High Power

Audio Amplifier
Construction
rA'

*.v
IV.V.V.V.fr.y:
vXv. pte!
v!v!v!jfxvXvi
Hv;;;XfvA*Xvl
mmm
»v.v.v.v.t.v.v.v/
• ••••••• •••••«
rX’ x'xfewXv.M-.fi
l\v.v.v J.w.v . 7|1A
[•••••• ••••••• (U * ft- 1
■• -|- #.*.*.*.*.*.•.*.y ft ai
•‘l BlI • •’ ^ ' 1 *-* * ■
if ®,v.
I I
X'J'XvXv
vJvXvXv pits
mm L-
r.vMv vllv!v •••••••••«.
vx-f:::-:-:-::-:-:-:-::™
IR ■vXvXvJ
f/XvXvl
11*
...... .......
IvivX’Xl

SpJ V. .v.wJ!w.y

de Historie v/d Radii

 HIGH POWER
AUDIO AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION

fclBUOTHE^
 Other Titles of Interest

BP74 Electronic Music Projects

BP90 Audio Projects
BP111 Audio
BP 122 Audio Amplifier Construction
BP174 More Advanced Electronic Music Projects
BP 185 Electronic Synthesiser Construction
BP256 An Introduction to Loudspeakers and Enclosure
Design
BP292 Public Address Loudspeaker Systems
BP297 Loudspeakers for Musicians
 HIGH POWER
AUDIO AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION

by
R. A. Penfold

BERNARD BABANI (publishing) LTD

THE GRAMPIANS
SHEPHERDS BUSH ROAD
LONDON W6 7NF
ENGLAND
 Please Note

Although every care has been taken with the production of this
book to ensure that any projects, designs, modifications and/or
programs etc. contained herewith, operate in a correct and safe
manner and also that any components specified are normally
available in Great Britain, the Publishers do not accept respon­
sibility in any way for the failure, including fault in design, of
any project, design, modification or program to work correctly
or to cause damage to any other equipment that it may be
connected to or used in conjunction with, or in respect of any
other damage or injury that may be so caused, nor do the
Publishers accept responsibility in any way for the failure to
obtain specified components.
Notice is also given that if equipment that is still under
warranty is modified in any way or used or connected with
home-built equipment then that warranty may be void.

©1991 BERNARD BABANI (publishing) LTD

First Published - April 1991

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Penfold, R. A.
High power audio amplifier construction.
1. Amplifiers
I. Title
621.3893

ISBN 0 85934 222 0

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Cox & Wyman Ltd, Reading
 Preface jyBUOTHEfctt.
N.v.h b,
For most domestic purposes, amplifiers having output powers
of about 50 watts r.m.s. per channel or less are perfectly
adequate. However, there are some applications, particularly
P.A. (public address) applications, that require substantially
higher output powers. Really high output powers of about
500 watts r.m.s. or more are difficult to achieve using standard
“off the shelf components from ordinary electronic compon­
ent retailers. The same is not true for output powers of
around 400 watts r.m.s. or less, which can now be achieved
without having to resort to any exotic and difficult (or
impossible) to obtain components. Output powers of this
order are adequate for most purposes, and higher powers can
eftectively be achieved by using multiple loudspeaker arrays
with a separate power amplifier driving each loudspeaker.
This book provides relatively simple designs which offer
good performance and maximum output powers of around 50
to 400 watts r.m.s. Note that these are true continuous r.m.s.
figures per amplifier, and are not some form of “total music
power” or other rather misleading form of power rating. These
amplifiers will provide high output powers indefinitely, and
not just for a few output cycles at a fairly high frequency, or
on single pulses! This point should be borne in mind when
comparing the power ratings of these designs with those of
other amplifiers.
Background information and some theory is provided in the
first two chapters. The third chapter provides some practical
circuits for amplifiers using power MOSFETs and high power
bipolar transistors in the output stages. Suitable mains power
supply circuits are included. Printed circuit board designs are
provided for the power MOSFET amplifiers, and wiring
diagrams for the power supplies are included. Constructing
these units is not particularly difficult, and is a task which is
probably not beyond the capabilities of anyone with a certain
amount of experience at electronic project construction.
However, as high power audio circuits inevitably involve the
use of quite high supply voltages and currents, I could not
recommend these projects for anyone with limited experience
of project construction. Minor errors could cause a lot of
costly damage, and could even be dangerous. No construc­
tional information is provided for the amplifiers based on
bipolar output transistors. These are really only included for
those with considerable electronics experience — the power
MOSFET designs offer much easier alternatives for those of
more limited experience.

R. A. Penfold
 Contents

Page

Chapter 1
HIGH POWER PROBLEMS . 1
Warnings...................... 1
Loudspeaker Matching . 4
Lower Load Impedance 6
Bridge Circuit ............ 7
Power Calculations . . . 12

Chapter 2
BIPOLAR OR MOSFET . 15
Class B................... 16
Cross-over Distortion 18
Thermal Runaway 20
Power MOSFETs . . 23
Parallel Operation . . 25
Speed ...................... 29

Chapter 3
HIGH POWER CIRCUITS 33
Configuration 33
Practical Circuit . . . 35
Output Power . . . . 37
Power Supply . . . . 39
Construction.......... 41
Heatsink................. 43
Insulation............... 47
Supply Construction 48
Setting Up............... 50
Op Amp Techniques 53
Op Power Amp . . . 54
Bridge Circuit 61
Bipolar Amplifiers . 66
Thermal Stability . . 71

Semiconductor Pinout Details 76

 Chapter 1

HIGH POWER PROBLEMS

For most audio power amplifier applications modern techno­

logy provides solutions in the form of suitable integrated
circuits. Despite improvements over the years though, there
are no readily available integrated circuits capable of providing
really high output powers. It would be as well here to define
what we mean by “high power”, since there is no rigid dividing
line between medium and high power levels. Defining this
term is very much a “how long is a piece of string” type
problem. Most audio power amplifiers, for hi-fi, guitar use,
etc., seem to have output powers of about 45 watts r.m.s. Or
less. In this book we will take “high power” to mean anything
above this level, or about 50 watts r.m.s. or more in other
words.
I suppose that we should also put an upper limit on things
as well, since above a certain power level we are really into the
realms of what would be more accurately termed “ultra-high
power”. In this book we will only be dealing with amplifiers
having output powers of up to about 300 watts r.m.s. Going
above this power level generally requires unusual techniques
and circuits based on some highly specialised components.
These specialised components are difficult or impossible
for the home constructor to obtain. Improvisation might pro­
vide a solution, but it might also lead to a lot of wasted time,
effort, and money. High power audio amplifiers are within
the capability of anyone who has a certain amount of experi­
ence at electronics construction. Ultra-high power designs are
a more difficult prospect. It would be very easy to end up
with something that failed to work, or worse still, which
worked for a while and then (perhaps literally) went up in a
puff of smoke!

Warnings
It is only fair to point out that even with the high power
designs described here, mistakes could easily prove costly.
The voltages and currents involved are inevitably quite high.

1
 A mistake which sends a massive amount of power to the
wrong part of a circuit will inevitably cause a spectacular
failure. Get things wrong and you could easily have the
transistors and electrolytic capacitors in the circuit literally
exploding. There is not just the cost of replacement parts to
worry about - there is also the safety aspect to consider.
Any audio power amplifier having an output power of a
few watts or more tends to be operated close to the point at
which it self-destructs due to overheating, excessive current
flows, or whatever. High power designs almost invariably have
to take components very close indeed to their maximum
ratings. Even given that manufacturers normally play safe on
most ratings, leaving generous margins above the published
figures, trying to take the designs featured in this book beyond
their specified power ratings is not a good idea. It could easily
lead to the immediate failure of the equipment, and even if the
equipment should survive in the short term, its medium to
long term reliability would probably not be very good. You
have been warned!
To avoid costly errors, check and double check everything
before connecting one of these amplifier circuits to a power
supply. Although many electronic project constructors oper­
ate a policy of connecting things up and switching them on
first, followed by checking only if problems arise, this is
definitely not an acceptable practice in the current context.
You might have destroyed every semiconductor in the circuit
by the time you get around to checking for errors! Check
everything thoroughly first switch on and try out the
amplifiers second.
Ideally, when the circuits are initially tested they should be
powered from a lower than normal supply voltage. A bench
power supply having built-in current limiting is probably the
best power source for this initial testing. Apart from being
able to provide a lower and safer supply voltage, the current
limiting will protect the circuit against drawing really high
power levels. This should ensure that there are no “zapped”
semiconductors if there is a fault of some kind in the circuit.
If no suitable power supply is available, perhaps the mains
transformer in the amplifier’s normal power supply will have
one or more tappings that will enable it to provide a reduced

2
voltage for testing purposes.
Do not omit any fuses that are shown in the circuits
featured in this book (or any other publication come to that).
Fuses have their limitations, the main one being that they are
relatively slow in operation. Even the so-called “quick-blow”
variety are not particularly fast by electronic standards. A
severe overload may well take almost a second to “blow” the
fuse. Semiconductor current limiting circuits operate in a
matter of microseconds, and will usually prevent any damage
to the semiconductors in the main circuit. Fuses are not fast
enough to provide the same degree of protection. Fuses also
tend to ignore minor overloads. They might eventually blow,
but perhaps only after the overload has been present for
several minutes or more. Semiconductor current limiting and
overload cutout circuits have well defined trigger levels.
Despite these problems, fuses are in some respects the more
practical choice. They are cheap, simple, and produce minimal
power losses. Semiconductor protection circuits need not be
particularly complex, but they are quite expensive where high
power levels are involved, and they tend to produce quite
significant power losses. In most cases fuses will prevent any
serious damage to components not already damaged when a
fault condition occurs, and they should always be sufficient
to prevent problems such as components overheating or wiring
burning out when a serious fault occurs.
Treat the output signal of a high power amplifier with due
respect. Short circuits on the output can cause massive
currents to flow. Apart from the likelihood of damage to the
output transistors of the amplifier, pretty massive currents can
flow in the output wiring if the output is short circuited while
the amplifier is being driven hard. The currents might even be
high enough to melt wiring, or to cause the plastic insulation
to burn. Always use good quality cables and connectors of
adequate rating for the job. Figure of eight type “bell” cable
might be fine for low power music centres, etc., but it is
inadequate for high power amplifiers. You could easily end
up with more power being lost in the cable than reaches the
loudspeaker, possibly with dire consequences for the cable.
Use proper heavy duty loudspeaker cable, and avoid tempor­
ary lash-ups that are unreliable. These could prove to be

3
 costly or even dangerous.
Some audio enthusiasts apparently use a system of placing
the two bare output leads in their mouth in order to deter­
mine whether or not a signal is coming down the cable
correctly. This simple test procedure will normally produce a
strong tingling sensation if all is well. With a high power
amplifier it would probably result in a trip to the nearest
casualty unit for treatment! Remember that with high power
amplifiers there can be well over one hundred volts peak to
- peak coming down the loudspeaker cable, not the few volts
peak to peak associated with low to medium power amplifiers.
i
Loudspeaker Matching
Transistors are essentially low voltage devices. Most types will
only operate reliably at potentials of about 30 volts or less.
Special types can operate at much higher voltages than these,
and for high power audio use it is necessary to resort to these
high voltage devices. For a given loudspeaker impedance, the
higher the output power required, the higher the drive voltage
must be. For a standard 8 ohm impedance loudspeaker, the
required drive voltage becomes surprisingly large at high
powers. This table lists some output powers, together with
the approximate r.m.s. and peak to peak drive voltages
required for each one.

Output Power VRMS V

1 watt 2.82V sV
5 watts 6.32V 17.83V
10 watts 8.94 V 25.22V
50 watts 20V 56.6V
100 watts 28.28V 80V
300 watts 48.98V 138.15V
500 watts 63.2V 178.7V

At 10 watts r.m.s. the peak to peak drive voltage is quite

reasonable at only about 25 volts. Most transistors, especially
power types, are capable of handling voltages of this order. At
50 watts r.m.s. matters are more difficult, with a peak to peak
drive level of about 56 volts needed. There are relatively few
linear semiconductors that will operate reliably at voltages as

4
high as this, and at higher powers the situation gets steadily
worse. Something not too far short of 200 volts peak to peak
is needed in order to give 500 watts r.m.s. into an 8-ohm
impedance loudspeaker.
The situation is actually somewhat worse than these figures
would suggest. No transistor output stage is capable of pro­
ducing a peak to peak output voltage that is equal to the
supply voltage. The efficiency in this respect varies substan­
tially from one design to another, but at the high currents
involved in this application, the voltage drops across power
transistors are generally quite high. With bipolar transistors
the discrepancy between the supply voltage and the peak to
peak output potential could easily be 10% or more. Losses
are generally higher with power f.e.t. devices, which tend to
have higher minimum “on" resistances than would be ideal.
With these it is not uncommon to have a peak to peak output
level that is around 20% less than the supply voltage.
Another factor to bear in mind is that most high power
audio amplifiers are not fed from stabilised power supplies.
Ideally I suppose they would be. but in practice there is the
high cost of the stabiliser circuit to consider. As yet, inexpen­
sive monolithic voltage regulators are not capable of handling
the kinds of supply voltages and currents involved in high
power audio applications. Also, a stabilised supply results in a
certain amount of wasted power, which has to be compensated
for by using a higher voltage mains transformer. In addition to
the extra cost, this also gives increased size and weight.
Although a stabilised supply has potential advantages, these
are normally outweighed by the increased cost, bulk, and
complexity.
The drawback of a non-stabilised supply is that there can
be a vast difference between the loaded and unloaded output
voltages. A drop of 30% or so from zero load to full load
would by no means be exceptional. This problem can be
eased by using a mains transformer of generous current rating,
but this obviously increases the bulk and cost of the power
supply to some extent.
The practical result of all this is that where an output
power rating requires a peak to peak output level of (say) 100
volts, the loaded supply voltage might need to be more like

5
115 volts, and the unloaded supply could well be as high as
150 volts. To guarantee safe operation, some of the transis­
tors in the amplifier would need to have maximum voltage
ratings of around this 150 volt level, not the 100 volts
suggested by the peak to peak output potential.
Lower Load Impedance
One approach to high power audio design is to simply use
suitably high supply voltages, together with semiconductors
having adequate voltage ratings. Power field effect transistors
having voltage ratings of around 120 volts to 200 volts are now
readily available. These can handle quite high powers of
about 100 watts per device, and currents of up to about 7 to 8
amps. These can obviously be used to provide quite high
output powers when used in conventional class B output
stages. Matching high voltage driver transistors are available
for these output transistors.
High voltage bipolar power transistors are also available.
Although the ubiquitous 2N3055 is quite popular for audio
power amplifier designs, for genuine high power circuits its
collector to emitter voltage rating of 60 volts is something of a
limitation. Although it is often referred to as a 100 volt
transistor, it is only the collector to base rating that is 100
volts. Devices such as the 2N3773/2N6609 complementary
pair offer greater scope. These have collector to emitter
voltage ratings of 140 volts, collector current ratings of 16
amps, and power ratings of 150 watts.
It can be difficult to obtain really high output powers
even with the aid of these “mega" output devices. It is often
voltage rather than current ratings that arc the limiting factor,
and the most simple solution is then to use a lower load
impedance. Halving the load impedance from 8 to 4 ohms
gives double the current flow, and double the output power
(provided the power supply, etc., have suitable ratings). An
output power of 300 watts requires about 138 volts peak to
peak into 8 ohms, which would probably dictate an unloaded
supply voltage in excess of 200 volts (but possibly a little less).
For 300 watts r.m.s. into a 4-ohm impedance the required
peak to peak voltage is about 97 volts. This would require an
unloaded supply voltage of only about 140 volts or so.

