Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

1711 Arlingate Lane

Columbus,OH 43228-0518

Copyright © 2004 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. All rights reserved. ASNT is

not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein, and published opinions or
statements

do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do

not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.

IRRSP, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, NDT Handbook, Nondestructive Testing Handbook,

The NDT Technician and <www.asnt.org> are service marks of The American Society for Nondestructive

Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive
testing.

ISBN 1-57117-118-5

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Magnetic particle testing: classroom training book / written for ASNT by Gordon Smith.

p.cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-57117-118-5

1. Magnetic testing. I.American Society for Nondestructive Testing. II. Title.

TA417.3.S45 2004

620.1'1278--dc22

First printing October 2004

ii
Personnel Training Publications

2004020048

Acknowledgments

Dedicated to the memory of Ronald H. Selner.

A special thank you goes to the following technical reviewers who helped with this publication:

Gina Caudill, United States Coast Guard

Art Gallant, Elite Inspection Services

Vilma Holmgren, Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works

Brian MacCracken, Pratt and Whitney

Joe Mackin, International Pipe Inspectors Association

William Mooz, Met-L-Chek Company

Robert Saunders, Ellwood City Forge

Thomas Schafer, ManTech International Corporation

Kermit Skeie -

Noel Tracy, Universal Technology Corporation

A special thank you goes to the following corporate reviewers who helped with this publication:

Joseph Brown, VSE Corporation, BAVDivision

Bruce Dewey, Maryland Q.C. Laboratories, Inc.

Jerry Fulin, Tennessee Gas Pipeline

Lawrence Goldberg, Sea Test Services

Jim Houf, The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Scott Huddleston, Huddleston Technical Services

Stephen Lakata, Norfolk Southern Corporation

Don Locke, Karta Technologies, Inc.

Joseph E. Monroe, Eastern NDT

David R. Quattlebaum, Quattlebaum Consultants

Tim Randle, X-R-I Testing

Frank Sattler, Sattler Consultants, Inc.

Stephen Senne, Senne Technical Services

Ron VanArsdale, Inspection Training and Consulting

Albert M. Wenzig, Jr., Industrial Testing Laboratory Services, LLC

The Publications Review Committee includes:

Chair, Sam J. Volk, North Atlantic Energy Services Company

Sharon I. Vukelich, University of Dayton Research Institute

B. Boro Djordjevic, Johns Hopkins University

Ann E. Spence

Educational Materials Editor

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

iii

Foreword

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) has prepared this series of Personnel

Training Publications to present the major areas in each nondestructive testing method. Each classroom

training book in the series is organized to follow the Recommended Training Course Outlines found in

Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA. The Level I and Level II candidates should use this classroom

training book as a preparation tool for nondestructive testing certification. An ASNT NDT Level I or

Level II may be expected to know additional information based on industry or employer requirements.,

iv Personnel Training Publications

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments 111

Foreword iv
Table of Contents v

Level I Magnetic Particle Testing 1

Chapter 1 - Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing 3

Capabilities of Magnetic Particle Testing 3

Personnel Qualifications .4

Magnets and Magnetic Fields 5

Magnetic Fields 5

Lawof Magnetism 6

Materials Influenced by Magnetic Fields 6

Characteristics of Magnetic Fields 7

Chapter 2 - Effects of Discontinuities on Materials 9

SurfaceDiscontinuities 9

Scratches 10

SubsurfaceDiscontinuities 10

Chapter 3 - Magnetization 11

Circular Fields 11

Contact Plates 14

Prods 14

Discontinuity Detection IS

Longitudinal Field 15

Field Direction IS

Magnetization Methods 16

Test Materials 16

Wet Particles 16

Dry Particles 16
Multidirectional Magnetization 17

Retentivity and Coercive Force 17

Longitudinal Magnetization 17

Longitudinal Fields 17

Field Direction 18

Field Strength 18

Discontinuities Discovered by Longitudinal Fields 19

Chapter 4 - Principles of Demagnetization 21

Alternating Current Demagnetization 21

Direct Current Demagnetization 22

Efficiencyof Demagnetization 22

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

Chapter 5 - Equipment 25

Equipment Selection 25

Purpose of Test 25

Area Tested 25

Mobile Equipment 26

Particles Used 26

Stationary Testing Equipment 27

Chapter 6 - Discontinuities 29

Inherent Discontinuities 29

Processing Discontinuities 29

Inservice Discontinuities .30

Summary 30
Level II Magnetic Particle Testing 31

Chapter 7 - Principles 33

Theories .............................................•........ 33

Techniques 34

Magnetic Field Theory 34

Magnetic Domains 34

Magnetic Poles 35

Magnetic Fields 36

Magnetized Ring 36

Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Ring 36

Bar Magnet 37

Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Bar 37

Effect of Materials on Electromagnetic Fields 37

Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux 38

Magnetic Hysteresis 39

Magnetic Permeability .41

Chapter 8 - Flux Fields .43

Electric Current .43

Alternating Current .43

Direct Current 44

Half Wave Direct Current .45

Full Wave Direct Current .46

Three Phase Full Wave Direct Current .47

Chapter 9 - Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application ; . .49

Introduction 49
Current Level and Particle Application 50

Continuous Method 51

Wet Continuous Method 52

Residual Method 53

Field Direction .............................•.................. 56

Magnetic Field Measurements 56

vi

Personnel Training Publications

Circular Magnetization 58

Direct Contact 59

Central Conductor 59

Amperage Requirements 60

Sensitivity Level 61

Amperage 61

Testing Media 61

Direct Contact 62

Central Conductor 63

Coil Shot 64

Cable Wrap 64

Chapter 10 - Magnetization by Means of Electric Current 67

Circular Magnetization 67

Circular Magnetization of Solid Test Objects ; .. 68

Circular Magnetization with Prods 68

Circular Magnetization with Direct Contact 68

Circular Magnetization with Induced Current ; 69

Circular Magnetization of Hollow Test Objects 70

Longitudinal Magnetization 70

Coil Magnetization 71

Important Considerations in Coil Magnetization 71

Field Flow Magnetization 72

Yoke Magnetization 73

Combined Circular and Longitudinal Magnetization 73

Units of Measure and Terminology 73

Types of Magnetic Materials .74

Diamagnetic Materials 74

Paramagnetic Materials 74

Ferromagnetic Materials 74

Calculation of Magnetic Force Requirements ; 75

Prods ; 75

Yokes 75

Coil 75

Air Core Coil Longitudinal Magnetization 76

Fill Factor Coils 76

Interpretation of Indications 78

Relevant Indications 78

Nonrelevant Indications 78

False Indications ; 78

Chapter 11 - Demagnetization 79

Purpose 79

Principles of Operation for Demagnetization 79

Requirements to Demagnetize 80

Reasons to Demagnetize 80

Justification for Demagnetizing 81

Reasons Not to Demagnetize 81

Magnetic Particle TestingClassroom Training Book

vii

Demagnetization Methods ~.. 82

Heating Above Curie Point 82

Electromagnetic Demagnetization 82

Alternating Current Demagnetization 83

Direct Current Demagnetization 84

Yoke Demagnetization 85

Demagnetization Practices 85

Chapter 12 - Equipment 87

Stationary Equipment 87

Mechanized Equipment 87

Semiautomatic Equipment 87

Single Purpose Semiautomatic Equipment 87

Fully Automatic Equipment 87

Portable Equipment 88

YokeBreak or Lift Test 89

Weld Bead Crack Reference Standards 89

Reference Standards for Weld Cracking 90

Effect of Coating Thickness on Test Results 90

Concurrent Leakage 91
Wet Magnetic Particles for YokeMagnetization 91

Dry Powder Test Equipment 92

Powder Selection 92

Powder Applications 93

Applicators 93

Wet Visible Test Equipment 94

Particle Selection 94

Black Powder Concentrate 94

Red Powder Concentrate 94

Suspension Characteristics 95

Particles 95

Media 95

Wet Fluorescent Method 9E

Test Variables 9E

Surface Preparation 9~

Suspension Application 9~

Water Problems 95

Suspension Preparation 9~

Dry Powder Liquid Concentrate 10(

Paste Concentrate 10(

Water Baths 10(

Water Bath Safety 10:

Water Bath Concentration 10'

Fluorescent Background Check 10

Oil Based Media Contamination Check 10:

Settling Test ................................................10,

viii Personnel Training Publications

Fluorescent Test Materials 104

Maintenance 105

Surface Preparation 106

Test Variables 106

Ultraviolet Radiation 106

Generation of Ultraviolet Radiation 106

Ultraviolet Lamp Fixtures 107

Sources 107

Carbon Arc Systems 107

Low Pressure Fluorescent Bulbs 107

High Pressure Bulbs 108

Chapter 13 - Types of Discontinuities 109

Inherent Discontinuities 109

Cold Shut 110

Pipe 110

Hot Tears 111

Blowholes and Porosity 111

Nonmetallic Inclusions 111

Segregation 112

Primary Processing Discontinuities 113

Seams 113

Laminations 114

Stringers 114
Cupping 114

Cooling Cracks 115

Forged and Rolled Laps 115

Internal and External Bursts 115

Hydrogen Flakes 116

Welding Discontinuities 116

Cold Cracking 117

Hot Cracking 118

Lamellar Tearing 120

Lack of Fusion 120

Lack of Penetration 121

Porosity 122

Inclusions 122

Undercut 123

Overlap 124

Secondary Processing Discontinuities 124

Cracks 124

Heat Treating and Quench Cracks 125

Pickling Cracks 126

Machining Tears 126

Plating Cracks 127

Inservice Discontinuities 127

Fatigue Cracking 128

Fatigue Crack Structure 128

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

ix

Creep Cracking 129

Stress Corrosion Cracking 131

Hydrogen Cracking 132

Chapter 14 - Evaluation Techniques 135

Reference Standards 135

Empirical Rules for Using Reference Standards 135

System Evaluation 136

System Standardization 136

Parametric Evaluations 137

Technique Development 137

Reference Standards for System Evaluation 138

Standard Tool Steel Ring 138

Using the Ring Standard 139

Ring Standard Magnetic Fields 139

Limitations of the Ring Standard 139

Reference Standard Test Blocks 139

Split Prism Test Block 139

Magnetized Test Blocks 140

Prism Block Standards 140

Block Standard Measurements 141

Electronic Reference Standards 142

Hall Effect Meters .142

Eddy Current Devices 142

Conclusion 143
Chapter 15 - Quality Control 145

New Materials 145

In Use Materials 145

Material Contamination 146

Evaporation Losses 146

Heat Degradation 147

Process Degradation 147

Material Control Requirements 147

Use of the Settling Test 148

Ultraviolet Radiation and Facilities 148

Ultraviolet Radiation Intensity Requirements 149

Ambient Light Measurements 150

Variables 150

Line Voltage Variations 150

Service and Aging Variations 151

Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards 151

Proper Procedures 152

Variation in Technique 152

Selection of Current 153

Current Application Choices 153

Selection of Media 154

Selection of Technique 154

x Personnel Training Publications

Field Orientation 154

Head Shot 155

Central Conductor ; 155

Longitudinal Field 155

Sensitivity Requirements 155

Conclusion 156

Glossary 157

Bibliography and Figure Sources 164

Index 167

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

xi

Chapter 1

Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle testing can detect both production

discontinuities, such as seams, laps, grinding cracks and quenching

cracks, and inservice damage, such as fatigue and overload cracks.

Next to visual testing, it is one of the most cost effective methods of

nondestructive testing. Its major difficulty is that the test object must

be magnetizable. Magnetic particle technology depends on the

property of magnetism occurring in certain elements referred to as

ferromagnetic materials.

Magnetic particle testing is a relatively simple test method that

can be applied to finished articles, billets, hot rolled bars, castings

and forgings. It can also be used to confirm that the processing

operations, such as heat treatment, machining and grinding, did not

cause discontinuities. There are many differing modes of electrical

current that are used in magnetic particle testing.

Magnetic particle testing consists of magnetization of the test

object, followed by the application of the particles and interpretation

of the patterns formed by the particles as they are attracted by

magnetic leakage fields. These patterns of magnetic particles are

compared to codes or known standards to determine test object

acceptability.

