2023-2024

LOGIC GATES

SUBMITTED BY
NAME -
Roll no. – ______
 VELAMMAL BODHI CAMPUS
Certificate
This is to certify that ___________________________ student
of class XIIth (Sci.) has successfully prepared the report on the
Project under the guidance of Mr. __________________ (PGT
Physics). The report is the result of his efforts & endeavors'.
The report is found worthy of acceptance as final Project report
for the subject Physics of class XII (sci)

Signature of Internal Examiner Signature of External Examiner

------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------

Signature of Principal

-----------------------------
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work
entitled
“_________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________”, submitted to
Department of Physics, VELAMMAL
BODHI CAMPUS THANJAVUR is
prepared by me.

NAME : ________________
CLASS : _________________
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude to my

physics teacher, _________________,Velammal Bodhi Campus, w
Thanjavur, for his constant guidance and insightful comments during the
project work. I shall always cherish my association with them for theirw
constant encouragement and freedom to thought and action that
rendered to me throughout the project work.
I would like to thank all the teachers and principal of Velammalw
bodhi Campus, Thanjavur, for maintaining a congenial environment.
I am also thankful to all my friends for their constant help and
encouragement for my successful completion of project work.
w

3
S.No. Contents Page-No
I Introduction
II BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

III Basic Gates

IV OR Gate
v AND Gate
VI NOT Gate
VII NOR Gate
VII NAND Gate
vIII EX-OR Gate
IX EX-NOR Gate
X experiment
 KEY POINT

In the modern world of electronics, the term Digital

*Following are some of the
examples in which Digital
is generally associated with a computer because the electronics is heavily
used.
term Digital is derived from the way computers
perform operation, by counting digits. For many years, • Industrial process
the application of digital electronics was only in the control
• Military system
computer system. But now-a-days, digital electronics is • Television
used in many other applications • Communication
system
• Medical equipment
• Radar
• Navigation
Signal
Signal can be defined as a physical quantity, which
contains some information. It is a function of one or
more than one independent variables. Signals are of two
types.

• Analog Signal
• Digital Signal

Analog Signal
An analog signal is defined as the signal having
continuous values. Analog signal can have infinite
number of different values. In real world scenario, most
of the things observed in nature are analog. Examples
of the analog signals are following.

• Temperature
• Pressure
• Distance
• Sound
• Voltage
• Current & power
Graphical representation of Analog Signal (Temperature)

The circuits that process the analog signals are called as analog circuits or system.
Examples of the analog system are following.

• Filter
• Amplifiers
• Television receiver
• Motor speed controller

Disadvantage of Analog Systems

• Less accuracy
• Less versatility
• More noise effect
• More distortion
• More effect of weather

Digital Signal
A digital signal is defined as the signal which has only a finite number of distinct
values. Digital signals are not continuous signals. In the digital electronic
calculator, the input is given with the help of switches. This input is converted into
electrical signal which have two discrete values or levels.
One of these may be called low level and another is called high level. The signal
will always be one of the two levels.

This type of signal is called digital signal. Examples of the digital signal are
following.

• Binary Signal
• Octal Signal
• Hexadecimal Signal

Graphical representation of the Digital Signal (Binary)

The circuits that process the digital signals are called digital systems or digital
circuits. Examples of the digital systems are following.

• Registers
• Flip-flop
• Counters
• Microprocessors
ADVANTAGE AND COMPARISON
Number System & Conversion
Advantage of Digital Systems
• More accuracy "A set of values used to represent
• More versatility
different quantities is known as Number
• Less distortion
• Easy communicate System". For example, a number system
• Possible storage of information can be used to represent the number of
students in a class or number of viewers
watching a certain TV program etc. The

• Comparison of Analog and Digital digital computer represents all kinds of

data and information in binary numbers. It
Signal
includes audio, graphics, video, text and
S.N. Analog Signal Digital Signal numbers. The total number of digits used

Analog signal has

Digital signal has in a number system is called its base or
1 a finite number radix. The base is written after the number
infinite values.
of values.
as subscript such as 51210.
Analog signal has a Digital signal has
2
continuous nature. a discrete nature.
Analog signal is Some important number systems are as
Digital signal is
generated by follows.
3 generated by A
transducers and
to D converter.
signal generators. • Decimal number system
Example of analog Example of
• Binary number system
4 signal − sine wave, digital signal −
triangular waves. binary signal. • Octal number system
• Hexadecimal number system

The decimal number system is used in

general. However, the computers use
binary number system. The octal and
hexadecimal number systems are used
in the computer.
Decimal number System
The Decimal Number System consists of ten digits from 0 to 9. These digits can
be used to represent any numeric value. The base of decimal number system is
10. It is the most widely used number system. The value represented by
individual digit depends on weight and position of the digit.

Each number in this system consists of digits which are located at different
positions. The position of first digit towards left side of the decimal point is 0.
The position of second digit towards left side of the decimal point is 1. Similarly,
the position of first digit towards right side of decimal point is -1. The position
of second digit towards right side of decimal point is -2 and so on.