6
 A slight problem here is that most loudspeakers have an
impedance of 8 ohms rather than 4 ohms (although 4-ohm
types do exist). However. two 8-ohm loudspeakers wired in
parallel give an overall impedance of 4 ohms. Even lower load
impedances can be obtained by using more loudspeakers in
parallel (four speakers for a load impedance of 2 ohms for
example). There is a practical limit to how far you can take
this idea. Very low loudspeaker impedances require relatively
low drive voltages, but the drive currents can become massive.
Even assuming that everything in the circuit could handle
these currents, there are practical difficulties in dealing with
such low' impedance signals. Very heavy gauge wiring is
needed in order to handle currents of ten or twenty amps
with low voltage drops. In fact quite heavy gauge wiring is
needed to handle such high currents without burning out!
Cables to handle very high currents are often more like metal
rods than the normal (very flexible) cables we are used to.
Another method of obtaining high output powers from
relatively low supply voltages is to use an output transformer
(or possibly just an inductor) to provide a suitable voltage
step-up. This method has its advantages and drawbacks. One
drawback is that it is difficult to produce suitable transformers
at reasonable cost. High quality types are expensive —
inexpensive types tend to seriously compromise the audio
output quality. The main drawback of this method for the
home constructor is simply that suitable transformers, or the
materials to build your own, do not seem to be readily avail­
able. It is only likely to be a practical proposition if you are
prepared to improvise with whatever likely looking materials
you can obtain, and you are prepared to accept that the final
product may not give satisfactory results. Even if suitable
materials or components can be obtained, getting this type of
circuit to operate well and reliably is not always easy.

Bridge Circuit
A more up-market way of obtaining high powers without
having to resort to very high supply voltages is to use a bridge
circuit. This does not have to be used as an alternative to a
lower load impedance, and it is quite possible to use the two
methods together in order to obtain high output powers from

7
quite modest supply voltages. This approach is sometimes
used in order to get reasonably high output powers from
“transformerless” public address amplifiers which operate on
12-volt batteries.
A bridge amplifier is basically just two power amplifiers
driving a single loudspeaker. The arrangement used is outlined
in the block diagram of Figure 1.1. Simply driving the two
power amplifiers from the same signal, and connecting the
loudspeaker from across the two non-earth outputs of the
amplifiers, does not provide the desired result. This gives
two identical signals across the loudspeaker, as in Figure 1.2.
The voltage difference across the outputs of the amplifiers is
zero, and no output current flows.
What is needed is anti-phase output signals, as in Figure 1.3.
As one signal reaches its peak negative voltage, the other
reaches its peak positive potential, and vice versa. For the sake
of this example, assume that each output is producing 20 volts
peak to peak. Each output is therefore going to maximum
positive and negative values of 10 volts. When one output is
10 volts positive, the other is 10 volts negative. This gives a
total of 20 volts across the loudspeaker. Haifa cycle later the
signals have swapped states, and there is again one output at
plus 10 volts and one at minus 10 volts. This gives 20 volts
across the loudspeaker once more, but this time it has the
opposite polarity. With first 20 volts of one polarity, and then

h
Input Power Power
Inverter
Amplifier Amplifier
■ Speaker

Fig. 1.1 The basic arrangement used in a bridge amplifier

8
ov
20 volts of the opposite polarity across the loudspeaker, this
gives a total peak to peak value of 40 volts.
Using a bridge circuit it is theoretically possible to obtain a
peak to peak output voltage that is double the supply voltage.
This is not possible using current output devices, but it is
certainly possible to obtain peak to peak output potentials
that are well in excess of the supply voltage. The output level
is roughly double that of a single-ended power amplifier. In
terms of output power this actually means that something
like four times the normal output power for a given supply
voltage and loudspeaker impedance can be achieved using a
bridge circuit. Remember that doubling the output voltage
also doubles the output current, and that power is equal to
voltage multiplied by current. Doubling both the output
voltage and the output current therefore gives a quadrupling
of the output power.
Using a bridge circuit it is clearly possible to obtain quite
high output powers without having to resort to either a high
supply voltage or extremely low load impedances. As we
have already seen, for 100 watts r.m.s. into an 8-ohm imped­
ance loudspeaker some 28.28 volts r.m.s., or 80 volts peak to
peak is required. Using a single-ended transformerless output
stage this dictates a supply voltage of at least 80 volts, and
what in practice is likely to be an unloaded supply voltage of
130 volts or so. A bridge circuit could achieve the same out­
put power from a supply potential of at least 40 volts, and
what in practice would probably be an unloaded supply
voltage of about 65 volts or so. This is clearly much more
manageable, although it must be borne in mind that the
reduced supply voltage is gained at the expense of greatly
increased supply current. However, with semiconductor
circuits it is generally easier to provide high currents than it
is to provide high voltages.
Although a bridge circuit may seem to be an ideal solu­
tion to providing high output powers without having resort
to high supply voltages, this system does have one or two
slight drawbacks. A minor one is that with this type of
circuit it is generally a little more difficult to obtain good
stability than it is with single-ended designs. The probable
cause of this is the fact that the input must be in-phase with

10
one of the outputs. This can easily lead to problems with
instability due to stray feedback, it is not usually too difficult
to obtain good stability though, and this is not a major
drawback.
Something that does tend to be a more major problem is
that of obtaining a low quiescent output voltage. With this
type of circuit it is normal for the output to be directly
coupled to the loudspeaker. There is no strong d.c. compon­
ent across the outputs, which makes using a large electrolytic
coupling capacitor a dubious practice. The circuit could be
designed to produce a suitably strong polarising voltage, but
this would upset the symmetry of the circuit, which would be
reflected in a significant reduction in the maximum output
power.
Direct coupling is a better way of handling matters, but
only if the two output voltages are accurately matched under
quiescent conditions. In fact the situation is a little more
complex than this, as the output voltages must remain accur­
ately matched when the amplifier is being driven. It is very
easy to produce a design that has accurately matched d.c.
output potentials under standby conditions, but which has a
strong d.c. bias across the outputs when the amplifier is driven
hard. It is also easy to produce a design which has accurately
matched output levels when it is first set up, but which drifts
out of balance within a few minutes.
The problem with d.c. offsets across the output is that they
produce strong d.c. flows through the loudspeaker. Apart
from reduced efficiency in the amplifier, there are the conse­
quences for the loudspeakers to take into account. Strong
d.c. levels maintained for a long period of time can apparently
result in the loudspeaker cone being permanently offset from
its correct resting position. This could affect the reproduction
quality, and would certainly reduce the maximum power level
that the unit could handle properly.
Although there are potential problems here, they are not
insurmountable, Using operational amplifier style dual
balanced supply rails, together with operational amplifier style
biasing and feedback circuits, will usually ensure that there is
no significant d.c. bias across the outputs.
A small but important point to bear in mind when using

11
bridge amplifiers is that neither output is at earth potential.
Furthermore, as d.c. coupling is used, letting one of the out­
puts come into electrical contact with the earth rail will
produce a massive current flow. The fuses might “blow” in
time to prevent any damage, but it is quite likely that one or
more output transistors would be destroyed before the fuses
cut off the supply. Using dual balanced supplies and a central
(0 volt) earth rail can minimise this problem by giving minimal
differences between the output potentials and the earth
voltage. However, this would not necessarily ensure a low
current flow in the event of an output being short circuited to
earth.

Power Calculations
Calculating the output power of an audio amplifier should be a
simple enough matter, but it is a slightly contentious one. In
theory, you simply take the maximum loaded r.m.s. output
voltage, square it, and divide by the loudspeaker impedance.
For example, 10 volts r.m.s. into an 8-ohm impedance loud­
speaker gives 12.5 watts r.m.s. (10 volts squared = 100 volts,
divided by 8 ohms = 12.5 watts). If the output voltage is the
peak figure, not the r.m.s. one, it should first be divided by
1.414 in order to convert it into an equivalent r.m.s. figure.
For peak to peak voltages divide by 2.828 in order to obtain
an equivalent r.m.s. value.
While this is all simple enough, in practice matters are
complicated by the fact that few audio power amplifiers are
powered from stabilised supplies. As already pointed out, the
use of stabilised supplies does have potential advantages, but
these are normally outweighed by the disadvantages. In
particular, the increased cost and bulk. An advantage of a
non-stabilised supply is that it enables short spiky waveforms
to be handled better. Although waveforms of this type give
very high peak output powers, they produce relatively low
current consumptions. Figure 1.4 helps to illustrate this
point.
In the upper waveform, which is triangular, the average
level is just half the peak level. In the lower waveform its
spiky nature means that the average level is only about one-
tenth of the peak level. The peak output power is the same

12
 ov
V-

Fig. 1.4 These two waveforms have the same peak power
level, but the average power in the lower wave­
form is only a fraction of that in the upper
waveform

for both waveforms, but the average output power (and

current consumption) are much lower for the pulsed wave­
form. This means that the supply voltage sags relatively
little on a pulsed signal, permitting higher peak output powers
to be produced. Provided the output transistors have suitably
high ratings, on this type of signal relatively high peak output
powers can be handled before the onset of clipping.
In a similar vein, it is possible for an amplifier having a
non-stabilised supply to provide higher than normal output
powers, even with sinewave signals, if they are only supplied
in intermittent bursts. This is simply due to the fact that
the smoothing capacitors in the power supply circuit will
have very high values, and at a middle audio frequency or
higher it takes several cycles before these capacitors become
significantly discharged and the supply voltage sags. An
amplifier might provide 100 watts r.m.s. with a continuous
signal, but perhaps about 150 watts r.m.s. or more if it is fed
with short bursts of sinewave signal.
This has led to some imaginative output power ratings over
the years, particularly for hi-fi amplifiers. Output powers
quoted as “continuous r.m.s.” in some cases turned out to be

13
 figures for something like five cycles at 1 kHz. In other words,
“continuous” actually meant for about 5 milliseconds! Some
quoted output powers are even less justifiable than this.
Ratings such as “combined music power” seem to be some
sort of peak figure, with the powers of the two stereo channels
added together. This can give a figure which is ten or more
times higher than the true continuous r.m.s. output power
per channel.
In this book all output powers are in watts r.m.s. per
channel, and are sustainable indefinitely provided all the
components are of adequate ratings, and the power devices
are fitted on suitable heatsinks. If you take short cuts by
using components of inferior ratings, skimping on the heat­
sinking, etc., then this will be reflected in a reduction in the
available output power. It will also be reflected in reduced
reliability. Using components of inadequate rating, or inade­
quate heatsinking, is quite likely to result in something over­
heating and being destroyed if the amplifier is run at high
power for a period of time. The power ratings in this book
only apply if a power supply circuit of adequate rating is
used. Remember that the power rating of an amplifier is as
much dependent on the power supply as it is on the amplifier
itself.
When comparing the power ratings of these circuits with
those of other high power amplifiers, remember to check
exactly what form the output powers of the amplifiers are
given in. Unless you know this, output power ratings do not
really tell you a great deal.

14
 Chapter 2

BIPOLAR OR MOSFET

Up until about ten years ago, the choice when designing a

high power audio amplifier was between bipolar transistors or
valves. Even in those days, the valve option was not a popular
one. Whatever the relative merits of valves and transistors in
high power audio applications (and valves do have their
advantages where high powers are involved), valves were not a
popular choice due to difficulties in obtaining the necessary
components. These days the component buying problems are
that much greater, rendering home constructed valve amplifier
projects something that are only suitable for the dedicated
few.
These days there is a real alternative to bipolar transistors
in the form of power field effect transistors (f.e.t.s). The two
commonly available forms of power f.e.t. are the VMOS and
the power MOSFET types. High power VMOS transistors
suitable for operation in high power audio amplifiers are pro­
duced, but these are not very readily available. Also, comple­
mentary devices suitable for genuinely symmetrical class B
output stages are very difficult to obtain. Quasi-symmetrical
output stages using only n channel devices (the f.e.t equivalent
to n.p.n. bipolar transistors) are possible, but the lack of true
symmetry can compromise performance.
For audio applications the Hitachi power MOSFETs are
probably the better choice. These are somewhat more
expensive than VMOS devices, and are substantially more
expensive than most bipolar power transistors. On the other
hand, they have high voltage, current, and power ratings,
and bipolar devices that are true alternatives to these power
f.e.t.s are not exactly cheap. Even if power f.e.t.s are some­
what more expensive, as we shall see, they probably more
than justify their extra cost. They can be used in relatively
simple circuits, provide a very high reproduction quality,
and offer excellent reliability. They are particularly well
suited to home constructed amplifiers as they avoid any
complicated setting-up procedures.

