A Crash Course in C

copyright Anand Mehta

January 1995
A Crash Course in C 1
 A Crash Course in C i

Contents
0 Introduction 1
1 Fundamentals 2
1.1 Example programs : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 2
1.2 Variables : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3
1.3 Input/Output : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 4
1.4 Keywords and Operators: The C Language : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 5
1.5 Expressions and Statements : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9
1.6 Control Flow : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9
1.7 The C Preprocessor : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13
1.8 Problems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 14

2 Functions 18
2.1 Reasons for Using Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 18
2.2 Basic Structure : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 18
2.3 Return Statement : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 20
2.4 Di erence between ANSI-C and \Traditional C" : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 21
2.5 Object Storage Classes and Scope : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 22
2.6 Larger Programs : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 24
2.7 Macros : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 27
2.8 Problems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 27

3 Pointers 29
3.1 Pointer De nition and Use : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 29
3.2 Pointers as Function Arguments: \Call by Value" : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 31
3.3 Arrays : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 32
3.4 Functions Returning Pointers : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 34
3.5 Multidimensional Arrays : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 36
3.6 Strings: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 41
3.7 Command Line Arguments : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 41
3.8 Pointers to Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 42
ii A Crash Course in C
3.9 Problems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 42

4 Structures 43
4.1 Syntax and Operations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 43
4.2 typedef : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 45
4.3 Array of Structures : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 45
4.4 Use with Functions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 46
4.5 Linked Lists : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 48
4.6 union : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 49
4.7 enum : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 50
4.8 Example: Complex Numbers : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 52
4.9 Problems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 54

5 C Libraries 55
5.1 Memory Allocation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 55
5.2 Math Libraries : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 56
5.3 Random Variables : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 57
5.4 Input/Output : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 58
5.5 Strings : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 60

A Make Program 61
B C Style Guide 63
B.1 General Style : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 63
B.2 Layout : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 66
B.3 Coding Practice : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 66
B.4 Naming Conventions : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 67

C Answers to Problems 68
x0 A Crash Course in C 1

0 Introduction
Reasons to use C:
 pointers and structures
 encourages well structured control ow
 modular programming is encouraged
 easy to learn (C has few keywords)
 portability to di erent machines
 many functions are in libraries, not intrinsic parts of the language
 lexical scoping for variables
References:
 Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, The C Programming Language (2nd edition) (K&R)
 Stephen G. Kochan, Programming in C, Programming in ANSI C (Kochan)
 Al Kelley and Ira Pohl, A Book on C
 American National Standard for Information Systems|Programming Language C, X3.159-
1989.
Three steps are necessary to use C:
 write the program using an editor
 compile (and link) it; on Unix systems, use

% cc program.c
% cc -o <name> <name>.c
This automatically runs three separate processes, using the source les <names>.c, to produce
the output:
{ preprocessor
{ compiler
{ linker
If there are no errors, this produces an executable le. The rst cc command produces the
le a.out, while the second makes the le <name>.
 execute the program
% <name>
% <name> < input.file
% <name> > output.file
% <name> < input.file > output.file

Di erent systems have di erent procedures to use C. See the manual or help les for details.
2 A Crash Course in C x1.1

1 Fundamentals
1.1 Example programs
The following are simple examples to get things started. They do not do anything useful, but they
illustrate some key characteristics of C.
/* this is a comment */
main() /* function definition */
{ /* start of block */
printf("Hello world\n"); /* output; statement ends with a semicolon */
/* use '\n' in printf to get a linefeed */
} /* end of block */

Things to note in example programs:

 comments cannot be nested.
 main() is the function where the program begins execution, and can only occur once.
 C is case speci c.
 all white space (spaces, tabs, blank lines, comments) is equivalent to one space.
Syntax: main()
f
variable declarations
statements
g
main()
{
int x; /* declaration and definition */
x=5; /* assignment */
printf("%d\n", x); /* output x as an integer */
}
main()
{
int x=17, y=12, z; /* declaration, definition, and initialization */
z = x + y; /* arithmetic expression */
printf("z = %d + %d = %d\n", x, y, z); /* each %d prints one integer */
printf("%d * %d = %d\n", x, y, x*y);
}
main()
{
int x;
scanf("%d", &x); /* values input from the keyboard using scanf(): */
printf("x = %d\n", x); /* and a pointer to x */
}

A common error when using scanf() is not giving pointers as the arguments; to input a variable, use
int x;
scanf("%d", &x); /* correct */

NOT
int x;
scanf("%d", x); /* incorrect */
x1.2 A Crash Course in C 3

1.2 Variables
All variables must be declared and de ned before they can be used. Variable names can be composed of
characters, digits, and the underscore character (_), and can usually be up to 32 characters long. Vari-
able names should not begin with an underscore|these names are used by the compiler and the libraries.
Variables have speci c types and usage; basic data types:
 char: a single byte, used for one character
{ can specify signed or unsigned, although signed is preferred for compatibility with int
 int: integers
{ can modify with short or long
{ can specify signed or unsigned
 float: single precision oating point (real) number
 double: double precision oating point number
 void: no type value, for pointers and functions
The speci c size of each type depends on the implementation; see <limits.h> for details. On Unix systems,
<limits.h> is usually the le /usr/include/limits.h.

The derived data types are

 arrays (array[10])
 pointers (*pointer)
 functions (function())
 structures (structure.member)
 enumerated (enumerated_variable)
 union (union_name.member)
All variables must be declared and de ned; they can also be initialized and assigned a value.
 declaration: speci es the type of the identi er
 de nition: reserves storage space for the object
 initialization: gives an initial value to the object during de nition
 assignment: gets a new value
/*** definition of constants ***/
main()
{
char c = 'x';
char c1 = '0'; /* the character 'zero', with the integer value for ASCII(0) */
char c2 = '\0'; /* has the "integer" value zero */

int n = 10;
int n_oct = 065; /* octal */
int n_hex = 0x3d; /* hexadecimal */

long m = 10L;
unsigned int k = 304U;
unsigned long l = 3040UL;

float x1 = 143.0;
float x2 = 24.6e-3;
double y = 34.1L;

}
4 A Crash Course in C x1.3

1.3 Input/Output
Basic input/output is obtained using the standard library
Syntax: printf("control string", variable1, variable2, ) :::
scanf("control string", pointer1, pointer2, :::
)

The control string has place holders for the variables being used (see tables on page 16). For printf(),
there can also be characters in the control string. For scanf(), the pointers to the variables being inputed
must be used. Special characters are listed on table 5 on page 16.
/** using printf() and scanf() **/
main()
{
int x=10;
float y;

printf("(1) %d\n", x);

printf("(2) %d\n", x*5);

printf("(3) x = ");
printf("%d", x);
printf("\n"); /** same as (4) **/

printf("(4) x = %d\n", x); /** same as (3) **/

printf("input x: "); scanf("%d", &x); /** prompts for input **/

printf("(5) x = %d\n", x);

/** can input several values of different types with one scanf command **/
printf("input x, y: "); scanf("%d %f", &x, &y);
printf("(6) x = %d, y = %f\n", x, y);
}
Output: (1) 10
(2) 50
(3) x = 10
(4) x = 10
input x: 40
(5) x = 40
input x, y: 20 34.5
(6) x = 20, y = 34.500000
x1.4 A Crash Course in C 5

Table 1: C Keywords (K&R, p. 192)

data type declarations control flow statements
auto float long static unsigned break do if
char enum register struct void case else return
const extern short typedef volatile continue for switch
double int signed union default goto while

1.4 Keywords and Operators: The C Language

C has a small set of keywords; all are used to either declare data types or control the ow of the program.
See table 1 for a list of the keywords. The C operators are listed in table 2 on page 15.

1.4.1 Basic Operators

Some basic operators are
 *, /, %; +, - arithmetic operators
{ % modulus division (remainder)
 <, >, <=, >=; ==, !=; &&; || logical operators
{ the logical operators return a 1 (true) or 0 (false).
{ for any conditional test, any non-zero value is true, and a 0 is false.
{ == equality comparision (not =)
{ != not equal to
{ && || logical AND and OR operators
{ A common error is using the assignment operator = when the logical operator == is required,
e.g. (x = 2) instead of (x == 2); both are valid expressions, so the compiler will not indicate
an error.
 =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %= assignment operators
{ op= assignment, E1 op=E2 <==> E1=E1 op (E2), with E1 evaluated once
{ for example, x+=2 ==> x=x+2
 ++, -- increment/decrement by 1, as a pre x or post x
{ pre x: increments the variable and gives the new value as the result
{ post x: gives the old value as the result and then increments the variable
 ! negation
{ !(0) ==> 1
{ !(any non-zero value) ==> 0
 ? : conditional, compact if-else as an expression instead of a statement
 (type) casts object into a di erent type
 , combines separate expressions into one,
{ evaluates them from left to right
{ the value of the whole expression is the value of the rightmost sub-expression
6 A Crash Course in C x1.4

/** examples of conditional operators **/

main()
{
int x=0, y=10, w=20, z, T=1, F=0;

z = (x == 0); /*** logical operator; result --> 0 or 1 ***/

z = (x = 0); /*** assignment operator; result --> <x> ***/
z = (x == 1);
z = (x = 15);
z = (x != 2);
z = (x < 10);
z = (x <= 50);
z = ((x=y) < 10); /*** performs assignment, compares <x> with 10 ***/
z = (x==5 && y<15);
z = (x==5 && y>5 && w==10);
z = (x==5 || y>5 && w==10);

z = (T && T && F && x && x); /*** ==> F; ***/

z = (F || T || x || x); /*** ==> T; ***/
/*** for && and !!, order is specified, stops when result is known, ***/
/*** value of x doesn't matter ***/
}

/** examples of the increment and decrement operators **/

main()
{
int x,y;

x=5;
y = ++x; /** prefix increment **/
printf("++x: x=%d, y=%d\n", x, y);

x=5;
y = x++; /** postfix increment **/
printf("x++: x=%d, y=%d\n", x, y);

x=5;
y = --x; /** prefix decrement **/
printf("--x: x=%d, y=%d\n", x, y);

x=5;
y = x--; /** postfix decrement **/
printf("x--: x=%d, y=%d\n", x, y);
}
Output: ++x: x=6, y=6
x++: x=6, y=5
--x: x=4, y=4
x--: x=4, y=5
x1.4 A Crash Course in C 7

/** more operator examples **/

main()
{
int x, y, z;

x = 128;
y = x / 10; /** y = 12, the remainder is dropped **/
y = x % 10; /** y = 8, which is remainder **/

x = 10;
y = !x; /** y = 0 **/
y = !(!x); /** y = 1 **/

x = 0;
y = !x; /** y = 1 **/

x = 10;
x += 2; /** x = 12 **/
x += 2; /** x = 14 **/

x = 10;
x -= 4; /** x = 6 **/

x = 10;
x *= 5; /** x = 50 **/

x = 10;
x /= 2; /** x = 5 **/
x /= 2; /** x = 2 **/

x = 2
y = (x < 5) ? 5 : 10; /** y=5 **/

x = 8
y = (x < 5) ? 5 : 10; /** y=10 **/

if (x < 5) /** same as the conditional y = (x < 5) ? 5 : 10; **/

y = 5;
else
y = 10;
}
8 A Crash Course in C x1.4

1.4.2 Order of Evaluation

Operands of most operators will be evaluated in an unspeci ed order; do not assume a particular order and
be careful about side e ects of evaluations. Also, the order in which function arguments are evaluated is not
speci ed. There are four operators, however, do have a speci ed order of operand evaluation: && || , ?:.
/** test of order of operations **/
main()
{
int x=5, y, i=4;

y = x * ++x;
printf("x = %d, y = %d\n", x, y);

printf("i = %d, ++i = %d\n", i, ++i);

}
Depending on the order of evaluation of the function arguments, the output can be
Output: x = 6, y = 30
i = 4, ++i = 5
or
Output: x = 6, y = 36
i = 5, ++i = 5

These types of expressions should be avoided.