The value of the number is determined by multiplying the digits with the weight
of their position and adding the results. This method is known as expansion
method. The rightmost digit of number has the lowest weight. This digit is called
Least Significant Digit (LSD). The leftmost digit of a number has the highest
weight. This digit is called Most Significant Digit (MSD). The digit 7 in the number
724 is most significant digit and 4 is the least significant digit.

Example:

The weights and positions of each digit of the number 453 are as follows:

Position 2 1 0
Weights 102 101 100
Face value 4 5 3
The above table indicates that:

The value of digit 4 = 4x102 = 400

The value of digit 4 = 5x10 = 50

The value of digit 3 = 3x10 = 3

The actual number can be found by adding the values obtained by the digits as
follows:

400 + 50 + 3 =45310

Example:

The weights and positions of each digit of the number 139.78 are as follows.

Position 2 1 0 -1 -2
Weights 102 101 100 . 10-1 10-2
Face Value 1 3 9 7 8

The above table indicates that:

The value of digit 1 = 1x102 = 100

The value of digit 3 = 3x101 = 30

The value of digit 9 = 9x100 = 9

The value of digit 7 = 7x10-1 = 0.7

The value of digit 8 = 8x10-2 = 0.08

The actual number can be found by adding the values obtained by the digits as
follows:

100 + 30 + 9 + 0.7 + 0.8 = 139.78

Binary Number System
Digital computer represents all kinds of data and information in the binary
system. Binary Number System consists of two digits 0 and 1. Its base is 2. Each
digit or bit in binary number system can be 0 or 1. A combination of binary
numbers may be used to represent different quantities like 1001.

The positional value of each digit in binary number is twice the place value or
face value of the digit of its right side. The weight of each position is a power of
2.The place value of the digits according to position and weight is as follows:

Position 3 2 1 0
Weights 23 22 21 20

Example: Convert 101112 decimal number

Position 2 1 0 -1 -2
Weights 102 101 100 10-1 10-2
Face Value 1 3 9 7 8

101112 = 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20

= 1 x 16 + 0 + 1 x 4 + 1 x 2 + 1 x 1

= 16 + 0 + 4 2 + 1

= 2310

Example: Convert 101.1012

Position 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
Face Value 1 0 1 . 1 0 1
Weight 24 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3
101.1012 = 1 x 22 + 0x21 + 1 x 20 + 1x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1
x 2-3

= 1 x 4 + 0 + 1 x 1 + ½ + 0 + 1/8

= 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.125

= 5.62510

Decimal to Binary conversion

The following technique, called the (Division – Remainder Technique) is easiest &
simple method used to convert decimal to binary numbers.

Step – 1

Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base. In this
case divide it by 2.

Step – 2

Record the remainder from Step – 1 as the rightmost digit.

Step – 3

Divide the quotient of the previous by the new base.

Step – 4

Record the remainder from Step – 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.

Step – 5

Bottom to top sequence of remainder will be the required converted number.

Repeat Step – 3 & Step – 4, recording remainders from right to left, until the
quotient becomes less than the digit of new base so that it cannot be divided.
All these steps are performed in the following picture for converting decimal
numbers to binary. Isn't that simple & easy.
Binary system complements
As the binary system has base r = 2. So the two types of complements for the binary system are
2's complement and 1's complement.

1's complement
The 1's complement of a number is found by changing all 1's to 0's and all 0's to 1's. This is
called as taking complement or 1's complement. Example of 1's Complement is as follows.

2's complement
The 2's complement of binary number is obtained by adding 1 to the Least Significant Bit (LSB)
of 1's complement of the number.

2's complement = 1's complement + 1

Example of 2's Complement is as follows.

 TOPICES-

-Rules in Boolean algebra.

- Boolean Algebra law.

1. Commutative law

1.1- Associative law

1.2- Distributive law

1.3- AND law

Boolean algebra 1.4-OR law

2. INVERSION law
Boolean algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic)
circuits. It uses only the binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also 3. Theorems & K-map
called as Binary Algebra or logical Algebra. Boolean algebra
was invented by George Boole in 1854. 4. Boolean function

Rule in Boolean Algebra 5. GATES

Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.

• Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for

HIGH and Binary 0 for LOW.
• Complement of a variable is represented by an over bar (-).
Thus, complement of variable B is represented as . Thus
if B = 0 then = 1 and B = 1 then = 0.
• O Ring of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign
between them. For example O Ring of A, B, C is
represented as A + B + C.
• Logical AND of the two or more variable is represented by
writing a dot between them such as A.B.C. Sometime the
dot may be omitted like ABC.
Boolean Laws
There are six types of Boolean Laws.

Commutative law

Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is referred to as commutative
operation.

Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables does not have any effect on
the output of a logic circuit.

Associative law

This law states that the order in which the logic operations are performed is irrelevant as their
effect is the same.