15
Class B
In order to understand the merits of power MOSFETs it is
first necessary to understand the basic way in which class B
output stages operate. In early transistor designs there were
usually two transformers (a driver and an output type). Later
configurations avoided the need for one or other of these, and
eventually “transformerless” complementary output stages
were developed. A basic class B audio amplifier of this type
uses the configuration of Figure 2.1. This circuit has a direct
coupled output with dual balanced supplies and a central
0 volt earth rail. In practice there is often a single supply rail
and a capacitive coupling to the loudspeaker. The basic way
in which the circuit operates is much the same in either case,
but the direct coupled version is probably the easier to
understand.

V+

i R3
.

n
R4
© TR2

OV
LSI

Cl
R1

TR1
© TR3

Input R2

o V-

Fig.2.1 Basic transformerless class B amplifier circuit

16
 TR1 is the driver transistor, and it operates as a straight­
forward common emitter amplifier having the series resistance
of R3 and R4 as its collector load resistance. The reason for
having this split load resistance will be explained later. TR2
and TR3 are the complementary output transistors, and these
operate in the emitter follower mode. Unlike the driver stage,
they provide no voltage gam, but they do provide a large
amount of current gain. They therefore act as buffers which
enable the high drive currents required by the loudspeaker to
be satisfied.
Biasing of the whole circuit is provided by R1 and R2,
which must set the quiescent output voltage accurately at the
central 0 volt supply level. With a d.c. coupled circuit this
requires the use of a preset resistor to enable the d.c. output
potential to be trimmed to precisely the correct level. This is
not always necessary with capacitvely coupled circuits, where
the output coupling capacitor prevents any strong direct
current flow if the biasing is not spot-on.
Negative feedback is applied over the circuit via the bias
resistors. This reduces the circuit’s voltage gain, and also helps
to reduce noise and distortion. Cl provides d.c. blocking at
the input of the circuit.
On positive output excursions TR3 is cut off, but TR2 is
biased into conduction and supplies current to the loud­
speaker. On negative output excursions it is TR2 that is cut
off, and TR3 that supplies the drive current to the loud­
speaker, The higher the output voltage on half cycles of either
polarity, the higher the current that is drawn from the
appropriate supply rail.
This type of circuit might seem to be unnecessarily compli­
cated, offering no obvious advantage over a simple class A
type. However, with a class A output stage there is a constant
and very high current consumption. Even if the amplifier
would always be run continuously at full power, a class A
output stage would not offer a very high level of efficiency.
In fact most of the supply current tends to end up in the
output transistor and the load circuit, rather than in the
loudspeaker. Class A output stages often offer efficiencies of
only about 20% to 25%. Of course, in practice no audio
power amplifier is driven continuously at full power by a

17
sinewave input signal, and the true efficiency is likely to be
only a few percent.
When driven continuously at full power, class B output
stages can provide theoretical efficiencies of around the 70%
mark. Practical circuits will often fall well short of the
theoretical maximum efficiency level, but will still be far
superior to class A designs in this respect. This means that for
a given output power they require smaller power supplies, and
less heatsinking on the output transistors. They consequently
tend to be smaller and cheaper than class A designs, despite
what are usually more complex output stages. Unlike class A
designs, class B output stages do not consume a high power
level when there is little or no output signal. The current con­
sumption is proportional to the output power, and is zero with
no input signal. As we shall see shortly, practical designs
normally have some quiescent current flow through the output
transistors, but this is usually only a small fraction of the
quiescent current drain of a class A circuit of similar output
power.

Cross-over Distortion
Class B amplifiers might seem to be too good to be true, and as
one might expect, there is a catch. This is in the form of cross­
over distortion. This is a severe type of distortion which is at
its worst at low power levels, where distortion tends to be
most noticeable. The problem arises because transistors do
not start to conduct as soon as a forward bias voltage is
applied. For silicon bipolar transistors it is normally necessary
for the bias voltage to reach something like 0.5 to 0.6 volts
before the device starts to conduct. Thereafter, only a small
increase in the bias voltage is needed in order to cause the
device to conduct heavily.
If we apply this to our simple class B amplifier circuit of
Figure 2.1, it means that the collector of TR1 has to swing
about 0.5 to 0.6 volts positive or negative before the output
voltage will start to change at all. If we apply this to a triangu­
lar output waveform, the correct output waveform is shown in
Figure 2.2 (top). The lower waveform is how the output signal
might actually appear. This distortion looks bads, and sounds
even worse!

18
 A forward bias is normally applied to the output transistors
under quiescent conditions in order to counteract cross-over
distortion. This is the purpose of R4. In practice it is not
good enough to merely bring the output transistors to the
brink of conduction. A bipolar transistor has a relatively low
gain as it initially switches on. The gain steadily increases as
the collector current is increased, and then flattens out at
fairly high currents. It might then actually drop away slightly
at very high currents. A typical transfer characteristic might
look something like the graph of Figure 2.3 (which is actually
exaggerated slightly in order to emphasise the non-linearity
of a transistor).
This means that in practice an amplifier based on bipolar
transistors, or any other amplifying device available at present
come to that, can never offer complete freedom from distor­
tion. The amplifier must be designed to keep the innate
distortion level as low as possible, with negative feedback then
being used to reduce the actual distortion level of the circuit
to an acceptable figure. Negative feedback can reduce

19
distortion levels by substantial amounts, but it is not a total
solution. With an innate distortion level, that is (say) 2% or
less, negative feedback which produces a 40dB reduction in
gain (i.e. reduces the voltage gain by a factor of one hundred)
will also reduce the distortion levels by a factor of one
hundred. This would give an impressive distortion figure of
0.02% or less. Using a small quiescent bias through the output
transistors is not likely to give an innate distortion figure of
2% though. At low signal levels it would probably be around
50% or more! Even with a substantial 40dB of feedback, this
would still leave some 0.5% or more distortion.

Thermal Runaway
Using a higher bias current will still leave a reasonably low
quiescent current consumption, and will not significantly
affect the efficiency of the amplifier. However, it will lead to
problems with thermal runaway. The important fact to bear
in mind here is that the threshold voltage of a bipolar transis­
tor is temperature dependent. The higher the temperature of

20
the component, the lower its threshold voltage. If the
quiescent bias current is set at the correct level while the
output transistors are cool, as they heat up in use, the
quiescent current will climb. This can result in a regenerative
action where the increased heat causes an increase in the bias
current, which causes further heating, a further increase in the
bias current, and so on. The bias current steadily increases
regardless of whether the amplifier is driven, eventually
leading to the destruction of the output transistors. This
effect is thermal runaway.
With any class B amplifier of this general type and of more
than very modest output power, it is essential to take steps to
counteract thermal runaway. This is sometimes achieved using
a negative temperature coefficient thermistor in the R4
position. This detects any increase in temperature, and its
resistance then falls. This results in a reduction in the bias
voltage, which stabilises the bias current. In practice it is
difficult to find a thermistor that maintains the bias current
reasonably accurately. Only very slight under-compensation
is needed in order to let thermal runaway still occur, albeit
more slowly than would otherwise be the case. Slight over­
compensation will reduce the bias current, giving noticeable
cross-over distortion.
The more modern approach is to use two diodes, as in
Figure 2.4, or a transistor in the so-called “amplified diode”
configuration, as shown in Figure 2.5. The two diodes are
forward biased, and act rather like low voltage zener diodes.
About 0.6 volts is needed in order to bring each one into
conduction, but only a marginally higher voltage is needed in
order to produce a strong current flow. This gives a voltage of
about 1.3 volts across the two diodes, which is about right to
give a moderate quiescent current flow through the output
transistors.
In practice the diodes are mounted very close to the output
transistors, and might even be mounted on their heatsink. The
diodes therefore quickly respond to any change in the temper­
ature of the output transistors. Like the threshold voltages of
the output transistors, the threshold potentials of the diodes
are temperature dependent. Increases in temperature cause a
reduction in their “zener” voltage, and tend to counteract any

21
 v+

Thermal
Stabilisation
Diodes ![
0 S
ov

Fig.2.4 Using two diodes to give a thermally stabilised

quiescent bias current

increase in the output bias current. Provided the diodes are

suitable silicon types, they will have thermal characteristics
that are a good match for the output transistors, and which
give a stable quiescent current.
The problem with this simple method of stabilisation is
that there is no certainty that the bias current will be stabilised
at a suitable level. Ideally it should be possible to trim the
quiescent output current to a suitable figure, which is possible
using the amplified diode method of stabilisation. This simple
configuration gives what is a sort of variable zener diode. If
the preset resistor provides half the collector voltage to the
base terminal, then it will stabilise the emitter to collector
voltage at about double the base voltage. This gives a “zener”

22
 v+

Amplified
Diode (m -Kll-i

l_ ® A
OV

Fig.2.5 Using an amplified diode to provide thermal

stabilisation of the bias current

voltage of about 1.3 volts, like the two diode circuit. How­
ever, by adjusting the preset resistor it is possible to trim the
voltage substantially either side of this figure, permitting
practically any desired quiescent output current to be set.
The “zener" voltage is a factor of the base voltage, and
increases in temperature cause the collector and base voltages
to drop. This gives the required thermal stabilisation of the
quiescent bias current, and provided the transistor in the
amplified diode circuit is a suitable silicon type, very accurate
stabilisation will be obtained.

Power MOSFETs
This is all very well in theory, but in practice it can be difficult
to obtain really stable bias levels. It is easier when designing

23
 amplifiers that will be produced commercially, since there will
be no significant physical difference between one amplifier
and the next. The same is not true of designs for the home
constructor, where there are likely to be a wide variety of
cases, heatsinks, etc., used in each amplifier. Rather than all
being the same, it would be reasonable to expect no two home
constructed projects of the same design to be absolutely
identical!
Provided each amplifier is carefully constructed, set up,
monitored initially, and if necessary readjusted or modified
slightly, there should be no problem. This is a less than ideal
situation though, and not all constructors will be equipped to
handle this task. Ideally what is needed is a circuit that has
inherently good thermal stability. This is indeed possible
using power MOSFETs in what is essentially the same con­
figuration as Figure 2.1. The only change necessary is to
replace the n.p.n. and p.n.p. bipolar transistors with N channel
and P channel power MOSFETs respectively.
Like bipolar devices, power MOSFETs require a forward
bias before they will start to conduct. Also like bipolar
devices, they offer relatively low gains with small forward
biases. Accordingly, they also require a fairly strong forward
bias when used in a class B power amplifier circuit if strong
cross-over distortion is to be avoided. The forward threshold
voltage of a power MOSFET is generally somewhat higher
than that of a bipolar transistor, and so a somewhat stronger
bias voltage is normally needed.
One of the big advantages of power MOSFETs is that they
have a positive temperature coefficient at low currents, but a
negative type at medium and high currents. If the quiescent
current is set at a low level, as the output transistors heat up,
the bias current increases slightly. However, it does not
increase very much, since the quiescent current soon reaches
the turn-over point where the temperature coefficient becomes
negative. Further increases in temperature then cause a slight
reduction in the quiescent bias current. This changeover from
a positive to a negative temperature coefficient tends to
stabilise the quiescent current quite close to the current at
which the changeover occurs.
In practice the power f.e.t.s that are intended for class B

24
audio power use are designed to have a changeover current
which is a good choice for the quiescent bias level (typically
about 60 to 100 milliamps). This results in excellent thermal
stability without the need for any temperature compensation
circuits. In fact the inherent' thermal stability of a power
MOSFET output stage means that any attempt to provide a
thermal stabilisation circuit would probably make matters
worse rather than better. For the home constructor the
absence of any problems with thermal stability, and getting
compensation circuits set up correctly, obviously makes life
very much easier. If nothing else, it gives peace of mind as
there is no risk whatever of thermal runaway occurring with
this type of output stage.

Parallel Operation
There is a potential problem with using bipolar transistors at
high powers, and this is secondary breakdown. Basically this
means that there are voltage and current combinations which
are not acceptable, even though they are within the device’s
Vceo and Ic ratings, and will not result in excessive power and
heat dissipation. Apparently this is due to a sort of localised
thermal runaway causing “hot-spots” in the semiconductor
structure. The effect of these “hot-spots” is to cause a virtual
short circuit from the collector to the emitter, resulting in
the rapid destruction of the device. Due to their negative
temperature coefficient at high operating currents, power
MOSFETs do not suffer from secondary breakdown. Whereas
bipolar power transistors often have to be used well within
their maximum voltage and current ratings in order to operate
reliably, power MOSFETs can be used right up to both ratings
without any risk of them being damaged (provided the power
ratings are not exceeded of course).
A practical benefit of this absence of secondary breakdown
is that it is possible to use power MOSFETs safelv in parallel.
In other words, each output transistor can actually consist of
two devices connected in the manner shown in Figure 2.6.
This shares the current between the two transistors in each
parallel pair, permitting higher output currents and powers to
be handled. In fact by using this arrangement it is possible to
halve the loudspeaker impedance, and double the output power.

25
 Drain Drain

c G

Gate
I
Source Gate Source

Fig.2.6 Power MOSFETs can be used safety with this

straightforward parallel connection

Base Collector Base Collector

1R 1R
Typ. Typ.

