Overview

Function Basics
By Example

PostgreSQL Functions By Example

Joe Conway
[email protected]

credativ Group

January 20, 2012

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Introduction
Overview
Uses
Function Basics
Varieties
By Example
Languages

What are Functions?

Full fledged SQL objects

Many other database objects are implemented with them
Fundamental part of PostgreSQL’s system architecture
Created with CREATE FUNCTION
Executed through normal SQL
target-list:
SELECT myfunc(f1) FROM foo;
FROM clause:
SELECT * FROM myfunc();
WHERE clause:
SELECT * FROM foo WHERE myfunc(f1) = 42;

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Introduction
Overview
Uses
Function Basics
Varieties
By Example
Languages

How are they Used?

Functions
Operators
Data types
Index methods
Casts
Triggers
Aggregates

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Introduction
Overview
Uses
Function Basics
Varieties
By Example
Languages

What Forms Can They Take?

PostgreSQL provides four kinds of functions:
SQL
Procedural Languages
Internal
C-language
Arguments
Base, composite, or combinations
Scalar or array
Pseudo or polymorphic
VARIADIC
IN/OUT/INOUT
Return
Singleton or set (SETOF)
Base or composite type
Pseudo or polymorphic
http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/sql-createfunction.html
Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay
 Introduction
Overview
Uses
Function Basics
Varieties
By Example
Languages

SQL Functions
Behavior
Executes an arbitrary list of SQL statements separated by
semicolons
Last statement may be INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE with
RETURNING clause
Arguments
Referenced by function body using $n: $1 is first arg, etc. . .
If composite type, then dot notation $1.name used to access
Only used as data values, not as identifiers
Return
If singleton, first row of last query result returned, NULL on no
result
If SETOF, all rows of last query result returned, empty set on
no result
http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/xfunc-sql.html
Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay
 Introduction
Overview
Uses
Function Basics
Varieties
By Example
Languages

Procedural Languages

User-defined functions
Written in languages besides SQL and C
Task is passed to a special handler that knows the details of
the language
Handler could be self-contained (e.g. PL/pgSQL)
Handler could be dynamically loaded (e.g. PL/Perl)
http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/xplang.html

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Introduction
Overview
Uses
Function Basics
Varieties
By Example
Languages

Internal Functions

Statically linked C functions

Could use CREATE FUNCTION to create additional alias
names for an internal function
Most internal functions expect to be declared STRICT

CREATE FUNCTION square_root(double precision)

RETURNS double precision AS
’dsqrt’
LANGUAGE internal STRICT;

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/xfunc-internal.html

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Introduction
Overview
Uses
Function Basics
Varieties
By Example
Languages

C Language Functions

User-defined functions written in C

Compiled into dynamically loadable objects (also called shared
libraries)
Loaded by the server on demand
contrib is good source of examples
Same as internal function coding conventions
Require PG MODULE MAGIC call
Needs separate topic
http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/xfunc-c.html

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Introduction
Overview
Uses
Function Basics
Varieties
By Example
Languages

Language Availability

PostgreSQL includes the following server-side procedural

languages:
http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/xplang.html

PL/pgSQL
Perl
Python
Tcl
Other languages available:
http://pgfoundry.org/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=311

Java
PHP
Ruby
R
Shell
others . . .
Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay
 Overview
Creation
Function Basics
Attributes
By Example

Creating New Functions

CREATE [ OR REPLACE ] FUNCTION

name ( [ [ argmode ] [ argname ] argtype [ { DEFAULT | = } defexpr ] [, ...]
[ RETURNS rettype
| RETURNS TABLE ( colname coltype [, ...] ) ]
{ LANGUAGE langname
| WINDOW
| IMMUTABLE | STABLE | VOLATILE
| CALLED ON NULL INPUT | RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT | STRICT
| [ EXTERNAL ] SECURITY INVOKER | [ EXTERNAL ] SECURITY DEFINER
| COST execution_cost
| ROWS result_rows
| SET configuration_parameter { TO value | = value | FROM CURRENT }
| AS ’definition’
| AS ’obj_file’, ’link_symbol’
} ...
[ WITH ( attribute [, ...] ) ]