Distributive law

Distributive law states the following condition.

AND law

These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called as AND laws.

OR law

These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called as OR laws.
INVERSION law

This law uses the NOT operation. The inversion law states that double inversion of a variable
results in the original variable itself.

Important Boolean Theorems

Following are few important boolean Theorems.

Boolean function/theorems Description

Boolean Functions Boolean Functions and Expressions, K-Map and NAND Gates
realization

De Morgan's Theorems De Morgan's Theorem 1 and Theorem 2

Boolean function:-
Boolean algebra deals with binary variables and logic operation. A Boolean
Function is described by an algebraic expression called Boolean expression
which consists of binary variables, the constants 0 and 1, and the logic operation
symbols. Consider the following example.
Here the left side of the equation represents the output Y. So we can state equation
no. 1

Truth Table Formation

A truth table represents a table having all combinations

of inputs and their corresponding result.
It is possible to convert the switching equation into a
truth table. For example, consider the following switching
equation.
The output will be high (1) if A = 1 or BC = 1 or both are 1. The truth
table for this equation is shown in Table (a). The number of rows in the
truth table is 2n where n is the number of input variables (n=3 for the given
equation). Hence there are 23 = 8 possible input combination of inputs.

Truth Table Formation

A truth table represents a table having all combinations of inputs and their
corresponding result.
It is possible to convert the switching equation into a truth table. For
example, consider the following switching equation.

The output will be high (1) if A = 1 or BC = 1 or both are 1. The truth table
for this equation is shown in Table (a). The number of rows in the truth table
is 2n where n is the number of input variables (n=3 for the given equation).
Hence there are 23 = 8 possible input combination of inputs.
Methods to Simplify a Boolean Function
The methods used for simplifying a Boolean function are as follows:

Karnaugh-map or K-map, and

NAND gate method.

Karnaugh-map or K-map
The Boolean theorems and the De-Morgan's theorems are useful in manipulating
the logic expression. We can realize the logical expression using gates. The number
of logic gates required for the realization of a logical expression should be reduced
to a minimum possible value by K-map method. This method can be done in two
different ways, as discussed below.
Sum of Products (SOP) Form

It is in the form of sum of three terms AB, AC, BC with each individual term is a
product of two variables. Say A.B or A.C etc. Therefore such expressions are known
as expression in SOP form. The sum and products in SOP form are not the actual
additions or multiplications. In fact they are the OR and AND functions. In SOP
form, 0 represents a bar and 1 represents an unbar. SOP form is represented by .
Given below is an example of SOP.

Product of Sums (POS) Form

It is in the form of product of three terms (A+B), (B+C), or (A+C) with each term is
in the form of a sum of two variables. Such expressions are said to be in the
product of sums (POS) form. In POS form, 0 represents an unbar and 1 represents
a bar. POS form is represented by .

]
Given below is an example of POS.

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic
circuit having one or more than one input and only one output. The relationship
between the input and the output is based on a certain logic. Based on this, logic
gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate etc.
DE MORGAN'S THEOREMS
De Morgan has suggested two theorems which are extremely useful in Boolean Algebra. The two
theorems are discussed below.

Theorem 1

• The left hand side (LHS) of this theorem represents a NAND gate with inputs A
and B, whereas the right hand side (RHS) of the theorem represents an OR gate
with inverted inputs.

This OR gate is called as Bubbled OR.

Table showing verification of the De Morgan's first theorem:

Theorem 2

• The LHS of this theorem represents a NOR gate with inputs A and B, whereas the
RHS represents an AND gate with inverted inputs.

This AND gate is called as Bubbled AND.

Table showing verification of the De Morgan's second theorem:

Basic Gates
AND Gate
A circuit which performs an AND operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= 2) and one
output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table
OR Gate

A circuit which performs an OR operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= 2) and one
output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOT Gate

NOT gate is also known as Inverter. It has one input A and one output Y.
Logic diagram

Truth Table

NAND Gate: -
A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram
 Truth Table

NOR Gate

A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram
 Truth Table

XOR Gate

XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and
subtract or. The exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-OR gate or sometime as X-OR gate. It
has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram
 Truth Table

XNOR Gate
XNOR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and subtract or.
The exclusive-NOR gate is abbreviated as EX-NOR gate or sometime as X-NOR gate. It has n
input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table
AIM
To find truth table & Boolean expression from given
Diagram of given Boolean expression.

GIVEN -

Boolean expression:
Y = [(A.B)+B’].A
TRUTH TABLE:

A B B A.B (A.B)+B Y= [(A.B+B)].A

0 0 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1
OUTPUT:

I/P TP1 TP2 0/P

+ H H H
+ L H
Fig-
1

I/P IP1 IP2 O/P

- L H L
- H L
I/P IP1 IP2 O/P
+ L H H
- H H

I/P IP1 IP2 O/P

- L L L
+ L L
 REFRENCES …

19