APPENDIX "III"

SOLVED EXAMPLES AND PROBLEMS

CHAPTER I

BASIC THEORY

1.1 Velocity Diagram:

The velocity of the fluid particle moving through an impeller channel must
satisfy the vectorial relationship.

→ → →
C = W +U

where:

C : is the absolute velocity

W : is the relative velocity tangent to the blade
U : is the tangential velocity

πDN
2 ω.r = C
60 W Cr
β
where:
α

N : the revolution per minute Cu

D : the rotor diameter = 2r U
ω : the angular velocity

Cr : the radial component of the absolute velocity

Cu : the tangential component of the absolute velocity
β : the blade angle
α : the angle between the tangential direction and the absolute velocity

292
The power generated from or by turbomachine rotor is defined by:
→
Power = ∫∫ r .ω C . d Q m

U 2 C u2 − U 1 C u1
The theoretical head generated Ho =
g
(U 2
1 −U 2
2 ) + (W
2
2
− W12 )
The degree of reaction σ =
(C
2
1 − C22 ) + (U 12 − U 22 ) + (W22 − W12 )

1.2 Coefficients and Efficiencies:

1.2.1 Circulatory Flow Coefficient

η∞ = C u / Cu
2 2

where (the prime) to define the actual tangential velocity.

1.2.2 Manometric efficiency (Pump)

actual measured head H

η man. = = a
head imparted to fluid by impeller H o

1.2.3 Mechanical efficiency

γ .QH o
η mech. = / BHP (Pump)
Const.
or
γ .QH o
η mech. = BHP / (Turbine)
Const .

1.2.4 Hydraulic efficiency (Turbine)

η hyd . = H o / H av

293
 Solved Examples
Example (1)

Derive an expression for the head created by the centrifugal forces only in a
rotating element containing fluid such as pump impeller.

Solution

From Newton's second law of

motion:

F = M.a = M r ω2

Consider a small element dM

dF = dM r ω2

where dF is the force produced due

to the rotation of the mass dM in
∂F
radial direction ∂P = .
∂A

i.e.

∂ P = ∂ r.r dφ .d z.ρ .rω 2 / d A (1)

and dA = r dφ dz, i.e.

∂P = ρω 2 r∂ r (2)

Now apply Newton's second law of Motion on the Z direction, we obtain:

 ∂P 
P.r.dr.dφ −  P + dz r.d r.dφ − ρ g.r.d r.dφ .dz = 0
 ∂ z 
or

∂P
= −ρ g (3)
∂z

Note that P is a function of r.z

∂P ∂P
dP = dr + dz (4)
∂r ∂z

294
From equations (2), (3) and (4):

dP = ρω 2 r.dr − ρg.dz

Integrate from r1 to r2

ρω 2
P2 − P1 =
2
(r
2
2
)
− r12 + ρ g (Z 1 − Z 2 )

P2 − P1 represents the increment in total pressure due to centrifugal forces only. The
last formula is important to the study of turbomachine. If Bernoulli's equation is
applied, ( P2 − P1 ) equals the difference in potential kinetic energy.

Example (2)

Starting from Bernoulli's equation for a steady flow, determine the head
developed by a turbomachine.

Solution

Applying Bernoulli's equation on the relative path:

Consider also that the axis of reference rotate with the rotating element in such way,
that we can consider that there is no power gained from the machine and vice-versa
no power induced to the machine.

 P1 W 12   P2 W 22 
 + + V  =  + +V  (1)
 ρg 2g 1  ρg 2g 2

V1 and V2 represent the potential energy, which include the effect of

centrifugal forces, which is calculated previously in the last example.

i.e.
P1 P2 W22 − W12 ω 12 r12 − ω 22 r22
− = + + Z 2 − Z1
ρg ρg 2g 2g (2)
U = ωr

Applying Bernoulli's equation on the absolute path:

i.e.
P C2   P1 C 12 
Ho =  2 + 2 + Z2  −  + + Z1  (3)
 ρg 2 g   ρg 2 g 

From equations (2) and (3), we can find:

295
 C 22 − C 12 W12 − W 22 U 22 − U 12
Ho = + + (4)
2g 2g 2g

which is the general equation for the power delivered by the turbomachine.

The above equation could be also represented on the following form:

W 2 = U 2 + C 2 − 2UC cos α 2

Substitute in equation (4):

C 2U 2 cos α 2 − C1U 1 cosα 1

Ho =
g

Example (3)

A pump impeller rotating at 1400 rpm has an outside radius of 21 cm, the vane
outlet angle β2 is 158° and the radial velocity at the outlet Cr2 is 4 m/s. Assuming
radial flow at inlet, draw the theoretical outlet velocity diagram and calculate the
various velocities and angles. What is the theoretical head Ho assuming that the
circulatory flow coefficient η∞ = 1.

Solution

β 2 = 158°
2π N
ω= = 146.6 rad/s
60
U 2 = ω r2 = 146.6 × 0.21 = 30.8 m/s
C r2 4
W2 = = = 10 .66 m/s
sin (180 − β 2 ) sin 22 °
C r2
Cu2 = U 2 −
tan (180 − β 2 )
4
= 30.8 − = 20.9 m/s
tan 22°
2 2
C 2 = C r 2 + Cu 2
i.e. C2 = (4)2 + (20.9)2 = 21.3 m/s
C r2
α 2 = tan −1 = 10 ° 5 0 ′
C u2
U 2 C u 2 − U 1 C u1 U 2 C u2
Ho = =
g g

296
 30 .8 × 20 .9
Ho = = 65 .6 m
9 .81

Example (4)

In the preceding example; assume a deviation of 10° applied to β2 due to

circulation after the modern theory, draw the velocity diagram and find the theoretical
head Ho assuming radial flow at inlet, neglecting the deviation in inlet velocity
diagram.

Assuming that the mechanical efficiency ηmech = 0.95, the hydraulic (or
manometric) efficiency ηman = 0.8, find the required power to drive the pump. Also,
calculate the water horsepower. The flow is 30 lit/s.

Solution

C u2
η∞ =
C u2

i.e. C u 2 = 0.8 × 20.9 = 16.7 m/s

U 2 C u2 30.8 × 16.7
Ho = = = 52.5 m
g 9.81
γ Q Ho
η mech =
75 B.H .P.
i.e.
1000 × 0.030 × 52.5
B.H .P. = = 22.1 hp
75 × 0.95

The power required to drive the pump = 22.1

hp

actual measured head H

η man = = a
head imparted to the fluid by impeller H o

γ Q Ha 1000 × 0.030 × 52.5 × 0.80

W .H .P. = = = 16.8 hp
75 75

Example (5)

A turbine rotates at 150 rpm and discharges 0.8 m3/s. The radial velocity at
inlet Cr1 = 2 m/s and equals 6 m/s at exit. The physical data are: r1 = 0.5 m, r2 = 0.2 m,

297
 α1 = 15°, β2 = 135°, Z1 = Z2, the pressure head at exit is 6 m. Assuming a loss of head
of 2 m, calculate:

a) The head, power delivered by the turbine, (no draft tube are used) neglect
circulatory flow and hydraulic losses.
b) The pressure head at entrance.
c) The degree of reaction.

Solution

a)
2π N
ω= = 15.7 rad/s
60
U 1 = ω r1 = 7.85 m/s
U 2 = ω r2 = 3.14 m/s
C r2
Cu 2 = −U 2
tan (180 − β 2 )
= 6 − 3.14 = 2.86 m/s
C U − C u 2U 2
H o = u1 1 = 5.05 m
g

γ Q Ho
Power = = 53.9 hp
75

b) Applying Bernoulli's equation between (1) and (2):

P1 C2 P C2
+ Z 1 + 1 − H loss − H o = 2 + Z 2 + 2 (Z 1 = Z 2 )
ρg 2g ρg 2g
2 2
C12 = C u1 + C r1 = 57.65 m 2 /s 2
2 2
C 22 = C u 2 + C r 2 = 44.18 m 2 /s 2
P1 57.65 44.18
+ − 2 − 5.05 = 6 +
ρ g 2 (9.81) 2 (9.81)

i.e. pressure head at entrance P1 / ρg = 12.36 m

 P1   P 
 + Z 1  −  2 + Z 2 
 ρg   ρg 
c) The degree of reaction =
Ho
In this case, we must subtract the entry losses from P1 / ρg to obtain the real
pressure head at entrance.

(12.36 − 2 ) − 6
σ = = 0.864
5.05

298
 The turbine is reaction type.

N.B.: We can find the same value for σ using the following form of σ:

σ=
(U 1− U 22 ) + (W22 − W12 )
2

(U12 − U ) + (W22 − W12 ) + (C12 − C22 )

2
2

W12 = U 12 + C12 − 2U 1C u1
= 61.62 + 57.65 − 2 × 7.46 × 78.5 = 2.146

i.e. W1 = 1.465 m/s

W22 = U 22 + C 22 − 2U 2 C u 2 = 36.08
W2 = 6 m/s

σ=
(61.62 − 9.86) + (36 − 2.1)
(61.62 − 9.86 ) + (36 − 2.1) + (57.6 − 44.18)
σ = 0.864

Example (6)

It is desired to pump 100 lit/s of water to the top of a cooling tower, the
required manometric head was 19 meters. A radial centrifugal pump type was selected
to give the required manometric head. The pump technical data are as following:
impeller outside diameter D2 = 21 cm, vane outlet angle β2 = 158°, impeller tip width
= 5 cm and rotating speed N = 1750 rpm. Find the following:

a) The theoretical head, manometric (hydraulic) efficiency, the required power

to drive the pump if the mechanical efficiency ηmech = 0.95. Neglect the
circulatory flow.

b) If the circulatory flow coefficient is 0.8, find the tangential component of

the absolute velocity at exit due to the modern theoryCu2. Also, calculate
the deviation angle δ.

299
Solution

U 1 C u1 − U 2 C u 2 U 2 C u2
a) Ho = =
g g
2π N
ω= = 183.25 rad/s
60
U 2 = ω r2 = 183.25 * 0.21 / 2 = 19.24 m/s
C r2
Cu2 = U2 −
tan (180 − β 2 )
Q 0.1
Cr2 = = = 3.03 m/s
π D2 b2 π × 0.21 × 0.05

Cu2 = 19.24 − 7.5 = 11.74 m/s

19.24 × 11.74
Ho = = 23 m
9.81

actual head measured 19

η man = = = 0.83
head imparted to the fluid by the impeller 23
γ QH o
η mech =
75 B.H .P.
1000 × 0.1 × 23
∴ B.H .P. = = 32.2 hp
0.95 × 75

C u2
b) η∞ =
C u2

C u 2 = 0.8 × 11.74 = 9.39 m/s

C r2
Cu2 = U 2 −
tan (180 − β 2′ )
C r2 3.03
tan(180 − β 2′ ) = = = 0.307
U 2 − C u2 19 .24 − 9 .29

β 2′ = 162° 54′

δ = β 2′ − β 2 = 4° 54′

300
 Problems
1- Determine the expression of the degree of reaction and show that the propeller
pump is a reaction machine.

2- A turbine rotates at 100 rpm and discharges 0.84 m3/s, the hydraulic efficiency
under these conditions is 75.5 %. The physical data are: r1 = 0.46 m, r2 = 0.22 m,
α1 = 15°, β2 = 135°, A1 = 0.12 m2, A2 = 0.078 m2. Neglect the circulatory flow
coefficient and take the mechanical efficiency ηmech = 0.95. Determine the power
delivered by the turbine.
( 39 HP )

3- A centrifugal pump rotates at 600 rpm. The following data are taken: r1 = 5.08 cm,
r2 = 20.3 cm, radial area A1 = 769 cm2, radial area A2 = 295 cm2, β1 = 135°,
β2 = 120° and assume radial flow at entrance to blades. Neglecting friction,
calculate the relative velocities at entrance and exit and the power transmitted to
the water.