Emitter o Emitter o

Fig.2.7 Emitter resistors are needed when using bipolar

transistors in parallel

26
 This is actually a slight over-simplification, and for this
method to be fully successful it is necessary to have a driver
circuit that can take the additional loading of the extra output
transistors. This is not difficult with power MOSFETs, since
they have the high input impedances associated with all f.e.t.
devices. The input capacitance of power MOSFETs precludes
the use of true micro-power driver stages, which would give an
inadequate high frequency response due to the capacitive
loading of the output stage. A driver current of only about
10 milliamps is normally adequate though.
The very low drive currents required by power MOSFETs
gives them a major advantage over bipolar transistors. In order
to obtain comparable gain at least two bipolar transistors have
to be used. The Darlington pair configuration is probably the
more popular configuration, but the twin common emitter
type with 100% negative feedback is also used to a significant
degree. Both configurations effectively provide a single tran­
sistor having a current gain equal to the products of the two
gains of the individual transistors in the pair. For instance, if
the current gains of the two transistors in a pair are 50 and 60,
they effectively provide a single transistor having a current
gain of 3000 (50 x 60 = 3000). Even so, quite high drive
currents of a few hundred milliamps are often needed in very
high power circuits. Bear in mind here that in order to work
efficiently, the amplifier must have an output impedance that
is only a small fraction of the loudspeaker impedance. A
typical medium or high power audio amplifier has an output
impedance of a few milliohms or less.
With power MOSFETs the parallel arrangement is inherent­
ly stable. If one device tends to draw more current than the
other, it heats up more, but the negative temperature coeffici­
ent results in it taking a lower proportion of the current. In
other words, the characteristics of power MOSFETs results in
them tending to stabilise with an almost identical share of the
output current.
The situation is very different with bipolar transistors
when they are used in a similar arrangement. If one device
takes more current than the other, it heats up more, which
due to its positive temperature coefficient results in it taking a
greater proportion of the output current. This results in it

27
heating up still further, taking an even greater share of the
output current. The other device takes an ever decreasing
proportion of the output current, which results in it operating
cooler. This in turn causes it to take a lower proportion of the
output current. Rather than tending to stabilise with an even
share of the output current, the tendency is for one device to
take an ever increasing share of the output current, while the
other takes less and less. This is quite likely to ultimately
result in the destruction of the output transistor that takes
the “lion’s share” of the output current.
The normal way around this problem is to use emitter
resistors, as in Figure 2.7. Output currents (low through
these resistors, causing voltages to be produced across them.
These voltages effectively raise the base to emitter voltage
needed for a given collector current. The higher this current,
the higher the required base to emitter voltage becomes. If
one transistor takes a higher share of the current flow, this
results in its effective base to emitter threshold voltage
increasing. At the same time, the other device takes a lower
current, and its effective base to emitter turn on potential
reduces. This tends to reduce the current through the device
that takes the higher current, and increase the How through
the transistor that takes the lower current. In other words.
it tends to even out any discrepancies in the two current
Hows. Provided the resistors are high enough in value, and
the gains of the transistors are not too dissimilar, this will
ensure stable operation of the circuit. Incidentally, these
emitter resistors are sometimes included when single output
transistors are used. It helps to guard against thermal
runaway.
In practice it is undesirable to include these resistors
because they produce voltage drops. These voltage drops are
reflected in a reduction in the output voltage swing. In prac­
tice this is the price that has to be paid in order to obtain
reliable operation. In fairness, it has to be admitted that the
“on” resistances of power MOSFETs tend to be higher than
the equivalent figures for bipolar transistors. Thus, even
with these resistors added, pairs of bipolar transistors might
actually provide lower “on" resistances than pairs of power
MOSFETs. Note that if bipolar transistors are used in parallel

28
 pairs, it is normal for each pair to be mounted on the same
heatsink. This gives a thermal coupling between the two
devices, which helps to discourage any creeping apart of their
relative shares of the output current.
Although we have only been talking here in terms of pairs
of transistors connected in parallel, it is possible to use any
desired number of transistors in parallel. In practice though,
there may be no point in doing so. The more transistors that
are connected in parallel, the greater the drive current that is
needed. This could lead to an impractical collector current
being needed in the driver stage. Probably the main point to
bear in mind is that this method only permits higher output
currents to be obtained not higher output voltages. It is
possible that the parallel transistors would produce lower
voltage drops, and would give slightly boosted output voltage
swings. This would be more likely to occur with power
MOSFETs than bipolar transistors, since the voltage drops
across single power MOSFETs are often quite high. This is
due to their relatively high “on” resistances. However, this
effect is not likely to produce a boost in output power of
more than a few percent.
The doubling in the output current, provided the power
supply has a suitably high current rating to give this increased
current, gives a doubling of output power. This is only obtain­
ed by halving the load impedance though. In practice there
will be a limit on minimum load impedance that can be used.
This often precludes the use of more than two devices in
parallel, but it is worthwhile remembering that more devices
can be used if necessary.

Speed
In the early days of power transistors there was a major
problem in getting the devices to operate at speeds that would
enable them to be used in practical applications. For high
frequency operation it is necessary to make transistors
physically small, but in order to permit high powers to be
handled they must be physically large (or relatively so any­
way). This makes it difficult to obtain both high power and
high operating speed. Most of the early power transistors
were barely usable in low quality audio applications, and only

29
 a few “specials” were capable of operating at radio frequencies.
Most of these radio frequency devices would only operate up
to a few megahertz.
Matters improved when silicon transistors took over and the
original germanium devices became obsolete. Even so, many
high power bipolar transistors have low Fr ratings, and are
prone to problems with slewing induced distortion (or SID
as it is often termed). This is where a strong high frequency
signal requires the output voltage to change at a high rate
which is beyond the capabilities of the output transistors.
These signal conditions may only occur infrequently, but the
resultant distortion can be quite severe, and very noticeable
indeed.
The high frequency performance of good quality power
devices designed specifically for operation in audio power
amplifiers is usually much better than that of general purpose
high power devices such as the ever popular 2N3055. The cost
is generally somewhat more, but the difference is not usually
large enough to greatly affect the overall cost of the finished
amplifier complete with power supply. Most of the cost is
usually accounted for by the mains transformer, massive heat­
sinks, the case, etc., rather than the semiconductors. Where
really high output powers are required, there may be no
option but to resort to very high power devices having quite
low F, figures (usually only about 200kHz). Although a figure
of about 200kHz might seem perfectly adequate for the 20
kHz audio bandwidth, remember that this is not the frequency
at which the gain starts to fall away. It is the frequency at
which the gain falls to unity, which really means it is the
frequency at which the device ceases to offer any worthwhile
gain at all!
Of course, in many high power audio applications the audio
quality might be of secondary importance to the output
power, and something short of true hi-fi performance may be
quite acceptable. In particular, if the amplifier will only be
required to handle voice signals, slewing induced distortion is
not likely to be a significant consideration. Any slewing
induced distortion that should occur will not matter very
much, and the nature of the input signal is such that there is
little likelihood of this type of distortion occurring anyway.

30
 A factor that could still cause problems is the significant
phase lag that occurs through a relatively slow output stage.
This results in feedback that should be of the negative variety
being inverted and converted into positive feedback. In a
minor case this could result in “ringing" and other relatively
mild forms of high frequency instability. In a severe case it
results in the circuit breaking into oscillation usually at an
ultrasonic frequency. This problem is avoided in practice by
using so-called “compensation” components, which can be
anything from a single low value capacitor through to several
C — R circuits. With a very slow output stage the high fre­
quency response of the circuit might have to be rolled-off at
quite a low frequency, possibly severely attenuating the higher
audio frequencies. Again, this will not matter if the amplifier
is only required to handle voice signals, but it would clearly be
a major drawback where music signals are involved.
Slewing induced distortion is less of a problem if power
MOSFETs are used in the output stage. These have relatively
high operating speeds, and are typically some fifty to one
hundred times faster than silicon power transistors having
similar power ratings. This is normally sufficient to totally
eliminate any problems with slewing induced distortion, or
inadequate bandwidth due to the use of heavy frequency
compensation. In fact power MOSFET based amplifiers will
often operate with good stability even if no frequency com­
pensation circuit is used. In practice it is normal for such a
circuit to be included. This is done in order to avoid problems
such as the breakthrough of radio frequency signals picked up
in the input wiring.
Most audio power amplifiers use configurations that are
more complicated than the one of Figure 2.1. This configura­
tion is simple, but it has a number of flaws. One of these is
that it does not have a very high innate (open loop) voltage
gain, leaving little scope for reducing distortion by using large
amounts of negative feedback. It does not have a particularly
low innate distortion level either. Practical circuits normally
have two common emitter stages ahead of the output stage
in order to boost the open loop voltage gain to a more useful
level. In order to reduce the distortion of the driver stage it is
often equipped with a constant current source as its collector

31
load, in place of a simple resistor. For the same reason, the
input stage is often a “long tailed pair” rather than a simple
common emitter stage. We will deal with some of these
improved configurations in the next chapter, which covers
some practical amplifier circuits plus suitable mains power
supply units.

32
 Chapter 3

HIGH POWER CIRCUITS

So far we have only talked in fairly broad and rather theore­

tical terms. In this chapter some practical high power audio
amplifier circuits will be described, complete with suitable
printed circuit board designs in some cases. Although these
circuits can probably be constructed by anyone who has a
certain amount of experience at electronic project construc­
tion, I must emphasise that I do not consider these designs
to be suitable for those of limited experience at this type of
thing. High power audio amplifiers tend to be very unforgiv­
ing it mistakes are made, and even those who have many years
of experience at project construction need to proceed care­
fully with these (or any other) high power audio circuits.

Configuration
The basic class A driver and class B output stage described in
Chapter 2 will work in practice, but will not give particularly
good results. The open loop voltage gain of this simple
arrangement is quite low, giving little scope for the application
of negative feedback in order to improve performance. An
extra stage of amplification is needed in order to overcome
this problem, and give better results. Figure 3.1 shows what is
generally considered to be the most simple configuration that
is capable of providing reasonably good results. This is shown
as having a pair of power MOSFETs in the class B output stage,
but this configuration can obviously be used with a comple­
mentary bipolar output stage if preferred.
The driver and output stages are much the same as in the
basic configuration described in Chapter 2. The difference is
in the addition of a common emitter stage (TR1) at the input
of the circuit. This has its output direct coupled to the input
of the driver stage, making the entire circuit direct coupled
(apart from the d.c. blocking capacitors at the input and
output, of course). Although a common emitter amplifier
would normally be expected to provide a very high level of
voltage gain (typically about 50dB for a high gain silicon

33
 R1
r R7
v+

£ C2 R2
R6
i
m TR3

-Wl-o
Out

R8 C4
In Cl R5
0---II- TR4

R3 R4 S C3
© TR2

LI — ov

Fig.3.1 The most simple power amplifier configuration

that will provide reasonably good results

device), the overall voltage gain of this circuit is just unity.

This is due to the 100% negative feedback from the output to
the emitter of TR1, via R6. R1, R2 and R3 are used to bias
the input of the circuit to about half the supply voltage, which
in turn gives the required output bias level of half the supply
potential. R1 and C2 act as a so-called “hum” filter, which
prevent any mains “hum” or other noise on the supply lines
from,being coupled to the input of the amplifier via the bias­
ing network.
In order to give the circuit a useful voltage gain at audio
frequencies it is necessary to remove some of the negative
feedback at these frequencies. The feedback must not be
altered at d.c., since this would upset the biasing conditions.
C3 decouples the feedback at audio frequencies, but provides
d.c. blocking that leaves the biasing unaltered. R5 limits the

34
amount of feedback that is removed, and therefore controls
the closed loop voltage gain of the circuit. This operates in a
similar manner to an operational amplifier used in the non­
inverting mode, and the voltage gain is equal to (R5 + R6)
divided by R5. The open loop gain of the circuit is likely to
be quite high at (typically) about 70dB. This means that the
circuit can have a useful closed loop gain of around 30dB
while still having about 40dB of feedback to reduce the
distortion to an acceptable level.

Practical Circuit
The circuit diagram of Figure 3.2 is for a practical power
amplifier based on the configuration of Figure 3.1. This
follows the original configuration quite closely, but it has a
few refinements. At the input of the circuit, R1 and C4
provide a simple lowpass filter action. This removes any high
frequency signals that might be present on the input signal,
and which could otherwise cause unwanted audio break­
through or other problems. C5 provides a small amount of
high frequency roll-off which helps to avoid problems with
high frequency instability. RIO and C9 are included for the
same reason, and they are needed to compensate for the
highly inductive nature of a loudspeaker, which represents
an awkward load.
In the driver stage the simple load resistor for TR3 has been
replaced with a constant current generator based on TR2. A
constant current load has certain advantages, such as improved
linearity from the driver stage. The constant current source
sets the operating current of the driver stage at only about 8
milliamps, but this is adequate for the power MOSFET output
stage. VRI enables the quiescent output current to be adjust­
ed, and in practice it should be adjusted for a bias level of
about 80 milliamps. The specified values for R7 and R5 give a
closed loop voltage gain of a little under 26dB. This means
that about 4 volts peak to peak is needed at the input in order
to fully drive the amplifier. If necessary, the gain can be
boosted somewhat by making R7 higher in value (increases in
its value giving a proportionate boost in gain). This will result
in a slight increase in the noise and distortion figures though.

35
 Although this amplifier is very simple, it provides quite
good performance. I would not claim true hi-fi performance
from it, but I suppose it is true to say that it betters many
amplifiers which have claimed this status. Provided it is not
driven into clipping, the distortion level should be only a
fraction of 1% at any power level. This includes very low
powers where many otherwise excellent amplifiers give dis­
appointing results. Ii has an open loop voltage gain (and
therefore a feedback level) which is virtually constant over
the audio range, resulting in a distortion performance which
is much the same over the full audio spectrum. The same is
not true of many power amplifiers which have bipolar output
transistors, where there is often a marked loss of performance
at high audio frequencies.
The unweighted signal to noise ratio should be better than
80dB, assuming that the "hum” content is minimal. The value
of C3 can be increased to give better "hum” filtering at the
input. if this should prove to be necessary. Pick-up of “hum"
in the input wiring is a more likely cause of problems, and
this can be avoided by using a good quality screened lead to
make the connections between the circuit board and SKI.
The maximum output power depends on the load
impedance and the supply voltage used. I would recommend
that the unloaded supply voltage should not exceed about
100 volts. In the components list the maximum operating
voltages of the electrolytic capacitors are given on the basis
that the supply voltage will never exceed this figure. Apart
from this factor, the maximum collector — emitter voltage
ratings of the transistors must be taken into account. All
three bipolar devices have a rating of 120 volts (the output
devices have a maximum drain-to-source voltage rating of
140 volts incidentally).