1.4.3 Type Conversion

C does some automatic type conversion if the expression types are mixed. If there are no unsigned values,
the rules for conversion for two operands is
 if any long double, convert other to long double
 else if any double, convert other to double
 else if any float, convert other to float
 else
{ convert any char or short to int
{ if any long, convert other to long
If there are unsigned expressions, the conversion rules are in K&R, p. 198.
Any explicit type conversions can be made by casting an expression to another type, using (double),
(float), etc., before the expression to be cast.

/*** truncation problem with integer divide ***/

main()
{
int x=8, y=10;
float z1, z2;

z1 = x/y;
z2 = (float) x / (float) y;
printf("z1 = %6.2f, z2 = %6.2f\n", z1, z2);
}
Output: z1 = 0.00, z2 = 0.80
x1.5 A Crash Course in C 9

1.5 Expressions and Statements

Expressions include variable names, function names, array names, constants, function calls, array refer-
ences, and structure references. Applying an operator to an expression is still an expression, and an expression
enclosed within parentheses is also an expression. An lvalue is an expression which may be assigned a value,
such as variables.
i++ x+y z = x+y

A statement is
 a valid expression followed by a semicolon
 a group of statements combined into a block by enclosing them in braces (f g). This is then treated
as a single statement.
 a special statement (break, continue, do, for, goto, if, return, switch, while, and the
null statement)
A statement can be labeled, for use with goto. Since goto disrupts structured control ow, however, it is
not generally recommended.

1.6 Control Flow

Basic control ow is governed by the if..else, while, do...while, and for statements.

1.6.1 Decision Making

Use the if...else for conditional decisions. (exp is any valid expression, statement is any valid statement)
Syntax: if (exp)
statement
if (exp)
statement
else
statement
if (exp1)
statement
else if (exp2)
statement
.
.
.
else
statement
main() /*** check if a number is odd or even ***/
{
int i;
scanf("%d", &i);
if (i%2 == 0) /** OR if (!(i%2)) **/
printf("i is even\n");
else
printf("i is odd\n");
}
10 A Crash Course in C x1.6

/** examples of the 'if' statement **/

main()
{
int x=5;

if (x > 0)
printf("x = %d\n", x);

if (x < 10)
{
printf("x = %d\n", x);
x += 10;
}
else
x -= 10;

if (x==1)
printf("one\n");
else if (x==2)
printf("two\n");
else if (x==4)
{
printf("four\n");
x /= 2;
}
else if (x==5)
printf("five\n");
else
{
printf("x = %d\n", x);
x %= 10;
}

/** 'else' matches up with last unmatched 'if' in same block level **/

if (x > 0)
if (x % 2)
printf("odd\n");
else
printf("even\n");
else
printf("negative\n");

if (!(x % 2))
{
if (!(x % 5))
x /= 10;
}
else
printf("odd\n");
}
x1.6 A Crash Course in C 11

1.6.2 Looping
 while: testing at the beginning of the loop
 do...while: testing at the end of the loop, after executing the loop at least once
 for: almost the same as while, in a compact form
Syntax: while (exp)
statement
do
f
statement
g while (exp);

for (exp1-opt ; exp2-opt ; exp3-opt)

statement
Here exp-opt is an optional expression.
main() /*** print the numbers from 1 to 10 ***/
{
int i;

i=1;
while (i<=10)
{
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}
}
main() /*** print the numbers from 1 to 10 ***/
{
int i;

i=1;
do
{
printf("%d\n", i++);
} while (i<=10);
}
main() /*** print the numbers from 1 to 10 ***/
{
int i;
for (i=1 ; i<=10; i++)
printf("%d\n", i);
}

1.6.3 Other Control Flow

Other program control ow is governed by the switch statement, which allows comparison to a series of
constant values, and the goto, continue, break, and return statements.
12 A Crash Course in C x1.6

Syntax: switch(exp)
f
case (const-exp):
statement-opt
break;
case (const-exp):
statement-opt
statement-opt
break;
.
.
.
default:
statement-opt
break;
g
Here const-exp is a constant expression, and statement-opt is an optional statement. The break; after the
default: case is optional.

Syntax: label: statement

goto label;

continue;

break;

return (exp-opt);
Here label is a statement label.
The break; statement is used inside the while, do...while, for, and switch statements to automatically
drop out of the current loop. The continue statement is used inside the loops (not switch) to jump to
the end of the loop. With while and do...while, this jumps to the next test; with for, it jumps to the
increment step, and then the test.
/** Example with 'do...while' and 'switch': waiting for a yes/no answer **/
main()
{
char ans, c;
int answer;

do
{
printf("enter y/n: "); scanf("%c", &ans);
switch (ans)
{
case 'y': case 'Y': answer = 1; break;
case 'n': case 'N': answer = 0; break;
default: answer = -1; break;
}
} while (answer == -1);
printf("answer = %d\n", answer);
}
x1.7 A Crash Course in C 13

1.7 The C Preprocessor

Two essential preprocessor commands are #define and #include. Constants and macros are de ned
with #define. The program can be split into separate les and combined with #include, and header les
can also be inserted. (See sections 2.6 and 2.7.)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include "functions.c"

#define MAX 10
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0

After inserting the math.h header le, math subroutines can be used properly. To compile using the math
library on Unix, use
% cc -o <program> <program>.c -lm

/** program to calculate x using the quadratic formula **/

#include <math.h>
main()
{
float a, b, c, d, x, x1, x2;
printf("input a, b, c: ");
scanf("%f %f %f", &a, &b, &c);
d = b*b - 4.0*a*c;
if (d >= 0) /** check if solution will be real or complex **/
{
x1 = (-b+sqrt(d)) / (2.0*a); /** sqrt() from the math library **/
x2 = (-b-sqrt(d)) / (2.0*a);
/** need parentheses for proper order of operations **/
printf("x = %f, %f\n",x1,x2);
}
else
printf("x is complex");
}
/** an example of formated output **/
#include <math.h>
main()
{
int n=10, i, x;

for (i=0, x=1; i<n; i++, x*=2) /*** uses comma operator ***/
printf("log(%5d) = %8.3lf\n", x, log((double) x));
}
14 A Crash Course in C x1.8

Output: log( 1) = 0.000

log( 2) = 0.693
log( 4) = 1.386
log( 8) = 2.079
log( 16) = 2.773
log( 32) = 3.466
log( 64) = 4.159
log( 128) = 4.852
log( 256) = 5.545
log( 512) = 6.238

The #if...#endif preprocessor command can be used to comment out a section of code which may have
comments within it.
/** using #if for nested comments **/
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0

main()
{
int x=5;

printf("x = %d\n", x);

#if FALSE /** everything until the matching #endif is commented **/
x = 304;
#endif

printf("x = %d\n", x);

}
Output: x = 5
x = 5

1.8 Problems
1. Run example programs to become familiar with using C.
2. Write a program to print all Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures using conversion
C = (F , 32)  5=9
for 20 increments from 32 to 212. (See K&R, p. 9 if you are stuck.)
3. Input a number and print all its factors
4. Input a number and decide if it is prime
5. Change the quadratic formula program so that it also prints the complex solutions
6. Input an integer and print the value of each digit in English: 932 => nine three two
7. Count the number of characters and lines in a le (use '\n' to nd lines)
x1.8 A Crash Course in C 15

Table 2: Summary of C operators (K&R, p. 53)

Operator Description Associativity
() Function call
[] Array element reference left to right
,> Pointer to structure member reference
. Structure member reference
, Unary minus
+ Unary plus
++ Increment
,, Decrement
! Logical negation
~ Ones complement right to left
 Pointer reference (indirection)
& Address
sizeof Size of an object
(type) Type cast (conversion)
 Multiplication
= Division left to right
% Modulus
+ Addition left to right
, Subtraction
<< Left shift left to right
>> Right shift
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to left to right
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equality left to right
!= Inequality
& Bitwise AND left to right
^ Bitwise XOR left to right
j Bitwise OR left to right
&& Logical AND  left to right
jj Logical OR  left to right
?: Conditional  right to left
=
 = = = %=
+= , = Assignment operators right to left
^= &= j =
<<= >>=
, Comma operator  left to right
 order of operand evaluation is speci ed.
16 A Crash Course in C x1.8

Table 3: Basic printf Conversions (K&R, p. 244)

Character Argument Type; Printed As
d, i int; decimal number
o int; unsigned octal number (without a leading zero)
x, X int; unsigned hexadecimal number (without a leading 0x or 0X, using abcdef or
ABCDEF for 10,..., 15)
u int; unsigned decimal number
c int; single character
s 
char ; print characters from the string until a `\0' or the number of characters
given by the precision
f double; [,]m:dddddd, where the number of ds is given by the precision (default 6)
e, E double; [,]m:dddddde  xx or [,]m:ddddddE  xx where the number of ds is given
by the precision (default 6)
g, G double; use %e or %E if the exponent is less than ,4 or greater than or equal to
the precision; otherwise use %f; trailing zeros and a trailing decimal point are not
printed
p void ; pointer (implementation-dependent representation)
% no argument is converted; print a %

Table 4: Basic scanf Conversions (K&R, p. 246)

Character Input Data; Argument Type
d decimal integer; int 
i integer; int ; the integer may be in octal (leading 0) or hexadecimal (leading 0x
or 0X)
o octal intger (with or without leading zero); int 
u unsigned decimal integer; unsigned int 
x hexadecimal number (with or without a leading 0x or 0X); int *
c characters; char . The next input characters (default 1) are placed at the indicated
spot. The normal skip over white space is suppressed; to read the next non-white
space character, use %1s.
s character string (not quoted); char ; pointing to an array of characters large
enough for the string and a terminating `\0' that will be added
e,f,g oating-point number with optional sign, optional decimal point, and optional ex-
ponent; float *;
% literal %; no assignment is made

Table 5: Escape Sequences (K&R, p. 193)

\a bell \t horizontal tab \' single quote
\b backspace \v vertical tab \" double quote
\f formfeed \\ backslash \ooo octal number
\n newline \? question mark \xhh hexadecimal number
\r carriage return
x1.8 A Crash Course in C 17