The purpose of this classroom training book is to provide the

fundamental knowledge of magnetic particle testing required by

quality assurance and nondestructive testing personnel. This

knowledge will enable them to ascertain that the proper test

technique is used to ensure the quality of the finished product, to

interpret, evaluate and make a sound decision as to the results of the

test and to recognize those areas exhibiting doubtful test results that

require either retesting or assistance in interpretation and evaluation.

CAPABILITIES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

Magnetic particle testing can reveal surface discontinuities,

including those too small or too tight to be seen with the unaided

eye. Magnetic particle indications form on an object's surface in the

area of a discontinuity and show the location and approximate size

of the discontinuity. Magnetic particle tests can also reveal

discontinuities that are slightly below the surface.

There are limits to this ability to locate subsurface

discontinuities. These are determined by the discontinuity's depth,

size, type and shape; the strength of the applied field; and the type of

3
current used. In some cases, special techniques or equipment can

improve the test's ability to detect subsurface discontinuities.

Magnetic particle testing cannot be used on nonmagnetic

materials, including glass, ceramics, plastics or such common metals

as aluminum, magnesium, copper and austenitic stainless steel

alloys. In addition, there are certain positional limitations: a

magnetic field is directional, and for best results must be oriented

perpendicular to the discontinuity. This generally requires two

complete magnetizing operations to detect discontinuities parallel

and perpendicular to the test object's axis. Objects with large cross

sections require a very high current to generate a magnetic field

adequate for magnetic particle tests. A final limitation is that a

demagnetization procedure is usually required following the

magnetic particle process.

Personnel Qualifications

Personnel performing nondestructive testing should, at a

minimum, be qualified in accordance with Recommended Practice

No. SNT-TC-IA. Only personnel qualified for Level I nondestructive

testing, and working under the direct supervision of a Level II or

Level III nondestructive testing technician (or personnel qualified to

Level II or Level III), may perform nondestructive tests. The

Level I, Level II or Level III magnetic particle testing technician

should be qualified through specific and practical examinations

based on the requirements of the applicable code. The technician

should have successfully demonstrated the ability to accurately

detect and evaluate discontinuities in accordance with the applicable

code. Qualified personnel are required by many jurisdictions, codes,

standards and specifications to be certified by an organized

corporate, national or international agency.

This text provides an overview of the magnetic particle testing

process and is introductory to the detailed treatments in subsequent

sections. Topics covered here include the following.

1. The fundamental theory of magnetism, magnetic flux and

types of magnetic fields.

2. Principles of electrically induced magnetism and magnetizing

current.

3. Testing media, equipment and processes.

4. Process controls.

5. The basic principles and methods of demagnetization.

6. Reporting of magnetic particle tests.

Such data can be helpful to managers, supervisors and personnel

outside of nondestructive testing who require general information on

the magnetic particle testing process. It may also be helpful for

introductory studies by individuals already using magnetic particle

testing, or those preparing for advanced training in the technique.

Personnel Training Publications

MAGNETS AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

The theory of magnetic fields indicates that an object is

magnetized when part or all of its atomic elements have their north

and south poles aligned. Earth's magnetic field is produced by the

rotation and movement of the planet's molten iron core. This

produces a magnetic field that is relatively stable in direction.

Because of this stable magnetic field, early explorers could reliably

use compasses built with lodestone, charged iron needles and other

naturally magnetic materials. The Earth itself can be considered a

bar magnet because of its two poles. Quite frequently, the magnetic

field surrounding the Earth strongly magnetizes large ferromagnetic

objects that lie aligned with the Earth's poles for periods of time.

The directions of the Earth's magnetic field may be changed by

major geologic events over many thousands of years. There are

many local magnetic anomalies having higher levels of magnetic

attraction near the Earth's surface. It is thought that these may be

caused by iron or nickel deposits.

Magnetic Fields

A magnetic field exists within and around a permanent magnet or

within and around a conductor carrying an electric current. The

magnetic field surrounding a permanent bar magnet has polarity, but

the magnetic field surrounding a conductor does not. Some types of

magnetic fields may be contained entirely within a ferromagnetic

object. A magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet is seen in

Figure 1.1.

The theory of magnetism and magnetic particle testing is based

on a material property that has its atomic domains oriented. This

material is called a magnet and will attract iron, nickel and cobalt, as

well as many alloys. Magnets may be permanent (retaining their

magnetism more or less permanently) or temporary (retaining their

magnetism only as long as a magnetizing force is being applied).

The ability of the magnet to attract or repel iron is not uniform over

its surface, but is concentrated at local areas called poles. Each

magnet has at least two opposite poles, much like the Earth's

magnetic poles; hence, the poles are respectively called the north

and south poles. The attraction and repulsion of poles are illustrated

in Figure 1.2.

Because magnetization of certain metals is possible, small

particles that are attracted to magnetic fields are applied to the

surface of the test object after or during induction of a magnetic

field, thereby allowing the detection of certain specific

discontinuities that are present in the material. Magnetic particle

testing is capable of revealing discontinuities (imperfections that

interfere with the usefulness of an article or exceeds acceptability

limits established by applicable specifications) economically; it is

one of the most widely used nondestructive test methods. However,

this test method is limited to disclosing only those discontinuities

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

Figure 1.1: Magnetic field surrounding a

bar magnet.

Figure 1.2: Magnetic attraction and

repulsion.

that are at, or very near, the surface and only in magnetizable

materials.

sl_ _IS

sl

Magnetic poles may be formed in ferromagnetic material by

several means, including contact with other magnetic materials,

passage of suitable electrical currents through the test object and

certain types of vibrations or even single impacts. All of these forces

act to align atomically small zones called domains in one direction.

This direction is arbitrarily termed north to south.

6 Personnel Training Publications

LAW OF MAGNETISM

When an external magnetic field is applied to ferromagnetic

materials, the magnetic domains align parallel to the applied fields.

These domains are very small, but larger than the atoms of the

material. It is the interchange action between atoms and the

alignment of the magnetic domains that are the cause of increased

flux density. As the magnetizing force increases, the aligned

domains increase in volumetric steps. This incremental increase is

detectable, and is often referred to as the barkhausen effect. When

all the domains in a material are aligned, the material is said to be

magnetically saturated.

Materials Influenced by Magnetic Fields

Some materials are attracted by magnets, whereas others are

repelled.

1. Paramagnetic: weakly attracted magnetic materials not

normally tested by magnetic particle testing.

2. Ferromagnetic: materials having high magnetic permeability,

such as nickel, iron, cobalt and many transuranic isotopes

like gadolinium.

3. Diamagnetic: materials that are weakly repelled by a

magnetic field. This kind of magnetism is often used to locate

buried and hidden conductors.

Repel

- ..

Attract

IN

sl

4. Nonferromagnetic: nonmagnetic materials. This classification

of materials includes materials that are not strongly attracted

or repelled to a magnetic field. This encompasses the majority

of metals and other nonmetallic materials, and is caused by

their low degree of magnetic permeability. Because of the

inability to react to a magnetic field, inspection using the

magnetic particle test method cannot be performed on these

materials and is such limited only to ferromagnetic materials.

Nonferromagnetic materials, if nonporous, may be inspected

using alternative test methods such as liquid penetrant testing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

The magnetic field surrounding a permanent bar magnet has

polarity. As an example, the Earth itself can be considered a bar

magnet because of its two poles. Quite frequently, the magnetic field

surrounding the Earth strongly magnetizes large ferromagnetic

objects that lie aligned with the Earth's poles for periods of time.

Magnetic poles in a straight bar, horseshoe and broken magnet are

shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Poles in a straight bar, horseshoe and broken

magnet.

Magnetic poles will lift or

draw a nail to the magnet.

Magnetic field is

entirely within,

thus no external

poles.

Magnetic poles of

leakage field will

attract magnetic

The bar magnet is useful for visualizing the concept of lines of

force describing a magnetic field. As illustrated in Figure 1.1, a bar

magnet is covered with a sheet of paper, and iron filings are

scattered over the paper. The iron filings arrange themselves in

characteristic patterns called lines offorce. These lines of force,

called magnetic flux, never cross. They seek the path of least

magnetic resistance, they are most densely packed at the poles of the
magnet, they flow from north to south poles outside the magnet, but

from south to north poles within the magnet and they do not enter or

leave at the center of the magnetic field.

particles.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

If a bar magnet is bent, fusing the north and south poles, the

magnetic field would not escape the now circular form of the

magnet. The magnetic domains form a closed magnetic loop or

circuit, and the test object appears to be unmagnetized. The test

object may support magnetization in directions other than

circumferentially around the ring. The ring magnet may have a long

direction perpendicular to the direction of the enclosed circular

magnetic field and may be called a tube. This type of circular field

can be set up in platings or coatings of ferromagnetic materials

around a hollow or solid shaft of a nonmagnetic material. The shape

of the magnet does not necessarily dictate where the poles are

located. This is determined by a combination of the shape and the

direction of the applied field.

Personnel Training Publications

Chapter 2

Effects of Discontinuities on Materials

SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES

The magnetic field surrounding subsurface discontinuities drops

off very rapidly with distance below the surface. Magnetic particle

movement is critical to the collection of contrastingly colored or

fluorescent particles at a discontinuity site. Thus, it is desirable to

have fluctuating magnetic fields on the surface of the test object.

Certain metallurgical discontinuities produce much higher

collections of magnetic particles than other kinds of discontinuities

of the same size.

The important condition of surface cracks includes metal grain

to-grain tearing induced by surface tensile forces that produce the

highest amount of magnetic field disruption for a given size of

discontinuity. A leakage field at an air gap in a longitudinally

magnetized test object is shown in Figure 2.1. This disruption is

produced by the alignment of magnetic domains in the stretched

metal crack site. For this reason, cracks in the formation state are

highly detectable and normally produce sharp, well defined

indications. Open cracks that have been subject to large thermal,

chemical or mechanical forces may have had their magnetic field

disruption characteristics greatly or entirely reduced and may not be

detectable using magnetic particle testing.

For high detectability of forming surface cracks, magnetic

particle testing uses induced alternating field magnetization

techniques as the primary method to test ferromagnetic objects

inservice. Using wet alternating current fluorescent techniques will

generally produce the highest sensitivity obtainable with this

technology.
Figure 2.1: Leakage field at an air gap in a longitudinally

magnetized test object.

Leakage field ........--- Test object"

7~ "

.. ~

FIUXlines~

SCRATCHES

Scratches, unlike cracks, exhibit metal grain plastic tearing that

lowers the ability of this discontinuity to repeatably attract magnetic

particles in a uniform manner for a given scratch size. Very deep

scratches should be evaluated by their visual characteristics rather

than their relative magnetic particle indication sizing.

SUBSURFACE DISCONTINUITIES

A typical subsurface discontinuity is shown in Figure 22. The

size, orientation and composition of subsurface discontinuities affect

evaluation capabilities other than general locating of the

discontinuity. In general, the magnetic image is very broad and

fuzzy. Additionally, changes in test object thickness and holes from

the opposite side may be misleading. The use of alternate testing

technologies after demagnetization and retesting may be required to

confirm the magnetic particle indication.

Figure 2.2: Magnetic particles attracted by a leakage field from

a subsurface discontinuity.

Particle buildup at leakage field ~

1_F1UXl~es~
10 Personnel Training Publications

Chapter 3

Magnetization

CIRCULAR FIELDS

A circular magnetic field is induced into a test object either by

passing magnetizing current directly through the test object (direct

magnetization), or by passing current through a conductor

surrounded by the test object (indirect magnetization). In direct

magnetization, the magnetic field will be uniform throughout the

length of the test object if the test object is uniform in all respects.

Direct induction of a circular field is accomplished by passing a

short pulse of current through the test object, as shown in

Figure 3.1a. The test object is placed between two heads on a bench

unit. This is called a head shot.

Another direct method of inducing a circular field is by the use of

prods, shown in Figure 3.1b. Prod magnetization is used where the

size or location of the test object does not permit the use of a head

shot or central conductor. Current flow and field distribution are also

shown in Figure 3.l. The field between the prods is somewhat

distorted by the interaction of the two fields. Prod magnetization is

most effective when the prods are spaced 15 to 20 em (6 to 8 in.)

apart.