4- A reaction turbine is working under a head of 25 meters running at 300 rpm. The
velocity of the periphery of the wheel is 30 m/s and the radial velocity Cr1 is 4 m/s.
If the hydraulic losses are 20 % of the available head and the discharge is radial,
find:
i) the inlet angle β1 and guide blade angle at inlet α1.
ii) the rotor diameter.
(170° 18′, 31° 27′, 1.9 m)

5- An impeller rotating at 1150 rpm has the following dimensions:

b1 = 3.175 cm b2 = 1.9 cm
D1 = 17.8 cm D2 = 38 cm
β1 = 162° β2 = 160°
(b1, b2 are the passage widths at inlet and outlet, respectively).
Cross-sectional area A = π D b (if vane thickness is neglected). Assuming radial
inlet flow and neglecting vane thickness draw the virtual velocity diagrams and
calculate the rated capacity in lit/min and the virtual head neglecting the
circulatory flow.

6- A pump impeller is 0.3 m in diameter, discharges 0.15 m3/s when running at

1200 rpm. The blade angle β2 is 160° and the exit area A2 is 0.023 m2. Assuming
losses of 2.8 (W22 /2g) and 0.38 ( C 22 /2g), compute the efficiency of the pump (exit
area A2 is measured normal to W2).
(62.1 %)

7- A centrifugal pump having an effective blade angle at outlet of 135° is required to

lift water against a head of 22 m, the speed of the shaft being 800 rpm and the
velocity of flow is 2 m/s. Calculate the diameter of impeller required if:
(i) The whole of the energy corresponding to velocity of wheel at exit is wasted.
(ii) 40 % of this energy is converted into useful pressure energy.

301
 Neglect friction in case (ii). State also the width of the mouth of the impeller if the
discharge is 150 lit/s. Blade thickness may be disregarded.
(0.546 m, 0.476 m, 0.05 m)

8- An inward flow reaction turbine discharges radially and the velocity of flow is
constant and equal to the velocity of discharge from the suction tube. Show that the
hydraulic efficiency can be expressed by:

1
ηh =
0.5 tan 2 α 1
1−
 tan α 1  
  − 1
 tan β 1  

where α1 and β1 are the guide and vane angles at inlet.

(A.M.I.E., May 1969)

9- A centrifugal pump has 50 cm outside diameter and 25 cm inside diameter rotating

at 1000 rpm. The vanes are set forward at an angle of β2 = 45°. If the radial
velocity of the water through the wheel be maintained constant at 2 m/s, find the
angle of the vanes at inlet, the velocity and the direction of the water at exit and the
work done by the wheel per kg of water.

******

302
 CHAPTER II

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

2.1 Hydraulic Similarity

L model
a- Geometric similitude: = L ratio
L prototype

b- Kinematic similitude: Vmodel / Vprototype = Vm / Vp = Lr / Tr

c- Dynamic similitude: Fmodel / Fprototype = Mm.am / Mp.ap

2.2 Application of Dimensional Analysis in Turbomachines

Apply the Buckingham π theorem considering a series of geometrically

similar pumps or turbines of different sizes but having similar flow patterns.

The following π terms can be found:

π1 = gHo / D2N2 Manometric coefficient.
3
π2 = Q / ND Analogue to discharge coefficient.
π3 = ND2 / ν Reynolds number.

2.3 Reynolds Number Effect

To avoid the problems arise when a machine is originally designed at certain

Reynolds number and tested in the shop at different Reynolds numbers, the following
formula is used:
n
1 − η1  Re 2 
= 
1 − η2  Re1 
where n varies from 0.1 to 0.25.

2.4 Affinity Laws

For the same machine at different speeds and flows:

H1 / H2 = (N1 / N2)2 ( Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2 )

303
 Q1 / Q2 = ( H1 / H2 )1/2

2.5 Non-Dimensional Coefficients

N Q
- Specific Speed: Universal Ns =
( gH )3 / 4
- Pressure Coefficient φ = H / (U22 / 2g)
- Flow Coefficient ψ = (Q / A) / U

D ( gH )
1/ 4
- Specific Diameter Dsp =
Q

304
 Solved Examples
Example (1)

 N Q 
Show that the specific speed expression  N s =  depends upon the

 ( gH )3/ 4 

proportions of the wheel rather than the operating speed, consider pump impeller and
radial flow.

Solution

N ( Q)
1/2

Ns = (1)
( gH ) 3/ 4

Q = A1 C r1 = π . D1b1 C r1
= π . D1b1U 1 tan(180 − β1 )

i.e. Q = π 2 D12 tan (180 − β 1 ) b1 N (2)

C u2 U 2
H= radial flow at inlet.
g
U2  Cr2 
= U 2 − 
g  tan(180 − β2 ) 

Q Q π 2 D12 tan (180 − β 1 ) b1 N

C r2 = = = (3)
A2 π .D2 b2 π .D2 b2

U 22  π 2D12 tan (180 − β 1 ) b1 N 

i.e. H= 1 − 
g  π .D2 b2 tan (180 − β 2 )π D2 N 

π 2 D22 N 2   tan (180 − β 1 ) 

2
D   b1
H= 1 −  1     (4)
g   D2   b2  tan (180 − β 2 ) 

From equations (4), (2) and (1), we find:

Ns =
[
N π 2 D12 tan (180 − β 1 ) b1 N ]1/ 2

3/ 4
 D  tan (180 − β 1 )  
2
  b1
(π 2 2
D N )
2 3/ 4
1 −  1     
 tan (180 − β 2 )  
2
  D 2   b2

305
 D1 b1
tan (180 − β 1 )
D2 D2
i.e. Ns = 3/ 4
 D  tan (180 − β 1 ) 
2
  b1
π 1 −  1    
  D2   b2  tan (180 − β 2 ) 

Example (2)

A centrifugal pump pumps water at 0.240 m3/s rotating at 1200 rpm, a

prototype pump using 10 lit/s is to be tested. If the diameter of the model is 3 times
the diameter of the prototype, at what speed should the prototype run, if the pump
pumps oil at a head of 30 meters. What would be the required power to drive the
model and the prototype? Take the model efficiency = 0.8.

Solution

Q Q
π1 = =
ND 3 1 ND 3 2

0.240 0.01
= N = 1350 rpm
1200 (3 )
3
N

gH gH
π2 = 2 2
= 2 2
N D 1 N D 2

30 H2
= H 2 = 3.75 m
(1200) ( 3)
2 2
(1350) 2

γ Q1 H 1 1000 × 0.240 × 30
P1 = = = 120 hp
75 η 75 × 0.8

0 . 25
1 − η1  D 2 
= 
1 − η 2  D1 

0 . 25
1 − 0.80  1 
=  η2 = 0.736
1 − η2  3

1000 × 0.01× 3.75

P2 = = 0.68 hp
75 × 0.736

306
 Example (3)

It is required to construct a hydraulic turbine (inward Francis type) for a

hydraulic power plant to operate under the following conditions: rotating speed
N = 110 rpm, discharge Q = 11 m3/s, the radial velocity at the inlet Cr1 = 2 m/s, the
radial velocity at exit Cr2 = 9.5 m/s and the physical data are: the outside diameter
D1 = 4.5 m, the absolute inlet angle α1 = 15°, the absolute exit angle α2 = 90° (radial
flow at exit). Assume that the potential energy is constant ( Z1 = Z2 ), the pressure
head at exit equal 6 m and the hydraulic losses are 2 m. Calculate:
(i) The head and power delivered by the turbine, (assume no draft tube). Calculate
also the specific speed.
(ii) The pressure head at entrance.
(iii) It's required to construct a prototype to predict the actual machine performance,
the assumed outside diameter D2 of the prototype was 0.3 m and the hydraulic
circuit in the laboratory has the following specifications: Available head = 5.5 m,
Hydraulic efficiency = 0.8. Find the required speed and flow, also calculate the
specific speed Ns.
(B.Sc., Elec. Eng., June 1977)

Solution

D1= 4.5 m Cr2 = 9.5 m/s Cr1 = 2 m/s

Q = 11 m3/s N = 110 rpm

2πN
i) ω = = 11.5 rad/s
60
U 1 = ω R1 = 25.9 m/s
C r1 2
C u1 = = = 7.46 m/s
tan α 1 tan 15
Cu U 1 − C u2 U 2
Ho = 1
g
7.46 × 25.9
Ho = = 19.7 m
9.81
1000 × 11 × 19.7
Power = = 2889 hp
75
N B. H . P.
Ns = = 142
H 5/4

P1 C12 P2 C 22
ii) + + Z1 = + + Z 2 + hloss + ho
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
2 2
C12 = C u1 + C r1 = 7.7 m/s
C 2 = C r 2 = 9.5 m/s
P1
+
(7 .7 )
2
= 6+
(9 .5 )
2
+ 2 + 19 .7
ρ g 2 * 9.81 2 * 9.81

307
 P1
= 29.3 m or 2.9 kg/cm 2
ρg

iii) D2 = 0.3 m H2 = 5.5 m ηh = 0.8

H H
=
N D22
1 N D2 2
2
19.7 5 .5 × 0 .8
= ∴ N = 780 rpm
(110) (4.5)2 2
N 2 (0.3)
2

Q Q
=
N. D3 1 N. D3 2
11 Q
= ∴ Q = 0.025 m 3 /s
110(4.5) 780(0.3)
3 3

1000 × 0.025 × 5.5 × 0.8

P= = 1.13 hp
75

N B. H . P.
Ns = = 142
H 5/ 4

Example (4)

A turbine develops 144 HP running at 100 rpm under a head of 7.7 meters.
What power would be developed under a head of 11 meters? At what speed should
the turbine run?

Solution

H H
π2 = =
N 2D2 1 N 2D2 2

H H
For the same machine: =
N2 1 N2 2

7 .7 11
2 = N 2 = 120 rpm
(100 ) N 22

P α ρgQH Q α ND3

i.e. P α ND3H

P1 N H
i.e. = 1 1
P2 N 2 H2

308
 144 100 × 7.7
=
P2 120 × 11

∴ P2 = 247 HP

Example (5)

At a hydraulic plant the propeller type turbine are rated at 48,000 HP at 82

rpm under a 14 meters head, the diameter is 7 meters, for a geometrical similar
turbine to develop 36,000 HP under a 11 meters head, what speed and diameter
should be used? What percentage change in flow is probable?

Solution

γ QH P1 Q1 H 1
P= =
Const . P2 Q2 H 2

Q1 P1 H 2 48,000 11
i.e. = = = 1.05
Q2 P2 H 1 36,000 14

The flow will be reduced by 5 %.