Table 6: ASCII Character Set (hexadecimal value, 0xNM, base 16)

Row Column (N)
(M) 0x2 0x3 0x4 0x5 0x6 0x7
0x0 SPC 0 @ P ` p
0x1 ! 1 A Q a q
0x2 " 2 B R b r
0x3 # 3 C S c s
0x4 $ 4 D T d t
0x5 % 5 E U e u
0x6 & 6 F V f v
0x7 ' 7 G W g w
0x8 ( 8 H X h x
0x9 ) 9 I Y i y
0xA * : J Z j z
0xB + ; K [ k f
0xC , < L n l j
0xD - = M ] m g
0xE . > N ^ n ~
0xF / ? O o DEL
18 A Crash Course in C x2.2

2 Functions
2.1 Reasons for Using Functions
 saves repetition of common routines
 functions can be used by di erent parts of the program
 modularizes the program, making it easier to use:
{ write|can work on pieces independently
{ read|have to understand what the large pieces do, not each statement, hiding unnecessary detail
{ modify|changing one part should have limited e ects on other parts
{ debug|can debug the functions independently, then put everything together
{ other people can use the pieces without worrying about details
 gives new variables with each call (automatic variables, lexical scoping)
 allows recursive processes

2.2 Basic Structure

The syntax for declaring a function is
Syntax: return-type function-name(argument declarations)
f
local variable declarations
statements
g
The function prototype is a declaration and is needed if the function is de ned after its use in the program.
The syntax is
Syntax: return-type function-name(argument declarations);
where the argument declarations must include the types of the arguments, but the argument names are
optional. If the function is de ned before its use, then a prototype is not necessary, since the de nition also
serves as a declaration.
If the return-type is omitted, int is assumed. If there are no argument declarations, use void, not empty
parentheses.
Here are four examples of how functions can be used:
 A function that has no arguments and does not return a value:
void print_message(void)
{
printf("hello\n");
}

main()
{
print_message();
}
x2.2 A Crash Course in C 19

 A function that takes an argument. The arguments are separated by commas; the order in which they
are evaluated is unspeci ed. The value of each argument is passed to the corresponding parameter of
the function.
void print_integer(int i)
{
printf("i = %d\n", i);
}

main()
{
int n=5;

print_integer(n);
}
 A function that returns a value:
int input_integer(void); /** function prototype declarations **/

main()
{
int x, y, z;
x = input_integer();
y = input_integer();
printf("the sum is %d\n", z=x+y);
}

int input_integer(void)
{
int a;
do
{
printf("input a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &a);
} while (a <= 0);
return a;
}
20 A Crash Course in C x2.3

 A function that takes an argument and returns a value:

main()
{
int x, y, z=100;
int input_integer_le_n(int n); /** prototype declaration can be **/
/** inside a function **/
x = input_integer_le_n(z);
y = input_integer_le_n(z);
printf("the sum is %d\n", x+y);
}

int input_integer_le_n(int n)
{
int a;
do
{
printf("input a positive integer less than %d: ", n);
scanf("%d", &a);
} while (a<=0 || a>n);
return a;
}

2.3 Return Statement

A function can return a value of any type, using the return statement,
Syntax: return exp;
return (exp);
return;

The return statement can occur anywhere in the function, and will immediatly end that function and return
control to the function which called it. If there is no return statement, the function will continue execution
until the closing g of the function de nition, and return with an unde ned value.
The type of the expression returned should match the type of the function; C will automatically try to
convert exp to the return-type.
x2.4 A Crash Course in C 21

2.4 Di erence between ANSI-C and \Traditional C"

If the function return type is not int, it must be speci ed by the function prototype declaration. This is
done di erently in ANSI C and \Traditional C." For a function returning the maximum of two numbers, the
ANSI-C function would be
float max(float x, float y);
/* OR: float max(float, float); */
/** variable names {x,y} are not necessary, only the types **/
/** are, but using the names makes the code more readable **/
main()
{
float x,y,z;
...
z = max(x,y);
...
}

float max(float x, float y) /** argument types are in the definition **/
{
if (x < y)
return y;
else
return x;
}

The \Traditional C" declarations would be

float max(); /** argument types are not included in the declaration **/

main()
{
float x,y,z;
...
z = max(x,y); /** the function call is the same **/
...
}

float max(x,y)
float x,y; /** argument types listed after the definition **/
{
if (x < y)
return y;
else
return x;
}
22 A Crash Course in C x2.5

2.5 Object Storage Classes and Scope

Functions, as with any compound statement designated by braces ({...}), have their own scope, and can
therefore de ne any variables without a ecting the values of variables with the same name in other functions.
To be able to a ect the variables, they can be made \global" by de ning them externally
Available storage classes for variables are
 automatic: declared when entering the block, lost upon leaving the block; the declarations must be
the rst thing after the opening brace of the block
 static: the variable is kept through the execution of the program, but it can only be accessed by
that block
 extern: available to all functions in the le AFTER the declaration; use extern to make the variable
accessible in other les
 register: automatic variable which is kept in fast memory; actual rules are machine-dependent, and
compilers can often be more ecient in choosing which variables to use as registers.
The scope of an object can be local to a function or block, local to a le, or completely global.
 local to a function/block: automatic or static variables which can only be used within that func-
tion/block. Function parameters (arguments) are local to that function.
 global (local to a le): static variables declared outside all functions, accessible to any functions
following the declaration
 external (accessible in several les): declared as extern, accessible to functions in that le following
the declaration, even if the variable is de ned in another le.
Again, it is important to distinguish between a declaration and a de nition.
 declaration: speci es the type of the identi er, so that it can subsequently be used.
 de nition: reserves storage for the object
There can only be one de nition of a variable within a given scope.
main()
{
int x;
int x; /*** illegal: cannot define x twice ***/
x=6;
}

Also, external variables can only be de ned once, although they can be declared as often as necessary. If an
external variable is initialized during the declaration, then that also serves as a de nition of the variable.
int x; /*** definition of global variable ***/
extern int x; /*** declaration so other files can use it ***/
extern int y; /*** declaration, must be defined elsewhere ***/
extern int z=0; /*** declaration, definition, and initialization ***/
/*** can be used by other files ***/

main()
{
printf("%d", z);
}
x2.5 A Crash Course in C 23

/** An example with limited variable scope within a file **/

main()
{
int m=2, n=5;
float x=10.0, y=14.1;
int count;

int print_pair_i(int x, int y);

int print_pair_f(float x, float y);
int print_pair_d(double x, double y);
void reset_count(void);

count = print_pair_f(x, y); printf("%d\n", count);

print_pair_i(m, n);
count = print_pair_i(m, n); printf("%d\n", count);

reset_count();
count = print_pair_f(x, y); printf("%d\n", count);

print_pair_d(15.0, 28.0);
count = print_pair_d(20.0, 30.0); printf("%d\n", count);
}

int count=0; /** all functions following this declaration **/

/** can use this variable **/

int print_pair_i(int x, int y)

{
printf("(%d, %d)\n", x, y);
return ++count;
}

int print_pair_f(float x, float y)

{
printf("(%f, %f)\n", x, y);
return ++count;
}

void reset_count(void) /** resets the counter that print_pair_i **/

{
count=0; /** and print_pair_f use **/
}

int print_pair_d(double x, double y)

{
static int count=0; /** a private copy, supersedes previous variable **/
printf("(%lf, %lf)\n", x, y);
return ++count;
}
24 A Crash Course in C x2.6

Output: (10.000000,14.100000)
1
(2,5)
(2,5)
3
(10.000000,14.100000)
1
(15.000000,28.000000)
(20.000000,30.000000)
2

2.6 Larger Programs

A program can also be made of pieces, with a header le. This uses the #include preprocessor command.
One way is to compile all the les separately. This can most easily be done with make (see Appendix A).
/* FILE: large_prog.c */
#include "large.h"

int max_val; /*** the ONLY definition of max_val ***/

main()
{
int n=1;
float x=5.0;

printf("%f, %f, %f\n", A(x), B(), C(n));

printf("%f, %f, %f\n", A(x), C(n*2), B());
}

float A(float x)
{
return (x*x*x);
}

/*
** to compile:
** % cc -o large large_prog.c large_sub.c
**
** if large_sub.c will not been changed, can use
** % cc -c large_sub.c
** once, followed by
** % cc -o large large_prog.c large_sub.o
** whenever large_prog.c is changed
*/
x2.6 A Crash Course in C 25

/* FILE: large.h */
#include <stdio.h>

#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0

extern int max_val;

extern float A(float x);

extern float B(void);
extern float C(int n);
/* FILE: large_sub.c */
#include "large.h"

int num; /*** only functions in this file can access num ***/

float B(void)
{
return ((float) num);
}

float C(int n)
{
num=n;
return (n*4.0);
}

This has the following output, which shows a dependence on the argument evaluation order in printf().
Output: 125.000000, 0.000000, 4.000000
125.000000, 8.000000, 2.000000
26 A Crash Course in C x2.6

Alternatively, the les can be put together by the preprocessor. This is simpler, but it compiles all the les,
not just the unchanged ones.
/* FILE: large-2.h */
#include <stdio.h>

#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0

int max_val; /*** global variable ***/

/* FILE: large-2_sub.c */
int num; /*** also a global variable ***/

float B(void)
{
return ((float) num);
}

float C(int n)
{
num=n;
return (n*4.0);
}
/* FILE: large-2_prog.c */
#include "large-2.h"
#include "large-2_sub.c"

float A(float x);

main()
{
int n=1;
float x=5.0;

printf("%f, %f, %f\n", A(x), B(), C(n));

printf("%f, %f, %f\n", A(x), C(n*2), B());
}

float A(float x)
{
return (x*x*x);
}

/***
to compile:
% cc -o large large-2_prog.c
***/
x2.7 A Crash Course in C 27

2.7 Macros
Small procedures like swap() and max() can also be written as macros using #define,
#define MAX(x,y) ((x) > (y) ? (x) : (y)) /** macro for maximum **/

float max(float x, float y) /** function for maximum **/

{
return (x>y ? x : y);
}

There are advantages to each. Since #define causes a macro substitution, code is replaced before compila-
tion. It will run faster, since it won't make a function call, but it will evaluate either x or y twice, which
may have side e ects or take extra computational e ort. MAX will work on any arithmetic type, while max()
will only work on oats. The functions dmax() and imax() are needed for double and integer values.
Macro substitutions do not happen within quoted strings or as parts of other identi ers: `#define NO 0'
does not replace `NO' in `x = NOTHING;' or `printf("NO!");.' Also, parentheses are very important:
#define RECIPROCAL_1(x) 1/(x)
#define RECIPROCAL_2(x) 1/x

main()
{
float x=8.0, y;
y = RECIPROCAL_1(x+10.0);
printf("1/%3.1f = %8.5f\n", x, y);
y = RECIPROCAL_2(x+10.0);
printf("1/%3.1f = %8.5f\n", x, y);
}
Output: 1/8.0 = 0.05556
1/8.0 = 10.12500

To continue a macro de nition onto the next line, use a `n' at the end of the current line.