Figure 3.1: Circular magnetization by direct and indirect

current induction: (a) head shot; (b) prods; and (c) central

conductor.
(a) Circularfield

~\

(b)

/h.~J~

II""" ...-

~ ~/'i/\ "--5;(

Direct magnetization Fieldv~ Field

Direct magnetization

(c)

Thereis disagreementbetweencommonpracticeandelectricaltheory

regardingcurrentpolarity.Therefore,the currentpolarityis not shown.

11

With indirect induction of a circular field, the object to be

magnetized is placed so that a current carrying conductor induces a

magnetic field into the test object. This method is called the central

conductor method, and is illustrated in Figure 3.1c. The use of a

central conductor also eliminates the possibility of a test object

being burned by the flow of excess current or if poor contact is

made with the heads.

Circular magnetic fields induced directly by the passage of

alternating current can produce very high surface sensitivities caused

by the so-called skin effect, where the current is transmitted on the

surface of the test object.

When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is

formed in and around the conductor. If the conductor has a uniform

shape (a copper rod), the density of the external field is uniform at

the same radial point along the length of the conductor. At any point

on the conductor, the magnetic field is strongest at the surface of the

conductor and decreases as the distance from the conductor

increases. Direction of the magnetic field (lines of force) is at a 90

degree angle to that of the current in the conductor.

The right hand rule, shown in Figure 3.2, is an easy method for

determining the direction of an electrically induced magnetic field.

Imagine grasping the conductor in the right hand with the thumb

pointing in the direction of current flow. The fingers will then point

in the direction of the lines of force.

Figure 3.2: Right hand rule.

v'

/G

Direction of the

magneticfield.

Note that the current flow in the conductor creates circular lines

of force (a circular magnetic field). The field is at right angles to the

conductor, as shown. Not shown is the fact that the field actually

surrounds the entire length of the conductor.

Passing current through the test object will form magnetic fields

that are influenced by this method of magnetization. Where current

flows through the test object, magnetization is said to be circular.

With no discontinuities in the test object, this type of magnetization

is difficult to detect. However, the use of alternating currents and

wet fluorescent particles makes this one of the most sensitive of the

applications of magnetic particle technology.

The alternating current is concentrated on the exterior surfaces of

the test object. Designing the magnetic particle test sequence to have

12

Personnel Training Publications

Direction

of current

the direct current or half wave direct current test completed before

the alternating current test will increase the probability of detection

of both surface and subsurface discontinuities. For alternating or

pulsed currents, there is a tendency for the current to flow near the

surface rather than penetrating deeply into the test object. As the

magnetization current frequency increases, the depth of penetration

decreases. This is called the skin effect.

If the alternating current level is greater than the direct current,

the test object can be effectively demagnetized by reducing the

alternating current to zero at the end of the observation stage of the

test cycle.

The magnetic field in long, solid and hollow cylinders peaks at

the outside diameter surface for both magnetic and nonmagnetic test

objects. From there, the magnetic field obeys the inverse square law

and decreases by the inverse square of the distance away from the

surface. Field distributions in and around solid and hollow magnetic

conductors are shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4.

Irregularly shaped test objects may have their magnetization

currents tested using direct field indicators to determine optimum

testing conditions. The magnetic field density varies with the shape

of the test object. For test objects of regular but changing diameters,

different current levels may be required to produce an effective

magnetic field. Two or more levels of current are needed to test

objects shaped like these. Automotive crankshafts are examples

where multiple current levels are needed.

Figure 3.3: Field distribution in and

around a solid magnetic conductor

carrying alternating current.

~Peak flux density at

bar surface

Direct current flux

distribution inside solid bar

Alternating current flux

distribution inside solid bar

Steel bar

where:

R= radius

r = distance

B = field strength

Figure 3.4: Field distribution in and

around a hollow magnetic conductor

carrying alternating current.

~ Peak:flux density at

bar surface

Direct current flux

distribution inside hollow bar

Alternating current flux

distribution inside hollow bar

G-----Steel bar

O~~--~--~---L--~--~_'I

~ Distance from center of bar = r

where:

R= radius

r = distance

B = field strength

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

13

Tubular objects may be tested using a central conductor. An

alternate method is to wrap a coil through a long test object and

rotate the test object. Note that several setups may be required for an

effective test.

Test objects containing machined holes or slots may be tested in

many ways. Gears and other machined objects often have holes,

keyways or gear teeth that can effectively be tested by magnetic

particle means. Several set ups may be required that include

different current types, strengths and directions, as well as test object

rotations.

Deep holes and sharp gear teeth may be tested by using magnetic

particles suspended in a self curing rubber, a so-called magnetic

rubber. Here, the test object's residual field must be high or the

current must be applied during the total cure time of the rubber.

When the rubber is carefully peeled away, the magnetic pattern may

be observed frozen in the rubber. The use of fluorescent magnetic

particles enhances this method.

Contact Plates

Contact plates are copper plates that come in contact with the test

object or central conductor. They are primarily used in wet bath

techniques. Contact plates are found in specialized magnetic particle

equipment called wet horizontal bench machines, as shown in

Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: Typical horizontal magnetic particle bench testing

units.

Prods

Prods are a specialized form of small contact plates, as shown in

Figure 3.6. They are often used to test welds. Prods are firmly

pressed against the surface to be magnetized. As current flows

through that surface, a circular magnetic field is set up around the

prods. Often, wet horizontal bench machines are equipped with

prods for irregular shaped test objects. Small alternating current

1000 to 2000 A portable magnetic particle machines are the most

common type of prod testing equipment.

14 Personnel Training Publications

frlgure 3.6: Use of prods.

Magnetic

field-~:--·

Magnetic

field-'~--

l -..J

Discontinuity Detection

Discontinuities commonly discovered by circular fields are

generally surface breaking irregularities, with cracks having the

highest probability of detection for all current modes. Near surface

cracks and cracks under coating and galvanization are commonly

detected if the coating is not too thick.

Longitudinal Field

Typically, longitudinal fields are induced in the test object by

coils. Multiple shapes can be easily accommodated. The magnetic

field is produced by current flow in a coil, which is a long,

nonmagnetic conductor wrapped around the test object. The

magnetic test field is greatest at the surface of each line of the coil.

Thus, the test object should be placed near the inside surface of the

wrapped coil. Coil techniques are easily adaptable to a variety of test

object shapes and sizes.

Field Direction

The field in a current carrying coil is the force needed to

successfully magnetize a test object within the coil. It may require

several wraps of the coil or solenoid to build up enough magnetic

flux density for testing.

Field direction produced by a magnetic yoke is between the legs

and is therefore referred to as a longitudinal field in relation to the

yoke. The yoke may be used to magnetize a test object

longitudinally or transversely by changing the orientation of the

legs. A yoke is a temporary horseshoe magnet made of soft, low

retentivity iron that is magnetized by a small coil wound around its

horizontal bar. When the energized yoke is placed on a test object,

the flux flowing from the yoke's north pole through the test object to

the yoke's south pole induces a local field in the test object.

However, the magnetic field produced by the yoke does not lie

entirely within the test object. An external field is present that is a

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

15

deterrent to locating subsurface discontinuities. If magnetic particles

are applied sparingly at the area between the poles, indications of

surface discontinuities can be detected.

Discontinuities commonly discovered by longitudinal fields

include transverse discontinuities. Transverse discontinuities are

discontinuities oriented perpendicular to the major axis of the test

object. Both alternating current and direct current techniques may be

used, depending on test object shape.

MAGNETIZATION METHODS

The following characteristics affect key test parameters, including

required magnetizing current, current on time, when to apply

particles and demagnetization requirements.

1. Alloy, shape and magnetic condition of test object.

2. Type of magnetizing current.

3. Direction of magnetic field.

4. Sequence of operations.

5. Value of flux density.

Wet Particles

TEST MATERIALS

Particle size distributions for both wet and dry tests.are important

considerations. For wet tests using true residual techniques, smaller

particles may accumulate faster producing an observable indication.

For wet tests, larger rounded particles may produce an observable

indication faster under continuous magnetization techniques. Colors

and backgrounds should be selected to provide optimum contrast

when viewed by the technician. Wet particles, including oil based

visiblelfluorescent and water based visible/fluorescent, fit various

testing requirements and environments.

Dry Particles

For dry tests, very fine particles that move slowly in the air may

produce better visible build up for vertical and overhead conditions

using yoke magnetization. Fordry magnetic particle testing, the use

of larger and heavier particles with a definite drop may produce

better build up for flat and horizontal prod and yoke techniques.

16

Personnel Training Publications

MULTIDIRECTIONAL MAGNETIZATION

Multidirectional magnetization uses several contact points and

relay switches to produce constantly varying magnetic fields.

Typical uses of multidirectional magnetization are large castings,

high volume small test objects with automatic detectors and critical

test objects such as aircraft landing gear.

Retentivity and Coercive Force

The retentivity of a particular magnetic material is its property to

retain, to a greater or lesser degree, a certain amount of magnetism

after the magnetic force is removed. Coercive force is defined as the

reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove the residual

magnetism to demagnetize a test object.

LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION

Longitudinal Fields

The field in and around a coil is shown in Figure 3.7.

Longitudinal fields are typically induced in the test object by current

flow in a coil. A coil is a long, nonmagnetic conductor wrapped

around the test object. The magnetic field is greatest at the surface of

each line of the coil. Thus, the test object should be placed near the

inner diameter of the wrapped coil.

Figure 3.7: Longitudinal magnetic field in and around a coil.

There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory

regarding current polarity. Therefore, the current polarity is not shown.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 17

Field Direction

In a direct current coil, the magnetic field direction is from the

electron emitter or negative source to the positive or electron

collector, as shown in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: Field produced by using a central conductor.

Head

There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory

regarding current polarity. Therefore, the current polarity is not shown.

Field Strength

The force to successfully magnetize a test object in a coil may

require several wraps of the coil to build up enough magnetic flux

density for proper testing.

A yoke may be used to magnetize a test object longitudinally. A

yoke is a temporary horseshoe magnet made of soft, low retentivity

iron that is magnetized by a small coil wound around its horizontal

bar. When the energized yoke is placed on a test object, the flux

flowing from the yoke's north pole through the test object to the

south pole induces a local longitudinal field in the test object.

However, the magnetic field produced by the yoke does not lie

entirely within the test object. An external field is present, which is a

deterrent to locating subsurface discontinuities. If magnetic particles

are applied sparingly at the area between the poles, indications of

surface discontinuities are produced.

18

Personnel Training Publications

Discontinuities Discovered by Longitudinal Fields

Longitudinal magnetism typically finds transverse discontinuities.

Both alternating and direct current techniques may be used,

depending on test object shape.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

19

Chapter 4

Principles of Demagnetization

Ferrous materials usually retain some residual magnetism after

the magnetizing current is shut off. The strength of the residual field

depends on the permeability and retentivity of the material and the

strength and direction of the magnetizing force. Complete

demagnetization is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain. Thus, the

demagnetization process is limited to reducing the residual field to

an acceptable level. The basis for all demagnetization methods is the

subjecting of the magnetized test object to the influence of a

continuously reversing magnetic field that gradually reduces in

strength, causing a corresponding reversal and reduction of the field

in the test object.

Residual magnetism must be overcome by a slightly greater

magnetic force. Residual magnetism is the amount of magnetism

that a magnetic material retains after the magnetizing force is

removed. Longitudinal and circular residual fields may exist

simultaneously and may permit testing for discontinuities in several

directions during one test. Acceptable residual magnetism levels are

generally stated in the work instructions or procedures applicable to

the object being tested.

Reasons for requiring demagnetization are reduction in wear, or

welding arc problems during later operations.

ALTERNATING CURRENT DEMAGNETIZATION

The most convenient methodof demagnetization uses a specially

built demagnetization coil. When such a coil is energized by passing

the current through its windings, it induces a magnetic field in the

test object placed in the coil. Because current direction reverses

itself, the polarity of the induced magnetic field also reverses with

each reversal of the current. As the test object is withdrawn from the

coil, the magnetic field becomes weaker the further the test object is

withdrawn from the coil.

