PY1542: STATISTICAL PHYSICS, RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

( Module 2 : Research Methodology, Part-1 )

Objectives and motivation in research

Dr Roxy M S
Assistant Professor , Department of Physics, S N College, Kollam
What Are the Steps and Requirements to
Get a PhD?
 What to expect from your advisor?

 Your supervisor is on
your side
 Your success is their
success
What to expect from your advisor?

 Intellectual support
 Quality assurance
 What standard a thesis
should reach
 Indication of when to
stop

 Emotional support
 Encouragement
 Constructive atmosphere
 Research- An Introduction

➢ The word research is derived from the Latin word meaning

to know.

➢ MEANING OF RESEARCH: Research in common parlance

refers to a search for knowledge.

➢ Once can also define research as a scientific &

systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
 Research- An Introduction

 Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be

used in a technical sense.

 According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and

redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing
the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as “a

careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of

knowledge.”

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and

which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific

purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad

groupings:
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it

(studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);
Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not
clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but
will not provide conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general
idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus for future
research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change
his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is usually
carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded
theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why
and how.
For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that increasing the variety
of juices will enable increase in customers, however he is not sure and needs more
information. The owner intends to carry out an exploratory research and hence to find out
if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get more customers of if there is a
better idea.
 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group(studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies);
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics
of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses more on the
“what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.
The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a
demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In
other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it
happens.
 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are
known as diagnostic research studies);

In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a

specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the factors that
create troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

 · Inception of the issue

 · Diagnosis of the issue

 · Solution for the issue

 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
Motivation for the Research:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake
research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social
thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people
to perform research operations
 PY1542: STATISTICAL PHYSICS, RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
( Module 2 : Research Methodology, Part-2 )

Different types of research

Dr Roxy M S
Assistant Professor , Department of Physics, S N College, Kollam
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds.

 In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies.

 The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.

 The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of

all kinds, including comparative and correlation methods.
 Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data
 In analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental:
 Applied (or action) research : aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organization, Applied research is designed to answer specific questions
aimed at solving practical problems. New knowledge acquired from
applied research has specific commercial objectives in the form of
products, procedures or services.

 Fundamental (to basic or pure) research: is mainly concerned

with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Fundamental
research answers the initial question of how things work. This
fundamental knowledge is then used by applied scientists and engineers,
for example, to make improvements on existing products, technologies
and processes. Likewise, basic researchers take advantage of improved
technologies to answer new fundamental questions. It is an important
cycle for advancement.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in

terms of quantity

 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with

qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving

quality or kind. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed

to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular

subject or institution is also qualitative research.

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

 Conceptual research :

is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is

generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.

 Empirical research ;

It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions

which are capable of being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of
research.
 In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough
facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up
experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such
research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the
variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to
study its effects.

 Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables

affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments
or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support
possible for a given hypothesis.
(v) Some Other Types of Research:

 One-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the

research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case
the research is carried on over several time-periods.

 Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,

depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.

 Clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study

methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations.

 Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion-

oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign
the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he
wishes.
 The exploratory research or it may be formalized.

 The objective of exploratory research is the development

of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas
formalized research studies are those with substantial
structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.

 Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources

like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of
the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups
at any remote point of time.
 Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques,
thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research
operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed
as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied
research, is to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data
and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other
to make a solution possible.
 PY1542: STATISTICAL PHYSICS, RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
( Module 2 : Research Methodology, Part-3)

Dr Roxy M S
Assistant Professor , Department of Physics, S N College, Kollam
 Research Approaches
Two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative
approach and the qualitative approach .

The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form

which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal
and rigid fashion.
Quantitative approach sub-classified into inferential,
experimental and simulation approaches to research.
• The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which
to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey
research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to
determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same
characteristics
• Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the
research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables.

• Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment

within which relevant information and data can be generated. Simulation
approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future
conditions.
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior.
Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective
techniques and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at length in
chapters that follow.
 Significance of research
• “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than
overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”

• Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes

the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation.
• The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether
related to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased
in modern times. Research provides the basis for nearly all
government policies in our economic system.
• Research is considered necessary with regard to the allocation of
nation’s resources
• In the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has three
distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic structure through
continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the
analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of
future developments.

• Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
• Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are
considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions.
• Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market
for the purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and
sales.
• Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical
techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimisation or of profit
maximisation or what can be termed as optimisation problems.
• Motivational research of determining why people behave as they
do is mainly concerned with market characteristics.
• In other words, it is concerned with the determination of
motivations underlying the consumer (market) behavior. All
these are of great help to people in business and industry who
are responsible for taking business decisions.
• Research is equally important for social scientists in studying
social relationships and in seeking answers to various social
problems
• Because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked
to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of
human relations.
• To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may
mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
• To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood;

• To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas
and insights;
• To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new
styles and creative work;
• To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new
theories. Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of
knowledge and an important source of providing guidelines for solving
different business, governmental and social problems
 Research methods and methodology
• Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used
for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques, thus, re.
• Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the
collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not
sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy
of the results obtained.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem.
It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically.