2.8 Problems
8. Write a function to raise a number to an integer power, x_to_int_n(x,n)
9. Write a function to calculate factorial(n)
10. Try to write the factorial function recursively
11. Write a program to input a positive number and print all the prime numbers less than or equal to
that number, using functions like is prime() and get positive int().
28 A Crash Course in C x2.8

Table 7: Summary of Storage Classes (Kochan, p. 416)

If Storage And Variable is Then it can be And can be ini- Comments
Class is declared referenced tialized with
static Outside a function Anywhere within Constant expres- Variables are initialized
the le sions only only once at the start of
program execution; values
are retained through func-
tion calls; default initial
value is 0
Inside a function/ block Within the func-
tion/ block
extern Outside a function Anywhere within Constant expres- Variable must be declared
the le sions only in at least one place with-
out the extern keyword or
in exactly one place with
an initial value
Inside a function/ block Within the func-
tion/ block
auto Inside a function/ block Within the func- Any valid expres- Variable is initialized each
tion/ block sion; arrays, time the function/ block is
structs, & unions entered; no default value
to constant ex-
pressions only if
f...g list is used
register Inside a function/ block Within the func- Any valid Assignment to a register
tion/ block expression not guaranteed; varying re-
strictions on types of vari-
ables that can be declared;
cannot take the address of
a register variable; initial-
ized each time function/
block is entered; no default
value
omitted Outside a function Anywhere Constant expres- This declaration can ap-
within the le or sions only pear in only one place;
by other les that variable is initialized at the
contain appropri- start of program execution;
ate declarations default value is 0
Inside a function/ block (See auto) (See auto) Defaults to auto
x3.0 A Crash Course in C 29

3 Pointers
3.1 Pointer De nition and Use
A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of some other object. This object can have any valid type:
int, oat, struct, etc. The pointer declaration syntax is
Syntax: type *ptr-name;
A pointer to an integer is declared as
int *p;

where `p' is of type `int *', pointer to an integer, and `*p' is of type integer. The type of object the
pointer references must be speci ed before a value can be obtained. The operators used with pointers are
the pointer reference/indirection (*) and address (&) operators:
main()
{
int x, *px; /* defines the pointer px */
px = &x; /* &x ==> address of x */
*px = x; /* *px ==> value px points to */
}

where the value of px is the address of x, and *px is equivalent to x.

h212i
h208i
px: s 
h204i
x:  
h200i

Figure 1: Memory diagram with pointers. The memory addresses are given by h ni

/* example program */
main()
{
int x=5, y=6, *p;
p = &x; /** pointer needs to point to something **/
printf("1. x=%d, y=%d, *p=%d\n", x, y, *p);
x = 7;
printf("2. x=%d, y=%d, *p=%d\n", x, y, *p);
*p = 8;
printf("3. x=%d, y=%d, *p=%d\n", x, y, *p);
p = &y;
printf("4. x=%d, y=%d, *p=%d\n", x, y, *p);
*p += 10 * (x * *p);
printf("5. x=%d, y=%d, *p=%d\n", x, y, *p);
}
30 A Crash Course in C x3.1

Output: 1. x=5, y=6, *p=5

2. x=7, y=6, *p=7
3. x=8, y=6, *p=8
4. x=8, y=6, *p=6
5. x=8, y=486, *p=486

p: r  p: r  p: r  p: r  p: r 
y: 6 y: 6 y: 6 y: 6  y: 486 
x: 5  x: 7  x: 8  x: 8 x: 8
p=&x x=7 p=8 p=&y p+=10(x p)
Figure 2: Memory diagram with pointers|the example program
Valid pointer operations:
 assignment to a pointer of the same type
 assigning a pointer to pointer of type (void *) and back
 adding or subtracting a pointer and an integer (including increment and decrement)
 subtracting or comparing two pointers which point to members of the same array
 assigning or comparing to zero
/** Valid Pointer Operations **/
#define NULL 0

main()
{
int x, y;
int *px=(&x); /** can initialize an automatic pointer **/
int *py;
void *pv;

py = px; /** assign to pointer of same type **/

px = (int *) pv; /** recast a (void *) pointer **/
pv = (void *) px; /** recast to type (void *) **/
py = px+2; /** for use with arrays **/
px++; /** for use with arrays **/
if (px == NULL) /** compare to null pointer **/
py=NULL; /** assign to null pointer **/
}

Invalid pointer operations:

 adding two pointers
 multiply, divide, shift, mask pointers
 add oat or double numbers to a pointer
 assign pointers of di erent types without a cast
x3.2 A Crash Course in C 31

/** Illegal Pointer Operations **/

main()
{
int x, y;
int *px, *py, *p;
float *pf;

px = &x; /** legal assignment **/

py = &y; /** legal assignment **/
p = px + py; /** addition is illegal **/
p = px * py; /** multiplication is illegal **/
p = px + 10.0; /** addition of float is illegal **/
pf = px; /** assignment of different types is illegal **/
}

3.2 Pointers as Function Arguments: \Call by Value"

When a function is called, it gets a copy of the arguments (\call by value"). The function cannot a ect the
value that was passed to it, only its own copy. If it is necessary to change the original values, the addresses
of the arguments can be passed. The function gets a copy of the addresses, but this still gives it access to
the value itself. For example, to swap two numbers,
main()
{
float x=5.0, y=6.0;
void swap_A(float *x, float *y), swap_V(float x, float y);

printf("x = %6.2f, y = %6.2f\n", x, y);

swap_V(x, y);
printf("x = %6.2f, y = %6.2f\n", x, y);
swap_A(&x, &y);
printf("x = %6.2f, y = %6.2f\n", x, y);
}

void swap_A(float *x, float *y) /** passes addresses of x and y **/
{
float tmp = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = tmp;
}

void swap_V(float x, float y) /** passes values of x and y **/

{
float tmp = x;
x = y;
y = tmp;
}
Output: x = 5.00, y = 6.00
x = 5.00, y = 6.00
x = 6.00, y = 5.00
Here, swap V() does not work, but swap A() does.
32 A Crash Course in C x3.3

3.3 Arrays
An array is a contiguous space in memory which holds a certain number of objects of one type. The syntax
for array declarations is
Syntax: type array-name[const-size];
static type array-name[const-size] = initialization-list;
static type array-name[] = initialization-list;

An array of 10 integers is declared as

int x[10];

with index values from 0 to 9.

A static array can be initialized:
static int x[5] = {7,23,0,45,9};
static int x[] = {7,23,0,45,9};

static int x[10] = {7,23,0,45,9,0,0,0,0,0};

static int x[10] = {7,23,0,45,9};

where the remaining ve elements of x[10] will automatically be 0. Part of the array can be passed as an
argument by taking the address of the rst element of the required subarray (using &), so &x[6] is an array
with 4 elements.

x: x[0]: x[1]: x[2]: x[3]: x[4]:

s - 7 23 0 45 9

Figure 3: Box-and-pointer diagram of arrays: static int x[5] = f7,23,0,45,9g;

x[4]: 9
x[3]: 45
x[2]: 0
x[1]: 23
x[0]: 7 
x: s 
Figure 4: Memory diagram of arrays
x3.3 A Crash Course in C 33

#define MAX 10
static int b[MAX] = {1, 5, 645, 43, 4, 65, 5408};

main()
{
int i;
int *p, *p_max;
static int a[] = {1, 5, 645, 43, 4, 65, 5408, 4, 7, 90};

printf("array elements: ");

for (i=0; i<MAX; i++)
printf("%d ",a[i]);
printf("\n");

for (i=0, p=p_max=a; i<MAX; i++, p++)

if (*p > *p_max)
{
p_max = p;
printf("new maximum value: %d\n", *p);
}
else
printf("\"distance\" from maximum element: %d\n", (p-p_max));
}

Output: array elements: 1 5 645 43 4 65 5408 4 7 90

"distance" from maximum element: 0
new maximum value: 5
new maximum value: 645
"distance" from maximum element: 1
"distance" from maximum element: 2
"distance" from maximum element: 3
new maximum value: 5408
"distance" from maximum element: 1
"distance" from maximum element: 2
"distance" from maximum element: 3

The array and pointer are closely related, in that x[i] and *(x+i) both get the i+1 element in the array,
and &x[i] and (x+i) are both pointers to the i+1 element.
There are di erences between them, however. An array name is a constant, while a pointer is a variable, so
int x[10], *px;
px = x; px++; /** valid **/
x = px; x++; /** invalid, cannot assign a new value **/

Also, de ning the pointer only allocates memory space for the address, not for any array elements, and the
pointer does not point to anything. De ning an array (x[10]) gives a pointer to a speci c place in memory
and allocates enough space to hold the array elements. To allocate space for an array declared as a pointer,
use *malloc() or *calloc(), which are declared in stdlib.h, and then free() to deallocate the space after
it is used.
34 A Crash Course in C x3.4

/*** memory_allocation for arrays ***/

#include <stdlib.h>

main()
{
int n;
float *a, *b;

a = (float *) malloc(n * sizeof(float)); /*** not initialized ***/

b = (float *) calloc(n, sizeof(float)); /*** initialized to 0 ***/

if ((a == NULL) || (b == NULL))

printf("unable to allocate space");

free(a);
free(b);
}

3.4 Functions Returning Pointers

In addition to passing pointers to functions, a pointer can be returned by a function. Three pointers must
be of the same type (or be recast appropriately):
 the function return-type
 the pointer type in the return statement
 the variable the return-value is assigned to
The pointer should not point to an automatic local variable within the function, since the variable will not
be de ned after the function is exited so the pointer value will be invalid.
/*** returns a pointer to the maximum value in an array ***/

int maximum_val1(int A[], int n);

int maximum_val2(int *a, int n);
int *maximum_ptr1(int *a, int n);
int *maximum_ptr2(int *a, int n);

main()
{
int i,n;
int A[100], *max;

printf("number of elements: "); scanf("%d",&n);

printf("input %d values:\n", n);

for (i=0; i<n; i++)
scanf("%d", A+i);

printf("maximum value = %d\n", maximum_val1(A,n));

printf("maximum value = %d\n", maximum_val2(A,n));

max = maximum_ptr1(A,n);
printf("maximum value = %d\n", *max);
}
x3.4 A Crash Course in C 35

int maximum_val1(int A[], int n)

{
int max, i;
for (i=0, max=0; i<n; i++)
if (A[i] > max)
max = A[i];
return max;
}

int maximum_val2(int *a, int n)

{
int max=0;
for ( ; n>0 ; n--, a++)
if (*a > max)
max = *a;
return max;
}

int *maximum_ptr1(int *a, int n) /*** will work ***/

{
int *max = a;
for ( ; n>0; n--, a++)
if (*a > *max)
max = a;
return max; /*** max points a cell in the array ***/
}

int *maximum_ptr2(int *a, int n) /*** won't work ***/

{
int max = *a;
for ( ; n>0; n--, a++)
if (*a > max)
max = *a;
return &max; /*** max will not exist after function ends ***/
}

Output: number of elements: 10

input 10 values:
3
4
5
3
6
5
4
7
5
6
maximum value = 7
maximum value = 7
maximum value = 7
36 A Crash Course in C x3.5

3.5 Multidimensional Arrays

A multidimensional array can be de ned and initialized with the following syntax:
Syntax: type array-name[const-num-rows][const-num-cols];
static type array-name[const-num-rows][const-num-cols] = init-list;
static type array-name[][const-num-cols] = initialization-list;

static int x[][3] = {{3, 6, 9}, {4, 8, 12}}; /* static--can be initialized */

static int y[2][3] = {{3},{4}}; /* OR {{3,0,0},{4,0,0}} */

main()
{
int z[2][3];
printf("%d\n", x[1][2]); /** output: 12 **/
}

To get a pointer to the ith row of the array, use x[i-1].