Q Q
=
N. D3 1 N. D3 2

Q2
N 2 D 23 = N 1 D13
Q1
= 0 . 95 × 82 × (7 ) = 26720
3

H H
=
N D2 2
1 N D2
2
2

H 2 2 2 11
N1 D1 = (82 ) (7 ) = 258874
2 2
N 22 D22 =
H1 14

N 2 D2 = 509

26720
D2 = = 7.25 m
509

309
 509
N2 = = 70 rpm
7.25

310
 Problems
1- An impulse wheel at best speed produced 125 HP under a head of 85 m. By what
percent should the speed be increased for a 90 m head? Assuming equal
efficiencies, what power would result?
(2.9 %, 136.1 hp)
2- Assuming the power delivered to a pump is a function of the specific weight of the
fluid, the flow in lit per minute, and the head delivered, establish an equation by
dimensional analysis [power equation].
3- A centrifugal pump discharged 65 lit/min against a head of 17 meters when the
speed was 1500 rpm. The diameter of the impeller was 30 cm and the brake
horsepower was 6 HP. A geometrically similar pump 38 cm in diameter is run at
1750 rpm. Assuming equal efficiencies, what head will be developed? How much
water will be pumped and what brake horsepower will be required?
(37.1 m, 154 1it/min, 31.7 hp)
4- A turbine model, built to a scale of 1:5 was found to develop 4.5 BHP at a speed of
400 rpm under a head of 2 meters. Assuming the overall efficiency of the full-size
turbine = 0.8, find the speed and the power of the full-size turbine under a head of
9 meters.
(169.7 rpm, 1073.8 hp)
5- Seawater of specific gravity 1.03 is to be circulated through condensers by a
propeller pump 120 cm in diameter, it is found that a scale model of the pump
25 cm in diameter gives its best efficiency when pumping 97 lit/s of fresh water
against a head of 4 meters at a speed of 2060 rpm. What should be the speed of the
full size pump to deliver 90 tons per minute and what pressure difference would it
generate?
(279.6 rpm, 17177 Pa)
6- A centrifugal pump of diameter 30 cm (throat diameter) running at 1450 rpm
delivers 74 lit/s of water against a head of H = 46 m at optimum efficiency of 81
%. Investigate the operation of the pump handling:
(a) oil of sp. gr. 0.86, viscosity 0.857*10-5 m2/s,
(b) fuel oil of sp. gr. 0.94, viscosity 0.232*10-5 m2/s.
7- The same model pump of Problem (6) is now built to a scale 2.5 times larger and
used to pump oil (b) of the previous problem. Find at a speed of 1450 rpm head
capacity, power, and efficiency at the optimum point.
8- A centrifugal pump of impeller 25 cm diameter revolving at 1450 rpm delivers at
its best efficiency point 29 lit/s of water (ν = 0.9*10-6 m2/s) against a head of 20
meters at an efficiency of 80 percent. A geometrically similar pump is to be built to
produce a head of 25 m when handling oil of specific gravity 0.89 and kinematic
viscosity 4.5*10-5 m2/s at the best efficiency point, at the same speed, what will the
diameter of the pump have to be and what will be the quantity delivered, power
consumption, and efficiency at the same optimum operating point?
(Mans. Univ., B.Sc., 1978)
******

311
 CHAPTER III

CASCADE MECHANICS

3.1 CASCADE NOMENCLATURE:

Blade inlet angle α 1′ Position of

Blade outlet angle α 2′ maximum camber a
Fluid inlet angle α 1 = α 1′ + i Chord l
Fluid outlet angle α 2 = α 2′ + δ Spacing t
Blade camber angle θ ′ = α 1′ − α 2′ Space-chord ratio t/l
Stagger angle ε Solidity l/t
Deflection θ = α1 −α 2
Incidence angle i = α 1 − α 1′
Deviation angle δ = α 2 − α 2′

312
 The head-capacity curve:

H = B U 2 − AU Q

where A and B are constants and equal as follows:

l
A = (tan α 1 − tan α 2 )
t
B=1

3.2 Cascade Coefficients:

∆ Po
Total pressure loss coefficient ζ =
1
ρCa 2
2
∆P
Pressure rise coefficient Cp =
1
ρ Ca 2
2
Tangential force coefficient Cf = 2 ( tan α1 − tan α2 )
Mean angle tan αm = ½ ( tan α1 + tan α2 )
Lift coefficient CL = 2 ( t/l ) cos αm ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) − CD tan αm
Drag coefficient CD = ζ ( t/l ) cos3 αm
Discharge coefficient ψ = Ca / U
Cascade efficiency η = 1 − ζ ψ/Cf
Deviation from ideal direction δ = α2 − α2'
Nominal deviation δ* = m θ' ( t/l )n

where m = 0.23 (2 a/l)2 + α2*/500

a: the distance of maximum camber from leading edge,
α2* : the nominal exit angle.
n = 0.5 for compressor cascades,
n = 1 for compressor inlet guide vanes.

313
 Solved Examples
Example (1)

A compressor cascade has a space-chord ratio of unity and blade inlet angle of
45°, stagger angle ε = 28°, using the NACA results, Fig (3.5), find the loss coefficient
ζ, Cf, the drag coefficient, the lift coefficient and pressure rise coefficient. Also, find
the pressure rise across the cascade for ρ = 9.5 x 10-6 kg/m3, Ca = 47 m/s. If the above
cascade is for an axial air compressor of tangential velocity U = 150 m/s, find its
efficiency and construct the velocity diagrams (Adapted from Csanady).

Solution

Inlet angle α1 = 45°, from Figure 3.5 at α1 − ε = 17°

θ = α1 − α2 = 30°
i.e. α2 = 15°
tan αm = 0.5 ( tan α1 + tan α2 ) αm = 32.37°
CD ( cos2 α1 / cos2 αm ) = 0.055
CD = 0.078
From equation (3.8) Cf = 2 ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) = 1.46
From equation (3.16) CL = 2 ( t/l ) cos αm ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) = 1.24

It is easy to notice that the term CD tan αm can be easily neglected since CD is small
and equals zero for ideal lift.

From equation (3.15) CD = ζ ( t/l ) cos3 αm

ζ = 0.129
From equation (3.9) ζ = Cf tan αm − Cp
Cp = 0.796
∆P
From equation (3.1) Cp =
1
ρ Ca 2
2
i.e. ∆ P = 1/2 ρ Ca2 Cp
∆ P = 1/2 x 9.5 x 10-6 x (47)2 x 0.796 = 8.35 x 10-3 N/m2
which is corresponding to the static pressure rise or
P / ρg = 8.35 x 10-3 / ( 9.5 x 10-6 x 9.81)
= 89.6 meters of air

∆ Cu = Ca ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) = 34.4 m/s

H = U ∆Cu / g = 526 m
ψ = Ca / U = 0.313
η = 1 − ζ ψ/Cf = 0.97

314
 α1
α2 W2 Ca = 47 m / s
C1 α1 W1
C2

∆Cu
U

Example (2)

A compressor cascade has a space-chord ratio of unity and blade inlet and
outlet angles of 45° and 15°, respectively. If the blade camber line is a circular arc
(i.e. a/l = 0.5) where a is the distance of maximum camber from leading edge. The
cascade is designed to operate at Howell’s nominal condition. Determine the fluid
deflection, incidence and ideal lift coefficient at the design point (Adapted from
Dixon).

Solution

The turning angle θ ′ = α 1′ − α 2′ = 30°

( α 1′ and α 2′ are the blade angles at inlet and outlet)
The nominal fluid outlet angle α 2 * = α 2′ + δ *
From equation (3.28): δ * = mθ ′ (t / l ) n
From equation (3.29): m = 0.23 (2a / l ) 2 + α 2 * / 500
Combining these three equations and solving for α 2 * , the following expression can
be obtained:
α ′ + 0.23 (2a / l ) 2 θ ′ (t / l ) n
α2* = 2
1 − θ ′ (t / l ) n / 500
Putting a / l = 0.5, t / l =1 and n = 0.5, then α 2 * = 23.3°
The nominal deflection θ * = α 1 * −α 2 * ( No turning )
From Figure 3.7: θ * = 24°
Hence α 1 * = 47.3° and the nominal incidence i* = α 1 * −α 1′ = 2.3°
The ideal lift coefficient corresponding to zero drag (i.e. CD = 0.0)
From relation (3.16):
CL = 2 ( t/l ) cos αm ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) − CD tan αm (The second term = 0.0)
= 1.04
Note that angles α1 and α2 correspond to the nominal Howell condition.

315
 Example (3)

Experimental compressor cascade results suggest that the stalling lift coefficient of a
3
 C1 
cascade blade may be expressed as C L   = 18 . where C1 and C2 are the entry
 C2 
and exit velocities. Find the stalling inlet angle for a compressor cascade of
space/chord ratio of unity if the outlet air angle is 30°. If the total pressure loss
coefficient at zero incidence i = 0 (corresponding to minimum pressure loss) ζ = 0.02,
find the corresponding pressure coefficient.

Solution

NOTE: Stall point is arbitrarily specified as the incidence at which the total pressure
loss is twice the minimum loss in total pressure.

Assume α1 = 40° From relation (3.16)

CL = 2 ( t/l ) cos αm ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) − CD tan αm (The second term = 0.0) (1)
tan αm = ½ ( tan α1 + tan α2 ) = 0.708
αm = 35° 18'
Then from equation (1): CL = 0.427

C1 cos α1 = C2 cos α2 = Ca
C1 cos α 2
i.e. =
C 2 cos α 1

3
C 
C L = 1.8  2  (2)
 C1 
3
 cos α 1 
C L = 1.8   = 1.51
 cos α 2 
Assume α1 = 48°
tan αm = 0.84 and αm = 40° 06'

From equation (1) CL = 0.82 and from equation (2) CL = 0.83 which is acceptable.

From relation (3.8)

Cf = 2 ( tan α1 − tan α2 )
Cf = 1.066
and ζ stalling equal twice of minimum, i.e. ζ = 2 x 0.02 = 0.04

From relation (3.9)

ζ = Cf tan αm − Cp
i.e. Cp = Cf tan αm − ζ = 0.857

316
Example (4)

The cascade shown in Figure 3.5, is to be used for an axial flow propeller pump
impeller. The cascade has a space-chord ratio of unity and blade inlet angle of 45° and
stagger angle ε = 28°, find the pressure rise coefficient if the net positive suction head
(total pressure at inlet minus vapor pressure) is 7 meters of water. Specify the
maximum allowable axial velocity with regard to cavitation danger. The maximum
surface velocity may be taken as 25 percent above inlet velocity C1. Also, find Euler
head and the efficiency.

Solution

Inlet angle α1 = 45°, from Figure 3.5 at α1 − ε = 17°

θ = α1 − α2 = 30° i.e. α2 = 15°
tan αm = 0.5 ( tan α1 + tan α2 ) αm = 32.37°
CD ( cos2 α1 / cos2 αm ) = 0.055
CD = 0.078
From equation (3.8) Cf = 2 ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) = 1.46
From equation (3.16) CL = 2 ( t/l ) cos αm ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) = 1.24
From equation (3.15) CD = ζ ( t/l ) cos3 αm
ζ = 0.129
From equation (3.9) ζ = Cf tan αm − Cp
Cp = 0.796

From the definition of the NPSH:

 P1 C1 2  Pv
NPSH =  + − =7m
 ρ g 2g  ρ g
The cavitation occurs when P1 ≤ Pv , so to prevent the pump from cavitation danger
C1 2
must be equal or less than 7 meters.
2g
C1 2
i.e. ≤ 7 or C1 = 11.72 m/s then C2 = 8.57 m/s
2g
and the maximum allowable surface velocity being W1 = 1.25 C1
Ca Ca
cos γ 1 = =
W1 1.25 C1
also
α1
Ca = C1 cos α1 = C2 cos α2 α2 W2
cos α1 γ1
i.e. cos γ 1 = = 0.566 C1 α1 W1
125
. C2 Ca
and γ 1 = 55° 30'
∆Cu
U
Maximum Ca = C1 cos α1 = 8.28 m/s

U = Ca ( tan α1 + tan γ 1 ) = 20.34 m/s

317
 ∆ Cu = Ca ( tan α1 − tan α2 ) = 6.06 m/s
Ho = U ∆ Cu/g = 12.56 m

Discharge coefficient ψ = Ca / U = 0.41

Ideal cascade efficiency based on perfect fluid

η = 1 − ζ ψ/Cf = 1 − 0.129*0.41/1.46 = 96 %

The static pressure rise ∆P / ρg

∆P
Cp =
1
ρ Ca 2
2
2
C
∆ H = C p a = 2.78 m
2g
2 2
C − C2
The change in dynamic head 1 = 3.26 m
2g
The total expected gain = 2.78 + 3.26 = 6.04 m and the hydraulic efficiency =
6.04/12.56 = 0.48 which is low due to the limitation imposed by the NPSH.