Output Power
With the specified supply potential of 100 volts, and an 8
ohm loudspeaker, the circuit should comfortably achieve an
output power of more than 50 watts r.m.s. Note that we
are talking here in terms of a genuinely continuous r.m.s.
rating, and not some form of transient power rating. We are
also talking here in terms of the output power below the point

37
at which there is any hint of clipping. Where very low distor­
tion is not needed, the circuit can be pushed to somewhat
higher power levels. Adjusting the value of R3 to give sym­
metrical clipping (with a loaded output) can also help to
optimise the power performance, although it might not make
much difference to the perceived volume level provided by
the amplifier. With the biasing optimised, and the amplifier
driven to the point where the distortion level is a few percent,
the output power should be somewhere in the region of 75
watts r.rn.s. Again, we are talking here in terms of a true
continuous r.rn.s. level.
This amplifier’s output power is somewhat less than one
might expect, given that the supply potential is about 100
volts and the load impedance is 8 ohms. It would seem to
be reasonable to expect an output voltage swing of about 80
volts or more, which equates with an r.rn.s. output power of
over 100 watts. However, as explained previously, the “on”
resistance of a power MOSFET is rather high by the standards
of high power semiconductors, and this results in voltage drops
that significantly reduce the maximum output voltage swing.
It should also be borne in mind that 100 volts is the unloaded
supply voltage, and that it will “sag” slightly when fully
loaded.
In order to obtain higher output powers the power supply
can have a mains transformer with a higher current rating
than the minimum requirement, so as to minimise the loading
of the supply voltage at high output powers. Another method
is to use pairs of parallel connected power MOSFETs in the
output stage. This reduces the voltage drops through the
output stage, and boosts the output voltage swing quite
significantly. If both these methods are adopted, the circuit
should be able to manage at least 80 watts r.rn.s. without too
much difficulty, and will probably be able to exceed 100
watts r.rn.s. before the onset of severe clipping and serious
distortion.
Taking things one step further, the load impedance can be
reduced to 4 ohms. In conjunction with parallel pairs in the
output stage, and a suitably hefty mains transformer in the
power supply, this should permit output powers of over 150
watts r.rn.s. to be achieved. I have not extensively tested the

38
amplifier under these conditions, but some quick checks
would suggest that an output power of around 160 watts at
reasonably low distortion is quite achievable. Although you
might think that halving the load impedance would double
the maximum output power from around 100 watts r.m.s. to
about 200 watts r.m.s., matters are not quite as simple as this.
Reducing the load impedance increases the voltage drops
through the output stage, and prevents this simple doubling
up of the output power. Using further output transistors in
parallel with the existing ones will rectify this problem.
Note though, that using several parallel connected devices
for each output transistor gives an increase in the input capaci­
tance of the output stage, which effectively rolls-off the high
frequency gain of the driver stage. This is reflected in a
degradation of the distortion performance at high frequencies.
However, this problem is not likely to result in a serious loss
of performance, and is a perfectly practical approach if it is
important to squeeze as much power out of the unit as
possible. By doing this it should be possible to obtain about
200 watts r.m.s. into a 4-ohm impedance load, but I must
stress that I have not tried this in practice, and can not
guarantee that it will give the desired result.

Power Supply
A suitable mains power supply circuit for the MOSFET
power amplifier is shown in Figure 3.3. This is an entirely
conventional circuit using a fullwave bridge rectifier. It is
assumed that the mains plug will be fitted with a 2-amp or
3-amp fuse. If not, then a 2-amp fuse should be included in
the power supply circuit in series with SI a. Do not omit the
3-amp fuse at the output of the supply, as this is the only
overload protection for the circuit. You might care to add a
3-amp fuse in one of the secondary leads of Tl. This would
give protection against a fault in Cl or the bridge rectifier.
Note though, that this fuse would have to be of the anti-surge
type, and not of the more usual “quick-blow” variety. A
“quick-blow” fuse would almost certainly live up to its name
at switch-on, due to the high surge current as Cl took up its
initial charge.

39
 S1 a D1-D4 = 1N5402
On/Off
T1
240V

240V
Moins
FS1
3A
OV o + IOOV
N
Sib
On/Off 4700u :
E o o 0V

Fig.3.3 The mains power supply circuit

The minimum suitable current rating tor T1 depends on the

way in which the power amplifier is used. Two amps should
be adequate if the unit is used with an 8-ohm impedance loud­
speaker, even if it is likely to be driven fairly heavily. A rating
of 3 amps is preferable if the unit will be used with parallel
pairs in the output stage and driven heavily. If parallel pairs
in the output stage plus a 4-ohm load impedance are used,
then a rating of 4 amps or more would be necessary. With
multiple output transistors and a 4-ohm load, a current rating
of around 5 amps would be preferable. It would also be
necessary to use a 5-amp fuse for FS1, and Cl would prefer­
ably be increased to lOOOOq in value (or two 4700/r capacitors
connected in parallel could be used). D1 to D4 have a rating
of 3 amps, and would need to be replaced with components
having ratings of at least 200 volts and 5 amps. Although the
bridge rectifier is shown as being made up from four individual
rectifiers, it is perfectly acceptable to use a ready-made bridge
rectifier assembly having suitable voltage and current ratings.
For stereo operation I would recommend having separate
power supplies for the two amplifiers. SI would, of course, be
common to both supplies, and the mains transformer could be

40
a type having twin secondaries, one for each supply circuit.
The other components would have to be duplicated in the two
supply circuits.

Construction
A suitable printed circuit design for the MOSFET power
amplifier is shown in Figure 3.4 (copper track pattern) and
Figure 3.5 (component overlay). Construction of the board
follows the usual lines and should not present any difficulties.
There are several points which must be kept in mind when
dealing with the overall construction of the amplifier though.
RIO and C9 are not fitted on the board, but are connected
across the loudspeaker sockets (SK2 and SK3). where they
should be most effective. SK2 and SK3 should be a type of

Fig.3.4 The copper track pattern for the MOSFET

power amplifier

41
42
socket suitable for heavy duty applications. Terminal posts
and heavy duty spring terminals are good choices for applica­
tions of this type. The supply wiring and the leads to SK2
and SK3 should be completed using a heavy duty connecting
wire capable of carrying high currents with minimal losses.
TR4 and TR5 are mounted off-board on suitable heatsinks.
Power MOSFETs. being a form of MOSFET, have very high
input impedances. However, the usual anti-static precautions
would seem to be unnecessary when using these components.
The main risk of damage is due to unwanted high frequency
oscillation, caused by the very high gain of these devices, even
at quite high frequencies. The manufacturer recommends that
the leads to these devices (especially the leads to the gate
terminals) should be no more than 50 millimetres long. If it is
essential to use longer leads, then it is recommended that a
resistor of about 100 ohms or so in value is connected in
series with each gate terminal, and that the resistor should be
mounted close to the gate terminal. This is presumably the
power MOSFET equivalent to the “base-stopper” resistors
that are sometimes used to prevent instability in bipolar based
circuits.

Heatsink
Judging the correct rating for a heatsink tends to be a difficult
task due to the unknown and variable factors. In theory it is a
straightforward task. Heatsink ratings are in degrees Centigrade
per watt, and this is their thermal resistance. This is just a
measure of the rise in temperature that results from each watt
of power that the heatsink receives. For example, with a heat­
sink having a rating of 2.5 degrees Centigrade per watt, and
receiving a power of 4 watts, there will be a temperature rise
of 10 degrees Centigrade (2.5 degrees x 4 watts = 10 degrees).
Unfortunately, things are not quite as straightforward as
simply taking the power dissipated by a transistor, and multi­
plying this by the rating of the heatsink in order to get the rise
in temperature that will result. There is the thermal resistance
of the transistor itself to take into account. Power transistors
are designed to provide an efficient transfer of heat from the
semiconductor chip to the case,but there is always a significant
thermal resistance here. Also, there will be a certain amount

43
 of thermal resistance between the case of the transistor and
heatsink. This should be relatively minor though, and some
silicone grease (or a synthetic substitute) can be used to ensure
a good flow of heat from one to the other. When calculating
the temperature rise for a given dissipation figure, the thermal
resistance used is the sum of these three resistances (i.e. the
transistor’s rating, the heatsink's rating, and the resistance
between the two).
In order to calculate the heatsink rating, you must first
decide on the maximum acceptable temperature for the
transistor. Next the highest ambient temperature under which
the device will operate must be decided. Deducting the
ambient temperature from the maximum permissible tempera­
ture then gives the maximum acceptable temperature rise.
Dividing this by the power dissipation then gives the minimum
acceptable overall thermal resistance. Deducting the transis­
tor’s thermal resistance from this, and also deducting the
transistor-to-heatsink thermal resistance, then gives the smallest
heatsink rating that will give safe operation. Note that with
heatsink ratings the higher the figure, the less efficient the
heatsink. In other words, one having a rating of (say) 1 degree
Centigrade per watt is actually a larger and (or) more efficient
heatsink than one having a rating of 3 degrees Centigrade per
watt. One having a rating of 1 degree Centigrade per watt is
acceptable where a 1.5 degree per watt type is specified, but a
1.5 degree per watt type would not be an acceptable substitute
for a 1 degree per watt heatsink.
If we take a simple example of calculating a heatsink rating,
assume that a power device must operate under the following
conditions:-

Maximum ambient temperature 30°C

Maximum operating temperature 180°C
Maximum power dissipation 50 watts
Transistor’s thermal resistance 2°C per watt
Transistor-to-heatsink resistance 0.5°C per watt

The maximum acceptable temperature rise is clearly 150

degrees (180 degrees — 30 degrees = 150 degrees). With a
maximum dissipation of 50 watts, this gives an overall thermal

44
resistance rating of 3 degrees Centigrade per watt (150 degrees
divided by 50 watts = 3 degrees per watt). Deducting from
this the thermal resistance rating of the transistor (2 degrees
per watt) and the transistor-to-heatsink thermal resistance
(0.5 degrees per watt) gives a rating of 0.5 degrees Centigrade
per watt for the heatsink.
In practice there are a number of problems. Provided full
data sheets for the power transistor can be obtained, the
thermal resistance rating for the components can be ascertain­
ed (this rating is not normally to be found in short-form data).
Where the thermal resistance is not quoted, it is sometimes
possible to work it out anyway. For power transistors the
power (“Ptot”) rating is usually one that assumes the transis­
tor is mounted on a notional infinite heatsink, and is at a
certain ambient temperature. Assume that the ambient
temperature is the usual 25 degrees Centigrade, the transistor
has a maximum operating temperature of 175 degrees Centi­
grade, and its power rating is 100 watts. It can take a
maximum temperature rise of 150 degrees Centigrade (175 —
25 = 150), and this is produced with a power of 100 watts.
The thermal resistance is therefore 1.5 degrees per watt (150
divided by 100 = 1.5).
The other figures can be difficult to define accurately. The
maximum ambient temperature is something of an unknown
quantity, and it is necessary to assume a fairly high figure to
allow for the fact that the equipment might be used on an
exceptionally hot day, or conditions that for some reason give
a high ambient temperature. Also bear in mind that if the
heatsink is mounted inside the case, this will result in a large
rise in the temperature inside the case. This method of con­
struction is only acceptable if the case is a type which has
plenty of large ventilation holes, or large ventilation grilles.
Even so, the temperature inside the case will rise quite signifi­
cantly, effectively increasing the ambient temperature, 1
would strongly recommend mounting the power transistors
and heatsinks on the exterior of the case (normally they are
mounted on the rear panel). An alternative is to use a well
ventilated case fitted with a cooling fan.
For the maximum temperature you could simply take the
maximum temperature rating of the transistor, but this is not a

45
 good idea. Although the transistor can operate at this
temperature, its reliability is unlikely to be very good at such
a high temperature. Also, it leaves no safety margin if the
operating conditions should ever be less favourable than
expected. It is wise, where feasible, to keep the maximum
designed operating temperature substantially below the
maximum permissible temperature of the power transistor.
Although you might think that the maximum dissipation in
the transistor is something that could be easily calculated, this
is not really the case. A worse case figure can actually be
calculated quite accurately for a purely resistive load, but a
loudspeaker offers a load impedance that varies considerably
over the audio frequency range. This renders any power
dissipation calculations slightly less than accurate when a
“real” load is connected to the amplifier. A reasonable safety
margin therefore has to be allowed for. The thermal resistance
between the heatsink and the power transistor is an unknown
quantity, but it would be reasonable to assume quite a low
figure here.
Obviously suitable heatsink ratings can be calculated,
allowing generous safety margins where appropriate, but my
advice is not to bother with this when dealing with high power
audio amplifiers. Simply fit the power devices onto a very
large heatsink that should be more than adequate, even if the
amplifier is used under awkward conditions. 1 would strongly
recommend the use of considerable overkill in the heatsink
rating when using bipolar output transistors, where the threat
of thermal runaway is an ever present one. A heatsink having
a rating of about i .2 degrees Centigrade per watt or better for
each pair of output transistors should ensure safe and reliable
operation with any of the amplifiers featured in this book.
However, if possible use an even larger type, such as one
having a rating of 1 degree Centigrade per watt or less.
Ready-made heatsinks of suitable ratings are available, and
some are ready drilled to take two TO-3 power transistors such
as the 2SJ49 and 2SK134. Where an amplifier has four output
devices, two of these heatsinks are required. Apart from any
thermal considerations, it is not physically possible to mount
four TO-3 cased transistors on most heatsinks. Alternatively,
all four transistors could be mounted on a single heatsink

46
having a rating of about 0.5 degrees Centigrade per watt or
less. If you build a bridge amplifier having eight output
devices, then you will need either four heatsinks rated at 1.2
degrees Centigrade per watt, or two rated at 0.5 degrees
Centigrade per watt (and a large case to accommodate them
all!).