Alternatively, a pointer to a pointer can be used instead of a multidimensional array, declared as int **y.
Then y points to a one-dimensional array whose elements are pointers, *y points to the rst row, and **y is
the rst value.
When passing a two-dimensional array to a function, it can be be referenced in four ways:
 **y, as a pointer to a pointer;
 *y[], an array of pointers;
 y[][COL], an array of arrays, unspeci ed number of rows; or
 y[ROW][COL], an array of arrays, with the size fully speci ed.
Here COL and ROW must be constants.
x3.5 A Crash Course in C 37

x[0][0]: x[0][1]: x[0][2]:

s - s - 3 6 9
x: x[0]:
sPPP 4 8 12
x[1]: PPP
PPP
PPPPqx[1][0]: x[1][1]: x[1][2]:

x[1][2]: 12
x[1][1]: 8
x[1][0]: 4  
x[0][2]: 9
x[0][1]: 6
x[0][0]: 3 
x[1]: s
x[0]: s 
x: s
Figure 5: Box-and-pointer & memory diagrams of 2D arrays:
static int x[2][3]=ff3,6,9g,f4,8,12gg;
38 A Crash Course in C x3.5

#define MAX 5
#define LINEFEED printf("\n")

int **imatrix(int n, int m);

void print_imatrix1(int A[][MAX], int n, int m);
void print_imatrix2(int *a[], int n, int m);
int sum_imatrix1(int a[][MAX], int n, int m);
int sum_imatrix2(int **a, int n, int m);
void input_imatrix(int **a, int n, int m);

main()
{
int i, j, n = MAX;
int **A, **b, C[MAX][MAX];

A = imatrix(n, n);
for (i=0; i<MAX; i++)
for (j=0; j<MAX; j++)
{
A[i][j] = i*j;
C[i][j] = i + j;
}

print_imatrix1(C, MAX, MAX); LINEFEED;

print_imatrix2(A, n, n); LINEFEED;
printf("%d\n", sum_imatrix1(C, MAX, MAX));
printf("%d\n", sum_imatrix2(A, n, n));
LINEFEED;

printf("size of array to input: "); scanf("%d", &n);

b = imatrix(n, n);
input_imatrix(b, n, n);
print_imatrix2(b, n, n);
}

int **imatrix(int n, int m)

{
int i, **a;

a = (int **) malloc(n * sizeof(int *));

a[0] = (int *) malloc(n*m * sizeof(int));
for (i=1; i<n; i++)
a[i] = a[i-1] + m;
return a;
}
x3.5 A Crash Course in C 39

void print_imatrix1(int A[MAX][MAX], int n, int m)

{
int i, j;
for (i=0; i<n; i++)
{
for (j=0; j<m; j++)
printf("%5d ", A[i][j]);
LINEFEED;
}
}

void print_imatrix2(int *a[], int n, int m)

{
int i, j, *b;
for (i=0; i<n; i++, a++)
{
for (j=0, b = *a ; j<m; j++, b++)
printf("%5d ", *b);
LINEFEED;
}
}

int sum_imatrix1(int a[][MAX], int n, int m)

{
int i, j, *b, sum=0;
for (i=0, b = *a; i < n*m; i++, b++)
sum += *b;
return sum;
}

int sum_imatrix2(int **a, int n, int m)

{
int i, j, *b, sum=0;
for (i=0; i<n; i++, a++)
for (j=0, b = *a ; j<m; j++, b++)
sum += *b;
return sum;
}

void input_imatrix(int **a, int n, int m)

{
int i, j, *b;
for (i=0; i<n; i++, a++)
for (j=0, b = *a ; j<m; j++, b++)
scanf("%d", b);
}
40 A Crash Course in C x3.5

Output: 0 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7 8

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4
0 2 4 6 8
0 3 6 9 12
0 4 8 12 16

100
100

size of array to input: 2

3 4
7 5
3 4
7 5
x3.6 A Crash Course in C 41

3.6 Strings
Strings are simply character arrays, or more accurately, pointers to characters. A string literal is enclosed
within quotes, "...", and is an array with those characters and a `\0' at the end, so "hello" <==>
{'h','e','l','l','o','\0'}. The string can be de ned as
static char *p = "hello"

An example illustrating the use of pointers with the string copies one string into another:
main()
{
char *t = "hello", s[100];
void strcpy(char *, char *);
strcpy(s,t);
printf("%s\n", s); /** will print 'hello' **/
}

/** strcpy: copy t to s; pointer version 2 (K&R, p 105) **/

void strcpy(char *s,char *t)

{
while (*s++ = *t++) /** OR while ((*s++ = *t++) != '\0') **/
;
}

3.7 Command Line Arguments

It is often useful to give a program arguments when it is run. This is done with command line arguments,
which are arguments of main(). There are two arguments: an integer, argc, which is the number of items
in the command line (including the program name), and an array of strings, *argv[], which are the actual
items. The rst string, argv[0], is the name of the function being executed.
If a number is needed, it has to be obtained using sscanf(), which is the same as scanf() except it takes
a string as its rst argument. This example prints the square root of a number.
#include <math.h>
main(int argc, char *argv[]) /** program to find sqrt(x) **/
{
float x;
if (argc == 2)
{
sscanf(argv[1], "%f", &x);
printf("the square root of %f is %f\n", x, sqrt(x));
}
else
{
printf("Wrong number of arguments\n");
printf("usage: %s x \n", *argv);
}
}
42 A Crash Course in C x3.8

3.8 Pointers to Functions

Functions can return pointers, or a pointer can point to a function:

int *f(); /* a function f returning a pointer to an int */

int (*f)(); /* a pointer to a f which returns an int */

Since the precedence of () is higher than *, parentheses are needed around *f to get a pointer to a function.
float square(float x);
float cube(float x);
float arith(float x, float (*func)(float));

main()
{
float x, y, z;
printf("Enter x: "); scanf("%f", &x);
y = arith(x, square);
z = arith(x, cube);
printf("x = %f, x^2 = %f, x^3 = %f\n", x, y, z);
}

/** the arguments for arith() are x and func,

** which is a pointer to a function whose argument is one float
**/

float arith(float x, float (*func)(float))

{
return (*func)(x);
}

float square(float x)
{
return x*x;
}

float cube(float x)
{
return x*x*x;
}

3.9 Problems
11. Write a program to input two matrices, add and multiply them, and print the resulting matrices.
The matrices can be any size up to a maximum (#define MAX 5, for example). Use functions
input_matrix, print_matrix, add_matrix, multiply_matrix.
x4.0 A Crash Course in C 43

4 Structures
4.1 Syntax and Operations
A structure is a data type which puts a variety of pieces together into one object.
Syntax: struct structure-tag-opt
f
member-declarations
g structure-names-opt ;

struct structure-tag structure-name;

structure-name.member
ptr-to-structure->member
struct time
{
int hour;
int minute;
int second;
} now;

main()
{
struct time later;

now.hour = 10;
now.minute = 30;
now.second = 4;

later = now;
printf("the later time is %d:%2d:%2d\n",
later.hour, later.minute, later.second);
}

This declares structure tag, struct time, which keeps the members, hour, minute, second, in one piece.
The variables now and later are structures of type struct time, declared the same way as integers. The
members of the structure can be any type: int, float, double, char, arrays, other structures, and
pointers to any of these. To access the members, there are two operators available (. and ->). To access the
speci ed member, use the . operator.
Valid structure operations:
 assigning to or copying it as a unit
 accessing its members
 taking its address with &
 passing it as an argument to functions, returning it by functions
{ With \Traditional C," structures can not be used as arguments or return types of functions.
Pointers to structures must be used to interact with functions. If compatibility is needed, pointers
to structures should continue to be used exclusively. Unfortunately, this may connect functions
together more than necessary.
 initializing it with a list of constant member values, or by assignment for automatic structures.
{ Initialization is not allowed with \Traditional C," so a separate assignment statement should be
used.
44 A Crash Course in C x4.1

Invalid structure operations:

 they may not be compared
With ANSI-C, structures are initialized in the same way as arrays,
struct time noon = {12, 00, 00};

Pointers to structures are very useful, and often necessary when functions are used. For example,
struct time now, *t;
t = &now; /* identical to x=&y with numerical types */
(*t).hour = 6; /* gets the hour */
t->minutes = 30; /* gets the minutes */

The variable t is a pointer to a structure. Since the precedence of . is higher that that of *, the parentheses
are needed to get the actual structure from the pointer to it. Since this is used often, the -> operator was
made to do the same thing.
Structure members can be other structures.
struct time
{
int hour, minute, second;
} ;
struct date
{
int month, day, year;
} ;
struct dt
{
struct date d;
struct time t;
} ;

main()
{
struct dt start_class;
start_class.d.month = 1;
start_class.d.day = 5;
start_class.d.year = 93;
}
x4.2 A Crash Course in C 45

4.2 typedef

typedef de nes a new type, which can simplify the code.

Syntax: typedef data-type TYPE-NAME;
typedef struct structure-tag TYPE-NAME;
typedef struct
f
member-declarations
g TYPE-NAME ;

Using typedef also helps portability, especially with machine dependent data types and sizes. With typedef,
the change can be made in one place and is xed for the whole program. For example,
typedef int Length, Width, Height;
typedef struct time TIME;
TIME now, *t;

will specify the types Length, Width, Height and TIME, and now and t are de ned above. typedef is a
syntactic simpli cation to aid reading and modifying the program. It does not actually create new types.