318
 Problems
1- For the cascade data shown in Example 1, choose the optimum ( ψ / Cf a minimum)
operating point, and find the corresponding pressure rise and tangential force per
centimeter height of blade, if axial velocity of 80 m/s, density of 9.5*10-6 kg/m3,
blade spacing 10 cm.
(0.022 Pa, 3.04 x 10-5 N/cm)

2- Explore one or two other possible choices of stagger angle in Example 1 with a
view to ascertaining the most favorable design possibility with regard to efficiency.

3- A compressor cascade has the following data of t/l = 1.0, α1' = 45°, α2' = 15°. The
nominal conditions were θ* = 24° and i* = 2.3, the off-design performance of this
cascade is required at an incidence i = 3.8° ( referring to Fig. 3.8 ).

4- A compressor cascade has a space-chord ratio of unity, blade angle of 45° and
stagger angle ε = 28°, find the loss coefficient, the drag coefficient, the lift
coefficient, and the pressure rise coefficient. Also, find the pressure rise across the
cascade for ρ = 0.00001 kg/m3, Ca = 47 m/s (using NACA data: θ = α1 − α2 = 30°
and CD cos2 α1 / cos2 αm = 0.0065).
( B.Sc., Mans. Univ., 1982 )

******

319
 CHAPTER IV

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
TURBOMACHINES

4.1 Centrifugal Pumps (Performance Curve)

Theoretical head:

(U C cosα
1 1 1 − U 2 C2 cosα 2 )
Ho =
g
Assuming radial inlet and substitute C 2 cos α 2 by U 2 + (C r 2 / tan β 2 )

U 22 U 2 Cr2
Ho = + and Q = π . D2 b2 C r2
g g tan β2

Then:

320
 U 22 U2 Q
Ho = +
g g π . D2 b2 tan β2

4.2 Efficiencies and Coefficients of Centrifugal Pumps:

H a (measured head )
ηm = Manometric efficiency =
Ho

γ QH o
ηmech. = Mechanical efficiency =
Const. × BHP

ηoverall = ηmech. . ηm

Head imparted to the

BHP fluid by the impeller, Ha
Mechanical losses Hydraulic losses
Ho actual head

η mech ηm

ηoverall

ψ = Discharge coefficient =
Q/A
U
or Q D 2 . 2 gH( )
N Q
Universal specific speed N s = in SI units
( gH ) 3/ 4
The net positive suction head NPSH

Pat
NPSH = ± hss − h f − hv
ρg

where:
hss : Static suction head
h f : Friction loss
hv : Vapour pressure

NPSH
Thoma cavitation factor σ =
Hm

321
4.3 Design Features of Centrifugal Pumps:

- Leakage Calculation

Q L = C v A p 2 gh

where:
C v = Velocity coefficient
A p = Clearance area
U 22 − U 12
h = Head across the orifice = 0.75
2g

- Disk Friction

Disk friction losses = K. D 2 U 2 ρ

where K is a constant

- Axial Thrust = (P2 − P1 ) π (D12 − Ds2 )

4
where subscripts 1, 2 and s indicate inlet, exit and shaft, respectively.

16 T
- Shaft diameter Ds = 3
π Ss
where:
T is the torque,
Ss is the allowable shear stress.

- Eye Diameter Do

4 Q
Do2 = + D H2
π Uo

where D H is the hub diameter.

Q
b1 =
π .D1 .ε .C r1

where ε is the contraction ratio.

Then, assume φ between 0.9 and 1.2

U2
φ= to find D2 and assume β2 is slightly lower than β1
2 gH

322
 D2 + D1
The number of blades Z n = 6.5 sin (180 − βm )
D2 − D1
where βm = ( β1 + β2 ) 2

π D − tZn
ε=
πD

where t is the impeller thickness.

323
 Solved Examples
Example (1)

Test results on a single stage single suction centrifugal mixed flow type pump
operating at 375 rpm designed to deliver 2.4 m3/min of water are given in curve form
as follows:

Flow (m3/min) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 34
Head (m) 12 11.3 10.6 9.9 9.1 8.2 7.2 5.9 4.9
η (%) 0 23 45 62 75.5 84 88 85 81

a- Plot these curves and draw the BHP curve.

b- On the same sheet, draw the same three curves in dotted lines if the liquid pumped
has a specific gravity of 0.9 but otherwise the same as water, give a brief
discussion of your reason for each curve.
c- Draw the performance curve for the pump when it rotates at 500 rpm.

Solution

γ QH 1000 Q H
(a) The horsepower = =
η . Const 60 * 75 * η
Thus the power will be:

B.H.P. 41.8 42.5 42.8 43.3 43.6 43.9 45.7

(b) If the fluid density changes, this should not affect the head-discharge curve, so the
head-discharge will remain constant, the delivery pressure will change only, (P =
ρgh).

324
 The power should be reduced as it could be seen from the power relation.

γ QH
Power =
η.Const.

The efficiency is a relation between the head delivered and the power consumed
which practically will alter (The hydraulic losses will change, as it is a function
of the density and the viscosity of water), but it could be assumed constant.

(c) To draw the performance of the pump at different speeds, one can make use of the
affinity laws as follows:

Q1 N 1 N2 500
= i.e. Q2 = Q1 ∴ Q2 = Q1
Q2 N 2 N1 375

2
H1 N 12 N   500 
2

= i.e. H 2 =  2  H 1 ∴H2 =   H1
H 2 N 22  N1   375 

Example (2)

A pump whose performance is given by:

Q (lit/s) 0 150 300 450 600

H (m) 15.5 15 14 12 9

is interposed in a pipe in which the loss in suction pipe = 1/3 loss in delivery line
when the static lift was 6 m, the maximum possible discharge was found to be
300 lit/s. Find the highest possible position of pump above sump level, given that
hv = 0.3 m, hat = 10.3 m, cavitation factor = 0.5. Neglect the effect of kinetic energy
loss in pipe.

Solution

The Thoma cavitation factor is defined by:

H sv
σ= where Hsv is the NPSH
Hm
i.e. Hsv = 0.5 Hm

The manometric head at Q = 300 lit/s could be taken from the performance curve,
i.e. Hm = 14 m
i.e. Hsv = 14 x 0.5 = 7 m

325
 Pat
Hsv = − hss − h f − hv
ρg
7 = 10.3 − hss − h f − 0.3
i.e. hss + h f = 3 (1)

From the figure, we can write:

H m = h f ( suction ) + hss + hsd + h fd (2)
we have: hs = hss + hsd = 6 m
and the losses in suction line equal 1/3 the losses in delivery line. If we put the loss in
delivery line equal h f
i.e. the loss in suction line = h f / 3

Thus, from equation (2):

14 = 6 + h f + h f / 3
4
=6+ hf
3
i.e. hf = 6 m

1
The losses in suction pipe = ×6 = 2 m
3
From equation (1) hss = 1 m
i.e. the highest possible position of the pump above the sump level would be 1 meter.

Example (3)

During a laboratory test on a pump, appreciable cavitation began when the

pressure plus velocity head at inlet was reduced to 3.26 m while the total head change
across the pump was 36.5 m and the discharge was 48 liters/s. Barometric pressure
was 750 mm Hg and the vapour pressure of water 1800 Pa. What is the value of σc? If
the pump is to give the same total head and discharge in a location where the normal
atmospheric pressure is 622 mm Hg and the vapour pressure of water 830 Pa, by how
much must the height of the pump above the supply level be reduced?
(Mans. Univ., B.Sc., 1978)

326
Solution
H. G.

Hst
Hm d
hss
c
Hms
H. G.
hf

(a) Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2):

P1 C 12 P2 C 22
+ + Z1 = + + Z2 + hf , ( C1 = 0 )
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
From the figure Z 1 = 0 , Z 2 = h ss
P2 C2
+ 2 = 3.26 m (Given)
ρg 2 g
and P1 is the atmospheric pressure Pat, thus:
Pat P C2
= 2 + 2 + h ss + h f (1)
ρg ρg 2 g
Pv = 1800 Pa or 1800 N/m2 or 1800/9.8 = 183.6 kg/m2
Pat = 75*13.6*104/1000 = 10200 kg/m2
10200
i.e. h ss + h f = − 3 . 26 = 6 . 94 m (2)
1000
H sv
We have σ c = and
Hm
P
H sv = at − h ss − h f − h v (3)
ρg
183.6
hv = = 0 . 1836 m
1000
From equations (2) and (3):
10200
H sv = − 6 . 94 − 0 . 1836 = 3 . 076 m
1000
3.076
∴σ c = = 0.0843
36.5
830
(b) Pv = = 84 . 69 kg/m2
9 .8
62 . 2 * 13 . 6 * 10 4
Pat = = 8459.2 kg/m2
1000

327
 Pat
σ c H m = H sv = − ( h ss + h f ) − h v
ρg
8459.2 84.69
3 . 076 = − ( h ss + h f ) −
1000 1000
h ss + h f = 5 . 3 m

From equation (2) if hf does not change:

∴The pump height must be reduced by 6.94 − 5.3 = 1.64 m.

Example (4)

It is required to pump 40 lit/s of water to the top of a cooling tower, the

manometric head was 19 meters, a radial centrifugal pump was selected to develop
the required manometric head, assume the eye diameter equal to the inlet diameter,
the hub diameter DH = 7 cm, the water velocity in the suction pipe Vo = 4 m/s. The
contraction ratios at inlet and exit ε1, ε2 = 0.9, the pressure coefficient φ = 1.08, the
flow coefficient ψ = 0.21, the vane outlet angle β2 = 158°, impeller tip width at inlet =
2.3 cm, the pump is direct driven by an electric motor at a speed of 1750 rpm,
calculate: (assume radial flow at inlet)
i- Approximate eye diameter, vane inlet angle β1.
ii- The theoretical (virtual) head developed, neglect all mechanical losses.
iii- The circulatory flow coefficient, the tangential component of the absolute
velocity Cu2 (after the modern theory) at exit, find also the angle of deviation
(neglect the hydraulic losses).
iv- If the pump is placed 8 meters above the water level in suction line what would
be the NPSH, does the pump cavitate? Calculate also the Thoma cavitation
factor, assume the losses equal to 2.5 meters, the vapour pressure equal to
0.5 m and the atmospheric pressure = 10.3 m.
(Mans. Univ., B.Sc., 1977)

Solution

a) Q = AVo =
π
4
(D o
2
− DH
2
)V
o

i.e. Do = eye diameter = D1

4 Q 2
D1 = + DH = 0.133 m
π Vo
D1 = 13.3 cm
α 1 = 90°
C Cr
tan (180 − β 1 ) = 1 = 1
U1 U1

328
 Q
C r1 =
π D1 b1ε 1
40
= = 4.6 m/s
1000 × π × 0.133 × 0.023 × 0.9
4 .6
tan (180 − β 1 ) = = 0.3770
π × 0.133 × 1750
60
i.e. β 1 = 159° 18'

U2
b) φ=
2 gH
π D2 N
U2 = = 1.08 2 × 9.81 × 19 = 20.85 m/s
60
D2 = 0.228 m or 22.8 cm
C r2
ψ= = 0.21
2 gH
C r2 = 4.05 m/s
C r2 4.05
Cu2 = U 2 − = 20.85 − = 10.9 m/s
tan (180 − β 2 ) tan 22°

U 2 Cu2
20.85 × 10.9
Ho = = = 23.2 m
g 9.81
γ Q H o 1000 × 40 × 23.2
Power = = = 12.37 hp
Const. 1000 × 75
19
η= = 0.815
23.2

Cu2 gH 2 U 2
c) η∞ = = . = 0.815 (Neglecting all mechanical losses and friction
Cu2 U 2 gH o
losses).
Thus, we can say that η ∞ = η h only if we neglect the mechanical losses and
hydraulic losses in the pump. This is a theoretical case which does not exist
actually.