Insulation
An essential point to keep in mind is that the metal TO-3
style cases of the power MOSFETs connect internally to the
source terminals. As the two source terminals of each com­
plementary pair are connected together anyway, this
connection via the heatsink is of no consequence. However,
the heatsink will then be connected to the sources of the
output transistors, and must not be allowed to come into
electrical contact with any other part of the circuit. Normally
the heatsink would be mounted direct onto the metal case of
the amplifier, which would in turn be earthed to the 0 volt
supply rail. Either the output transistors should be insulated
from the heatsink using standard TO-3 insulating sets, or the
heatsink must be mounted in a fashion that keeps it insulated
from the case.
At the very least 1 would recommend that the output
transistors should be insulated from the heatsink. Ideally the
heatsink should also be insulated from the case. Any break­
down in the insulation that results in the sources of the output
transistors being connected to the earth rail could have dire
results. This would place a short circuit on the output of the
amplifier, without any d.c. blocking as the output coupling
capacitor would be bypassed. The result of this would be a
massive current How until the fuse in the power supply cut off
the supply. Doubling up the insulation gives good protection
against this possibility.
A TO-3 insulating set consists of a thin mica or plastic
washer plus a couple of small plastic bushes. The washer fits
between the transistor and the heatsink. If the heatsink is not
ready-drilled for TO-3 transistors, one of these insulating
washers can be used as a template to aid the correct position­
ing of the mounting holes. It is important that the rims of the
mounting holes are free from any protruding pieces of metal,

47
which would almost certainly cut straight through the washer
and prevent it from providing the required insulation. If
necessary, use a large drill bit to clean up the holes. The two
plastic bushes fit over the mounting bolts, and prevent these
from providing an electrical connection between the heatsink
and the transistor. One final point worth mentioning is that
most heatsinks operate at maximum efficiency if they are
mounted with their fins in a vertical position (not with them
horizontally).

Supply Construction
The electrolytic capacitor in the power supply has a very
high value, together with a fairly high voltage rating, which
means that it is almost certain to be a single-ended type having
tags. These are intended to be mounted on a case or chassis
using a simple mounting clip. These clips are available from
some of the larger component retailers, but it is not difficult
to improvise a suitable clip built from thin sheet aluminium.
It is probably not worth going to the trouble of building the
supply on a circuit board of any kind, although you might be
forced to do so if the smoothing capacitor is an axial type.
In most cases the supply can be built using simple point-to-
point wiring. Figure 3.6 gives details of the supply wiring.
This is quite straightforward, but due care should be taken
when constructing the power supply unit. Apart from the
fact that the dangerous mains wiring is involved, the voltages
and currents on the output side of the supply are also quite
high. It is questionable as to whether or not 100 volts could
give a serious shock, especially as we are talking here in terms
of a d.c. supply rather than an a.c. type (which are generally
accepted as being more dangerous). You can certainly get a
minor shock from a 100-volt d.c. supply though. Perhaps
of greater importance, the current available from the supply is
extremely large under overload conditions. Mistakes will
almost certainly result in some smoke and one or more of the
components in the power supply being destroyed. Be very
careful to get the wiring right, and to avoid accidental short
circuits. Be especially careful to connect the supply to the
amplifier with the correct polarity. This may seem to be a

48
trivial point, but a lot of people have made this mistake and
inflicted a lot of expensive damage on their projects!
It is assumed in Figure 3.6 that the bridge rectifier is made
up from four separate rectifiers. The leadouts of the rectifiers
should be left fairly long (which they will probably have to
be anyway), as they act like heatsinks, and help to remove
heat from these components. If a ready-made bridge rectifier
assembly is used, this should have “ + ” and “ — ” signs to
show the two output leads and their polarity. The two leads
which connect to the secondary winding of T1 will probably
be marked with “ ~ ” symbols. With most bridge rectifiers
that are designed to handle up to a few amps they must be
mounted on a heatsink. The case or chassis should be more
than adequate as the heatsink.
It is also assumed in Figure 3.6 that the mains transformer
has twin 30-volt secondary windings connected in series to
give the required 60-volt a.c. output. A twin 30-volt type is
likely to prove somewhat easier to obtain than a 60-volt type,

49
but the latter can obviously be used if you can track down a
suitable component.
The metal case and chassis of the amplifier must be earthed
to the mains earth lead for safety reasons. Probably the easiest
way of doing this is to mount a soldertag on one of Tl’s
mounting bolts, and to connect the mains earth lead to this
tag. Observe the normal safety precautions when building the
amplifier. It is preferable for the exposed mains wiring, such
as the connections to the on/off switch (SI), to be insulated.
This can be achieved using p.v.c. sleeving, and the heat-shrink
type is especially good for this type of thing. Note that the
case must be a type having a lid or cover secured by screws so
that there is no easy way for anyone to gain access to the
dangerous mains wiring.

Setting Up
Before switching on the amplifier, make sure that VR1 is
adjusted in a fully counter-clockwise direction so that it
inserts minimum resistance into the circuit. Where possible,
I would recommend trying the amplifier first with a bench
power supply. It can then be operated at a reduced supply
voltage for initial checking purposes. Somewhere in the region
of 20 to 30 volts should be sufficient to operate the circuit
properly to give a reasonable output power for testing pur­
poses. The power supply should have current limiting that will
protect the components in the amplifier in the event that a
mistake has been made, or a component is faulty. If a suitable
power supply unit is not available, power the unit from its
mains power supply unit via a resistor of about 47 ohms in
value and having a power rating of about 10 watts. This will
provide some protection if the amplifier is faulty in some way,
but it should permit it to operate at low power so that you
can ascertain whether or not it is functioning properly.
If there is any sign of a malfunction, other than reduced
output power due to the supply restrictions of course, switch
off at once and recheck the amplifier wiring, etc. If all is well,
connect the unit to the mains supply unit, with no current
limiting resistor being included. It should then work quite
well, providing plenty of output power, but the distortion
performance at low volume levels will probably not be very

50
good. Use a multimeter set to a high d.c. current range to
measure the current consumption of the unit. Temporarily
removing FS1 in the power supply unit and connecting the
multimeter across the fuse holder is an easy way of arranging
things. With no input applied to the amplifier the current
consumption should be something in the region of 10 milli-
amps. Adjusting VR1 in a clockwise direction should cause a
steady increase in the current consumption. Advance VR1 to
the point where the current reading reaches about 90 milli-
amps. With the multimeter removed and the fuse restored to
its holder, the amplifier is ready for use.

Components

Amplifier (Fig.3.2)
Resistors (all 0.25 watt 5% carbon film)
R1 3k9
R2 10k
R3 47k
R4 68k
R5 39 R
R6 15k
R7 680 R
R8 lk
R9 82R
R10 1R
Potentiometer
VR1 470R sub-min hor preset
Capacitors
Cl 2p2 100V radial elect
C2 220m 100V axial elect
C3 22m 100V radial elect
C4 47p ceramic plate
C5 8p2 ceramic plate
C6 4m7 63V radial elect
C7 220m 100V radial elect
C8 2200m 100V axial elect
C9 330n 100V polyester

51
 Semiconductors
TR1 2SA872A
TR2 2SB716
TR3 2SD756
TR4 2SK134
TR5 2SJ49
D1 1N4148
D2 1N4148

Miscellaneous
SKI Standard jack, or phono, etc.
SK2 Terminal post or spring terminal
SK3 Terminal post or spring terminal
Large (1.2 degrees Centigrade per watt
or better) heatsink
Two TO-3 insulating kits
Printed circuit board
Wire, solder, etc.
!
Note that, as explained in the main text, some supply voltage
and load combinations require the use of two 2SK134s in
parallel for TR4, and two 2SJ49s in parallel for TR5. The
2SA872 has a lower V,ceo rating than the 2SA872A (90 volts
as opposed to 120 volts), but it should just about be adequate
in this design. The 2SA872A gives a greater safety margin,
and is the better choice though. A 2SB646A is suitable for
TR2, and a 2SD666A is suitable for TR3.

Power Supply (Fig. 3.3)

SI Rotary mains switch
T1 Mains primary, 60 volt secondary (refer to
text for details of the required current
ratings)
D1 1N5402
D2 1N5402
D3 1N5402
D4 1N5402
Cl 4700/j 100V single ended electrolytic with
tag connections

52
FS1 3A (or 3.15A) 20mm quick-blow
20mm chassis mounting fuse holder
Mounting clip for Cl
Wire, solder, etc.

Please read the notes in the main text regarding the power
supply components before ordering the power supply
components.

Op Amp Techniques
Operational amplifier techniques, with a d.c. coupled output,
are often used in high power audio amplifier designs. One
advantage of this method is that it avoids the need for a
large (and expensive) output coupling capacitor. It can also
bring advantages in terms of performance (particularly distor­
tion at low signal levels), and makes it relatively easy to
produce reliable bridge amplifier designs.
Figure 3.7 shows the basic configuration used in a power
amplifier of this type. The output stage is of the usual class B
complementary variety. The driver stage is a “long tailed”
pair, with another long tailed pair being used as the input
stage. D.C. coupling is used throughout, with the usual
(tor operational amplifier type circuits) dual balanced power
supplies. The circuit is shown here as a non-inverting
amplifier. R1 biases the input to the 0-volt supply potential,
while RIO and R5 form the negative feedback loop. The
input impedance of the circuit is equal to the value of Rl,
although with a basic operational amplifier circuit this is
dependent on the value of Rl not being very high in value.
The input impedance of the amplifier itself can then be
ignored. The closed loop voltage gain of the circuit is equal
to (RIO + R5) divided by R5.
As we shall see later, this type of circuit is easily recon­
figured to operate as an inverting amplifier. This makes it
easy to provide a bridge amplifier action. You simply require
an inverting amplifier and a non-inverting type, with the two
having feedback circuits which provide accurately matched
voltage gains. With the input signal connected to the inputs
of both amplifiers, and the loudspeaker connected across
the non-earth outputs of the amplifiers, this gives a very good

53
 v+

R2 R6 R8 TR5

f
iri tr; Mr9 RIO
C=v
TR6
In R1 L.S.

r°

TR3 TR4

R3 R4 f R5 P7

V-
OV

Fig. 3.7 The basic arrangement used in an op. amp. style

power amplifier

bridge amplifier action with no significant d.c. bias across the

loudspeaker.

Op Power Amp
Figure 3.8 shows the circuit diagram for a practical power
amplifier based on operational amplifier techniques. This
follows the lines of the basic operational amplifier circuit
discussed previously, but with some changes. Most obviously,
the output transistors have been changed for power MOSFETs
that enable suitably high output powers to be accommodated.
A constant current generator forms the load for the driver
transistor, and part of this circuit also acts as the resistive load
for the other transistor in this long-tailed pair. Several resis­
tors and capacitors are needed to ensure good stability. VR1
enables the bias current through the output stage to be trim­
med to the correct figure (about 80 milliamps).
This circuit clearly has rather different supply requirements
to the power amplifier featured at the beginning of this
chapter. It requires supplies of plus and minus 50 volts, plus a

54
 SI a D1-D4 = 1N5402
On/Ofl D1
T1
L o
240V 30V
o -50V
240V 0V r i fsi
Mains L 3A
D3

ov 30V rs2
N Wt 3A
Sib D4 o +50V
On/Off
Cl i C2 1
4700u ^4700u
Eo I o 0V

Fig. 3.9 The 50-0-50 volt power supply circuit

central 0-volt supply rail, and not a straightforward 100-volt

supply. However, it requires few extra components in order
to satisfy these modified requirements, and a suitably modi­
fied power supply circuit appears in Figure 3.9. Note that
whereas the original power supply circuit could operate using
either a 30-0-30 volt transformer (or one having twin 30-
volt secondary windings), or a 60-volt type, this design will
only work using a 30-0—30 volt (or twin 30-volt secondary)
type.
The notes on constructing and setting up the MOSFET
power amplifier apply equally well to the present design, and
will not be repeated here. Figures 3.10 and 3.11 show the
copper pattern and component layout (respectively) for the
printed circuit board. Figure 3.12 shows the wiring for the
power supply unit.
I would strongly urge that the unit should be tested initially
without a load connected across the output. VR1 should be
adjusted for a total current consumption from the unit of
about 90 milliamps, and either the positive or the negative

56
Fig. 3.10 The copper track pattern for the power op. amp.
unit

supply rail can be monitored. The quiescent output voltage

should be within about 0.2 volts of the 0-volt supply level,
and any offset here will probably be so low that it will not
be possible to detect it properly with most multimeters. If
there is a significant offset voltage at the output, this is
indicative of a fault, and a loudspeaker should not be connec­
ted across the output until the problem has been located and
corrected.
Although no fuse is shown connected in series with the
output of the amplifier, I would certainly recommend adding
one in the unit’s non-earth output lead. A 3-amp “quick-
blow” fuse should be satisfactory. Some users of high power
audio amplifiers tend to look down on this practice, which
does have its drawbacks. One of these is simply that there will
be a small loss of power through the fuse, although this is
unlikely to be large enough to be of any real significance in
practice. Another problem is that the resistance of the fuse
tends to reduce the damping of the amplifier on the loudspeaker.

57
 to 1^-
=> 0t O'
r> i
to CO
LO lO Z>
+ Q O CO to o a I CO i

<*)
•5*
U.
■*-
o
§>
CD 55
a>
CN ~Q
CO -Q

Q.
a>
■s
>-
£
-5
i.

5o
«-
a>
c
o
Q.
eo
o
£K
!
<*>
•5>
u_
to

58
This is undesirable, but is again something that is not likely
to noticeably reduce the performance of the system. The only
reason that 1 omitted this fuse from the prototype amplifier
was because the loudspeaker system in use incorporated such
a fuse. Obviously, if the loudspeaker system includes such a
fuse, there is little point in including one in the amplifier.