4.3 Array of Structures

An array of structures can also be de ned:
struct date
{
int month, day, year;
};
typedef struct date DATE;

main()
{
int i;
DATE birthdays[10], *bday;
bday = birthdays; /*** pointer <==> array name ***/
for (i=0; i<10; i++, bday++)
scanf("%d %d %d", &bday->month, &((*bday).day), &birthdays[i].year);

for (i=0, bday = birthdays; i<10; i++, bday++)

printf("%2d/%02d/%2d\n", bday->month, bday->day, bday->year);
}
/*** the %02d pads the field with 0s, not spaces ***/

When bday is de ned as a pointer of type DATE (struct date), incrementing will be done properly to get
to successive structures in the array.
46 A Crash Course in C x4.4

4.4 Use with Functions

Structures can be used with functions. Just as with other data types, either the structure or a pointer to
the structure can be passed to the function. The choice should be based on three things,
 does the structure need to be changed by the function,
 is the structure small enough that copying it as a local argument will not a ect performance,
 does compatibility with old compilers require using pointers to the structures.
In addition, the function can return a structure or a pointer to a structure.
/** functions to increment the time and date **/

#define PRINT_TIME(t) printf("%2d:%02d:%02d", (t).hour, (t).minute, (t).second)

#define PRINT_DATE(d) printf("%2d/%2d/%2d", (d).month, (d).day, (d).year)
#define LINEFEED printf("\n")

typedef struct
{
int hour, minute, second;
} TIME;

typedef struct
{
int month, day, year;
} DATE;

void time_increment(TIME *t, DATE *d);

void date_increment(DATE *d);
DATE date_increment2(DATE d);

main()
{
TIME now;
DATE today;

now.hour = 12; now.minute = 30; now.second = 15;

today.month = 1; today.day = 7; today.year = 93;

PRINT_TIME(now); LINEFEED;
PRINT_DATE(today); LINEFEED;

time_increment(&now, &today);
PRINT_TIME(now); LINEFEED;
PRINT_DATE(today); LINEFEED;

date_increment(&today);
PRINT_DATE(today); LINEFEED;

PRINT_DATE(date_increment2(today)); LINEFEED;
/** calls date_increment2 three times in macro, but today is unchanged **/

PRINT_DATE(today); LINEFEED;
}
x4.4 A Crash Course in C 47

/*** time_increment needs to be able to change two values ***/

void time_increment(TIME *t, DATE *d)
{
if (t->second != 59)
++t->second;
else if (t->minute != 59)
{
t->second = 0; t->minute++;
}
else if (t->hour != 23)
{
t->second = 0; t->minute = 0; t->hour++;
}
else
{
t->second = 0; t->minute = 0; t->hour = 0;
date_increment(d);
}
}

void date_increment(DATE *d)

{
if (d->day != 31) /*** assume all months have 31 days ***/
d->day++;
else if (d->month != 12)
{
d->day = 1; d->month++;
}
else
{
d->day = 1; d->month = 1; d->year++;
}
}

/*** an alternative to date_increment, if it only returns one value ***/

DATE date_increment2(DATE d) /*** can also pass date one structure ***/
{
if (d.day != 31) /*** assume all months have 31 days ***/
++d.day;
else if (d.month != 12)
{
d.day = 1; d.month++;
}
else
{
d.month = 1; d.year++;
}
return d;
}
48 A Crash Course in C x4.5

Output: 12:30:15
1/ 7/93
12:30:16
1/ 7/93
1/ 8/93
1/ 9/93
1/ 8/93

4.5 Linked Lists

A member of a structure can also be a pointer to the same structure type. This is useful with linked lists
and trees.
#define NodeMemory (NodePtr) malloc(sizeof (struct node))

struct node
{
int val;
struct node *r_branch;
struct node *l_branch;
} ;
typedef struct node * NodePtr;

main()
{
NodePtr tree, branch;

tree = (NodePtr) malloc(sizeof (struct node));

tree->val = 10;
tree->r_branch = NodeMemory;
tree->l_branch = NodeMemory;

tree->r_branch->val = 3;
tree->l_branch->val = 40;
printf("%d, %d, %d\n", tree->val, tree->r_branch->val, tree->l_branch->val);
}
x4.6 A Crash Course in C 49

4.6 union

With union, di erent types of values can be stored in the same location at di erent times. Space is allocated
to accomodate the largest member data type. They are syntactically identical to structures,
Syntax: union union-tag-opt
f
member-declarations
g union-names-opt;
union-name.member
ptr-to-union->member

/** a simple example with unions **/

union union_ifd /** can store either an integer, float, or double value **/
{
int ival;
float fval;
double dval;
} ;

main()
{
union union_ifd u1;

u1.ival = 10;
printf("%d\n", u1.ival);
u1.fval = 10.34;
printf("%f\n", u1.fval);
u1.dval = 10.03454834;
printf("%.10lf\n", u1.dval);
}

It is the programmer's reponsibility to know which variable type is being stored at a given time. The code
u1.ival=10;
printf("%f\n", u1.fval);

will produce an unde ned result.

50 A Crash Course in C x4.7

4.7 enum

The type enum lets one specify a limited set of integer values a variable can have. For example, ags are
very common, and they can be either true or false.
Syntax: enum enum-tag-opt fenum-tagsg enum-variable-names-opt;
enum-name variable-name
The values of the enum variable are integers, but the program can be easier to read when using enum instead
of integers. Other common enumerated types are weekdays and months.
The enumerated values can be set by the compiler or set explicitly. If the compiler sets the values, it starts
at 0 and continues in order. If any value is set explicitly, then subsequent values are implicitly assigned.
enum flag_o_e {EVEN, ODD};
enum flag_o_e test1;
typedef enum flag_o_e FLAGS;

FLAGS if_even(int n);

main()
{
int x;
FLAGS test2;

printf("input an integer: "); scanf("%d", &x);

test2 = if_even(x);
if (test2 == EVEN)
printf("test succeeded (%d is even)\n", x);
else
printf("test failed (%d is odd)\n", x);
}

FLAGS if_even(int n)
{
if (n%2)
return ODD;
else
return EVEN;
}
x4.7 A Crash Course in C 51

/*** example with unions ***/

#define ASSIGN_U_NONE(x) {x.utype = NONE;}
#define ASSIGN_U_INT(x,val) {x.utype = INT; x.u.i = val;}
#define ASSIGN_U_FLOAT(x,val) {x.utype = FLOAT; x.u.f = val;}
#define ASSIGN_U_DOUBLE(x,val) {x.utype = DOUBLE; x.u.d = val;}

typedef union
{
int i;
float f;
double d;
} Arith_U;
typedef enum {NONE, INT, FLOAT, DOUBLE} Arith_E;
typedef struct
{
Arith_E utype;
Arith_U u;
} Var_Storage;

main()
{
int i;
Var_Storage a[10];

a->utype = INT; a->u.i = 10; /** pointer to union operation **/

a[1].utype = FLOAT; a[1].u.f = 11.0;
a[2].utype = DOUBLE; a[2].u.d = 12.0;
ASSIGN_U_NONE(a[3]);
ASSIGN_U_INT(a[4], 20);
ASSIGN_U_FLOAT(a[5], 21.0);
ASSIGN_U_DOUBLE(a[6], 22.);

for (i=0; i<7; i++)

{
if (print_Var(a[i]))
printf("\n");
}
}

int print_Var(Var_Storage x)
{
switch (x.utype)
{
case INT: printf("%d",x.u.i); break;
case FLOAT: printf("%f",x.u.f); break;
case DOUBLE: printf("%.8lf",x.u.d); break;
default: return (0); break;
}
return (1);
}
52 A Crash Course in C x4.8

4.8 Example: Complex Numbers

A complex number can be represented as
z = a + bi = rei
with
a = r cos()
b = r sin()
p2 2
r = a +b 
 = tan,1 ab
and
z = z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + (b1 + b2 )i
z = z1  z2 = (a1 a2 , b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + a2 b1 )i
= r1 r2 e(1 +2 )i
x4.8 A Crash Course in C 53

/*** Example using structures to represent complex numbers ***/

#include <math.h>
#include "prog4-06.h"

main()
{
static COMPLEX z1 = {{1.0, 2.0}, {0.0, 0.0}};
static COMPLEX z[MAX] = { {{1.0, 1.0}, {0.0, 0.0}},
{{2.0, -1.0}, {0.0, 0.0}} };

rect_to_polar(&z1);
rect_to_polar(z);
rect_to_polar(z+1);
complex_print(z1, BOTH);
complex_print(*z, BOTH);
complex_print(*(z+1), BOTH);
z[2] = z1;

z[3] = complex_add(z[0], z[1]);

complex_print(z[3], BOTH);
/** write complex_multiply() as an exercise: **/
/** *(z+4) = complex_multiply(*z, *(z+1)); **/
/** complex_print(*(z+4), BOTH); **/
}

void complex_print(COMPLEX z, C_FLAG flag)

{
switch (flag)
{
case RECT:
printf("z = %8.3f + %8.3f i\n", (z.r.a), (z.r.b));
break;
case POLAR:
printf("z = "); PRINT_POLAR(z);
break;
case BOTH:
PRINT_BOTH(z);
break;
}
}

void rect_to_polar(COMPLEX *z)

{
double a = (z->r.a);
double b = (z->r.b);
z->p.r = sqrt(a*a + b*b);
z->p.theta = atan2(b,a);
}

COMPLEX complex_add(COMPLEX z1, COMPLEX z2)

{
COMPLEX sum;
sum.r.a = (z1.r.a) + (z2.r.a);
sum.r.b = (z1.r.b) + (z2.r.b);
rect_to_polar(&sum);
return (sum);
}
54 A Crash Course in C x4.9

/** File: S4/prog4-06.h **/

#define MAX 10

#define PRINT_RECT(z) printf("%8.3f + %8.3f i", (z.r.a), (z.r.b))

#define PRINT_POLAR(z) printf("%8.3f * exp(%8.3f i)", (z.p.r), (z.p.theta))
#define PRINT_BOTH(z) { \
printf("z = "); PRINT_RECT(z); \
printf(" = "); PRINT_POLAR(z); printf("\n"); }

struct rect
{
double a, b;
};

struct polar
{
double r, theta;
};

struct complex
{
struct rect r;
struct polar p;
} ;
typedef struct complex COMPLEX;

enum c_flag {RECT, POLAR, BOTH};

typedef enum c_flag C_FLAG;

/*** function prototypes for rect_to_polar, complex_add, complex_print ***/

void rect_to_polar(COMPLEX *z);
COMPLEX complex_add(COMPLEX z1, COMPLEX z2);
void complex_print(COMPLEX z, C_FLAG flag);

/*** function prototypes for polar_to_rect, complex_multiply, complex_input,

to be written as exercises ***/
void polar_to_rect(COMPLEX *z);
COMPLEX complex_multiply(COMPLEX z1, COMPLEX z2);
COMPLEX complex_input(void);

Output: z = 1.000 + 2.000 i = 2.236 * exp( 1.107 i)

z = 1.000 + 1.000 i = 1.414 * exp( 0.785 i)
z = 2.000 + -1.000 i = 2.236 * exp( -0.464 i)
z = 3.000 + 0.000 i = 3.000 * exp( 0.000 i)

4.9 Problems
12. Write the functions polar_to_rect, complex_multiply, and complex_input to be used with the
answer to question 11.
x5.0 A Crash Course in C 55