Demagnetization is accomplished only if the test object is

removed from the influence of the demagnetizing coil when the

current is flowing. If the current is stopped when the test object is

still in the influence of the magnetic field, the test object may still

retain some magnetism.

21

DIRECT CURRENT DEMAGNETIZATION

Because the magnetic field produced by alternating current does

not penetrate very deeply below the surface of the material, some

test objects may be difficult to demagnetize completely. This is

particularly true with large, heavy or unusually shaped test objects.

Direct current can be used to demagnetize if provisions are made for

controlling the amount of current and for reversing the direction of

the current. Direct current demagnetization is usually more complete

and effective than alternating current demagnetization. Some

magnetic particle testing equipment is provided with capability for

direct current demagnetization. Direct current demagnetization is

preferably done on individual test objects rather than on groups of

test objects.

To demagnetize with direct current, the test object is placed in a

coil connected to a source of direct current. The current is adjusted

to a value at least as great (but usually greater) than that initially

used to magnetize the test object. A magnetizing shot is given at this

initial value. The direction of the current is then reversed, the current

value reduced and a magnetizing shot is given at the new value. This

process of reversing and reducing the current is continued until the

lowest value is reached.

For best results in demagnetization, the diameter of the

demagnetization coil should be just large enough to accommodate

the test object. If demagnetization of a small test object is performed

in a large coil, the test object should be placed close to the inside

wall or corner of the coil, because the demagnetization force is

strongest closer to the coil.

Efficiency of Demagnetization

For practical purposes, it is always correct to use a field indicator

after performing demagnetization to determine that the residual field

strength has been reduced to a desired level. The field indicator,

shown in Figure 4.1, is a pocket sized device that measures the

strength of a field against a set of small, enclosed permanent

magnets that restricts the needle movement on a relative scale.

Whether to demagnetize a test object or not depends on a number

of factors. Demagnetization is usually required if the following

conditions apply.

1. A strong residual field might interfere with subsequent

operations, such as welding or machining. Strong fields can

flow the weld metal as it is deposited, or magnetic chips may

cling to the cutting tool and interfere with machining.

2. The test object is a moving part in an assembly and a deposit

of accumulated magnetized particles might cause wear.

3. Leakage fields might interfere with nearby instruments that

work on magnetic principles; for example, compasses or

indicators of various types.

22

Personnel Training Publications

Figure 4.1: Diagram of a typical magnetic field indicator.

..

I
IIiII

===~..k;'F=!==:' :3 I E=:=:'~t=LJ=== Sideview

. N is!

I. .

s l i IN

4. Residual fields might interfere with proper cleaning of the

test object.

S. The test object is to be magnetized at a lower magnetizing

force in a different direction than the original or previous test.

6. Demagnetization is specified by procedural standards.

Demagnetization is usually not required or necessary if the

following conditions apply.

1. If the test object is made of low carbon steel or iron where

retentivity is low.

2. If the test object is to be heat treated above its curie point

after the magnetic particle test.

3. If the test object is to be magnetized again in another

direction at the same or higher amperage.

Batch demagnetization is the demagnetization of many small test

objects simultaneously. Batch demagnetization of small test objects

may be accomplished using the following methods.

1. Thermally treating the test objects above its curie point.

2. Vibratory treatment, if applicable.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 23

Chapter 5
Equipment

----------------------------------------

EQUIPMENT SELECTION

Magnetic particle testing equipment range from heavy, complex

automated handling systems weighing several tons to small,

lightweight portable units. The following are requirements to be

considered when selecting equipment for magnetic particle testing.

1. Wet or dry method.

2. Magnetization method (alternating current, direct current or

both; coil or induced; yoke; or permanent magnet).

3. Degree of automation.

4. Incorporated or separate demagnetization capability.

5. Amperage required.

6. Tank capacity for wet horizontal equipment.

7. Air and water supply requirements.

8. Line voltage requirements.

9. Accessories required.

10. Indication detection and recording.

11. Technician requirements.

12. Mobile or stationary equipment.

Purpose of Test

Objects are typically tested to a specification. The certified

Level III magnetic particle testing technician should be consulted

and an appropriate specification selected.

Area Tested
Instructions prepared or approved by a Level III technician will

define the area to be tested. Reporting should be done in accordance

with contract document or written instructions provided by the

Level III technician. Level I nondestructive testing personnel may

not accept or reject test objects. Under direction of Level II or

Level III personnel, Level I personnel may operate magnetic particle

test equipment.

25

MOBILE EQUIPMENT

A typical mobile magnetic particle testing system is shown in

Figure 5.1. Location and nature of test object, size and test methods

all are factors that determine whether or not the equipment will be

brought to the test object, the test object will be brought to the

equipment, the test will be done manually or the test will be

automated to handle many similar test objects.

Figure 5.1: Mobile magnetic particle test equipment.

value selector

Amperage

output light

Particles Used

In magnetic particle testing, the particles have the ability to be

strongly attracted to leakage fields. The particles may be in the form

of a dry powder, or they may be suspended in a liquid carrier.

Additionally, these particles have carriers, air, dry gases, water or

oils that are related to the probability of detection, the gage

repeatability and reliability value of the magnetic particle method

selected for particular types of test objects.

26

Personne~ Tra~ningPublications

Circuit breaker

selector

Ground output lug

Direct current

output lug

STATIONARY TESTING EQUIPMENT

A typical stationary horizontal wet magnetic particle testing unit

of intermediate size is shown in Figure 5.2. The unit has two contact

heads for either direct contact or central conductor circular

magnetization using a copper rod between the heads or a cable

connected to a contact block between the heads. Many such units

contain a coil used for longitudinal magnetization. The coil and one

contact head are movable on rails. The other contact head is fixed;

the contact plate on it, being air cylinder operated, provides a means

for clamping the test object. The unit has a self contained power

supply with all the necessary electrical controls.

Figure 5.2: Bench type magnetizing unit.

Magnetizing currents are usually three phase full wave direct

current or alternating current, depending on usage requirements. The

units are made in several sizes to accommodate different length test

objects and with various maximum output currents. A full length

tank with pump, agitation and circulating system for wet testing

media is located beneath the head and coil mounting rails. A hand

hose with nozzle is provided for applying the bath. On special units,

automatic bath application facilities are provided.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

27

Chapter 6

Discontinuities

There are three general classes of discontinuities.

1. Inherent discontinuities, formed during the basic formation of

the test object.

2. Processing discontinuities, formed during operations like

machining or welding.

3. Inservice discontinuities, caused during use.

INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES

Inherent discontinuities are caused by the primary processing of

the test object. For ferromagnetic metals, this includes the initial

melting and refining processes and during solidification from the

molten state. These discontinuities are present before rolling, forging

and casting into the final shape. They will be found in the final

production object and are typically below the surface. These

discontinuities include the following.

1. Ingot pipe.

2. Ingot cracks.

3. Nonmetallic inclusions.
4. Blow holes.

Direct current and half wave direct current magnetization is

effective in detection of inherent discontinuities. Detailed

information on inherent discontinuities can be found in Chapter 13

on pages 109 to 113.

PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

Additional processing of metals, such as forging, casting, rolling

and welding, can result in processing induced discontinuities that

include the following.

1. Seams.

2. Laminations.

3. Cupping.

4. Cooling cracks.

5. Forging flakes.

29

6. Forging bursts.

7. Forging laps.

8. Forging flash line tears.

9. Casting cold shuts.

10. Casting hot tears and shrinkages.

11. Weld lack of fusion and weld lack of penetration.

12. Weld heat affected zone cracks.

13. Weld crater cracks.

14. Machine grinding cracks.

15. Machine tears.

16. Plating, pickling and etching cracks.

17. Liquid metal embrittlement cracks.

18. Galvanization related weld cracks.

A combination of alternating current and half wave direct current

or indirect magnetization will prove useful in the detection of

processing discontinuities. Detailed information on processing

discontinuities can be found in Chapter 13 on pages 113 to 127.

INSERVICE DISCONTINUITIES

Inservice stresses result in cracking and corrosion discontinuities.

This can happen in a single cycle and is called single cycle fatigue

cracking. This type of cracking typically starts on or near the

surface. Alternately, an acceptable inherent internal discontinuity

may be locally overloaded and start a crack that propagates from the

interior of the test object to the exterior. These internal cracks may

propagate on a single or multiple overload cycle.

Multiple cycles of near overload conditions will lead to cracking

typically originating on the surface of objects inservice. These

cracks, if not from an inherent discontinuity, will originate on or

near the surface of the test object.

Corrosion and underbead weld cracking may generate surface

breaking stress cracks that are detectable with magnetic particle

testing techniques.

Alternating current magnetization (direct, induced or by yokes)

combined with an applicable magnetic particle is used for the

detection of inservice discontinuities. Detailed information on

inservice discontinuities can be found in Chapter 13 on pages 127 to

133.

SUMMARY

Magnetic particle testing is an enhanced form of visual testing

that is applicable to a select group of metals that are said to be

ferromagnetic. This magnetic technology enables the visual

detection of tiny surface discontinuities and even some subsurface

discontinuities. More information on discontinuities can be found in

Chapter 13.

30

Personnel Training Publications

Chapter 7

Principles

THEORIES

Magnetic particle testing is a nondestructive method of revealing

surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in magnetizable

materials. It may be applied to raw materials such as billets, bars and

shapes; during processes such as forming, machining, welding, heat

treating and electroplating; and in testing for service related

discontinuities. Magnetic particle procedures cannot be used with

nonmagnetizable materials such as aluminum or copper.

Magnetic particle testing is based on the principle that magnetic

flux in a magnetized test object is locally distorted by the presence

of a discontinuity. This distortion causes some of the magnetic field

to exit and reenter the test object at the discontinuity. This

phenomenon is called magneticflux leakage. Flux leakage is capable

of attracting finely divided particles of magnetic materials that in

turn form an outline or indication of the discontinuity.

One of the objectives of magnetic particle testing is to detect

discontinuities as early as possible in the processing sequence, thus

avoiding the expenditure of effort on materials that will later be

rejected. Practically every process, from the original production of

metal from its ore to the last finishing operation, may introduce

discontinuities. Magnetic particle testing can reveal many of these,

preventing components with discontinuities from entering service.

Even though magnetic particle testing may be applied during and

between processing operations, a final test is usually performed to

ensure that all detrimental discontinuities have been detected.

The test itself consists of six basic operations.

1. Clean the test object.

2. Establish a suitable magnetic flux in the test object.

3. Apply magnetic particles in a dry powder or a liquid

suspension.

4. Examine the test object under suitable lighting conditions.

5. Interpret and evaluate the test indications.

6. Demagnetize, if necessary.

33

TECHNIQUES

Magnetic particle testing is a method of nondestructive testing

that uses very small magnetic particles to reveal discontinuities in

test objects capable of being magnetized. Magnetizable objects

include those test objects made of metals classed as ferromagnetic.

To find discontinuities in metals that are not ferromagnetic, such as

aluminum, copper and brass, other testing methods must be used.

This chapter includes a description of the various methods,

procedures and equipment used to magnetize test objects, the

electric currents and amperages used and the kinds of magnetic

particles available for either wet or dry application. Special

magnetization methods are also included.

The technique to use for a particular magnetic particle test

depends on the following factors.

1. The type of discontinuity being looked for in a test object.

2. The material, shape and size of the test object.

3. The magnetic particle testing equipment available.

This chapter also describes technique variations along with the

effect each has on the results that will be attained. The following

points must be considered and selected to achieve a particular test

result.

1. The type and amount of electric current to be used for

magnetization. If the discontinuities sought are at the. surface,

alternating current has several advantages. The rapid reversal

of the field imparts mobility to the particles, especially to the

dry powders. The dancing of the powder helps it move to the

area of leakage fields and to form stronger indications. This

effect is less pronounced in the wet method.

2. The direction of the resulting magnetic fields obtained using

these currents.

3. The kind of magnetic particles to be used.

4. How the testing media is to be applied.

MAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

Magnetic Domains

Some materials that can be magnetized possess atoms that are

classified as submicroscopic regions, called magnetic domains.