Components

Power Op Amp (Fig.3.8)

Resistors (all 0.25 watt 5% carbon film)
R1 3k9
R2 22k
R3 68k
R4 4k7
59
R5 4k7
R6 lk
R7 10OR
R8 15k
R9 100R
RIO 100R
Rll 2R2
R12 27k
Potentiometer
VR1 470R sub-min hor preset
Capacitors
Cl 100/i 63V radial elect
C2 1 00m 63V radial elect
C3 Ip 63V radial elect
C4 82p ceramic plate
C5 47p 63V radial elect
C6 39p ceramic plate
C7 6n8 polyester
C8 lOOn polyester
Semiconductors
TR1 2SA872A
TR2 2SA872A
TR3 2SD756
TR4 2SB716
TR5 2SD756
TR6 2SK134
TR7 2SJ49
D1 1N4148

Miscellaneous
SKI Standard jack, phono socket, etc.
SK2 Terminal post or spring terminal
SK3 Terminal post or spring terminal
Large (1.2 degrees Centigrade per watt or
better) heatsink
Two TO-3 insulating kits
Printed circuit board
Wire, solder, etc.

60
Po wer Supply (Fig. 3.9)

SI Rotary mains switch

T1 Mains primary, 30—0—30 volt (or twin 30
volt) secondary (refer to text for details of
the required current ratings)
D1 1N5402
D2 1N5402
D3 1N5402
D4 1N5402
Cl 4700/i 63V single ended electrolytic with
tag connections
C2 4700/i 63V single ended electrolytic with
tag connections
FS1 3A (or 3.15A) 20mm quick-blow
FS2 3A (or 3.15A) 20mm quick-blow
20mm chassis mounting fuse holders (2 off)
Mounting clips for Cl and C2
Wire, solder, etc.

Bridge Circuit
An advantage of using operational amplifier techniques in high
power amplifiers is that it makes it easy to obtain a bridge
amplifier for even higher output powers. The operational
amplifier biasing techniques ensure that the outputs of both
amplifiers are within a fraction of a volt of the 0-volt supply
level, giving no significant offset voltage across the two out­
puts. Operational amplifier techniques also make it easy to
produce amplifiers that have virtually identical voltage gains,
but with one amplifier having an inverting action while the
other has a non-inverting action.
The amplifier circuit of Figure 3.8 is well suited to use as
one section of a bridge amplifier, and the circuit of Figure
3.13 shows a suitable amplifier circuit for the other side of the
bridge. The original circuit is of the non-inverting variety,
while the circuit of Figure 3.13 has been modified to give an
inverting action. Apart from the change in the feedback net­
work and input circuit to provide an inverting action, this
circuit is much the same as the original. Feedback resistors
R1, R11 and R12 give a voltage gain of some 28 times, which

61
62
matches that of the non-inverting amplifier. The input imped­
ance of the amplifier is only about lk, and the input
impedance of the circuit as a whole (i.e. with both sides of
the bridge included) is somewhat lower at approximately 800
ohms. Although this is rather low, any good preamplifier
circuit should be able to handle such loading without difficulty.
The output power available from a complementary pair of
these amplifiers in a bridge configuration is quite high. The
first point that has to be made is that both amplifiers in the
bridge should have at least two pairs of power MOSFETs in
their output stages. Also, the two amplifiers should be power­
ed from a common power supply circuit, and should not have
separate supplies, The mains transformer should have a
current rating of about 6 amps or more1 if really high output
powers are to be achieved. The load impedance should not be
less than 8 ohms. For good stability it is probably best to
include a C R circuit (i.e. a 2R2 resistor in series with a
lOOn capacitor) from the output of each amplifier module to
the 0-volt supply. This will almost certainly be better than
using a single C — R circuit across the loudspeaker.
In theory, with one amplifier capable of delivering around
100 watts r.m.s. into an 8-ohm load, a bridge circuit with two
amplifiers should be able to deliver four times this amount.
In practice it is unlikely that these amplifiers in a bridge
arrangement will provide as much power as this. The peak
output currents are very high, giving significant voltage drops
through the output transistors. This reduces the actual maxi­
mum output power, but experiments with the prototype
equipment would suggest that powers in excess of 300 watts
r.m.s. can be readily achieved. I have not tried using more
output devices in the amplifiers in order to further boost the
output power, but it would seem reasonable to expect output
powers of up to about 400 watts r.m.s. to be achievable in
this way.
A suitable printed circuit design is shown for the inverting
amplifier module in Figures 3.14 (track pattern) and 3.15
(component overlay). Construction and setting up for this
amplifier module follow closely along the same lines as those
for the non-inverting version of the amplifier, and they will
not be described again here.

63
Fig. 3.14 The track pattern for the inverting MOSFET power
amplifier

Components Inverting Op Power Amp (Fig.3.13)

Resistors (all 0.25 watt 5% carbon)

R1 lk
R2 22k
R3 68k
R4 4k7
R5 4k7
R6 100R
R7 15k
R8 100R
R9 100R
RIO 2R2
Rll 27k
R12 lk

64
 CO r^-
QL z>
3
K> <s
LO CO z>
+ o o cn CO o o I G) c*i
U.
o
c I
5> i
g
~P
ro
\ •t;
<N a :
cn 8

V-

s
Q.

€ i
V.

•s
■5
§
o
c
O !
P.
E
8
1>
:C )
K
If)

Pj
•5?
*
CO
u.

65
Potentiometer
VR1 470R sub-min hor preset
Capacitors
Cl 100m 63V radial elect
C2 100^ 63V radial elect
C3 \p 63V radial elect
C4 In polyester
C5 39p ceramic plate
C6 6n8 polyester
C7 lOOn polyester
Semiconductors
TR1 2SA872A
TR2 2SA872A
TR3 2SD756
TR4 2SB716
TR5 2SD756
TR6 2SK134 (2 off, see text)
TR7 2SJ49 (2 off, see text)
D1 1N4148
Miscellaneous
SKI Standard jack, phono socket, etc.
SK2 Terminal post or spring terminal
SK3 Terminal post or spring terminal
Large (1.2 degrees Centigrade per watt or
better) heatsink
Two TO-3 insulating kits
Printed circuit board
Wire, solder, etc.

Bipolar Amplifiers
So far we have only considered practical power amplifier
designs which have power MOSFETs in the output stage. No
apology is made for this fact, and as already explained at some
length, there are definite advantages in using power MOSFETs
rather than ordinary bipolar power transistors. In particular,
the lack of any problems with thermal stabilisation makes
power MOSFETs a good choice for home constructed power
amplifier designs.

66
 However, for those who prefer to use bipolar transistors
throughout, two bipolar transistor high power circuits are
provided here. These are basically just the operational ampli­
fier style inverting and non-inverting circuits described
previously, but modified to take bipolar transistors in the
output stages. The circuit diagrams for these two amplifiers
are provided in Figure 3.16 (non-inverting amplifier) and
Figure 3.17 (inverting amplifier).
The first point to note is that it is not possible to simply
replace each power MOSFET with a bipolar power transistor.
The current gain of a typical power transistor is only about 50,
which is nothing like high enough with a collector current of
only about 8 milliamps or so in the driver stage. Either the
current flow in the driver stage must be considerably increased,
or extra transistors must be used in the output stage in order
to boost its current gain. In this case the driver current is
left unaltered, and two Darlington pairs are used in the output
stage. In fact th$ second transistor in each Darlington pair is a
pair of parallel connected power transistors, complete with
emitter resistors. This enables high output currents and
powers to be handled more safely, particularly if the amplifiers
are used in a bridge configuration.
The choice of output transistors is important in this
application, where high frequency performance can suffer if
a poor choice is made. Transistors such as the 2N3055,
MJE2955, 2N3773, 2N6609, etc., are often used as the output
transistors in high power audio amplifiers. In some ways they
are less than ideal for this application though. In the case of
the 2N3055 and its complements, it should be borne in mind
that its Vceo rating is only 60 volts, although it often seems
to be used in audio power designs operating with supply
voltages as high as 100 volts (or dual balanced 50-volt supplies).
When subjected to maximum voltage the device is likely to
have a reverse bias, which makes this practice less risky than it
might appear, although it is still one that I would not
recommend.
Another problem with many high power transistors is that
they have cut-off frequencies of only about 200kHz or so.
While this may seem to be adequate for devices that will be
used for audio amplification, with an upper frequency limit

67
68
69
 of 20kHz, it has to be remembered that the F, figure for a
transistor is the one at which its gain falls to unity. In other
words, it is the frequency at which its gain falls to a level
where it is no longer providing any gain at all. The gain of the
device starts to fall away at a much lower frequency. For
example, if a power transistor has a gain of 50 and an of
200kHz, dividing the Ft figure by the current gain gives the
frequency at which the gain of the transistor starts to roll-off.
In this case it is clearly at a frequency of 4kHz (200kHz
divided by 50 = 4kHz).
This does not mean that the closed loop gain of the power
amplifier will start to roll-off at 4kHz. It is the open loop
gain that will suffer from this low roll-off figure. This is
reflected in less negative feedback at high frequencies, which
gives increased distortion. In most cases it also results in
reduced power bandwidth. In other words, at high frequencies
the maximum output power falls away slightly, and in a severe
. case it would only be a small fraction of the maximum output
power at middle frequencies. The output of the circuit may
well be unable to follow sudden changes in the input level
correctly, producing a form of distortion called “slewing
induced distortion”, or just “SID”.
Power transistors intended for use in audio amplifiers are
generally engineered to have somewhat higher Fts of typically
about 3MHz. This is the Ft figure for the BD91 1/912s which
are recommended for this design. Even with a fairly high
current gain figure of around 100, the gain of these transistors
will not roll-off until a frequency of about 30kHz is reached.
This ensures good performance over the full audio range. The
circuit will work with high power transistors which have lower
Fts, and devices such as the 2N3773 (n.p.n.) and the 2N6609
(p.n.p.) are usable. However, it might be necessary to make
some slight adjustments to the values of the compensation
capacitors in order to ensure good stability. In order to get
the 2N3773 and 2N6609 to function in these designs I found
it necessary to add a 33p ceramic plate capacitor across feed­
back resistor R16. This will presumably be necessary with
other low Ft power transistors. I w'ould strongly recommend
the use of the BD911/912 or similar devices if at all possible,
and can not guarantee that other devices will prove to be

70
entirely satisfactory in this design.

Thermal Stability
Using bipolar output transistors means that there is a problem
with thermal stability to overcome. This design uses the
standard method, which is to have a transistor in the amplified
diode configuration to control the quiescent output bias
current. This is based on TR6, and has its output voltage (and
hence the quiescent bias current) controlled by VR1. VR1
should be set so that the output bias current is about 110
milliamps, which equates to about 100 milliamps through the
output transistors.
Of course. TR6 should be mounted on the heatsink which
takes TR8. TR9. TR11 and TR12, so that it responds to their
rise in temperature, and stabilises the output bias current. The
output current should be monitored to ensure that it does not
rise significantly as the output transistors heat up. If neces­
sary, a better thermal contact between TR6 and the output
transistors must be obtained in order to prevent a continual
rise in the output current. Alternatively, readjusting VR1 to
return the current drain to about 1 10 milliamps might give
satisfactory results. Note though, that this method will give
a low bias current (and possibly high cross-over distortion)
each time the amplifier is used, before the output transistors
become healed up. Also, it does not absolutely guarantee
that thermal runaway will not occur. It is possible that the
quiescent current might drop slightly as the output transistors
heat up. This would suggest a thermal coupling that is too
good, and the coupling to TR6 should then be loosened
slightly.
No construction details are provided for these two ampli­
fiers, but they can be constructed along much the same lines
as the power MOSFET designs. It would probably be possible
to use the same printed circuit designs after a small amount
of modification. I tested the prototype amplifiers using the
power MOSFET circuit boards plus some hard wiring. This
did not give particularly neat finished results, but the ampli­
fiers worked well enough.
Remember that TR7 and TRIO require heatsinks. They
can be mounted on the same heatsink as the output transistors

71
if desired, or they can be fitted on their own heatsink (one of
about 3 degrees Centigrade per watt should suffice). Bear in
mind that the metal tabs of the BD711/712/911/912 transis­
tors connect internally to their collector terminals. It is
essential that all these devices should be properly insulated
from their heatsinks using TO-220 insulating kits. These
consist of a single insulating washer plus one plastic bush (just
one bush, since this type of transistor has only one mounting
bolt).
These amplifiers produce output powers that are compar­
able to the power MOSFET circuits, and if anything, they will
produce what are generally slightly higher output powers for a
given set of operating conditions. I have not made any
distortion measurements on the bipolar versions of the
amplifiers, and in this respect I would not expect them to be
as good as the power MOSFET designs. However, listening
tests would suggest that they have quite a reasonable level of
performance in this respect, and they should certainly give
adequate for most high power audio applications.

Components
Non-inverting Bipolar Power Amplifier (I-ig.3.16)
Resistors (0.25 watt 5% carbon unless indicated)
R1 3k9
R2 22k
R3 68k
R4 4k7
R5 4k7
R6 lk
R7 100R
R8 15k
R9 100R
RIO 100R
Rll OR22 3 watt
R12 OR22 3 watt
R13 OR22 3 watt
R14 OR22 3 watt
R15 2R2
R16 27k

72
Potentiometer
VR1 4k7 sub-min hor preset

Capacitors
Cl IOOai 63V radial elect
C2 \00p 63V radial elect
C3 \p 63V radial elect
C4 82p ceramic plate
C5 47^ 63V radial elect
C6 39p ceramic plate i
Cl 6n8 polyester '
lOOn polyester :
C8
i
Semiconductors
TRI 2SA872A
TR2 2SA872A
TR3 2SD756
TR4 2SB716
TR5 2SD756
TR6 2SD756
TR7 BD711
TR8 BD91 1
TR9 BD911
TRIO BD712
TRI 1 BD912
TRI 2 BD912
D1 1N4148

Miscellaneous
SKI Standard jack, phono socket, etc.
SK2 Terminal post or spring terminal
SK3 Terminal post or spring terminal
Large (1.2 degrees Centigrade per watt or
better) heatsink
Six TO-220 insulating kits
Printed circuit board J
Wire, solder, etc.