C u 2 = 8.924 m/s
C r2
tan(180 − β 2′ ) =
U 2 − C u2
i.e. β 2′ = 161°15'
δ = β 2′ − β 2 = 161°15'−158° = 3°15'

329
 Pat
d) NPSH = − hss − h f − hv
ρg
= 10.3 − 8 − 2 − 1 = −0.7
i.e., the pump cavitate.

NPSH − 0 .7
σ = = = − 0 .0368
Hm 19

Example (5)

Competitive bids from three companies for a water circulating pump to handle
2000 lit/min of water with a head of 50 meters and operates 8 hours/day, 300
day/year, are as follows:

Company A B C
Price in £ 230 410 260
Efficiency % 71 77 73
Estimated life in years 10 15 10

The annual fixed charges are 20 % of the initial price and the power costs 2 piasters
per kW.hr, which pump could be selected?

Solution

γ QH
Water horsepower =
Const.
1000 × 2000 × 50
= = 22.2 hp
1000 × 60 × 75

Cost of power = 0.746 x 2 = 1.49 piaster per HP-hr

Company A B C
B.H.P. 31.2 28.8 30.4
B.H.P.-hr/year 74,800 69,100 73,000
Power cost/year 1115 1030 1080
Fixed charges/year 46 82 52
Depreciation 23 27.3 26
Total annual cost 1184 1139 1158

It may be seen from the above example that the total annual cost are about the
same for the bids A, B, and C, despite the differences between their initial prices, but
if the operation time is increased, the bid B will be in a better position.

330
 Example (6)

A pump is to operate 2400 hours a year with a guaranted efficiency of 75 %,

the water horsepower is 50, annual fixed charges including depreciation are 20 % of
the contract price and power costs 2 piasters per BHP-hr. What penalty should be
involved for each point that the efficiency is below the guaranted value?

Solution

Guaranted horsepower = 50/0.75 = 66.7

Each point of efficiency below the guaranted efficiency represents = 66.7/75 = 0.89
BHP.
The extra cost per year = 0.89 x 2400 x 0.02 = 42.72 if the depreciation is 20% of the
contract price.
Thus, the pump is expected to have 5 year life.
The penalty P = 42.72 x 5 = 214 £

Example (7)

A centrifugal pump, which runs at 16.6 rev/s, is mounted so that its centre is
2.4 m above the water level in the suction sump. It delivers water to a point 19 m
above its centre; the friction loss in the suction pipe is 68 Q2 meter and that in the
delivery pipe is 650 Q2 meter where Q in m3/s is the rate of flow. The impeller of the
pump is 350 mm diameter, and the width of the blade passages at outlet is 18 mm.
The blades themselves occupy 5 % of the circumference and are backward facing at
35° to the tangent. At inlet, the flow is radial and the radial component of velocity
remains unchanged through the impeller. Assuming that 50 % of the velocity head of
the water leaving the impeller is converted to pressure head in the volute, and that
friction and shock losses in the pump, the velocity heads in the suction and delivery
pipes are negligible, calculate the rate of flow and the manometric efficiency of the
pump.

Solution

N =16.6 rev/s
Hs = 2.4 m, Hd = 19 m
Hfs = 68 Q2, Hfd = 650 Q2 19 m
D2 = 35 cm
b2 = 1.8 cm
2.4 m
ε2 = 0.95
β2 = 145°
Cu1 = 0
Cr1 = Cr2

331
 W2
C2
Cr2 145°

U 2 = π D2 N = 18.25 m/s Cu2

U2

H m = H s + H d + H fs + H fd = 2.4 + 19 + 68 Q 2 + 650 Q 2 = 21.4 + 718 Q 2 (1)

Q Q
Cr 2 = = = 53.18 Q (2)
π D2 b2ε 2 π (0.35)(0.018)(0.95)
Cr 2 53.18 Q
Cu 2 = U2 − = 18.25 − = 18.25 − 75.95 Q (3)
tan (180° − β 2 ) tan (180° − 145°)
C 22 = C r22 + Cu22 = (53.18 Q) 2 + (18.25 − 75.95 Q) 2
∴ C 22 = 333.1 − 2772.2 Q + 8596.5 Q 2 (4)
C1 = C r1 = C r 2 = 53.18 Q (5)

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between the inlet and exit of impeller:

 P1 C12   P C2 
 + + Z 1  + H o =  2 + 2 + Z 2  + hL ( hL = 0 , Z 1 = Z 2 )
γ 2g  γ 2g 
P2 − P1 C u 2 U 2 C 2 − C1
2 2
= − (6)
γ g 2g

Total pressure rise = Pressure rise in impeller + Gain of pressure in the volute
P − P1 C2
Hm = 2 + 0 .5 2
γ 2g
2
C U C 0.5 C 22
H m = u2 2 + 1 −
g 2g 2g

From equations (1), (4) and (5):

18.25 (18.25 − 75.95 Q) (53.18 Q) 2 0.5 (333.1 − 2772.2 Q + 8596.5 Q 2 )

21.4 + 718 Q 2 = + −
9.81 2 (9.81) 2(9.81)
792.94 Q 2 + 70.64 Q − 4.06 = 0
∴ Q = 0.0397 m 3 /s

H m = 21.4 + 718 Q 2 = 22.53 m

C U 18.25 (18.25 − 75.95 Q)
H o = u2 2 = = 28.34 m
g 9.81
H 22.53
∴ηm = m = = 0.795
H o 28.34

332
 Problems
1- A centrifugal pump lifts water against a static head of 37 m of which 4 m is the
static suction lift. The suction and delivery pipes are both 15 cm diameter, the
head loss in the suction pipe is 2.2 m and in the delivery pipe is 7.25 m. The
impeller is 38 cm diameter, and 2.5 cm wide at the exit. It revolves at 1200 rpm
and its effective exit blade angle is 145°. If the manometric efficiency of the pump
is 82 % and the overall efficiency is 70 %, what discharge would you expect, and
what horsepower would be needed to drive the pump? What would be the pressure
head indicated at the suction and delivery branches of the pump?
(12.8 lit/s, 11.3 hp)

2- If the static lift for a centrifugal pump is hs in meter, speed of rotation N, rpm, and
the exit diameter of the impeller is D meters, show that N = 84.6 hs / D for the
speed at which the pumping begins.
(Mans. Univ., B.Sc., 1980)

3- It is required to deliver 1000 lit/min against a head of 131 m at 3600 rpm.

Assuming acceptable efficiency of pump at specific speeds of the impeller
between 22 and 75 where Q is in m3/s and H in meters, how many pumping stages
should be used?
(3 stages)

4- Gasoline at 100°F is being drawn from a closed tank having a pressure of

0.7 kg/cm2 in a plant located 1000 m above the sea level, the pump centreline is
located 2 m below the gasoline level in the tank. The suction line friction and
turbulence head losses are 0.8 meter. The vapour pressure of the gasoline is
0.5 kg/cm2 and the specific gravity is 0.72, the atmospheric pressure for an
altitude of 1000 m is 68.5 Hg, what is the available suction head of the system?
(3.97 m)

5- A centrifugal pump impeller has an external diameter of 30 cm and discharge area

of 0.108 m2. The blades are bent backwards so that the direction of the relative
velocity at outlet makes an angle of 145° with the tangent to the direction of
impeller rotation. The diameters of the suction and delivery pipes are 30 cm and
22 cm, respectively. Gauges at points on the suction and delivery pipes close to
the pump read heads of 3.6 m below and 18.6 m above atmospheric pressure. The
pump is 1.5 m above sump level and delivers 720 m3/hr of water at 1200 rpm, the
SHP required is 96. Find:
(a) The overall efficiency.
(b) The manometric efficiency, assuming that water enters the impeller
without shock or whirl.
(c) The loss of head in the suction pipe.
(61.7 %, 71.3 %, 1.7 m) (Alex. Univ., B.Sc., 1971)

6- A centrifugal pump impeller is of 250 mm external diameter and 32 mm wide at

exit. The circumference is reduced by 12 % because of the vane thickness. The
vanes are inclined at 140° to the tangent at exit. If the discharge is 2860 lit/min,

333
 the hydraulic efficiency is 83 % and the pump revolves at 1000 rpm, calculate the
fraction of the kinetic energy of discharge from the impeller which is recovered in
the volute. Assume no losses in the impeller.
(59 %)

7- A centrifugal pump, having 4 stages in parallel, delivers 180 lit/s of liquid against a
head of 25 m, the diameter of impellers D2 = 23 cm and the speed is 1700 rpm. A
pump is to be made up with a number of identical stages in series to run at
1250 rpm and to deliver 240 lit/s against a head of 250 m. Find the diameter of
the impellers and the number of stages required if these impellers are of similar
construction to those of the first pump.
(5 stages, 44.5 cm)

8- A single-stage centrifugal pump is to be used to pump water through a vertical

distance of 30 m at the rate of 45 liters/s. Suction and delivery pipes will have a
combined length of 36 m, and a friction factor f of 0.006, both will be 150 mm
diameter. Losses at valves, etc., are estimated to total 2.4 times the velocity head
in the pipes. The basic design of pump has a dimensionless specific speed of
0.074 rev, forward curved impeller blades with an outlet angle of 65° to the
tangent and a width of impeller passages at outlet equal to one-tenth of the
diameter. The blades themselves occupy 5 % of the circumference. If a
manometric efficiency (neglecting whirl slip) of 75 % may be expected, determine
a suitable impeller diameter.
(Mans. Univ., B.Sc., 1981)

9- For a specified duty, 55 tons of water per minute are required to be pumped against
a head of 3 meters, it is desired to compare the probable speeds, overall
dimensions of a centrifugal pump and a propeller pump. Give an estimate of these
values assuming that the maximum diameter of the centrifugal pump casing is 2.5
times the impeller diameter and that the maximum diameter of the propeller pump
casing is 1.25 times the propeller diameter.

10- Two centrifugal pumps have the head-discharge characteristic as follows:

(lit/s) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Pump I m (m) 50.0 51.8 50.8 48.0 47.5 32.5 18.3
Pump II m (m) 46.5 45.9 44.2 40.3 40.3 26 17

Both pumps are installed together and are required to pump water through a pipe
15 cm diameter having f = 0.02. Calculate the heads under which pumps are
working and discharges in lit/s pumped by them if:
(a) The pumps are connected in series, static lift is 65 m and suction and delivery
pipes are 800 m long.
(b) The pumps are connected in parallel, static lift is 15 m and suction and
delivery pipes are 360 m long.
(39 m, 31 m, 17.8 l/s; 28 m, 21 l/s, 19 l/s)
11- A pump operating continuously (8760 hours a year) has an efficiency of 70
percent and circulates 8000 lit/min against a head of 100 m. A new pump costing
1000 LE and having an efficiency of 82 % can be purchased. If power costs 2

334
 piasters per kW-hr and the annual fixed charges are 20 percent of the initial cost,
would you advise purchasing the pump?

12- The performance curves of a centrifugal pump are:

Q (lit/s) 50 100 150 200 250 300

H (m) 21 20 19 17.5 15 12.5
ηm (%) 38 67.5 70 83 80 70

When this pump is used with a long pipeline 50 cm diameter, it gave a maximum
discharge as 150 lit/s with static lift 10 meters. If another pipeline 40 cm has the
same length as the first one is used in parallel with the first line, calculate the
approximate pump discharge and SHP. Neglect the effect of suction pipe K.E.,
(f = 0.03 for all pipes).
(B.Sc., Alex. Univ., 1982)

13- A centrifugal pump is used to deliver water from a water main at point A to the
atmosphere at a height of 23 m above pump level. The suction pipe, which is
horizontal is of length 5 m and diameter 5 cm, the delivery pipe has 3 bends
(C = 0.8) and is of length 45 m and diameter 5 cm. If the water is collected in a
tank of dimensions 3 m x 2 m x 2 m, find the minimum time to fill the tank given
that the water main pressure at point A is 2 kg/cm2, coefficient of friction of both
pipes = 0.03, and the performance of the pump is given by:

Q (lit/s) 0 3 6 9 12
H (m) 22 22.5 20 16 10
ηm (%) 0 40 70 85 65

(B.Sc., Alex. Univ., 1978)

14- A centrifugal pump having 3 stages and delivers 100 lit/s of liquid against a head
of 30 m, the diameter of impellers are De = 10 cm, D2 = 22 cm, the speed is
1750 rpm. Find the diameter of the balance drum if it has to be connected to the
suction pipe, what would be the drum diameter if the impellers are to be arranged
in a way back to back? (The third impeller is in opposite direction to the 1st and
2nd).

