ..." in A Dictionary of Pseudonyms and Their
Origins, with Stories of Name Changes, 3rd ed., Mcfarland & Co Inc Pub., 1998, ISBN 0-
7864-0423-X.
52. Vareschi, Mark (1 April 2012). "Attribution and Repetition: The Case of Defoe and the
Circulating Library". Eighteenth-Century Life. 36 (2): 36–59. doi:10.1215/00982601-1548027
(https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00982601-1548027). S2CID 145603239 (https://api.semanticsch
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53. Pauley, Benjamin F. (2023). "Attribution and the Defoe Canon". The Oxford Handbook of
Danirel Defoe. pp. 629–44.
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8). JSTOR 3817908 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3817908).
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www.cambridge.org/core/books/daniel-defoe-in-context/anonymous-defoe/BA15565124883
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22 November 2023
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62. "The life and adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call'd Mother Ross" (http://colle
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Further reading
Backscheider, Paula R. Daniel Defoe: His Life (1989).
Backscheider, Paula R. Daniel Defoe: Ambition and Innovation (UP of Kentucky, 2015).
Baines, Paul. Daniel Defoe-Robinson Crusoe/Moll Flanders (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
Di Renzo, Anthony (October 1998). "The Complete English Tradesman: Daniel Defoe and
the Emergence of Business Writing". Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. 28
(4): 325–334. doi:10.2190/TE72-JBN7-GNUT-BNUW (https://doi.org/10.2190%2FTE72-JBN
7-GNUT-BNUW). S2CID 219975268 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219975268).
Furbank, P. N.; Owens, W. R. (2015). A Political Biography of Daniel Defoe. Routledge.
ISBN 978-1-317-31567-4.
 Gollapudi, Aparna (2015). "Personhood, Property Rights, and the Child in John Locke's Two
Treatises of Government and Daniel Defoe's Fiction". Eighteenth-Century Fiction. 28 (1):
25–58. doi:10.3138/ecf.28.1.25 (https://doi.org/10.3138%2Fecf.28.1.25). S2CID 145261485
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145261485). Project MUSE 595356 (https://muse.j
hu.edu/article/595356).
Gregg, Stephen H. Defoe's Writings and Manliness: Contrary Men (Routledge, 2016).
Guilhamet, Leon. Defoe and the Whig Novel: A Reading of the Major Fiction (U of Delaware
Press, 2010).
Hammond, John R. ed. A Defoe companion (Macmillan, 1993).
Marshall, Ashley (2012). "Fabricating Defoes: From Anonymous Hack to Master of Fictions".
Eighteenth-Century Life. 36 (2): 1–35. doi:10.1215/00982601-1548018 (https://doi.org/10.12
15%2F00982601-1548018). S2CID 144469998 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
44469998). Project MUSE 472272 (https://muse.jhu.edu/article/472272).
Novak, Maximillian E. Daniel Defoe: Master of Fictions: His Life and Ideas (2001) ISBN 978-
0-19-812686-7
O'Brien, John (1996). "The Character of Credit: Defoe's "Lady Credit," The Fortunate
Mistress, and the Resources of Inconsistency in Early Eighteenth-Century Britain". ELH. 63
(3): 603–631. doi:10.1353/elh.1996.0030 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Felh.1996.0030).
S2CID 162892432 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162892432).
Project MUSE 11339 (https://muse.jhu.edu/article/11339).
Novak, Maximillian E. Realism, myth, and history in Defoe's fiction (U of Nebraska Press,
1983).
Richetti, John. The Life of Daniel Defoe: A Critical Biography (2015).
Rogers, Pat (1971). "Defoe in the Fleet Prison". The Review of English Studies. 22 (88):
451–455. doi:10.1093/res/XXII.88.451 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fres%2FXXII.88.451).
JSTOR 513276 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/513276).
Sutherland, J.R. Defoe (Taylor & Francis, 1950)

Primary sources
Curtis, Laura Ann, ed. The Versatile Defoe: An Anthology of Uncollected Writings by Daniel
Defoe (Rowman and Littlefield, 1979).
Defoe, Daniel. The Best of Defoe's Review: An Anthology (Columbia University Press,
1951).
W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. The True-Born Englishman and Other
Writings (Penguin Books, 1997).
W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. Political and Economic Writings of Daniel
Defoe (Pickering & Chatto, 2000).
W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. Writings on Travel, Discovery, and History
(Pickering & Chatto, 2001–2002).

External links
Works by Daniel Defoe in eBook form (https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/daniel-defoe) at
Standard Ebooks
Works by Daniel Defoe (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/204) at Project Gutenberg
Works by Daniel DeFoe (https://fadedpage.com/csearch.php?author=DeFoe%2C%20Danie
l) at Faded Page (Canada)
 Works by or about Daniel Defoe (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3
A%22Defoe%2C%20Daniel%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Daniel%20Defoe%22%20O
R%20creator%3A%22Defoe%2C%20Daniel%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Daniel%20De
foe%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Defoe%2C%20D%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Da
niel%20Defoe%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Defoe%2C%20Daniel%22%20OR%20d
escription%3A%22Daniel%20Defoe%22%29%20OR%20%28%221660-1731%22%20AN
D%20Defoe%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Daniel Defoe (https://librivox.org/author/895) at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
Full online versions of various copies of Defoe's Robinson Crusoe and the Robinsonades (h
ttp://ufdc.ufl.edu/defoe)
Full texts in German and English (https://web.archive.org/web/20080117203855/http://www.l
iterature.at/elib/index.php5?title=Daniel_Defoe_-_1660-1731#Information) – eLibrary
Projekt (eLib)
The Journeys of Daniel Defoe around Britain (http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/contents_
page.jsp?t_id=Defoe) (from a Vision of Britain)
Saintsbury, George (1878). "Daniel Defoe" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A
6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Daniel_Defoe). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VII (9th ed.).
pp. 26–31.
"Defoe, Daniel" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Defo
e,_Daniel). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 927–931.
Russian toponyms in Daniel Defoe's novels (http://www.geopoesia.ru/ru/main/stat-main/01-c
rusoe-en.html)
Defoe, Daniel 1661?–1731 WorldCat Identity (http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-53
974)
A System of Magick (https://archive.org/details/systemofmagic00defo)
The Thief-Taker Hangings: How Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard
Captivated London and Created the Celebrity Criminal by Aaron Skirboll (http://aaronskirbol
l.com/)

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