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/sql-createfunction.html

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
Creation
Function Basics
Attributes
By Example

Dollar Quoting

Works for all character strings

Particularly useful for function bodies
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION dummy () RETURNS text AS
$Q$
DECLARE
result text;
BEGIN
PERFORM ’SELECT 1+1’;
RETURN ’ok’;
END;
$Q$
LANGUAGE plpgsql;

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/static/sql-syntax-lexical.html#SQL-SYNTAX-DOLLAR-QUOTING

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
Creation
Function Basics
Attributes
By Example

Function Overloading
IN argument signature used
Avoid ambiguities:
Type (e.g. REAL vs. DOUBLE PRECISION)
Function name same as IN composite field name
VARIADIC vs same type scalar
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION foo (text) RETURNS text AS $$
SELECT $1
$$ LANGUAGE sql;
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION foo (int) RETURNS text AS $$
SELECT ($1 + 1)::text
$$ LANGUAGE sql;

SELECT foo(’42’), foo(41);

foo | foo
-----+-----
42 | 42
(1 row)

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/xfunc-overload.html
Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay
 Overview
Creation
Function Basics
Attributes
By Example

Changing Existing Functions

Once created, dependent objects may be created

Must do DROP FUNCTION ... CASCADE to recreate
Or use OR REPLACE to avoid dropping dependent objects
Very useful for large dependency tree
Can’t be used in some circumstances (must drop/recreate
instead). You cannot:
change function name or argument types
change return type
change types of any OUT parameters

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION ...;

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
Creation
Function Basics
Attributes
By Example

Volatility
VOLATILE (default)
Each call can return a different result
Example: random() or timeofday()
Functions modifying table contents must be declared volatile
STABLE
Returns same result for same arguments within single query
Example: now()
Consider configuration settings that affect output
IMMUTABLE
Always returns the same result for the same arguments
Example: lower(’ABC’)
Unaffected by configuration settings
Not dependent on table contents
select lower(’ABC’), now(), timeofday() from generate_series(1,3);

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
Creation
Function Basics
Attributes
By Example

Behavior with Null Input Values

CALLED ON NULL INPUT (default)
Function called normally with the null input values
RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT
Function not called when null input values are present
Instead, null is returned automatically
CREATE FUNCTION sum1 (int, int) RETURNS int AS $$
SELECT $1 + $2
$$ LANGUAGE SQL RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT;
CREATE FUNCTION sum2 (int, int) RETURNS int AS $$
SELECT COALESCE($1, 0) + COALESCE($2, 0)
$$ LANGUAGE SQL CALLED ON NULL INPUT;

SELECT sum1(9, NULL) IS NULL AS "true", sum2(9, NULL);

true | sum2
------+------
t | 9
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
Creation
Function Basics
Attributes
By Example

Security Attributes
SECURITY INVOKER (default)
Function executed with the rights of the current user
SECURITY DEFINER
Executed with rights of creator, like ”setuid”
CREATE TABLE foo (f1 int);
REVOKE ALL ON foo FROM public;
CREATE FUNCTION see_foo() RETURNS SETOF foo AS $$
SELECT * FROM foo
$$ LANGUAGE SQL SECURITY DEFINER;
\c - guest
You are now connected to database "postgres" as user "guest".
SELECT * FROM foo;
ERROR: permission denied for relation foo
SELECT * FROM see_foo();
f1
----
(0 rows)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Simple

CREATE FUNCTION sum (text, text)

RETURNS text AS $$
SELECT $1 || ’ ’ || $2
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;

SELECT sum(’hello’, ’world’);

sum
-------------
hello world
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Custom Operator

CREATE OPERATOR + (
procedure = sum,
leftarg = text,
rightarg = text
);

SELECT ’hello’ + ’world’;

?column?
-------------
hello world
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Custom Aggregate

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION concat_ws_comma(text, ANYELEMENT)