******

335
 CHAPTER V

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW TURBINES

" HYDRAULIC TURBINES "

5.1 Impulse Turbines ( Pelton Wheel )

γ Q cos β 
Power = 1 − (UC1 − U 2 )
g  1+ k 

where:
k is the friction coefficient
C1 is the jet velocity = C v 2 gh

γQ
The maximum power =
g
(C1
2
/ 4)(1 − cos β )

The ideal efficiency η ideal = 1/2 (1 − cos β )

U
Pressure coefficient φ =
2 gh
5
Specific speed N s = N B.H .P / H 4

5.2 Reaction turbines ( Francis, Propeller, Kaplan )

γQ
Power =
g
(U C
1 u1 − U 2 Cu2 )

Pressure coefficient φ = U 1 / 2 gh

Flow coefficient ψ = C r1 / 2 gh

η hyd = H o / H available
η mech = BHP / (γ Q H o / Const.)
η overall = η hyd .η mech = BHP / WHP

336
 hg
Draft tube efficiency =
V − Ve2
1
2

2g

where:
hg is the actual head gained,
Subscripts 1 and e denotes inlet and exit of draft tube.

The maximum allowable height of the turbine above tail race Z:

Z = Pa / γ − Pv / γ − σ g H

5.3 Torque Converter

T2 N 2
η=
T1 N 1

337
 Solved Examples
Example (1)
Calculate how many jets would be required for a Pelton wheel, which is to develop
12200 BHP under 264 m head at a speed of 500 rpm. Assuming that the jet diameter
is not to exceed 1/9 wheel diameter, state also the diameter of the jets, the diameter of
the wheel and the quantity of water required, taking the overall efficiency as 87 %.
Assume head coefficient φ = 0.45 and discharge coefficient Cv = 0.98.

Solution

WHP = BHP / η h = 12200 / 0.87 = γ QH / 75

Then: Q = 3.99 m3/s

Jet velocity C1 = C v 2 gh = 0.98 2 × 9.81× 264 = 70.6 m/s

Wheel velocity:
U = φ 2 gh = 0.45 2 × 9.81 × 264 = 32.4 m/s
U = π D N / 60

32.4 = 3.14 × D × 500 / 60

i.e. D = Wheel diameter = 1.24 m

d/D = 1/9 so, d = 1.24/9 = 0.1378 m
Area of jet = (π /4) (0.1378) = 0.0149 m2
2

Total required jet area = Q/C1 = 3.99/70.6 = 0.0564 m2

Hence, the number of jets = 0.0564/0.0149 = 3.78 ≈ 4
Therefore, 4 jets are needed each having a diameter of:
0.0546 / (4 × 3.14/4 ) = 0.134 m
The actual ratio d/D is thus 0.134/1.24 = 1/9.25 which is about the same.

Example (2)

It is desired to construct a hydraulic turbine for a hydraulic power plant to operate

under the following conditions: discharge Q = 3.5 m3/s of water, the available net
head = 290 meters, the hydraulic efficiency = 0.8, the rotating speed = 300 rpm.
A Pelton wheel impulse turbine was selected with the following specifications: the
bucket angle β 2 = 160°, the coefficient of velocity for the nozzle is 0.98. Determine:
(a) The brake horsepower, Pelton wheel diameter (assume the friction coefficient
k = 0.2).

338
(b) The required number of jets, comment if the ratio of jet diameter to wheel
diameter = 1/10, also calculate the head coefficient φ and the specific speed
Ns .
(Mansoura University, 1977)

Solution

a) BHP = η h × WHP
BHP = 0.8 x 1000 x 3.5 x 290/75 = 10827 HP
γ Q   cos β 2  
BHP = γ Q H / 75 =  1 −
 (C1U 1 − U 12 )
75 g   1+ k  

C1 = 0.98 2 gh = 73.9 m/s

0.8 × 1000 × 3.5 × 290 1000 × 3.5   cos β 2

=  1 −
75 g  

(
 73.9 U − U 2 )
75 1+ k  
U − 73.9 U + 1225 = 0
2

− b ± b 2 − 4c
U=
2a
(U − 48.8) or (U − 25.1) = 0
U = 48.8 m/s or 25.1 m/s

Total required area = Q/C1 = 3.5 / 73.9 = 0.0474 m2 or 474 cm2

If dj not exceed 1/10 D take dj = 0.1D

U × 60
D=
π ×N
25.1× 60
i.e. D= = 1.6 m
π × 300

b) d j = 0.1 × 1.6 = 0.16 m

Area of jet = π (0.16)2/4 = 0.02 m2

No. of jets = 0.04774 / 0.02 = 2.37 take 3

0.0474 × 4
Diameter of jet dj = = 0.14 m = 14 cm
3×π

or dj /D = 0.14 / 1.6 = 0.088 which is about the same.

φ = U/C1 = 25.1 / 73.9 = 0.34

339
 N Power 300 10827
Ns = = = 26 in M.K.S.
H 5/ 4 (290)1.25

N Q 300 3.5
Ns = = = 0.0239
( gH )
3/ 4
60(9.8 × 290 )
3/ 4

Example (3)

It is required to construct a hydraulic turbine for a hydraulic power plant, the

available net head is 57 m, and the available discharge is 10 m3/s. The proposed
turbine type is inward Francis, the turbine runner has the following dimensions: the
rotor outside diameter D1 = 5 m, assume the rotating speed N = 200 rpm. The
hydraulic efficiency = 85 %. Find:
(a) The maximum permissible height of the turbine above the tail race, given that
the atmospheric pressure Pa = 1.03 kg/cm2, vapor pressure is 0.05 kg/cm2, and
the relation between the specific speed and the critical Thoma cavitation factor
is given by:
Specific speed 100 250 400 600
Critical Thoma cavitation factor 0.04 0.15 0.35 0.8

(b) It is required to construct a prototype to predict the actual machine

performance. The assumed outside diameter D1 for the prototype was 0.5 m
and the hydraulic circuit in the laboratory has the following specifications:
Available net head = 6 meters, Hydraulic efficiency = 0.85.
Assume the mechanical efficiency equal 0.95, find the required speed and also
calculate the specific speed.

Solution

(a) P = γ Q H / 75
η overall = η mη h = 0.85 × 0.95 = 0.808
P = 1000 × 10 × 57 / 75 = 7600 HP
η overall = BHP / WHP

i.e. BHP = 0.808 x 7600 = 6140 H.P.

N BHP
Ns = (metric units)
H 5/4
= 200 6140 / 57 5 / 4 = 100

From table σ c at Ns = 100 ∴ σ c = 0.04

P P
Z = a − v −σ c H
γ γ
= 1.03 x 104 /1000 − 0.05 x 104 /1000 − 0.04 x 57

340
 ∴ Z = 7.52 meters

The height portion of the turbine above the tailrace is 7.5 m

gH gH
(b) =
D2N 2 1 D2N 2 2

2
D2H  5   6 
N = N × 12 2 = 40000 
2
2 1
2
  
D2 H 1  0.5   57 
N 2 = 649 rpm

Q Q
=
ND 3 1 ND 3 2
3
Q 10 × 649  0.5 
Q2 = 3
N 2 D 23 =  
ND 1 200  5 

Q2 = 0.0325 m3/s or 32.5 lit/s

Power = 1000 x 0.0325 x 6 / (75 x 0.808) = 2.127 H.P.

649 2.1267
Ns = = 100
65 / 4

Example (4)

The following data refer to a Pelton wheel: the bucket angle β = 165°, the
coefficient of discharge for the nozzle Cv = 0.98, the friction coefficient k = 0.2.
Assume that the optimum speed ratio differs from 0.5 as a result of losses due to
windage and bearing friction, which are proportional to the square of the rotational
speed (take the proportionality constant equal to 0.2), obtain a formula for the
optimum speed ratio, hence calculate it for the above given data and also calculate the
maximum overall efficiency.
( B.Sc., Mansoura University, 1981 )

Solution

Given β = 165°, Cv = 0.93, k = 0.2

Assume the relative velocity W2 = Constant x W1

1
Constant = J = i.e. W2 = J W1
1+ k
γQ
Power =
g
(C u1 )
U 1 − C u2 U 2 − Losses in bearing, .. etc.

341
The losses are proportional to U 2 or P.U 2, where P is the proportionality constant.

γQ
i.e. Power =
g
(C1 cosα1U 1 − C 2 cosα 2U 2 − PU 2 ) (1)

U 1 = U 2 = U , W2 = J W1 (2)
C1 cos α 1 = C
Cu2 = C 2 cos α 2 = U − W2 cos (180 − β )
W2 = J W1 = J (C − U )

C u 2 = U + J (C − U ) cos β (3)

From equations (1), (2) and (3):

γQ
Power =
g
{
U [C − (U + J (C − U ) cos β )] − PU 2 }
γQ
Power =
g
[
UC (1 − J cos β ) − U 2 (1 − J cos β ) − PU 2 ]
d Power
= 0 = C (1 − J cos β ) − 2 U (1 − J cos β ) − 2 UP
dU
U 1 − J cos β 1
= 0.5 , J= = 0.913
C 1 − J cos β + P 1 + 0.2
U 1 − 0.913 × cos163°
= 0.5 = 0.4519
C 1.2 − 0.913 × cos163°
B.H .P.
η overall =
W .H .P.
γQ
B.H .P. =
g
[
U C (1 − J cos β ) − U 2 (1 − J cos β ) − PU 2 ]
When U / C = 0.45 = φ i.e. U = 0.45 C
B.H .P.
η overall =
W .H .P.
η max =
1
gH
[
φ C 2 (1 − J cos β ) − φ 2 C 2 (1 − J cos β ) − Pφ 2 C 2]
=
C2
gH
[φ (1 − J cos β ) − φ 2 (1 − J cos β ) − Pφ 2 ]
2

=
C v .2 gH
gH
[ ( )
(1 − J cos β ) φ − φ 2 − Pφ 2 ]
[ (
= 2 C v (1 − J cos β ) φ − φ 2 − Pφ 2
2
) ]
[
= 2 × (0.98) 1.88 × 0.2475 − 0.2 × (0.45) = 0.832
2 2
]

342
 Example (5)

A Pelton wheel with a needle-controlled nozzle develops 950 hp when the

total head is 200 m and the jet diameter is 10 cm. The nozzle discharge coefficient
Cv = 0.98. Assuming that the total head and wheel efficiency remain constant,
determine the percentage reduction in Q when the horsepower is reduced to 500 hp by
(a) needle regulation, (b) partial closure of throttle valve on the pipeline, also obtain
the loss of head across the valve in case (b).

Solution

(BHP)1= 950 H.P. h = 200 m d3 = 10 cm.