These domains have a positive and negative polarity at opposite

ends because of internal atomic alignment. If the material is not

considered to be magnetized, the domains are randomly aligned,

usually parallel to the crystalline axes of the material.

34

Personnel Training Publications

When the material is subjected to a magnetic field, the domains

align themselves parallel to the external magnetic field. The material

then acts as a magnet. Figure 7.1 illustrates the domain alignment in

nonmagnetized and magnetized material.

Figure 7.1: Alignment of magnetic domains: (a) in an unmagnetized material; (b) in a

magnetized material.

(a)

(b)

~eNeS-eN-eSB~BB-e

NS
-ee-eeeeee-eB

c.. __'

Magnetic Poles

A magnet has the property of attracting ferromagnetic materials.

The ability to attract or repel is not uniform over the surface of a

magnet, but is concentrated at localized areas called poles. In every

magnet, there are two or more poles with opposite polarities. These

poles are attracted to the Earth's magnetic poles and therefore are

called north and south poles.

Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1 can be duplicated by placing a sheet of

paper over a bar magnet and sprinkling iron filings on the paper. It

shows the magnetic field leaving and entering the ends or poles of

the magnet. This characteristic pattern illustrates the term lines of

force used to describe a magnetic flux field. There are a number of

important properties associated with lines of force.

1. They form continuous loops that are never broken.

2. They do not cross one another.

3. They are considered to have direction: leaving from the north

pole, traveling to the south pole.

4. Their density decreases with increasing distance from the

poles.

5. They seek the path of least magnetic resistance or reluctance

in completing their loop.

When a bar magnet is broken into two or more pieces, new

magnetic poles are formed. The opposing poles attract one another,
as shown in Figure 7.2.

If the center piece in Figure 7.2 is reversed so that similar poles

are adjacent, the lines of force repel one magnet from the other. If

one of the bars is small enough, the lines of force can cause it to

rotate so that unlike poles are again adjacent. This illustrates the

most basic rule of magnetism: unlike poles attract and like poles

repel.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

35

Figure 7.2: Broken bar magnet illustrating the location of

newly formed magnetic poles.

N~r

Nt~s

Magnetic Fields

:nss ~N

The magnetic particle testing method uses magnetic fields to

reveal material discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The

common horseshoe magnet attracts ferritic materials to its ends or

poles. Magnetic lines of flux flow from the south pole through the

magnet to the north pole.

Magnets only attract materials where the lines of flux leave or

enter the magnet. When magnetic material is placed across the poles

of a horseshoe magnet, the lines of flux flow from the north pole of
the magnet through the material to the south pole. Magnetic lines of

flux flow preferentially through magnetic material rather than

nonmagnetic material or air.

Magnetized Ring

If a horseshoe magnet is bent so that its poles are close together,

the poles still attract magnetic materials. Iron filings or other

magnetic materials cling to the poles and bridge the gap between

them. In the absence of a slot, the magnetic flux lines are enclosed

within the ring. No external poles exist, and magnetic particles

dusted over the ring are not attracted to the ring even though there

are magnetic flux lines flowing through it. Magnetized materials

attract externally only when poles exist. A ring magnetized in this

manner is said to contain a circular magnetic field that is wholly

within the object.

Small changes in the cross section of the ring or in the

permeability of its material may cause external flux and the

attraction of magnetic particles.

Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Ring

A radial crack in a circularly magnetized object creates north and

south magnetic poles at the edges of the crack. This forces some of

the magnetic lines of force out of the metal path. These disrupted

lines of force are called magnetic flux leakage. Magnetic particles

are attracted to the poles created by such a crack, forming an

indication of the discontinuity in the metal test object.

36
Personnel Training Publications

Bar Magnet

When a horseshoe magnet is straightened, it becomes a bar

magnet with poles at each end, as shown in Figure 7.3a. Magnetic

flux lines flow through the bar from the south pole to the north pole,

but the flux density is not uniform along the bar. Magnetic particles

are attracted to any location where flux emerges and particularly to

the ends of the magnet where the concentration of external flux lines

is greatest. Since the magnetic flux within a bar magnet may run the

length of the bar, it is said to be longitudinally magnetized or to

contain a longitudinal field.

Effect of Cracks in a Magnetized Bar

A crack in a bar magnet, shown in Figure 7 .3b, distorts the

magnetic lines of force and creates poles on either side of the crack.

These poles attract magnetic particles to form an indication of the

crack. The strengths of poles formed at a crack depend on the

number of magnetic flux lines interrupted. A crack at a right angle to

the magnetic lines of force interrupts more flux lines and creates

stronger poles than a crack that is parallel to the flux lines. Test

indications of maximum size are formed when discontinuities are at

right angles to the magnetic lines of flux.

IFigure 7.3: Bar magnet illustrating longitudinal magnetization: (a) horseshoe magnet

I straightened into a bar magnet with north and south poles; and (b) bar magnet

I containing a machined slot and corresponding flux leakage field.

i
(a)

(b)

/.:....-,\i_)

IN -: ..., s I

,II

,,II

"'"" 1-4

,\ "

\ '1 t t

_ '.oJ

NS

~agnetic particles

Y::~

r---------~~~ ~--~--------~

___.....," S l:: :IN '---

N~S

EFFECT OF MATERIALS ON ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

Magnetic properties are important because of their effect on the

behavior of materials under an external field or when the external

field is removed. The magnetic properties are often discussed using

the magnetic permeability of materials. This important quantity is

defined through the relation in Eq. 7.1.

Eq.7.1 Ii =pH

where B is flux density and H is magnetic field strength.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

37

Permeability governs an important features of the magnetic field

and therefore affects any application that uses the magnetic field.

Flux density B is often the quantity of interest and has higher values

for high values of the permeability for a given source field

strength H.

The magnetic properties of materials are defined through the

interaction of external magnetic fields and moving chargesin the

atoms of the material. Static charges are not influenced by the

magnetic field since no magnetic forces are produced. Atomic scale

magnetic fields are produced inside the material through orbiting

electrons. These orbiting electrons produce an equivalent current

loop that has a magnetic moment.

Eq.7.2 iii =~l1ra2

where a2 is the area of the loop, I is the equivalent current and z is a

unit vector normal to the plane of current flow.

Many such atomic scale loops or magnetic moments exist and the

material volume contains a certain magnetic moment density. If N

magnetic moments per unit volume are present, and if these

moments are aligned in the same direction, a total magnetization is

generated. Equation 7.3 is used to determine magnetization M.

Eq. 7.3 Bin = M =Nm

The magnetic flux density of the material is then given by:

Eq. 7.4 Jj. = /I M

In r--
The terms H, m and M are vectors. This implies that a net

magnetic field or flux density can only exist if these vectors are

aligned in such a way that a total net vector M exists. If the

independent vectors m are randomly oriented, as is often the case,

the net magnetization is zero.

Additionally, the passage of magnetic fields through space exiting

a ferromagnetic material field will align domains to produce a

leakage field. This leakage field is capable of attracting very small

magnetizable particles of engineered properties, enabling the

detection of discontinuities that have accumulated clusters of these

particles.

Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux

A magnetic field is made up of flux lines within and surrounding

a magnetized object or a conductor carrying an electric current. The

term magnetic flux is used when referring to all of the lines of flux

in a given area. Flux per unit area is called magnetic flux density, the

number of lines of flux passing transversely through a unit area.

38

Personnel Training Publications

Magnetic Hysteresis

All ferromagnetic materials have certain magnetic properties that

are specific to that material. Most of these properties are described

by a magnetic hysteresis curve. The data for the hysteresis curve are

collected by placing a bar of ferromagnetic material in a coil and

applying an alternating current. By increasing the magnetizing field

strength H in small increments and measuring the flux density B at

each increment, the relationship between magnetic field strength and

flux density can be plotted.

The relationship between magnetic field strength and flux density

is not linear for ferromagnetic materials. A specific change in H may

produce a smaller or larger change in B, as shown in Figure 7.4, the

initial curve for an unmagnetized piece of steel. Starting at point 0

(zero magnetic field strength and zero magnetic flux) and increasing

H in small increments, the flux density in the material increases

quite rapidly at first, then gradually slows until point A is reached.

At point A, the material becomes magnetically saturated. Beyond the

saturation point, increases in magnetic field strength do not increase

the flux density in the material. In diagrams of full hysteresis loops,

the curve O,Ais often drawn as a dashed line because it occurs only

during the initial magnetization of an unmagnetized material. It is

referred to as the virgin curve of the material.

When the magnetic field strength is reduced to 0, the flux density

slowly decreases. It lags the field strength and does not reach O.The

amount of flux density remaining in the material (line O,B)is called

residual magnetism or remanence. The ability of ferromagnetic

materials to retain a certain amount of magnetism is called

retentivity.

Removal of residual magnetism requires the application of a

magnetic field strength in an opposite or negative direction. When

the magnetic field strength is first reversed and only a small amount
is applied, the flux density slowly decreases. As additional reverse

field strength is applied, the rate of reduction in flux density (B,C)

increases until it is almost a straight line where B equals zero.

The amount of magnetic field strength necessary to reduce the

flux density to 0 is called coercivejorce. Coercive force is a factor

in demagnetization, and is also very important in eddy current

testing of ferromagnetic materials.

As the reversed magnetic field strength is increased beyond

point C, the magnetic flux changes its polarity and initially increases

quite rapidly. It then gradually slows until point D is reached. This is

the reverse polarity saturation point, and additional magnetic field

strength will not produce an increase in flux density.

When the reversed magnetic field strength is reduced to 0, the

flux density again lags the magnetic field strength, leaving residual

magnetism in the material (0,E). The flux densities of the residual

magnetism from the straight and reversed polarities are equal (O,Bis

equal to line 0,E).

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 39

Figure 7.4: Hysteresis data for unmagnetized steel: (a) virgin curve of a hysteresis loop;

(b) hysteresis loop showing residual magnetism; (c) hysteresis loop showing coercive

force; (d) hysteresis loop showing reverse magnetism; (e) hysteresis loop showing reverse

residual magnetism; and (f) complete hysteresis loop.

(a)

,.

...-A
/

/ Saturation

Zero magnetic \

field strength I point

H---------------~~/---------------H+

B+

(b)

B+

Zero flux density

Residual magnetism

-,

B/

H-------------~~------------H+

BB-

(e)

(d)

B+ B+

H- H+ H-
/

00

Reverse

Coercive force

B-

magnetization

saturation point

(e)

B+

(f)

B+

H-

D -"'---

Reverse Bmagnetization

point

,.

Saturation

point

10
,

B-

,..

..-

Saturation

point

H+

HH+

Residual magnetism

40

Personnel Training Publications

D--::.--

Reverse residual

point

B-

H+

Removal of the reversed polarity residual magnetism requires

application of magnetic field strength in the original direction. Flux

density drops to 0 at point F with the application of coercive

force O,P. Increasing the field strength results in the magnetic

polarity changing back to its original direction on the hysteresis

diagram. This completes the hysteresis loop A,B,C,D,E,P (note that

the curve C,D,E,P is a mirror image of curve C,B,A,P).

Magnetic Permeability

One of the most important properties of magnetic materials is

permeability. Permeability can be described as the ease with which

materials can be magnetized. More specifically, permeability is the

ratio between the flux density and the magnetic field strength

(B divided by H). Figure 7.5a is the virgin curve of a high

permeability material, and Figure 7.5b is the virgin curve of a low

permeability material.

Figure 7.S: Magnetic permeability curves: (a) high permeability

virgin curve; and (b) low permeability virgin curve.

<.

(a)

(b)

.~

:::

cu

I
'0 --------~-----------

///l

Saturation

point

>.

...

.<;:::::

'"

:::

,/

C/J

cu

'0

::l

The reciprocal of permeability is reluctance, defined as the

resistance of a material to changes in magnetic field strength.

Magnetic properties and hysteresis loops vary widely between

materials and material conditions. They are affected by chemical

composition, microstructure and grain size. Figure 7.6a is a

hysteresis loop for hardened steel, and the loop is typical of a

material with low permeability, high reluctance, high retentivity and

high residual magnetism that requires high coercive force for

removal. Figure 7.6b is the hysteresis loop for annealed low carbon

'"

Saturation

_,

....