RETURNS text AS $$
SELECT concat_ws(’,’, $1, $2)
$$ LANGUAGE sql;

CREATE AGGREGATE str_agg (ANYELEMENT) (

sfunc = concat_ws_comma,
stype = text);

SELECT str_agg(f1) FROM foo;

str_agg
---------
41,42
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

SETOF with OUT Arguments

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION sql_with_rows(OUT a int, OUT b text)

RETURNS SETOF RECORD AS $$
values (1,’a’),(2,’b’)
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;

select * from sql_with_rows();

a | b
---+---
1 | a
2 | b
(2 rows)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

INSERT RETURNING

CREATE TABLE foo (f0 serial, f1 int, f2 text);

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION

sql_insert_returning(INOUT f1 int, INOUT f2 text, OUT id int) AS $$
INSERT INTO foo(f1, f2) VALUES ($1,$2) RETURNING f1, f2, f0
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;

SELECT * FROM sql_insert_returning(1,’a’);

f1 | f2 | id
----+----+----
1 | a | 1
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Composite Argument

CREATE TABLE emp (name text,

salary numeric,
age integer,
cubicle point);

CREATE FUNCTION double_salary(emp) RETURNS numeric AS $$

SELECT $1.salary * 2 AS salary;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;

SELECT name, double_salary(emp.*) AS dream

FROM emp WHERE emp.cubicle ~= point ’(2,1)’;

SELECT name,
double_salary(ROW(name, salary*1.1, age, cubicle)) AS dream
FROM emp;

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Polymorphic

CREATE FUNCTION myappend(anyarray, anyelement) RETURNS anyarray AS

$$
SELECT $1 || $2;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;

SELECT myappend(ARRAY[42,6], 21), myappend(ARRAY[’abc’,’def’], ’xyz’);

myappend | myappend
-----------+---------------
{42,6,21} | {abc,def,xyz}
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Target List versus FROM Clause

CREATE FUNCTION new_emp() RETURNS emp AS $$

SELECT ROW(’None’, 1000.0, 25, ’(2,2)’)::emp;
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;
SELECT new_emp();
new_emp
--------------------------
(None,1000.0,25,"(2,2)")

SELECT * FROM new_emp();

name | salary | age | cubicle
------+--------+-----+---------
None | 1000.0 | 25 | (2,2)

SELECT (new_emp()).name;
name
------
None

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

VARIADIC

CREATE FUNCTION mleast(VARIADIC numeric[]) RETURNS numeric AS $$

SELECT min($1[i]) FROM generate_subscripts($1, 1) g(i);
$$ LANGUAGE SQL;

SELECT mleast(10, -1, 5, 4.4);

mleast
--------
-1
(1 row)

SELECT mleast(42, 6, 42.42);

mleast
--------
6
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

DEFAULT Arguments

CREATE FUNCTION foo(a int, b int DEFAULT 2, c int DEFAULT 3)

RETURNS int LANGUAGE SQL AS $$SELECT $1 + $2 + $3$$;

SELECT foo(10, 20, 30);

foo
-----
60
(1 row)

SELECT foo(10, 20);

foo
-----
33
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

PL/pgSQL

PL/pgSQL is SQL plus procedural elements

variables
if/then/else
loops
cursors
error checking
Loading the language handler into a database:
createlang plpgsql dbname

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/plpgsql.html

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Simple

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION sum (text, text)

RETURNS text AS $$
BEGIN
RETURN $1 || ’ ’ || $2;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT sum(’hello’, ’world’);

sum
-------------
hello world
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Parameter ALIAS

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION sum (int, int)

RETURNS int AS $$
DECLARE
i ALIAS FOR $1;
j ALIAS FOR $2;
sum int;
BEGIN
sum := i + j;
RETURN sum;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT sum(41, 1);

sum
-----
42
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Named Parameters

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION sum (i int, j int)

RETURNS int AS $$
DECLARE
sum int;
BEGIN
sum := i + j;
RETURN sum;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT sum(41, 1);

sum
-----
42
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Control Structures: IF ...