5 C Libraries
The standard C libraries include functions for
 memory allocation
 math functions
 random variables
 input/output operations
 le manipulations
 string manipulations
 other functions (see K&R, Appendix B)
5.1 Memory Allocation
To have variable array sizes, dynamic memory allocation can be used.
#include <stdlib.h>

void *malloc(size_t size);

void *calloc(n, size_t size);
void free(void *p);

in ANSI C, size_t is the size of a character. The (sizeof) operator returns the size of an object in units
of size_t. In addition, the type of the pointer returned by malloc and calloc has to be cast as needed.
For example,
#include <stdlib.h>

main()
{
int i, n;
double *A, *a;

scanf("%d", &n);
A = (double *) malloc(n * sizeof (double));

for (i=0; i<n; i++)

scanf("%lf", A+i);

for (i=0, a=A; i<n; i++)

printf("A[%d] = %lf\n", i, *a++);
}
56 A Crash Course in C x5.2

5.2 Math Libraries

There are a variety of math functions available, all declared in /usr/include/math.h. Most take arguments
of type double and return values of type double. For example,
#include <math.h>

main()
{
double x,y,z,theta;
z = sqrt(x);
z = sin(theta); /*** theta is in radians ***/
z = asin(x);
z = atan(x);
z = atan2(y, x); /*** atan(y/x) ***/
z = exp(x); /*** e^x ***/
z = log(x); /*** ln(x) [natural log] ***/
z = pow(x, y); /*** x^y ***/
}
#include <math.h>

main()
{
double x, y, theta;

scanf("%lf", &x);
printf("sqrt(%f) = %f\n", x, sqrt(x));
printf("sin(0.6) = %f\n", sin(0.6));
printf("atan(10) = %lf\n", atan(10.0));
printf("atan(10/20) = %lf\n", atan2(10.0, 20.0));
printf("exp(10) = %lf\n", exp(10.0));
printf("log(10) = %lf\n", log(10.0));
printf("log_10(10) = %lf\n", log10(10.0));
printf("10^1.3 = %lf\n", pow(10.0, 1.3));
}
Output: sqrt(10.000000) = 3.162278
sin(0.6) = 0.564642
atan(10) = 1.471128
atan(10/20) = 0.463648
exp(10) = 22026.465795
log(10) = 2.302585
log_10(10) = 1.000000
10^1.3 = 19.952623

When compiling, is must be speci ed that the math libraries are being used. For example, on Unix systems,
use
% cc -o <program> <program>.c -lm
x5.3 A Crash Course in C 57

5.3 Random Variables

Using random variables is system dependent. The ANSI C functions are rand() and srand().
int rand(void);
void srand(unsigned int seed);
int RAND_MAX;

The function rand() will return a value between 0 and RAND MAX, where RAND MAX is de ned in <stdlib.h>
and is at least 32767. The function srand() is used to seed the random number generator. Many systems
have better random number generators, and C can usually access them, although this would then not be
very portable. A good practice is to write a function or macro which returns a random number, and have
this call the system-speci c routines.
#include <stdlib.h>

#define RANDOM_NUMBER_01 ((double) rand() / RAND_MAX)

#define SEED_RANDOM_GEN(seed) (srand(seed))

main()
{
int i, n, seed;
double *x;

printf("number of random values: "); scanf("%d", &n);

x = (double *) malloc(n * sizeof(double));

printf("input seed: "); scanf("%d", &seed);

SEED_RANDOM_GEN(seed);

for (i=0; i<n; i++)

{
x[i] = RANDOM_NUMBER_01;
printf("%.8lf\n", x[i]);
}
}
Output: number of random values: 5
input seed: 10
0.13864904
0.86102660
0.34318625
0.27069316
0.51536290
58 A Crash Course in C x5.4

5.4 Input/Output
The conversions for printf() and scanf() are described in tables 3 and 4. In addition, I/O includes
character output, sscanf(), and le manipulation.
#include <stdio.h>

int i;
char c, s[], file_name[], access_mode[];
FILE *fp;

fp = fopen(file_name, access_mode);
fflush(fp); /*** flush the buffers ***/
fclose(fp);

putchar(c); /*** one character ***/

putc(c, fp);
puts(s); /*** one line ***/
fputs(s, fp);
printf(format, arg1, ...) /*** formatted ***/
fprintf(fp, format, arg1, ...)
sprintf(s, format, arg1, ...);

c=getchar();
c=getc(fp);
gets(s);
fgets(s,i,fp); *** first i characters or till newline ***/
scanf(format, &arg1, ...) /*** formatted ***/
fscanf(fp, format, &arg1, ...);
sscanf(s, format, &arg1, ...);
x5.4 A Crash Course in C 59

/*** reads in n integers from a file,

then prints the values to another file as type float ***/
#include <stdio.h> /*** for file manipulation functions ***/
#include <stdlib.h> /*** for malloc() ***/

main()
{
int i, n, *x;
char file_name[FILENAME_MAX];
FILE *fp;

printf("file name for input: "); scanf("%s", file_name);

fp = fopen(file_name, "r");
if (fp == NULL)
{
printf("error: could not open file %s\n", file_name);
exit(-1);
}

fscanf(fp, "%d", &n);

x = (int *) malloc(n * sizeof(int));

for (i=0; i<n; i++)

if (fscanf(fp, "%d", x+i) == EOF)
{
printf("error: could not input %d integers\n", n);
exit(-1);
}
fclose(fp);

printf("file name for output: "); scanf("%s", file_name);

fp = fopen(file_name, "w");
if (fp == NULL)
{
printf("error: could not open file %s\n", file_name);
exit(-1);
}

fprintf(fp, "%d\n", n);

for (i=0; i<n; i++)
if (fprintf(fp, "%8.3f\n", (float) x[i]) < 0)
{
printf("error: could not write %d integers\n", n);
exit(-1);
}
fclose(fp);
}
60 A Crash Course in C x5.5

5.5 Strings
A variety of string functions are available.
#include <string.h>

int i;
size_t n;
char *s, *s1, *s2, *to, *from;;
s = strcat(s1, s2);
s = strchr(s, char c);
i = strcmp(s1, s2); /*** s1=s2 ? 0 : (s1>s2 ? 1 : -1) ***/
s = strcpy(to, from); /*** returns *to ***/
n = strlen(s);
s = strstr(s1, s2); /*** is s2 in s1? ***/
s = strncat(s1, s2, int n); /*** only use first n characters ***/
i = strncmp(s1, s2, int n);
s = strncpy(to, from, int n);
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

main()
{
char *s, *ct = "hello";
s = (char *) malloc(100 * sizeof(char));

strcpy(s, ct);
printf("%s\n", s);

if (strcmp(s, ct) == 0)
printf("strings equal\n");
else
printf("\"%s\" and \"%s\" differ\n", s, ct);
}
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

main()
{
int i, j;
float x;
char *s1 = "10 20 15.5", *s2;
s2 = (char *) malloc(100 * sizeof(char));

sscanf(s1, "%d %d %f", &i, &j, &x);

printf("i = %d, j = %d, x = %f\n", i, j, x);

sprintf(s2, "i = %d, j = %d, x = %f", i, j, x);

printf("the string is \"%s\"\n", s2);
}
Output: i = 10, j = 20, x = 15.500000
the string is "i = 10, j = 20, x = 15.500000"
xA A Crash Course in C 61

A Make Program
The make function is used to simplify the compilation process. It has three main features:
 target speci cations with dependencies,
 command lines to be executed, and
 assignment of strings to variables
The target is the le to be produced, either an executable le or an object le. The dependency list speci es
the les on which the target depends, so if any of the dependency les has been modi ed since the target
le was created, make will create a new target le. The command lines specify how the target is supposed
to be made. Although this is primarily using the cc command, other commands can also be executed.
Syntax: # comments
var = string value
$(var) # uses variable value

target : dependencies
TAB command-lines
The following commands run make:
% make -k
% make -k <target-name>

When calling make, the -k argument indicates that all speci ed les should be compiled, even if there is an
error compiling one le. Otherwise, make will stop when there is a compile error in any le.
# a makefile for any simple, one file program, with no dependencies

CC = /bin/cc # specifies compiler to be used

PROGS=p # gets file name from shell

$(PROGS) : $(PROGS).c
$(CC) -o $(PROGS) $(PROGS).c
Output: % make program
/bin/cc -O program.c -o program
62 A Crash Course in C xA

# a makefile for program large, Section 2

CC = /bin/cc # specifies compiler to be used

OBJS = large_prog.o large_sub.o # object files to be used

large: $(OBJS) # makes the executable file "large"

$(CC) -o large $(OBJS)

$(OBJS): large.h # makes any needed/specified object files

clean: # cleans up - removes object files

rm $(OBJS)
Output: % make -k large
/bin/cc -O -c large_prog.c
/bin/cc -O -c large_sub.c
/bin/cc -o large large_prog.o large_sub.o

% make -k
/bin/cc -O -c large_prog.c
/bin/cc -O -c large_sub.c
/bin/cc -o large large_prog.o large_sub.o

% make -k large_prog.o
/bin/cc -O -c large_prog.c

% make clean
rm large_prog.o large_sub.o
xB.0 A Crash Course in C 63

B C Style Guide
When writing C code, especially when other people will use or modify the code, it is useful to adhere to a
consistent set of coding guidelines. The following is not the only acceptable style, but rather an example of
a fairly conventional style guide.

B.1 General Style

The rst question is the placement of statements and braces. Consistency makes it easier to follow the ow
of the program, since one can get used to looking for matching and optional braces in speci c places.
/*--- avoid putting more than one statement on the same line ---*/
statement1; statement2; /* BAD */

statement1; /* OK */
statement2;
int func(int arg)
{ /* no indentation on the first set of braces */
/* around a procedure */

statement; /* each step of indentation is two spaces */

if (...) /* braces are indented and the matching pairs */

{ /* are lined up in the same column */
statement;
}

do /* 'do' braces should be lined up at the */

{ /* same column, with the 'while' on the same */
statement; /* line as the close parenthesis, to avoid */
} while (...); /* confusion with the 'while' statement */

label: /* labels are lined up with the enclosing braces */

statement;

switch (...)
{
case xxx: /* case labels are indented clearly mark the */
statement; /* places where a 'break' statement is */
/*fall thru*/ /* expected but missing */
case yyy:
statement;
break;
default:
statement;
break; /* should have a break statement even at the end */
} /* of the default case */

} /* all end braces line up with open braces */

64 A Crash Course in C xB.1

/*--- the statement following an 'if', 'while', 'for' or 'do'

should always be on a separate line; this is especially true for the
null statement ---*/

if (...) statement; /* BAD */

if (...) /* OK */
statement;

for (...) statement; /* BAD */

for (...) /* OK */
statement;

for (...); /* VERY BAD */

for (...) /* OK */
;

while (...) statement; /* BAD */

while (...) /* OK */
statement;

while (...); /* VERY BAD */

while (...) /* OK */
;

do statement; while (...); /* VERY BAD */

do /* OK */
statement;
while (...);
/*--- arrange nested 'if...else' statements in the way that is easiest to
read and understand ---*/

if (...) /* OK, but confusing */

statement;
else
{
if (...)
statement;
else
{
if (...)
statement;
}
}

if (...) /* BETTER */
statement;
else if (...)
statement;
else if (...)
statement;
xB.1 A Crash Course in C 65

/*--- the above rules can be violated if the overall legibility is

improved as a result ---*/

switch (...) /* OK */
{
case xxx:
statement;
break;
case yyy:
statement;
break;
}

switch (...) /* BETTER (by lining up the */

{ /* statements, one can contrast */
case xxx: statement; break; /* the difference between the */
case yyy: statement; break; /* branches more easily) */
}

if (...) /* OK */
{
statement1;
statement2;
}
else
{
statement1;
statement2;
}

if (...) { statement1; statement2; } /* BETTER (do this only for very */

else { statement1; statement2; } /* short statements!) */

if (...) /* OK */
statement;
else if (...)
statement;
else if (...)
statement;

if (...) statement; /* BETTER */

else if (...) statement;
else if (...) statement;
66 A Crash Course in C xB.3

B.2 Layout
 Avoid using the TAB character in a source le. Use spaces instead. This is because there is no
standard governing how TAB's are expanded. Thus, the same le may look very di erently from one
editor to another.
 Avoid having any text past column 78.