(BHP)2= 500 H.P.
C = C v 2 gh = 0.98 2 × 9.8 × 200 = 61.4 m/s
Q1 = π (0.1) (61.4) / 4 = 0.481 m 3 /s
2

(BHP )1 (BHP )2
a) η= =
γ Q1 H 75 γ Q 2 H 75
950 500
i.e. = i.e. Q2 / Q1 = 0.526
Q1 Q2

(BHP )1 (BHP )2
b) η= =
γ Q1 H 75 γ Q (H − H e ) 75
950 500
= (1)
Q1 H Q 2 (H − H e )

Q 2 = (π / 4 )(0.1) (0.98) 2 × 9.81× (200 − H e )

2

= 0.034 200 − H e (2)

From equation (1):

Q 2 (200 − H e ) = 50.6

From equation (2):

0.034 200 − H e (200 − H e ) = 50.6

(200 − H e )1.5 = 1488
200 − H e = 130.4
H e = 69.6 m

From equation (1):

Q2 / Q1 = 0.807

343
Example (6)

In a vertical shaft inward flow reaction turbine, the sum of the pressure and
kinetic heads at entrance to the spiral casing is 120 m and the vertical distance
between this section and the tail race level is 3 m. The peripheral velocity of the
runner at entry is 30 m/s, the radial velocity of the water is constant at 9 m/s and the
discharge from the runner is without whirl. The estimated hydraulic losses are:
(1) between turbine entrance and exit from the guide vanes 4.8 m.
(2) in the runner 8.8 m.
(3) in the draft tube 790 mm.
(4) kinetic head rejected to the tail race 460 mm.
Calculate the guide vane angle, the runner blade angle at inlet and the pressure head at
entry to the runner.

Solution

U1 = 30 m/s
Cr3 = Cre = 9 m/s
e
P1 C12
+ = 120 m
γ 2g
Losses1-2 = 4.8 m
Losses3-e = 8.8 m
Lossese-4 = 0.79 m
Kinetic energy rejected = 0.46 m

P1 C12
Ho = + + Z − Losses
γ 2g
H o = 120 + 3 − Losses
= 123 − (4.8 + 8.8 + 0.79 + 0.46)
= 108.15 m
U C − U e C ue
H o = 3 u3 (The second term = zero)
g
U .C
108.15 = 3 u 3
g
i.e. C u 3 = 35.36 m/s
C
tan α 3 = r 3 = 0.2545 ∴ α 3 = 14° 17'
Cu 3
Cr3
tan β 3 = = 1.677 ∴ β 3 = 59° 12'
Cu 3 − U 3
2 2
C3 = C u 3 + C r 3 = 36.49 m/s

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 3:

344
 P1 C12 P3 C 32
+ = + + Losses1-2
γ 2g γ 2g
P (36.49) 2
120 = 3 + + 4.8
γ 2(9.81)
P3 (36.49) 2
Pressure head = 120 − − 4.8
γ 2(9.81)
= 47.3 m

Example (7)

A vertical shaft inward flow Francis turbine is to be installed in a situation

where a much longer draft tube than usual must be used, the turbine runner is 760 mm
diameter and the circumferential area of flow at inlet is 0.2 m2. The overall operating
head is 30 m and the speed is 6.25 rev/s. The guide vane angle is 15° and the inlet
angle of the runner blades is 75°. At outlet, water leaves the runner without whirl. The
axis of the draft tube is vertical, its diameter at the upper end is 450 mm. The friction
loss plus the kinetic energy rejected to the tail race is given by:
hloss ( meters ) = 0.03 Q2 L
where Q (m3/s) is the flow rate and L (m) the length. If the absolute pressure head at
the top of the tube is not to fall below 3.6 m of water, calculate the hydraulic
efficiency of the turbine and show that the maximum permissible length of draft tube
above the level of the tail race is about 5.35 m. (The length of the tube below tail
water level may be neglected. Atmospheric pressure = 10.3 m water head).

Solution

A1 = 0.2 m2 c
H = 30 m N = 6.25 rev/s
α 1 = 15° β 1 = 75°
D = 0.76 m Ddraft = 45 cm
V 22
hloss = h f + = 0.03 Q 2L
2g d

U = π D N = π × 0.76 × 6.25 = 14.9 m/s

Cr
tan β 1 =
C u −U U
Cr α1
i.e. Cu = U + = 14.9 + 0.268 C r β1 = 75°
tan β 1
Cr
C Cr W
tan α 1 = r =
C u 14.9 + 0.268 C r C

345
 C r = 4.269 m/s
C u = 16.04 m/s
Q = C r . A = 0.853 m 3 /s
H CU
ηh = o , H o = u = 24.36 m
H av g
24.36
ηh = = 0.812 ≈ 0.81
30

Applying Bernoulli’s equation between (1) and (2):

P1 V12 P V2
+ + Z = 2 + 2 + hf
ρ g 2g ρ g 2g
Q2
3.6 + 2
+ L = 10.3 + 0.03 Q 2 L
2 g A1
3.6 + 1.467 + L = 10.3 + 0.03 (0.853) 2 L i.e. L = 5.35 m

346
 Problems
1- For the following two-nozzles Pelton wheel, calculate its maximum efficiency and
output. Pitch circle diameter of runner is 2.5 m, nozzle diameter is 0.15 m, head
on the nozzle is 1600 m, Cv for nozzle is 0.98, bucket angle at exit is 173°,
horsepower lost in disk friction is 6.6 x 10-6 N3, horsepower lost in bearing
friction is 2.1 x 10-3 N2, where N is the speed of wheel in rpm, speed ratio is
0.45, the relative velocity is reduced by 10 % of its magnitude before leaving the
buckets due to friction in buckets.
(88.5 %, 115981 hp) (Alex. Univ., B.Sc., 1970)

2- An inward Francis turbine rotates at 150 rpm and discharges 0.8 m3/s. The radial
velocity at inlet Cr1 = 2 m/s and equal 6 m/s at exit, the physical data are:
r1 = 0.5 m, r2 = 0.2 m, α1 = 15°, β2 = 135°, the pressure head at exit is 6 m.
Assuming a loss of head of 2 m, find:
(a) The head, power delivered by the turbine (no draft tube), neglect hydraulic losses.
(b) The pressure head at entrance.

3- A Kaplan turbine develops 2000 H.P. under a head of 6 m. The turbine is set 2.5 m
above the tail water level. A vacuum gauge inserted at the turbine outlet records
a suction head of 3.1 m. If the turbine efficiency is 85 %, what will be the
efficiency of the draft tube, having inlet diameter of 3 m ? Neglect hydraulic
losses (Neglect hydraulic losses in the draft tube).

4- The hydro-power station comprises three propeller turbine sets, each develops
10,000 HP at full load and has the following characteristics at constant speed:
Head available is 20 m
Load in % of maximum load 20 40 60 80 100
Overall efficiency (%) 35 58 73 85 92
If the average monthly load on the station during a certain year is:
Months 1,2,3,4 5,6,7 8,9,10,11,12
Average load H.P. 16,000 8,000 22,000
Determine the total amount of water passing in station during this year in the
above case, and in the case when one turbine only of 30,000 HP capacity is used
having the same above characteristics, which case would you prefer and why?

5- A Francis turbine installation is working under a head of 20 m develops 1500 H.P.

when running at 355 rpm. The efficiency of the draft tube is expressed as the
ratio of head gained to the inlet kinetic energy. The cross-sectional area of draft
tube outlet is four times the inlet area, loss in divergence is 0.2/2g (inlet velocity
− outlet velocity)2 .
(a) Draw the turbine installation, showing the highest position possible of the
turbine relative to the tail race, assume the hydraulic efficiency = 0.85.
(b) Calculate the efficiency of the draft tube.
(c) What will be the reading of a pressure gauge set at the inlet of the draft tube,
if the inlet area of the draft tube = 3 m2. (Assume atmospheric pressure =
1.03 kg/cm2, vapour pressure = 0.05 kg/cm2).
Specific speed ( metric ) 100 250 400

347
 Cavitation factor ( critical ) 0.04 0.15 0.35
(2.8 m, 0.825, 7.23 m)

6- In order to predict the performance of a turbine which is to work under 77 m head,

a model to scale of 1/6 is tested, this model gave the following results on test:
N = 100 rpm, head = 3 m, Q = 267 lit/s, output = 5.26 HP. What would be the
speed and the output of the prototype when working under its designed head?
0.2
1−η  Dm 
Use Moody’s formula =  .
1 −η m  D 

7- A Kaplan turbine is rated at 34000 H.P. when working under 30 m of head at

160 rpm. Find the diameter of the runner? The overall efficiency of the turbine
equals 0.9, the flow ratio = 0.65 and the hub diameter equals 0.3 of the external
diameter of runner. Find the specific speed of turbine.

8- A vertical shaft Francis turbine has an overall efficiency of 90 % and runs at

428 rpm with a water discharge of 15.5 m3/s. The flow velocity ( Cr1 ) at the inlet
of the runner is 8.5 m/s and the pressure head and kinetic head at this point is
140 m, the centerline of the casing being 3 m above the tail water level. The
peripheral velocity of the runner is 30 m/s. The hydraulic efficiency is 90 %.
Determine:
(a) The output power in kW.
(b) The dimensionless specific speed.
(c) The guide vane angle.
(d) The runner blade angle at inlet.

9- A fluid coupling is to be used to transmit 150 kW between an engine and a gear

box when the engine speed is 40 rev/s. The mean diameter at the outlet of the
primary member is 380 mm and the cross-sectional area of the flow passage is
constant at 0.026 m2. The relative density of the oil is 0.85 and the efficiency of
the coupling is 96.5 %. Assuming that the shock losses under steady conditions
are negligible and that the friction loss round the fluid circuit is four times the
mean velocity head, calculate the mean diameter at inlet to the primary member.

10- A Francis turbine has a runner diameter 2 m, outlet diameter 1 m, outer width
0.5 m, running at 310 rpm under a net head of 90 m. If at full load, flow velocity
is 6 m/s, mechanical and hydraulic efficiencies are 80 and 86 %, respectively,
calculate the output and speed ratio.
If the velocity of flow is reduced by the use of guide vanes to 3 m/s, draw
carefully the inlet and outlet velocity triangles for the above two cases. Estimate
approximately the values of mechanical and hydraulic efficiencies.
( Alex. Univ., B.Sc., 1982 )

******

348
 CHAPTER VII

FANS, BLOWERS
AND
TURBO-COMPRESSORS

7.1 Coefficients and Efficiencies of Centrifugal Compressors:

R.T1  P 
m

The polytropic head H poly =  2  − 1
m  P1  
n −1 k −1
with m= =
n kηp

U 2 C u 2 − U 1C u1
Ho =
g

Pressure coefficient φ = U2/ 2 gh

Slip factor = Cu2/U2

Nominal meter cube (N m3) is the volume of a gas at 0°C and 760 mm Hg.

A standard cubic foot per minute SCFM is the volume of a gas at 66°F (520°R) and
1497 psia.

349
 Solved Examples
Example (1)
A sewage aeration blower running at 3500 rpm is designed to deliver
34000 m3/hour of air from 20°C and 1.03 kg/cm2 atmospheric pressure to a discharge
pressure of 1.56 kg/cm2 with an efficiency of 70 %. On a hot summer day, the
atmospheric temperature rises to 43°C but the barometric pressure does not change. It
is desired to vary the blower speed to maintain the same discharge pressure.
Determine:
(a) blower speed for the summer operation.
(b) corresponding flow in nominal meter cube per month.
(c) brake horsepower required, assuming that the efficiency remains constant and
assume a mechanical efficiency of 0.9. (k = 1.4 for air).