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

41

Figure 7.6: Positive field strength hysteresis loops: (a) hardened

steel hysteresis loops; and (b) annealed low carbon steel

hysteresis loop.

(a) (b)

Coercive

force

Residual

steel. It is typical of a material with high permeability, low

reluctance, low retentivity and low residual magnetism that requires

a low coercive force for removal. A high carbon alloy would be

harder to magnetize and demagnetize, thus would have low

reluctance and high retentivity.

42 Personnel Training Publications

Coercive

force

Chapter 8

Flux Fields

ELECTRIC CURRENT
In the very early days of magnetic particle testing, it was believed

that the most desirable current for magnetization was direct current

provided by storage batteries. As knowledge of the magnetic particle

process expanded and electrical circuitry continued to advance,

many types of magnetizing currents became available: alternating

current, half wave direct current and full wave direct current. The

terms half wave rectified direct current and full wave rectified direct

current are used for alternating current rectified to produce half

wave and full wave direct current. Three types of electric current are

used in magnetic particle testing.

1. Alternating current.

2. Full wave direct current.

3. Half wave direct current.

Alternating current is used for the detection of surface

discontinuities only, whereas full wave direct or half wave direct

currents are used for either surface or subsurface discontinuities.

Alternating Current

Alternating current is useful in many applications because it is

commercially available. Electrical circuitry to produce alternating

magnetizing current is simple and relatively inexpensive because it

only requires transforming commercial power into low voltage, high

amperage magnetizing current.

In the United States and some other countries, alternating current

alternates sixty times per second. Many other countries have

standardized fifty alternations per second. The alternations are called

cycles. One hertz equals one cycle per second, and 60 Hz is sixty

cycles per second. Figure 8.1 shows the waveform of alternating

current. In one cycle, the current flows from zero to a maximum

positive value and then drops back to zero. At zero, it reverses

direction and goes to a maximum negative peak and returns to zero.

The curve is symmetrical, with the positive and negative lobes being

mirror images.

The use of alternating current in magnetic particle testing is

recommended for the detection of surface discontinuities that

comprise the majority of service induced discontinuities. Fatigue and

43

Figure 8.1: Alternating current waveform.

Time-

stress corrosion cracks are examples of cracks usually open to the

surface.

The shallow penetration of alternating current fields into the test

object at the usual power line frequencies of 50 and 60 Hz precludes

the use of alternating current for the detection of subsurface

discontinuities. The shallow penetration is caused by skin effect.

Skin effect is the crowding of magnetic flux or electric current

outward and away from the test object center. The skin effect is the

reason alternating current is recommended when testing for service

induced surface discontinuities. However, the skin effect of

alternating current is less at lower frequencies, resulting in deeper

penetration of the lines of force. At twenty-five cycles, the

penetration is demonstrably deeper, and at frequencies of ten cycles

per second and less, the skin effect is almost nonexistent.

Alternating current has another advantage in that the magnetizing

effect, which is determined by the value of the peak current at the

top of the sine wave of the cycle, is 1.41 times that of the current

read on the meter.

Direct Current

Direct current, on the other hand, magnetizes the entire cross

section more or less uniformly in the case of longitudinal

magnetization, and with a straight line gradient of strength from a

maximum at the surface to zero at the center of the bar in the case of

direct contact (circular) magnetization. Magnetic fields produced by

direct current penetrate deeper into a test object than fields produced

by alternating current, making detection of subsurface

discontinuities possible.

In the presence of direct current fields, dry powder particles

behave as though they were immobile, tending to remain wherever

they happen to land on the surface of the test object. This contrasts

what happens with dry powder particles in the presence of

alternating current and half wave fields. In these fields, the particles

have mobility on a surface because of the pulsating character of the

fields. Particle mobility aids considerably the formation of particle

accumulations (indications) at discontinuities.

Pure direct current can be obtained from automotive type storage

batteries, but today this method is seldom used, except occasionally

44

Personnel Training Publications

in emergencies when a battery may be used to power a handheld

magnetizing device. The disadvantages of using batteries are their

weight when a number of them must be used to obtain high

amperage currents, the frequent charging and maintenance required

and their limited life and replacement cost.

Alternating currents used in magnetic particle testing are at low

voltages. Current amperages range from about 100 A up to about

20 000 A, depending on the test object to be magnetized and the

method of magnetizing. The higher amperages are obtained by using

stepdown transformers that reduce power line voltages, while at the

same time increasing current at about the same ratio. Exceptions are

the much lower amperages drawn by handheld devices that operate

from standard 120 V outlets. Alternating current and half wave

direct current for magnetizing test objects are obtained from single

phase systems or from one phase of three phase systems. Full wave

direct currents are usually obtained from three phase systems using

full three phase bridge rectifiers.

The primary method for obtaining direct current for magnetic

particle testing is through rectification of alternating current using

silicon rectifiers. A rectifier, or diode, is a device that allows electric

current to flow through it in only one direction. By proper

connection of rectifiers, the back and forth flow of alternating

current is converted to a current flow in only one direction. This is a

form of direct current. A rectifier circuit that converts both half

cycles of alternations (back and forth flow) of the alternating current

to one direction of current flow is called afull wave rectifier.

Single phase alternating current also can be rectified using a full

wave rectifier circuit to obtain direct current for magnetic particle

testing. Since three phase power is so readily available in industry,

direct current for magnetic particle testing units is usually obtained

using three phase full wave rectifiers.

Half Wave Direct Current

Half wave direct current provides the greatest sensitivity for

detecting discontinuities that lie below the surface, particularly when

using dry powder and the continuous method. The pulsations of the

half wave current vibrate the magnetic particles, thereby aiding their

migration across a surface to form indications at discontinuities. This

particle mobility, which is very pronounced when dry magnetic

powder is used, contrasts with the immobility of the powder when

pure direct current is used. There is some skin effect when half wave

current is used, caused by the pulsating magnetic fields produced by

this current. However, the effect on field penetration is small at the

usual power frequencies of 50 and 60 Hz.

Figure 8.2 shows the waveform for half wave direct current.

When single phase alternating current is passed through a simple

rectifier, the reversed flow of current is blocked or clipped. This

produces a series of current pulses that start at zero, reach a

maximum point, drop back to zero and then pause until the next
Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

45

Figure 8.2: Half wave direct current waveform.

Alternating _

current input

Halfwave_

rectifier

An

positive cycle begins. The result is a varying current that flows only

in one direction.

Half wave direct current has penetrating power comparable to

single phase full wave direct current. Half wave current has a flux

density of zero at the center of a test object, and the density

increases until it reaches a maximum at the test surface. The pulsing

effect of the rectified wave produces maximum mobility for the

magnetic particles; dry method tests are enhanced by this effect.

Another distinct advantage of half wave direct current is the

simplicity of its electrical components. It can be easily combined

with portable and mobile alternating current equipment for weld,

construction and casting tests.

One of the disadvantages of half wave magnetization is the

problem in demagnetization: the current does not reverse so it

cannot be used for demagnetizing. Alternating current can be used to

remove some residual magnetism, but the skin effect of alternating

current and the deeper penetration of half wave direct current cause
incomplete demagnetization.

Full Wave Direct Current

It is possible for electrical circuitry to not only block (or rectify)

the negative flowing current, but to invert it so that the number of

positive pulses is doubled. Figure 8.3 shows the waveform of single

phase full wave rectified alternating current. The resulting current is

usually called single phase full wave direct current.

Single phase full wave direct current has essentially the same

penetrating ability as three phase full wave direct current. The

current fluctuation causes a skin effect that is not significant. It is

also possible to incorporate switching devices in the circuitry that

Figure 8.3: Single phase full wave direct current waveform.

Time ---

46

Personnel Training Publications

Half wave direct

current output

reverse the current flow. This permits built in reversing direct

current demagnetization. The initial cost of single phase full wave

direct current equipment is much less than that of three phase full

wave equipment because of its simpler components.

One disadvantage of single phase units is the input power

requirement. Single phase equipment requires 1.73 times more input

current than three phase units. This becomes very significant at

higher magnetizing currents where input values can exceed 600 A.

Three Phase Full Wave Direct Current

Commercial electric power can be provided as three phase

alternating current, with each phase providing part of the total

current. Figure 8.4 shows the waveform of three phase alternating

current. Three phase full wave magnetic particle equipment rectifies

all three alternating current phases and inverts the negative flow to a

positive direction, producing a nearly flat line direct current

magnetizing current. Figure 8.5 shows the waveform of three phase

full wave direct current.

Figure 8.4: Three phase

alternating current waveform.

!I~~

1/60 2/60

Seconds

Figure 8.5: Three phase full

wave direct current

waveform.

Three phase full wave direct current has all of the advantages of

single phase full wave direct current, plus some additional benefits.

The current draw on the power line is spread over three phases,

reducing the demand by nearly half. The demand on the line is also

balanced, with each leg providing a portion of the current (single

phase pulls all of the current from two legs, resulting in an

unbalanced line load). Many power companies charge a higher rate

to customers with unbalanced, high current requirements.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

47

Chapter 9

Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application

INTRODUCTION

The particles used in magnetic particle testing are made of

ferromagnetic materials, usually combinations of iron and iron

oxides, having a high permeability and low retentivity. Particles

having high permeability are easily magnetized by and attracted to

the low level leakage fields at discontinuities. Low retentivity is

required to prevent the particles from being permanently

magnetized. Strongly retentive particles tend to cling together and to

any magnetic surface, resulting in reduced particle mobility and

increased background accumulation.

Particle sizes are very small, ranging from about 0.0005 to

0.015 em (0.0002 to 0.006 in.) in commonly used formulations.

Each magnetic particle formulation always contains a range of sizes

and shapes to produce optimum results for the intended use. The

smallest particles are more easily attracted to and held by the low

level leakage fields at very fine discontinuities; larger particles can

more easily bridge across coarse discontinuities where the leakage

fields are usually stronger. Elongated particles are included,

particularly in the case of dry powders, because these rod shaped

particles easily align themselves with leakage fields not sharply

defined, such as those that occur over subsurface discontinuities.

Globular shapes are included to aid the mobility and uniform

dispersion of particles on a surface.

Magnetic particles may be applied as a dry powder, or wet media,

using either water or a high flash point petroleum distillate as a

liquid media. Dry powders are available in various colors so the user

can select the color that contrasts best with the color of the surfaces

on which they are used.

Colors for use with ordinary visible light are red, gray, black or

yellow. Red and black colored particles are available for use in wet

baths with ordinary light, and yellow-green fluorescent particles for

use with ultraviolet radiation. Fluorescent particles are widely used

in wet baths because the bright fluorescent indications produced at

discontinuities are readily seen against the dark backgrounds that

exist in ultraviolet radiation testing areas.

Wetting agents and rust inhibitors must be used with water wet

baths. Sometimes a defoaming agent is needed. Usually the

magnetic particle concentrates include the correct amounts of

wetting agent and rust inhibitor for initial use. However, these

materials are available separately so that the concentration can be

49

maintained or adjusted to suit the particular conditions. If no rusting

can be tolerated, a higher concentration of rust inhibitor is used. If

the test objects have an oily film, more wetting agent is required so

that the test object's surfaces will be completely wetted and covered
with the bath. Breaking of the bath into rivulets as it is applied over

a test object is an indication of the need for test object cleaning.

Reference should be made to the manufacturer's recommendations

for the correct quantity of wetting agent. No additives other than the

magnetic particles themselves are necessary with petroleum distillate

baths.

The use of water wet baths should be carefully controlled to

prevent corrosion and provide wettability of ferromagnetic

components. This requires regular chemical analysis of corrosive

inhibitor and wetting agent concentration. Wet magnetic particles are

available in aerosol, mix and premix forms for field tests.

Magnetic particles in dry form may be applied by hand, using

rubber squeeze bulbs or plastic squeeze bottles equipped with

perforated caps similar to an ordinary salt shaker but with smaller

holes. The objective is to lay down a light cloud of powder on the

test object. This is usually accomplished by using a combination of

bulb squeezing and tossing of the powder toward the area being

tested.

Dry powder is also applied using handheld guns and compressed

air. One such device has the gun integrated with the powder

container and operates from an ordinary compressed air line. Using

a trigger, the technician controls the discharge of a powder cloud of

low velocity air for removing excess powder to better reveal

indications.