73
i

i
Inverting Bipolar Power Amplifier (Fig. 3.17)

Resistors (0.25 watt 5% carbon unless indicated)

R1 lk
R2 22k
R3 68k
R4 4k7
R5 4k7
R6 100R
R7 15k
R8 100R
R9 100R
RIO OR22 3 watt
Rll OR22 3 watt
R12 OR22 3 watt
R13 OR22 3 watt
R14 lk
R15 2R2
R16 27k

Potentiometer
VR1 4k7 sub-min hor preset

Capacitors
Cl 100m 63V radial elect
C2 100m 63V radial elect
C3 4m7 63V radial elect
C4 In polyester
C5 39p ceramic plate
C6 6n8 polyester
C7 lOOn polyester

Semiconductors
TR1 2SA872A
TR2 2SA872A
TR3 2SD756
TR4 2SB716
TR5 2SD756
TR6 2SD756
TR7 BD711

74
TR8 BD911
TR9 BD911
TRIO BD712
TR11 BD912
TR12 BD912
D1 1N4148

Miscellaneous
SKI Standard jack, phono socket, etc.
SK2 Terminal post or spring terminal
SK3 Terminal post or spring terminal
Large (1.2 degrees Centigrade per watt or
better) heatsink
Six TO-220 insulating kits
Printed circuit board
Wire, solder, etc.

75
76
Please note overleaf is a list of other titles that are available in
our range of Radio, Electronics and Computer Books.
These should be available from all good Booksellers, Radio
Component Dealers and Mail Order Companies.
However, should you experience difficulty in obtaining any
title in your area, then please write directly to the Publisher
enclosing payment to cover the cost of the book plus adequate
postage.
If you would like a complete catalogue of our entire range
of Radio, Electronics and Computer Books then please send a
Stamped Addressed Envelope to:

BERNARD BABANI (publishing) LTD

THE GRAMPIANS
SHEPHERDS BUSH ROAD
LONDON W6 7NF
ENGLAND

86
 160 Coll Dmign and Construction Manual £2.50
205 HI-FI Loudspoakor Enclosur £2.96
208 Practice* S'erto & Qued'ophorvy Handbook £0.75
214 Audio Enthusiast's Handbook £0.85
219 Solid Slate Nova relty ProJ acts C0.B5
220 Build Your Owin Solid S late HI Fi and Audio Accessories £0.85
222 Solid Slate Sborl Wave Recervort for Beginners £2.96
225 A Practical Introduction to Digital ICi £2.50
226 How to Build Advanced Short W £2.96
227 Beginners Guide to Building Electronic Prefect! £1.96
228 Encntiol Thooey for the Electronic! Hobbyist £2.6 0
BP2 Handbook of Radio. TV. Induitiial and TrammlttlngTubeand Vahre Equivalents £0.60
8P6 E nginee' i 3 Machinist'* Reference Tabtos £1 25
BP7 Radio & E lectromc Colour Code! Data Chart CD 95
8P27 Chart of Radio. Electroinic Semiconductor and Logic Symbols £0.95
BP28 Resistor Selection HeodIbook £0.60
BP29 Major Solid State Audio Hi-Fi Construction Protects £0.85
BP33 Elect/ one Calculator Users Handbook £1.50
BP36 50 Circuits Using Germanium Silicon md Zener Oiod £1.50
BP37 50 Proieets Usng Relay* SCRs and TRIACt £2.96
BP39 50 IFETI Field Effect Tr.ammor Projects £2.06
BP42 60 Sim LED Circuits £1.96
BP44
BP45
1C 555ft Jocts
Proieets m 0pto-Electron.es
C22.96
f
BP48 Electronic Projects for Begmren £1 96
BP49 Popular Electronic Pro|>octs £2.50
BP53 Practical Electronics Csilculations and Formulae £3.96
BP54 Your Electronic Calculator & Your Money £1.35
BP56 E lectromc Security Devices £2.50
BPS8 50 Circuits Using 7400 S enes IC's £2.60
BP62 The Simple Electronic Circuit & Components (Etomants of E lacironies - Book 1) £3.60
BP63 Alternating Current Theory (Elements of Electronics - Book 21 £3.50
BP64 Semiconductor Technology (Etonianis of Electronics - Book 3) £330
BP66 Bagmnen Guide to Microprocessors and Computing £1 96
BP68 Cbooing end Using Your H»-Ft £1.65
BP69 Electronic Games £1.76
BP70 Transator Radio Fault finding Chart £0.95
BP72 A Microprocessor Primer £1.75
BP74 E lectromc Music Projects £230
BP76 Power Supply ProJecu £2.50
BP77 Mk coprocessing Systi and CircuiU (Elements of Electronics - Book 4) £2.96
OP78 Practical Computer EapenimanU £1 75
BP80 Popular Electronic CircuiU u - Book 1 £2.96
BP84 Digital 1C Projects £1.96
BP85 International Tramiitor Equivalants Guide £3.50
BP86 An Inboduction to BASIC Programming Techniques £1.96
BP87 50 Simple LED Circuits - Book 2 £135
BP88 How to Use Op-Amp* £2.95
BP89 Communication (Elemants of Electronics - Book 5) £2.96
BP90 Audio Projects £2.50
BP91 An Introduction to Radio DX eig £1.96
BP92 £ tocoomes Simplified - Cry» tal Set Construction £1.75
BP93 Electronic Timer Projects £1
BP94 E toe I/O me Piojocts for Cart end BoaU Cl.
BP96 Model Railway Projects £1.95
BP97 1C Projects for Begin £1.96
BP98 Popular Electronic Circuits — Book 2 £2.25
BP99 Mml-matrii Board Pro)ecu £230
BP101 How to Identify Unmarked ICt £0.96
BP103 Multi-circuit Board ProjecU £1.96
BP 104 Electronic Science Projects £2.96
BP105 AerialI ProjecU Cl.55
BP 106 Modeirn Op-emp Pro|ecu Cl.*6
BP 107 30 Solderless Breadboard Projects - Book 1 £236
BP 108 International Diode Equ ivalenu Guide £225
BP 109 The Art of Prrogramming nne the IK ZX81 £1.96
BP110 How to Get Your' Electronic ProjecU Working £2.60
BP111 Audio (Elemenu of Electronics - Book 6) £3.50
BP112
BP113
BP114
A 2-80 Workshop Manual
30 Solderless Breadboard ProJ ecu Book 2
T he A rt of Programming tha 16K Z X81
a 60
25
C2230
BP115 T ha Precomputar Book £ 1.96
BP 117 Practical Electronic Building Blocks - Book 1 £1.96
BP118 Practical Electronic Building Blocks — Book 2 El 96
0P119 The Art of Programming the ZX Spectrum 30
BP120 Audio Amplifier Feult finding Chert £0.95
8P121 How to Design and Maka Your Own PC8's £2 60
BP122 Audio Amplifier Construction £2.25
BP123 A Practical Introduction to Microprocenors €2 .60
BP 124 Easy Add-on ProjecU lor Spec bum. ZX81 & Ace £2
BP125 25 Simple Amateur Band Aarials £1.96
BP 126 BASIC & PASCAL in Paraltol £1.50
BP127 How to Design Electronic ProjecU £2.25
BP 128 20 Programs lor the ZX Spectrum end 16K ZXB1 £1.95
BP129 An Introduction to Programming the 0RIC-1 £1.95
BP130 Micro Interlacing CircuiU - Book 1 £2.25
BP131 Mcro Interfacing CircuiU - Book 2 £2.75

-
V132 26 Simpto Shortwave Butotwl Band Aerials £1 95
BP 1X3 An Introduction to Prof ramming the Dragon 32 Cl.95
BP13S S«Cffti of the Commodon 64 Cl 95
BP136 26 Simpto I aid Window Aariata Cl 76
BP1J7 BASIC & FORTRAN in Para il Cl.95
BP138 BASIC 6 FORTH to Paraltol Cl.95
BP 139 An Introduction to Programming the BBC Modal B Micro Cl.95
BP 140 Digital 1C Equ toalant* 6 Pin Connections £5 96
BP141 Linaar 1C Equtoalanta 6 Pin Connection* £5.96
BP142 An Introduction to Programming tha Acorn Electron Cl.96
BP 143 An Introduction to Programming the Atari 600/800XL C1.95
BP 144 Further Practical Etoctronfca Calculation* and Formula* C4.95
BP145 25 Simpto Tropical and MW Band Aariata Cl.75
BP146 Tha Pro-BASIC Boot C2.96
BP147 An Introduction to 6502 Machine Coda £2 50
BP148 Computer Terminology Explained Cl.95
BP149 A Conciae Introduction to tha Language of BBC BASIC Cl 96
8P152 An Introduction to 2*0 Machine Coda £2.75
BP1S3 An Introduction to Programming tha A mitred CPC464 and 664 £2 50
BP164 An Introduction to MSX BASIC £2 50
BP 156 An Introduction to QL Machine Code £2 50
BP157 How to Writa ZX Spectrum and Spectrum • Game* Program* £2.50
BP1M An Introduction to Programming • tha Commodore 16 and Plui 4 £2.50
BP 169 How to write Armtrad CPC 464 Gam** Progr C2.50
BP 181 Into the QL Archive £2 50
BP 162 Counting on QL Abacus £2.50
BP 169 How to Gat Your Computer P rogam Running £2.50
BP 170 An Introduction to Compuier Peripherals £2.50
BP171 Easy Addon Pro|ecti for Amitred CPC 464. 664. 6128 and MSX Computer! £3.50
BP173 Computer Music Project! £2.96
BP174 Mora Advanced E toctronic Music Pro)at £2 96
BP176 How to Write Word Gama Programs for the Armtrad CPC 464. 6G4 and 6128 £2.96
BP176 A TV-DXan Handbook CS 95
BP177 An Introduction to Computer Communication* £2.95
BP179 Electronic Circuit* for tfw Computer Control of Robot! £2.96
BP 160 E toctronic Circuit* for the Computer Control of Model RnN*ayi £2.95
BP1B1 Getting the Moat from Your Printer £2.95
BP 162 MIDI Projects £2 95
BP1S3 An Introduction to CP/M C2.98
BP1 84 An Introduction to 68000 Awembiy Language £2.95
B5 E toctronic Synthsaber Construction £2 96
BP166 Wafcia-Tefcto Project! £2 95
BP167 A Practical Reference GuKle to Word Processing on tha Amitred PCW82S6 & PCW8S12 £5 96
BP 188 Getting Started with BASIC and LOGO On lh* Amitred PCWs £5.95
BP186 Using Your Amstrad CPC Due Doras £2.95
BP190 Mora Advanced E toctronic Security Projects £2.96
BP191 Simpto Application* of the Amstrad CPCs for Writers £2.95
BP 192 Mora Advanced Power Supply Project* £2 95
BP1B3 LOGO for Beginners £2.95
BP194 Modern Opto Device Projects C2.95
BP 195 An Introduction to Satellite Television £5.95
BP166 BASIC & LOGO to Parallel C2.95
BP 197 An Introduction to the Amstrad PC's £5.96
£2
BP198
BP199
BP230
An Introduction so Antenna Theory
An Introduction to BASIC-2 on the Amstrad PC's
An Introduction to GEM
5
CS
£5
BP232 A Conctoe Introduction to MS DOS £2■S
E toctronic » yets ►_______
Handbook £4.95
BP234 Ti or Quid* £4.95
Power Selector Guide £4.96
Digital 1C Selector GuafePart 1 £4 95
BP237 Digital 1C Selector GuafePart 2 £4.96
BP238 Linear 1C Guide £4.95
£2
8P239
BP240
Getting the Most from Your Multimeter
Remote Control Handbook £3
£5
:2
BP241
BP242
An Introduction to 8006 Machine Coda
An Introduction to Computer Aided Drawing £2:S
£3.95
BP243 BBC BAS1C86 on the Amstrad PC's end IBM Compatibles - Book 1: La nguege
BP244 BBC BASICS® on the Amstrad PC's end IBM Compatibles - Book 2 Gr aphi 6 Disc Flies £3 95
BP245 Digital Audio Projects £2.96
BP246 Musical Applications of tha Atari ST's £4.95
BP247 Mora Advanced MI0I Project* £2.95
BP248 • Taet Equipment Conetruction £2.96
£2
BP249 More Advancad Teat EquIpmen t Conetruction
Programming to FORTRAN 77 £4:S
£5 95
BP251 Computer Hobby*ti Hardbooh
BP252 An Introduction to C £2.95
BP253 Ultra High Power Amplifier Construction £3 95
BP254 From Atoms to Am peraa £2.95
BP256 International Radio Stations Guide £4.06
An Introduction to Lowdqwakars and Enclosure Design £2 95
BP257 An Introduction to Amateur Radio £2 96
£4.95
BP256 Learntog to Program In C
BlBUOTHE£k
 High Power Audio
Amplifier Construction
□ This book provides background information on high power audio amplifiers,
together with some practical designs capable of output powers of up to around
300 to 400 watts r.m.s.
□ The high power amplifier designs include types having power MOSFETS in
the output stage. These give excellent performance over the full audio range, and
offer good reliability from what are relatively simple circuits. Printed circuit
designs are included for these power MOSFET circuits, as are suitable mains
power supply designs.
□ Using one of these power MOSFET amplifiers it is possible to obtain output
powers of up to about 50 to 200 watts r.m.s., depending on the load impedance
and the number of output devices used. By using two amplifiers (one inverting
circuit and one non-inverting type) a bridge amplifier is produced, enabling very
high output powers to be achieved (300 to400watts r.m.s. into a standard 8 ohm
impedance load)

s. For those who prefer to use bipolar output transistors, inverting and non-
erting circuits are provided. These can be used in single-ended or bridge
configurations, and provide comparable output powers to the power MOSFET

ISBN 0-85934-222-0
00
f
7*
I
£3.95 i
bliotheek Ned. Vt

9 3421 II llllll I