Solution

R.T1  P 
m

(a) The polytropic head: H poly =  2  − 1
m  P1  
k −1
where m=
kηp
P2 remains constant, thus,
H poly 1 Pv T
= 1 1 = 1, Pv = RT
H poly 2 P2 v 2 T2
and R = R / MW = 848/29 = 29.25 m/K
 1.4 −1

29.25 × (20 + 273)  1.56  1.4×0.7 
H1 =   − 1
1.4 − 1  1.03  
 
1.4 × 0.7
H 1 = 21005 (1.1845) = 3876 m
i.e. H 2 = H 1 (T2 T1 ) = 3876(316 293) = 4180 m

From affinity laws:

H 1 N12
=
H 2 N 22
Then N 2 = 4180 × 3500 / 3876 = 3635 rpm

(b) From affinity laws:

Q1/Q2 = N1/N2
i.e. Q2 = 3635 × 34000/3500 = 35311 m3/hr

The nominal meter cube is the volume of a gas at atmospheric pressure and
0°C
Q = v o Q2 / v 2

350
 vo is the specific volume of air at 0°C = R.To / Pa
Po = P1 inlet pressure, then:

Q = Q2 To/T2 in Nominal m3/hr

= 35311 x 273/316 = 30506 Nominal m3/hr

The power = γ QH /(η × 75) = QH /(vη × 75)

P.v = R.T
29.25 × 316
v = RT1 / P1 = = 0.899 m 3 /kg
1.03 ×10 4

4180 × 35311
i.e. Power = = 869 H .P.
3600 × 0.899 × 0.7 × 75

869
The brake horsepower = ∴ B.H.P. = 965 H.P.
0.9

Example (2)
The impeller of a centrifugal fan has an inner radius of 250 mm and width of
187.5 mm; the values at exit are 375 mm and 125 mm, respectively. There is no whirl
at inlet, and at outlet the blades are backward facing at 70° to the tangent. In the
impeller there is a loss by friction of 0.4 times the kinetic head corresponding to the
relative outlet velocity, and in the volute there is a gain equivalent to 0.5 times the
kinetic head corresponding to the absolute velocity at exit from the runner. The
discharge of air is 5.7 m3/s when the speed is 13.5 rev/s. Neglecting the thickness of
the blades and whirl slip, determine the head across the fan and the power required to
drive it if the density of the air is sensibly constant at 1.25 kg/m3 throughout and
mechanical losses account for 220 W.

Solution

r1 = 250 mm
b1 = 187.5 mm
r2 = 375 mm
b2 = 125 mm
N = 13.5 rev/s
180° − β2 = 70°
W2 C2
Losses: 0.4 2 , 0.5 2
2g 2g
3
Q = 5.7 m /s
ρ air = 1.25 kg/m 3
Mechanical Losses = 220 W

351
 2π r2 N
U2 = = 31.79 m/s
60
C u2 U 2
Ho =
g
Q 5.7
C r2 = = = 19.35 m/s
2π r2 b2 2π × 0.375 × 0.125
C r2
Cu2 = U 2 − = 24.74 m/s
tan 70°
C r2
W2 = = 20.59 m/s
sin 70°
2 2
C 2 = C r2 + C u2 = 31.4 m/s
Cu2 U 2
Ho = = 80.1 m
g
W22
Losses in impeller = 0.4 × = 8.6 m
2g
C 22
Losses in volute = 0.5 × = 25.1 m
2g
Total losses = 25.1 + 8.6 = 33.7 m
Head gained = 80.1 – 33.7 = 46.4 m
γ QH o 1.25 × 5.7 × 80.1
Power = = = 7.61 hp
Const. 75
B.H.P. = 7.61 + 220 × 10-3 × 1.34 = 7.9 hp

352
 Problems
1- In a centrifugal compressor the inlet absolute flow to the runner is radial, and the
exit relative flow from the runner is radial and the runner operates at 22000 rpm
and has an outside diameter of 28 cm, the used gas is air and the inlet temperature
is 18°C. If the pressure coefficient φ = 0.5, find the pressure ratio.

2- A centrifugal fan runner consists of some blades, two parallel circular disks and a
short length of circular pipe in an axial direction at inlet. Assume an
incompressible fluid with a certain density in slugs per cubic meter. The runner
speed is N (rpm), the outside diameter of the runner is D (meter), and the inlet
diameter is 0.4 D, assume that the area of the inlet pipe equals the circumferential
area (between the parallel disks) at the inlet diameter, the relative velocity of exit
is radial, with a magnitude 0.3 of the velocity. Develop an expression for the
torque in meter-kg of the runner on the fluid in terms of density, N, D, and some
numerical constants.

3- A blower is designed to draw in 2000 m3/hr of carbon dioxide at 32°C and

1.24 kg/cm2 and compress it to 1.4 kg/cm2 when operating at 4000 rpm. It is to be
tested with air at 1.03 kg/cm2 and 20°C and driven by a motor running at
3550 rpm. Determine the flow discharge and pressure, which the machine should
deliver at the design point on test to be acceptable.

4- A two-stage radial airplane supercharger is designed to deliver 4000 kg of air per

hour at a pressure of 77 cm of Hg when operating at an altitude of 5000 meter
where the temperature is −15°C and the pressure is 42 cm Hg. It rotates at
18000 rpm and is to have a polytropic efficiency of 0.72. It is to be tested at sea
level ( 75 cm Hg and 26°C ) at a speed of 14000 rpm. Assuming that the
efficiency at the design point does not change, determine for the design point
under test conditions:
(a) the cubic meter of air taken in per minute.
(b) the discharge pressure in cm of mercury absolute.
(c) the horsepower required to drive it.

******

353
 CHAPTER VIII

VOLUMETRIC MACHINES

8.1 Piston Pump

π N
Q= D 2 2r Stroke = 2 r
4 60
π
The swept volume = D 2 2r
4
η v = Qa / Q
2π n.r D 2
The velocity in the delivery pipe V p = sin θ , where d is the pipe diameter.
60 d 2

8.2 Inertia Pressure

P1  l  2  D 2 
=   ω r  2  cos θ
ρ g  g  d 

8.3 Effect of Friction

2 2
L Vp f .L  D2 
hf = f =  ω r 2 sin θ 
d 2g 2g d  d 

H ma = H ss + H sd +
2
(h fs + h fd )
3

354
8.4 Gear Wheel Pump

2a..l.n.N
Q=
60

where a area enclosed between any two teeth and the casing,
l axial length of teeth,
n number of teeth in each gear,
N speed in rpm.

355
 Solved Examples
Example (1)
Estimate the dimensions of the rotors of a gear wheel pump for the following
duty: liquid oil of viscosity 4*10-4 m2/s, overall efficiency = 0.6, volumetric efficiency
= 0.9, number of teeth per rotor = 12, ratio of l/D = length/diameter = 1.5, ratio of D/C
(where C is the distance between axes) = 1.18, discharge 350 lit/min, speed 750 rpm,
pressure generated 10.5 kg/cm2, what power input would be required?

Solution
Discharge per revolution = 350 x 1000 /750 = 466.6 cm3 / revolution
Q = 466.6 / 0.9 = 518.4 cm3 / revolution
Q = KC ( D − C ) l
Q = 2.98 C ( D − C ) l
D  D 
Q = 2.98 D−  (15
. D)
. 
118 . 
118

Q is the discharge per revolution, from which the rotor diameter D = 9.65 say 10 cm.

L = Length = 15 cm

Power output = γ Q H /75 = 10.5 x 104 x 350 /(1000 x 60 x 75)

= 8.16 H.P.
B.H.P. = 8.16 / 0.6 = 13.6 H.P.

Example (2)
A single-acting reciprocating water pump, with a bore and stroke of 150 mm
and 300 mm respectively, runs at 0.4 rev/s. Suction and delivery pipes are each
75 mm diameter. The former is 7.5 m long and the suction lift is 3 m. There is no air
vessel on the suction side. The delivery pipe is 300 m long, the outlet (at atmospheric
pressure) being 13.5 m above the level of the pump, and a large air vessel is
connected to the delivery pipe at a point 15 m from the pump. Calculate the absolute
pressure head in the cylinder at beginning, middle and end of each stroke. Assume
that the motion of the piston is simple harmonic, that losses at inlet and outlet of each
pipe are negligible, that the slip is 2 % and that f for both pipes is constant at 0.01.
(Atmospheric pressure is 10.34 m water head).

356
Solution

Single acting, single cylinder

D = 15 cm
Stroke L = 2r = 30 cm
N = 0.4 rps
ds = dd = 7.5 cm
ls = 7.5 m
ld = 300 m
Hss = 3 m
Hsd = 13.5 m
ld2 = 15 m
Q − Qa
slip = 2 % = × 100
Q
f = 0.01
Hat = 10.34 m water

I. Suction Stroke

Absolute Pressure = Hat − Hss − Has − hfs

l A 2
H as = s ω r cosθ
g as
2
7.5  0.15 
 (2π × 0.4) × 0.15 cosθ
2
= 
9.81  0.075 
= 2.9 cosθ
2
l  A
h fs = f s   (ω r )2 sin 2 θ
2 gd s  as 
4
7.5  0.15 
 (2π × 0.4 × 0.15) sin θ
2
= 0.01 
2

2 × 9.81 × 0.075  0.075 

= 0.116 sin 2 θ

Absolute Pressure = 10.34 − 3 − 2.9 cos θ − 0.116 sin2 θ

= 7.34 − 2.9 cos θ − 0.116 sin2 θ

357
- At the beginning θ=0
Absolute Pressure = 4.44 m water
- At the middle θ = π/2
Absolute Pressure = 7.22 m water
- At the end θ=π
Absolute Pressure = 10.24 m water

II. Delivery Stroke

Absolute Pressure = Hat + Hsd + hfd1 − hfd2 − Had2 + Vd2/2g (The last term = 0)
ALN
= (π / 4) (0.15) × 0.30 × 0.4 = 2.12 × 10 −3 m 3 /s
2
Q=
60
Q − Qa
Q slip = 2 % = × 100
Q
∴ Qa = 0.98 Q = 0.98 (2.12 × 10 −3 ) = 2.0776 × 10 −3 m 3 /s
Qa 2.0776 × 10 −3
Vd = = = 0.47 m/s
A p (π / 4) (0.075)2

hf d = f
l d1 Vd 2
= 0.01 ×
(300 − 15) (0.47 )
×
2

1 d d 2g 0.075 2 × 9.81
= 0.428 m
2
ld2  A 
hf d2 = f   (ω r. sin θ )2
2 g d d  a d 
4
15  0.15 
 × (2π × 0.4 × 0.15) sin θ
2
= 0.01 × 
2

2 × 9.81 × 0.075  0.075 

= 0.232 sin 2 θ
15 × π / 4(0.15)
2
ld 2 A 2
H ad 2 = ω r cosθ = (2π × 0.4)2 × 0.15 cosθ
9.81 × π / 4(0.075)
2
g ad
= 5.795 cosθ

Absolute Pressure = 10.34 + 13.5 + 0.428 − 0.232 sin2 θ − 5.795 cos θ

= 24.268 − 0.232 sin2 θ − 5.795 cos θ

- At the beginning of delivery stroke θ = π

Absolute Pressure = 24.268 − 0 + 5.795 = 30.063 m water

- At the middle θ = 3π/2

Absolute Pressure = 24.268 + 0.232 − 0 = 24.5 m water

- At the end θ = 2 π
Absolute Pressure = 24.268 − 0 − 5.795 = 18.473 m water

358
 Problems
1- A plunger pump works against a total static head of 96 m and when running at
42 rpm. It is required to force 45 lit/s of water along a delivery pipe 25 cm
diameter and 130 m long, there are no air vessels, the stroke of plungers is twice
the diameter. If the number of cylinders chosen were 1, 2, 3 and 4, calculate in
each case:
i) the plunger diameter,
ii) the maximum pressure in the pipe.

2- A gear wheel pump is required to deliver 4 lit/s of oil of specific gravity of 0.94
when running at 700 rpm. The suction pressure is 0.2 kg/cm2 and the delivery
pressure is 6 kg/cm2, the overall efficiency is 90 %. The length of the gear wheels
or rotors is 2 x maximum diameter, and in shape they are geometrically similar to
those shown in the figure (Chapter VIII), what would be their outside diameter
and what would be the power input to the pumps?

3- A reciprocating pump has two double acting cylinders each 200 mm bore, 450 mm
stroke, the cranks being at 90° to each other and rotating at 20 rev/min. The
delivery pipe is 100 mm diameter, 60 m long and there are no air vessels.
Assuming simple harmonic motion for the piston, determine the maximum and
mean water velocities in the delivery pipe and the inertia pressure in the delivery
pipe near the cylinders at the instant of minimum water velocity in the pipe.
(2.666 m/s, 2.4 m/s, ± 236.9 kPa)

************

******

359