A more elaborate gun powder blower has a motor driven

compressor, with a powder container and air powder mixer. A

multichannel rubber hose connects to the gun. A work light is

contained in the gun tip to illuminate the testing area. A trigger on

the gun controls the discharge of the powder and air mixture and the

blow off air. More elaborate production systems have been built

using this same principle of operation. In these cases, the discharge

nozzles are mechanically controlled, as is the movement of test

objects through the machine. Spent powder is automatically

retrieved and reused.

Current Level and Particle Application

Two methods of processing are used in magnetic particle testing.

The method to use in a given case depends on the magnetic

retentivity of the test object being tested and the desired sensitivity

of the testing to be made. Highly retentive test objects may be tested

using the residual method. The continuous method must be used on

test objects having low retentivity. For a given magnetizing current

or applied magnetizing field, the continuous method offers the

greatest sensitivity for revealing discontinuities.

50

Personnel Training Publications

Wet method media may be applied to retentive test objects, which

have been magnetized using the induced current method, while the

test object is being magnetized or at any subsequent time. If applied

to low retentivity test objects while being magnetized, careful

control of the bath application is required to prevent washing away

of indications after the magnetizing current has ceased.

On some test objects having very fine transverse discontinuities,

it may be necessary to apply the liquid media (bath) while the test

object is in a vertical or near vertical position. This allows the liquid

to flow downward by gravity and across the discontinuities assisting

in the formation of those indications that may be slow to develop.

Test objects having fine grinding cracks may require this technique.

In extreme cases, as much as 5 s may be needed to fully develop

slow forming indications. For test objects having extensive grinding

cracks, fatigue or heat treat cracks, 0.5 to 1 s is usually enough time

to form visible indications, particularly when the media is

fluorescent.

Test objects made of low retentivity steels must have wet method

media applied while they are being magnetized. Test objects that

have smooth machined surfaces will need extra care when handled

and tested to prevent washing away of indications by Equid retained

on the surface. On test objects having rougher surfaces, such as

those produced by sand blasting, indications are usually held by

mechanical bond so that washing away of indications is less of a

problem. However, the rough surface finish tends to accumulate

more particles, so bath concentrations must be carefully maintained.

CONTINUOUS METHOD

The advantage of greater sensitivity for the continuous method is

simple and basic. When the magnetizing force is applied to a

ferromagnetic test object, the field within the test object rises to a
maximum. This value or intensity is derived from the strength of the

magnetizing force and the material permeability of the test object.

When the magnetizing force is removed, the residual magnetism in

the test object is always less than the field present while the

magnetizing force was acting. The amount of difference depends on

the retentivity of the material. The continuous method, for a given

value of magnetizing current, is always more sensitive than the

residual as determined by the strength of field in the test object.

Techniques have been developed for the continuous method that

make it faster than the residual method. The indication is produced

at the time of magnetization, whereas the residual method requires

two steps: magnetization and application of particles, plus the added

time for indications to build up if the immersion method is used. The

continuous method is preferred unless special circumstances make

the residual method more desirable.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

51

The continuous method can be used with the direct contact

method, the central conductor method or with a coil for longitudinal

magnetization. Test objects made of low retentivity materials, such

as low carbon steel, must be tested using the continuous method

because residual leakage fields at discontinuities in these materials

are too weak to produce good magnetic particle indications.

Timing of the wet media bath application and the magnetizing

current is very important when using the continuous method. A test

object should be flooded with wet media before the current is

applied. At the moment of, or just before, application of current, the

media stream is turned off or diverted from the test object before the

magnetic pulse ends. This allows the test object to be covered with a

mobile layer of fluid when current is applied. Indications can then

form at discontinuities. Turning off or diverting the bath stream

before the magnetizing field is terminated ensures that the force of

the bath stream will not interfere with the formation of indications.

Maintaining the magnetizing field for a short time after the bath

stream ceases allows time for magnetic particle indications to form,

taking advantage of additional magnetic particles being made

available by surface drainage. On weakly retentive test objects, extra

care is needed after magnetizing to minimize any washing away of

indications by the retained bath on a test object's surface.

It should be noted, however, that the continuous method requires

more attention and alertness on the part of the technician than does

the residual method. Careless handling of the bath current sequence

can interfere seriously with reliable results. Normally the duration of

the coil magnetizing shot will vary from about 0.5 to 1 or 2 s,

depending on the difficulty involved in showing the discontinuities

being sought. In some instances, when large forgings or steel

castings are to be tested using the continuous method with bath

application by hand hose, the magnetizing current may be' left on

from 5 to 10 s, during which time the test object may be repeatedly

swept with the bath spray. The magnetizing field is maintained for
1 to 2 s after the final spray has ceased or been diverted. This latter

technique also applies to circular magnetization when large test

objects are processed using contact or central conductors.

Wet Continuous Method

The continuous method implies that the magnetizing force is

acting while the magnetic particles are applied. When the current is

on, maximum flux density will be created in the test object for the

magnetizing force being used. In some cases, usually when

alternating current or half wave direct current is the magnetizing

current being used, the current is actually left on, sometimes for

minutes at a time, while the magnetic particles are applied. This is

more often needed in dry method applications than in the wet. To

leave the current on for long durations of time is not practical in

most instances, nor is it necessary. The heavy current required for

proper magnetization can cause overheating of test objects and

52

Personnel Training Publications

contact burning or damage to the equipment if allowed to flow for

any appreciable length of time.

In practice, the magnetizing current is normally on for 0.5 s at a

time. All that is required is that sufficient magnetic particles are in

the zone and free to move while the magnetizing current flows. The

bath ingredients are selected and formulated so that the particles can

and do move through the film of liquid on the surface of the test

object and form strong, readable indications. This is one reason why
the viscosity of the bath and bath concentration are so important,

since anything that tends to reduce the number of available particles

or to slow their movement tends to reduce the build up of

indications.

Many methods are used to apply wet bath magnetic particles. The

methods range from simple pouring of a bath onto a test object to

large industrial systems in which the bath is applied automatically

either by dumping or spraying. The most common method for

application is through the use of a handheld nozzle and recirculating

pump on stationary units. Occasionally, lever operated sprayers or

aerosol containers are used.

RESIDUAL METHOD

The residual method is a method of testing in which magnetic

particles are applied to test objects after the test objects have been

magnetized. The residual method is used only when test objects are

magnetized with direct current. This method of testing is used when

test objects have sufficient retentivity to form adequate magnetic

particle indications at discontinuities. This method is used with both

longitudinal and circular magnetization techniques, direct contact

and central conductor methods.

Residual testing requires the test objects to be retentive enough to

hold magnetic particle indications at discontinuities. Usually, the use

of the residual method is limited to the search for discontinuities that

are open to the surface, such as cracks. Detection of subsurface

discontinuities requires the stronger leakage fields at discontinuities

that exist while the test object is being magnetized, as when the

continuous method is used. Residual testing permits the magnetizing

of test objects at one time and the application of magnetic particle

media at a subsequent time. When the central conductor method is

used, testing of holes or bores is facilitated, since testing takes place

after removal of the central conductor.

Care must be taken in the handling of test objects that have been

magnetized, particularly test objects having smooth or machined

surfaces, to avoid their being rubbed together or against other

ferromagnetic test objects. Such rubbing may produce localized

magnetized areas on surfaces that will attract and hold magnetic

particles. Magnetic particle indications produced on these areas are

nonrelevant and are called magnetic writing. A technician may

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 53

notice that magnetic writing indications are not as sharp as those

produced at surface cracks and is cautioned against misconstruing

such indications as being caused by subsurface discontinuities.

Whether an indication is caused by magnetic writing or by a

subsurface discontinuity can be determined by demagnetizing and

reprocessing the test object. Demagnetizing will remove the

magnetic writing. If the indication returns after demagnetizing and

reprocessing, it is an indication of a discontinuity at or near the

surface.

Amperages used with the residual method need be only great

enough to magnetize the test object sufficiently to show the type of

discontinuity being sought. Some gross discontinuities may require

only weakly magnetized test objects, and others, being more difficult

to find, may require the maximum residual field obtainable. The

residual magnetic field retained in a test object is always less than

the magnetic field strength that produced it. A maximum residual

field strength results when the magnetization level within the test

object reaches magnetic saturation. The use of magnetizing currents

greater than those needed to produce the maximum saturation field

strength are of no value with the residual method.

Technician experience is very helpful for determining the

amperage required to test an object using the residual method. A

technician should first determine whether or not an object can be

tested using the residual method. Any object to be tested using this

method requires that the object be retentive enough so that magnetic

particle indications will be formed at discontinuities. A rough

determination of a test object retentivity can be made by

magnetizing the test object in a coil having field strength of about

10000 direct current ampere turns. If after magnetizing the test

object can lift and hold an ordinary paper clip, the test object is

retentive enough for residual testing. If the test object will not hold a

paper clip, the use of the residual method can be ruled out.

Magnetic particle testing media may be applied by stream, spray

or immersion of the test object in a tank. Extra care is required when

using the immersion method, particularly with test objects that have

smooth surfaces, to avoid removing any indications by the rapid

removal of a test object from.the bath. To ensure uniform magnetic

bath concentration, the bath must be continuously agitated. The bath

concentration must be maintained. within specified limits. Too weak

a particle concentration will produce weak indications, and in

borderline cases may cause fine discontinuities to go undetected.

Too heavy a concentration produces heavy background

accumulations that reduce color contrast.

Most magnetic particle indications produced using the residual

method appear quickly on a test object. Longer times are required

when discontinuities are extremely fine. Formation of the indications

can sometimes be speeded up by holding the test object in a position

that will allow residual bath drainage to flow across the suspected

areas.

54

Personnel Training Publications

After a magnetic particle test, the test object could still be

retentive enough to be tested residually, depending on the nature of

the discontinuities expected to be found. In this case, the technician

must resort to testing of the object(s) using the continuous method,

testing for indications at discontinuities, then removing these

indications and reapplying the media to see if residual indications

are produced. The amperage used to form the indications found

during the continuous method will give a technician some indication

of amperage to use for residual testing.

The application of magnetic particle media with residual testing

is simply a matter of covering the area to be tested. Care should be

taken in the case of wet media to ensure that test objects are

adequately flooded using low velocity streams or sprays. The test

objects should be positioned to take advantage of any particle flow

resulting from drainage on a test object's surface. Some test objects

may need a longer drain time than others because indications may be

slower in forming on smooth surfaces. In some cases, on beating

rollers for example, formation of fine indications may be enhanced

by immersing the magnetized test object in liquid media for a

considerable time. This gives the leakage fields time to attract and

hold the maximum number of particles resulting in an increase in

sensiti vity.

Dry powders are used to detect gross indications. Care must be

taken when applying dry magnetic powders to test objects that have

been magnetized to avoid getting too much powder on a test surface.

A combination of a light blowing and tossing action, either from a

handheld container or a pressurized powder blower, is needed.

Additional care is also required when removing any excess powder

from a surface so as not to hinder formation of indications or

remove indications already formed.

The use of dry powder with the residual method has several

disadvantages. It is more difficult to apply to interior surfaces of a

test object than is wet media, it is more difficult to completely cover

a test object in a short time and removal of powder from a test

object can be a problem, particularly when the test object has not
been demagnetized. A cylindrical test object would be held in a near

vertical position, allowing the drainage flow across circumferential

(transverse) cracks.

Although the residual method is not as widely used today as the

continuous method, it does have some advantages that make it

attractive in some circumstances. The residual method is capable of

close control, and of giving uniform results to a greater degree than

the continuous method. The fact that it is applicable only to test

objects having relatively high retentivity is why the method is not

used more extensively.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book S5

Field Direction

The proper orientation of the magnetic field in the test object in

relation to the direction of the discontinuity is a more important

factor than the value or amount of the magnetizing current. Field

direction for circular magnetization is shown in Figure 9.1. For best

results, the magnetic lines of force should be at right angles to the

discontinuity to be detected. If the magnetic lines of force are

parallel to the discontinuity, there will be little magnetic leakage at

the discontinuity and therefore, if any indication is formed it is

likely to be extremely small. Discontinuities located in the direction

of current flow have the lowest probability of detection.