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION even (i int)

RETURNS boolean AS $$
DECLARE
tmp int;
BEGIN
tmp := i % 2;
IF tmp = 0 THEN RETURN true;
ELSE RETURN false;
END IF;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT even(3), even(42);

even | even
------+------
f | t
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Control Structures: FOR ... LOOP

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION factorial (i numeric)

RETURNS numeric AS $$
DECLARE
tmp numeric; result numeric;
BEGIN
result := 1;
FOR tmp IN 1 .. i LOOP
result := result * tmp;
END LOOP;
RETURN result;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;
SELECT factorial(42::numeric);
factorial
------------------------------------------------------
1405006117752879898543142606244511569936384000000000
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Control Structures: WHILE ... LOOP

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION factorial (i numeric)

RETURNS numeric AS $$
DECLARE tmp numeric; result numeric;
BEGIN
result := 1; tmp := 1;
WHILE tmp <= i LOOP
result := result * tmp;
tmp := tmp + 1;
END LOOP;
RETURN result;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT factorial(42::numeric);
factorial
------------------------------------------------------
1405006117752879898543142606244511569936384000000000
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Recursive

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION factorial (i numeric)

RETURNS numeric AS $$
BEGIN
IF i = 0 THEN
RETURN 1;
ELSIF i = 1 THEN
RETURN 1;
ELSE
RETURN i * factorial(i - 1);
END IF;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT factorial(42::numeric);
factorial
------------------------------------------------------
1405006117752879898543142606244511569936384000000000
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Record types

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION format ()

RETURNS text AS $$
DECLARE
tmp RECORD;
BEGIN
SELECT INTO tmp 1 + 1 AS a, 2 + 2 AS b;
RETURN ’a = ’ || tmp.a || ’; b = ’ || tmp.b;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

select format();
format
--------------
a = 2; b = 4
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

PERFORM

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION func_w_side_fx() RETURNS void AS

$$ INSERT INTO foo VALUES (41),(42) $$ LANGUAGE sql;

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION dummy ()

RETURNS text AS $$
BEGIN
PERFORM func_w_side_fx();
RETURN ’OK’;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT dummy();
SELECT * FROM foo;
f1
----
41
42
(2 rows)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Dynamic SQL

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION get_foo(i int)

RETURNS foo AS $$
DECLARE
rec RECORD;
BEGIN
EXECUTE ’SELECT * FROM foo WHERE f1 = ’ || i INTO rec;
RETURN rec;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT * FROM get_foo(42);

f1
----
42
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Cursors

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION totalbalance()

RETURNS numeric AS $$
DECLARE
tmp RECORD; result numeric;
BEGIN
result := 0.00;
FOR tmp IN SELECT * FROM foo LOOP
result := result + tmp.f1;
END LOOP;
RETURN result;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

SELECT totalbalance();
totalbalance
--------------
83.00
(1 row)

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Error Handling

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION safe_add(a integer, b integer)

RETURNS integer AS $$
BEGIN
RETURN a + b;
EXCEPTION
WHEN numeric_value_out_of_range THEN
-- do some important stuff
RETURN -1;
WHEN OTHERS THEN
-- do some other important stuff
RETURN -1;
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

http://www.postgresql.org/docs/9.1/interactive/errcodes-appendix.html

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Nested Exception Blocks

CREATE FUNCTION merge_db(key integer, data text)

RETURNS void AS $$
BEGIN
LOOP
UPDATE db SET b = data WHERE a = key;
IF found THEN RETURN;
END IF;
BEGIN
INSERT INTO db (a, b) VALUES (key, data);
RETURN;
EXCEPTION WHEN unique_violation THEN
-- do nothing
END;
END LOOP;
EXCEPTION WHEN OTHERS THEN
-- do something else
END;
$$ LANGUAGE plpgsql;

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay

 Overview
SQL Functions
Function Basics
PL/pgSQL Functions
By Example

Thank You

Questions?

Joe Conway SCALE10X-PGDay