In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a

researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic
behind them.
Need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which
are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.
When we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the
research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we
use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using
a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so
that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the
researcher himself or by others
 PY1542: STATISTICAL PHYSICS, RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
( MODULE 2 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, PART-4)

Research Process

Dr Roxy M S
Assistant Professor , Department of Physics, S N College, Kollam
 Research and Scientific Method

Research can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are
experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the
researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is interested in the repeatability
of the results and in their extension to more complicated and general situations.”
The scientific method is based on certain basic postulates which can be
stated as under:
 1. It relies on empirical evidence;
 2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
 3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
 4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making
only adequate and correct statements about population objects;
 5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
 6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny
are for use in testing the conclusions through replication;
 7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as
scientific theories.
 Various steps in a research process
(1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalisations and interpretation,
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results ,i. e.,
formal write-up of conclusions reached.
1. Formulating the research problem:
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to
states of nature and those which relate to relationships between
variables.
Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem,
viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same
into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature
concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one
proposed.
 2. Extensive literature survey:

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it

should be written down. It is compulsory for a research
worker writing a thesis for a ph.D. Degree to write a
synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary
committee or the research board for approval.
 3. Development of working hypotheses:

After extensive literature survey, researcher

should state in clear terms the working hypothesis
or hypotheses.

Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made

in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses?
(a) discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem,
its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) examination of data and records, if available, concerning
the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on
similar problems; and
(d) exploratory personal investigation which involves original
field interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and
individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
 4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN:

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms,

the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e.,
he will have to state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted.

Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i)

Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv)
Experimentation.
 There are several research designs, such as, experimental and
non-experimental hypothesis testing.

 Experimental designs can be either

Informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-

only with control, before-and-after with control)

Formal designs (such as completely randomized design,

randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex
factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for
his own project.
 The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research
problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:

(i) the means of obtaining the information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);

(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organised and the reasoning leading to the selection;

(iv) the time available for research; and

(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
 PY1542: STATISTICAL PHYSICS, RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
( MODULE 2 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, PART-5)

Dr Roxy M S
Assistant Professor , Department of Physics,
S N College, Kollam
 5. Determining sample design:
■ All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’.

■ A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a

census inquiry.

■ Quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The
items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.

■ The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known
as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined
before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
 A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:

■ (i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as

purposive or non-probability sampling.

■ When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample

based on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling.

■ In judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for

selecting items which he considers as representative of the
population.
■ (ii) Simple random sampling:

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability

sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal

chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible

samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being

selected.

■ (iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of

sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on

one side of a street and so on.

■ (iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn

does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is

applied so as to obtain a representative sample.

In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of nonoverlapping

subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the

items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire

procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as

stratified random sampling.

■ (v) Quota sampling:

In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual strata is often so expensive

that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of

items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgment.

(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then

selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.

Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical

area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a

number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of

these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the

sample.
■ (vii) Multi-stage sampling:

This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. Under multi-stage

sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as
states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.

■ (viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the
ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to
mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.
This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of
statistical quality control.
 6. Collecting the data
Data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i) By observation

(ii) Through personal interview

(iii) Through telephone interviews

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires

(v) Through schedules

7. Execution of the project:
If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable
methods should be designed to tackle this problem.
8. Analysis of data:
Requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of
■ Categories
■ Coding
■ Editing
■ Tabulation
■ Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the
computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying
various well defined statistical formulae.
 9. Hypothesis-testing:

■ Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been

developed by statisticians for the purpose.

■ Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in

rejecting it.
10. Generalisations and interpretation

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

Importance of literature survey
 Criteria of Good Research
■ 1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
■ 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
■ 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
■ 4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
■ 5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
■ 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
■ 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
■ 1. Good research is systematic
■ 2. Good research is logical
■ 3. Good research is empirical
■ 4. Good research is replicable
 PY1542: STATISTICAL PHYSICS, RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
( Module 2 : Research Methodology, Part-6)

Dr Roxy M S
Assistant Professor , Department of Physics,
S N College, Kollam
Importance of literature survey
PY1542: STATISTICAL PHYSICS, RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
( Module 2 : Research Methodology, Part-7)

Dr Roxy M S
Assistant Professor , Department of Physics,
S N College, Kollam
 Criteria of Good Research
• 1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be
used.
• 2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
• 3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results
that are as objective as possible.
• 4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings.
• 5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and
the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of
the data should be checked carefully.
• 6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
• 7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has
a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
• 1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the
well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does
not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of
guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.

• 2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the

rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and
deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the
process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the
process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
• 3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically
to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data

that provides a basis for external validity to research results.

• 4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results

to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis

for decisions.
 Thesis/ Report writing - preliminary section

• Title page
• declaration of author
• certificate of supervisor
• table of contents
• list of tables and figures
• Acknowledgement
• preface
 Main Text

• Abstract
• introduction
• experimental section
• results and discussion
• Conclusions
• references
• scope for future study.