B.3 Coding Practice

 Always use ANSI-C style protocols for procedures.
 Avoid using `char', ` oat' or any structures or unions as arguments to functions or values returned by
functions if compatibility with \Traditional C" is needed.
 Avoid relying on whether `char' is signed or unsigned; use `signed' or `unsigned' explicitly if necessary.
 Avoid modifying literals. For example,
void proc(void)
{
char *p = "a";
...
*p = 'b'; /* VERY BAD */
}
 Whenever possible, use a single assignment statement to modify an entire structure or union. However,
do not use this to initialize structures or unions. For example,
typedef struct
{
int x, y;
} COORD;

void proc1(COORD *p)

{
COORD c;
...
c.x = p->x; /* OK, but verbose */
c.y = p->y;
memcpy(&c, p, sizeof(c)); /* OK, but slow */
c = *p; /* BEST */
}

void proc2(COORD *p)

{
COORD c = *p; /* BAD, since not all compilers support initializion */
... /* of structures (i.e., not portable) */
}
xB.4 A Crash Course in C 67

B.4 Naming Conventions

These are some general naming conventions.
 Avoid using ` ' as the rst character of a name; these names are generally reserved for use by the
compiler and libraries.
 Pre-processor symbols (#define's) should almost always be in upper case, with ` ' as an optional
separator (e.g., DELETE CHAR).
 Type names can be either
{ all upper case, with ` ' (e.g., RING BUFFER), or
{ upper case followed by mixed case, sans ` ' (e.g., RingBuffer).
 Variables can be either
{ all lower case, with or without ` ' (e.g., old value, oldvalue), or
{ lower case followed by mixed case, sans ` ' (e.g., oldValue).
 Procedure names can be either
{ all lower case, with or without ` ' (e.g., get first, getfirst) or
{ upper case followed by mixed case, sans ` ' (e.g., GetFirst)
 One can have each global name preceded by a one to three character pre x that indicates where the
name is de ned. E.g., RbRemoveElement, RB remove element (indicating that these procedures are
de ned in the RB module). Some older compilers do not allow global names with ` ' or more than 8
characters, but this restriction usually no longer applies.
 A local procedure/variable should have a name that is as descriptive as possible. For example,
static int MDinsls1(...) /* too cryptic */
static int insert_list_head(...) /* much better */
68 A Crash Course in C xC

C Answers to Problems
/** "A Crash Course in C", day 1, problem 2: print fahrenheit
** and celcius temperatures for 32-212 F in steps of 20 F **/

#define FREEZE 32
#define BOIL 212
#define STEP 20

main()
{
int f;
for (f=FREEZE; f<=BOIL; f+=STEP)
printf("F = %3d, C = %5.1f\n",f,(f-32.0)*5.0/9.0);
}
/** "A Crash Course in C," problem 3:
** input a number and print all its factors **/
#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
int i,n;

printf("input a number: "); scanf("%d",&n);

for (i=2; i<=n; i++)
if (!(n%i))
printf("%6d is a factor\n", i);
}
xC A Crash Course in C 69

/** "A Crash Course in C," problem 4

** input a number and decide if it is prime **/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0

main()
{
int i,n, nmax, prime_flag=TRUE;

printf("input a number: "); scanf("%d",&n);

nmax = (int) sqrt((double) n);

for (i=2; i<=nmax; i++)

if (!(n%i))
prime_flag=FALSE;

if (prime_flag)
printf("%6d is prime\n", n);
else
printf("%6d is not prime\n", n);
}
/** "A Crash Course in C," problem 5
** program to calculate x using the quadratic formula
**/
#include <math.h>
main()
{
float a, b, c, d, x1, x2;
printf("input a,b,c: ");
scanf("%f %f %f",&a, &b, &c);
d = b*b - 4.0*a*c;
if (d >= 0) /*** check if solution will be real or complex ***/
{
x1 = (-b+sqrt(d)) / (2.0*a);
/*** need parentheses for proper order ***/
x2 = (-b-sqrt(d)) / (2.0*a);
/*** use sqrt() from the math library ***/
printf("x = %f, %f\n",x1,x2);
}
else
{
x1 = -b/(2.0*a);
x2 = sqrt(-d)/(2.0*a);
printf("x = %f + %fi, %f - %fi\n", x1, x2, x1, x2);
}
}
70 A Crash Course in C xC

/** "A Crash Course in C," problem 6

** input an integer and print it in English **/

main()
{
int n, pow_ten;
printf("input an integer: "); scanf("%d",&n);
do {
pow_ten=1;

while (n / pow_ten)
pow_ten *= 10;

for (pow_ten/=10; pow_ten!=0; n%=pow_ten, pow_ten/=10)

switch (n/pow_ten)
{
case 0: printf("zero "); break;
case 1: printf("one "); break;
case 2: printf("two "); break;
case 3: printf("three "); break;
case 4: printf("four "); break;
case 5: printf("five "); break;
case 6: printf("six "); break;
case 7: printf("seven "); break;
case 8: printf("eight "); break;
case 9: printf("nine "); break;
}
printf("\ninput an integer: "); scanf("%d",&n);
} while (n>0);
}
/** "A Crash Course in C," problem 7
** count the number of characters and lines **/
#include <stdio.h>

main()
{
char c;
int characters, lines;

while ((c=getchar()) != EOF) {

characters++;
if (c == '\n')
lines++;
}
printf("%d characters, %d lines\n",characters, lines);
}
xC A Crash Course in C 71

/** "A Crash Course in C," problem 8

** float x_to_int_n(float x, int n) raise a number to an integer power **/

float x_to_int_n(float x, int n);

main()
{
int n;
float x;
printf("input x, n: ");
scanf("%f %d", &x, &n);
printf("%f^%2d = %f\n", x, n, x_to_int_n(x,n));
}

float x_to_int_n(float x, int n)

{
float y=1.0;
for ( ; n>0; n--)
y *= x;
return y;
}
/** "A Crash Course in C," problems 9, 10
** int factorial(int n); calculate factorial(n)
** int factorial_r(int n); calculate factorial(n) recursively **/

int factorial(int n);

int factorial_r(int n);

main()
{
int n;
printf("input n: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("factorial(%d) = %d\n", n, factorial(n));
printf("factorial(%d) = %d\n", n, factorial_r(n));
}

int factorial(int n)
{
int fact=1;
for ( ; n>1; n--)
fact *= n;
return fact;
}

int factorial_r(int n)
{
if (n>1)
return n*factorial_r(n-1);
else
return 1;
}
72 A Crash Course in C xC

/** "A Crash Course in C," problems 11

** input a number and find all primes less than it
**/

#include <math.h>

#define TRUE 1 /** define flag values **/

#define FALSE 0

int is_prime(int n); /** function prototype declarations **/

int get_positive_int(void);

main()
{
int n,i;
while (n=get_positive_int())
for (i=2; i<=n; i++)
if (is_prime(i))
printf("%d is prime\n", i);
}

int is_prime(int n)
{
int i, max;
max = (int) sqrt((double) n);

for (i=2; i<=max; i++)

if (!(n%i))
return FALSE;
return TRUE;
}

int get_positive_int(void)
{
int n;
do
{
printf("input a positive number, 0 to quit: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
} while (n < 0);
return n;
}
xC A Crash Course in C 73

/** "A Crash Course in C," problems 11

** matrix functions:
** input_matrix(), print_matrix, add_matrix, multiply_matrix **/

#define MAX 5

void print_matrix(float A[][MAX], int n);

void input_matrix(float A[MAX][MAX], int n);
void add_matrix(float A[][MAX], float B[][MAX], float C[][MAX], int n)
void multiply_matrix(float A[][MAX], float B[][MAX], float C[][MAX], int n)

main()
{
int n;
float A[MAX][MAX], B[MAX][MAX], C[MAX][MAX];

printf("input size of matrix: "); scanf("%d",&n);

if (n<MAX) {
input_matrix(A,n);
input_matrix(B,n);
print_matrix(A,n);
}
else
printf("size of matrix is too large\n");
}
74 A Crash Course in C xC

void print_matrix(float A[][MAX], int n)

{
int i,j;
for (i=0; i<n; i++) {
for (j=0; j<n; j++)
printf("%f\t",A[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
}

void input_matrix(float A[MAX][MAX], int n)

{
int i,j;
float *a;
for (i=0; i<n; i++) {
for (j=0, a=A[i]; j<n; j++)
scanf("%f",a++);
}
}

void add_matrix(float A[][MAX], float B[][MAX], float C[][MAX], int n)

{
int i,j;
for (i=0; i<n; i++)
for (j=0; j<n; j++)
C[i][j] = A[i][j] + B[i][j];
}

void multiply_matrix(float A[][MAX], float B[][MAX], float C[][MAX], int n)

{
int i, j, k;

for (i=0; i<n; i++)

for (j=0; j<n; j++)
for (k=0, C[i][j]=0.0; k<n; k++)
C[i][j] += A[i][k] * B[k][j];
}
xC A Crash Course in C 75

/** "A Crash Course in C," problems 13

** functions complex_input(), polar_to_rect(), complex_multiply()
**/

COMPLEX complex_input(void)
{
COMPLEX z;
int ans;
double x,y;
printf("input (0,a,b) or (1,r,theta): ");
scanf("%d %lf %lf",&ans, &x, &y);
if (ans == 1) {
z.p.r = x; z.p.theta = y;
polar_to_rect(&z);
}
else if (ans == 0) {
z.r.a = x; z.r.b = y;
rect_to_polar(&z);
}
else {
printf("invalid coordinate system\n");
z.r.a = 0.0; z.r.b = 0.0; z.p.r = 0.0; z.p.theta = 0.0;
}
return z;
}

void polar_to_rect(COMPLEX *z)

{
double r = (z->p.r);
double theta = (z->p.theta);
z->r.a = r * cos(theta);
z->r.b = r * sin(theta);
}

COMPLEX complex_multiply(COMPLEX z1, COMPLEX z2)

{
COMPLEX prod;
prod.p.r = (z1.p.r) * (z2.p.r);
prod.p.theta = (z1.p.theta) + (z2.p.theta);
polar_to_rect(&prod);
return (prod);
}