Discontinuities perpendicular to current flow have the highest

probability of detection.

Figure 9.1: Field direction for circular magnetization.

Magnetic flux lines

Magnetic Field Measurements

The measurement of magnetic flux or field strength, either within

a test object or at the test surface, is extremely complicated. There

have been several attempts to develop practical methods or devices

for this purpose, but these methods or devices have all been limited

in success and contain serious limitations. They do serve a purpose

in technique development if their limitations are understood. A

procedure or technique typically will be developed for a particular

test object using rules of thumb and past experience. The actual test

object will then be subjected to the proposed procedure, and the

devices will be used to check the field strength at critical points as a

comparative reference.

A hall effect gauss meter is a versatile magnetic field indicating

instrument. It applies a current to a hall effect probe or sensor and

amplifies the output voltage that is proportional to the measured

magnetic flux density. There are several limitations that generally

prevent its use as a shop instrument. First, it is a laboratory

instrument and relatively fragile. It does not withstand normal use

required in a magnetic particle testing shop.

Another major limitation is that it measures only the flux passing

through the probe or sensor at right angles. Placing the probe on the

test object surface merely indicates the flux at that point and does

not measure the field in the test object surface. Some attempt has

been made to cut slots or drill holes in critical areas of sample test
56

Personnel Training Publications

objects and then insert the probe. This greatly improves the

sensitivity and is perhaps the best approach at this time.

Unfortunately, the availability of test objects in maintenance is

extremely limited, and practical application of the hall effect gauss

meter is confined to either the laboratory or new manufacturing

operations.

Another magnetic field and direction indicator is called a pie

gage, as shown in Figure 9.2. Pie gages are available in many

configurations. Any variation used must be qualified to a particular

procedure or standard. Qualification of the pie gage is the

responsibility of the Level III technician. The device is essentially a

disk of high permeability material divided into four or more sections

by two perpendicular cuts that simulate discontinuities. In practice,

the indicator is held firmly on a magnetized test object, causing

some of the magnetic field to pass through the disk. It should be

remembered that the indicator is more truly indicating the direction

of the magnetizing force through the indicator, rather than the field

strength, through the surface layers of the magnetized test object.

These form strings in a leakage field and bridge the area over the

discontinuity. Alternating current with dry powder is excellent for

surface cracks that are not exceedingly fine, but, as shown in the

comparisons, are of little value for discontinuities lying even slightly

below the surface.

A comparison of the effectiveness of the dry method and the wet

method for detecting discontinuities lying wholly below the surface,

using the same unhardened tool steel ring, shown in Figure 9.3,

indicates that the dry method is superior to the wet method for this

purpose at any value of direct current used.

Figure 9.3: Tool steel ring.

Figure 9.2: Pie gage.

1.9 to

Eight low carbon steel pie

\ sections furnace brazed

~ ~ together and copper plated.

0.8 cm

'Nonferrous trunions

max

_l_ [==1J[~~c~o~pp~e~r=Sh=i:::::m~=:::::L

0.3 COl I 0 ,: :,1 7ZJ

)\.9 em

X~

3X

~__l

5S
6 + C'j

----,--J1

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

57

l:"-

2.2 em

However, when the problem is to find very fine surface cracks,

there is no question as to the superiority of the wet method,

whatever form of magnetizing current is used. In some cases, direct

current is selected for use with the wet method to get the advantage

of better indications of discontinuities that lie just below the surface,

especially on bearing surfaces and aircraft test objects. The wet

method offers the advantage of easy complete coverage of the

surface of test objects of all sizes and shapes. Dry powder is often

used for very local tests that are comparatively large in size.

CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION

Circular magnetization is used for the detection of radial

discontinuities around edges of holes or openings in test objects. It is

also used for the detection of longitudinal discontinuities that lie in

the same direction as the current flows, either in a test object or in a

test object that a central conductor passes through.

A circular magnetic field is generated in a test object whenever

an electric current is passed through it or through an electrical

conductor that passes through the test object. The circular field

around the inside of the test object will be wholly contained within

the test object in the case of a concentric cylinder. No magnetic

poles will be produced on the test object. Poles will be produced if

the test object is not a concentric cylinder, is irregularly shaped, or if

the path of the current flow is not located on the test object's

geometric axis.

The magnetic poles, in these cases, are caused by a relatively

small portion of the magnetic flux that passes out of the test object

and into the air that surrounds the test object. The no-pole condition

in a concentric cylinder occurs both while the magnetizing current is

flowing and after current flow ceases. The test object is thus

residually magnetized, but since no magnetic poles exist, the test

object appears to be in an unmagnetized state. However, if the test

object is cut, such as when a keyway is made, some of the field will

pass out and over the cut producing opposite magnetic poles on each

side of the cut. Such poles can hold chips or metal that can interfere

with subsequent machining operations or damage bearing surfaces.

Care is needed in the case of circular magnetization which may not

be detectable, and appropriate means to assure demagnetization must

be taken.
Two techniques are used to obtain circular magnetization in test

objects: by passage of electric current through the test objects

themselves, called the direct contact method; or by passage of the

current through a conductor that in turn passes through the test

objects, called the central conductor method.

58 Personnel Training Publications

Direct Contact

Direct contact is generally made by placing test objects between

clamping heads. Lead face plates or copper braid pads must be used

to prevent arcing, overheating and splatter. Wetting of the contact

plates with the suspension media before current application helps to

prevent overheating. On large test objects, current contact is

sometimes made by clamping lug terminated cables to the test object

using nonmagnetic C clamps. Regardless of how the contact is

made, the test object should always make as good an electrical

contact as practical. This will minimize any heating or arcing at the

juncture. This means contact surfaces must be clean and free of paint

or similar coatings and have adequate pressure applied to achieve

good contact over a sufficient area of the test surface. Any excessive

heating at the contact points may bum the test object, affecting its

temper and finish.

Central Conductor

A test object can be circularly magnetized by passing electrical

current through a conductor positioned coaxially in a hole or

opening, as was shown in Figure 3.9 in Chapter 3. A magnetizing

field does exist outside a central conductor carrying current so the

walls surrounding a central conductor become magnetized, making

possible the detection of discontinuities that parallel the central

conductor. Central conductors are any high conductive material,

such as a copper bar or cable, placed in the center of the test object

to be magnetized. The central conductor method should be used if

longitudinal discontinuities on the inside of tubular or cylindrically

shaped test objects are to be detected.

Theoretically, the magnetic field is zero on the inside surface of

such test objects unless a central conductor is used. The direct

contact method may not produce reliable results.in this case,

particularly if the test object is a concentric tube or cylinder with

good current contact at each end. Either the central conductor or the

direct contact method can be used to detect discontinuities on the

outside surfaces of such test objects. Because the circular field

around a central conductor is at right angle to the axis of the

conductor, the central conductor method is useful for the detection

of discontinuities that lie in a direction parallel with the conductor.

The central conductor method is also very useful for detecting

discontinuities, usually cracks, which form radially out of holes in

castings. A test object having a hole or opening that is to be tested

for inside and outside discontinuities is usually positioned with the

conductor centered coaxially in the hole or opening. On very large

test objects having large openings, the central conductor may be

located close to the inside surface and several tests made around the
inside periphery of the opening. Placing the conductor close to the

inside surface reduces the current requirement because the strength

of the circular field decreases with distance away from the

conductor.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

59

Amperage Requirements

A number of factors must be considered when determining what

current amperage to use for circular magnetization.

1. The type of equipment and capacity available.

2. The type of discontinuity and its expected ease or difficulty of

detection.

3. The test object's size, shape and cross sectional area through

which the current will flow.

4. The amount of heating that can be tolerated in the test object

at the current contact areas.

Another method is the use of a small, metal adhesive indicator.

The indicator is a silicon iron material and measures about

1.3 em (0.5 in.) long by 0.6 em (0.25 in.) wide by 0.03 em (0.01 in.)

thick. A 0.008 ern (0.003 in.) square slot is cut across the 0.6 em

(0.25 in.) dimension. In practice, the indicator is placed in a critical

area on the test object with the slotted side firmly against the test

object surface to ensure intimate contact. The testing process is

carried out and if an indication forms at the slot, it is assumed that

there is adequate field strength to reveal actual discontinuities in the

test object. The indicator has a length-to-diameter ratio that is

different from the test object; there may be considerable difference

between the permeability of the indicator and test object. The

indicator could develop a greater field strength than the test object

with the slot readily indicated but with insufficient field strength in

,the test object.

The use of an eddy current device in a prescribed manner can

effectively indicate the direction and relative level of magnetic field

intensity at the surface of a magnetized test object. To relate the

meter readings of flux density necessitates the development of a

separate calibration curve for each material with full consideration

given to all the physical and metallurgical properties of the test

object.

Since maximum material permeability, with its associated

saturation level, is an optimum characteristic in selecting a

magnetization level, it would appear from a practical aspect that an

eddy current device would serve well to determine this

characteristic. Tests have shown that when an eddy current probe

(insensitive to stray magnetic fields external to the test object) is

placed against the test object and the test object is magnetized with

increasing current, the indicating pointer will not significantly move

off its zero position until near maximum material saturation has been

achieved.

To test for discontinuities at a specific location on a test object

without using formulas or rules of thumb, it is only necessary to

place the probe on the test object in the area of suspected

discontinuities and increasethe current until the indicating pointer

deflects, signifying near maximum material saturation. At this time,

60 Personnel Training Publications

further processing may be initiated with reasonable assurance that

suspected discontinuities, if present, will be indicated. Unlike some

laboratory instruments used to measure magnetic field intensity,

eddy current devices are designed to withstand the comparative

rough handling that may be found in a magnetic particle testing

shop.

SENSITIVITY LEVEL

Any factor that affects the formation of indications at a

discontinuity affects the sensitivity of magnetic particle testing. Two

of the most important of these factors are the amperage of the

magnetizing current and the control of the magnetic particle testing

media.

Amperage

The formation of magnetic particle indications at discontinuities

depends on the strength of the leakage fields at the discontinuities.

Since the leakage fields are a part of the field generated by the

magnetizing current, greater magnetizing current will produce

greater leakage field strength. Thus, the sensitivity of a magnetic

particle test is directly related to the current amperage.

Too low amperage may produce leakage fields too weak to form

readily discemable indications. Too high an amperage creates a

heavy background accumulation of particles that may mask an

indication. In circular magnetization, too high amperage may bum

current contact points of a test object. Actual amperage requirements

should be calculated. Due to complex configurations, a shim or

penetrameter can be used for verification of calculations.

Testing Media

The sensitivity level is affected not only by the current amperage,

but also by the kind of magnetic particle testing media, its control

and its applications.

Wet method media, because of their smaller particle sizes, are the

most sensitive for the detection of surface discontinuities. Dry

powders are better for detecting deep subsurface discontinuities.

Fluorescent magnetic particle materials have a higher apparent

sensitivity than do those used with ordinary light, such as the blacks

and reds. The fluorescent indications are more easily and quickly

seen in the darkened areas associated with ultraviolet radiation tests.

Testing of objects made of materials only moderately retentive

requires careful control of the way the testing media is applied.

Usually, maximum sensitivity is obtained by applying the media

while a test object is being magnetized and ending it before the

magnetizing field is removed. This is also true in the case of

automatic wet method testing in which the main bath stream is shut

-..-----.---.--~-..-.. --------

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 61

off shortly before the magnetizing current is ended, to avoid washing

off indications already formed.

Particle concentration in the baths must be closely controlled if

maximum sensitivity is to be obtained. Sensitivity is lowered if

concentrations are too low because of the lack of sufficient magnetic

particles to be readily discernible. If too high, fine indications may

be masked by heavy background accumulations.

Contaminants, particularly in wet baths, can result in lowered

sensitivity. For example, lubricating oils and greases cause a blue

background fluorescence that reduces contrast, causing fluorescent

particle indications to be less visible.

Sensitivity of dry powders depends on the type of powder

selected, how carefully it is applied and its color. Most powders are

made for general use, and have a wide mix of particle sizes to favor

the detection of both fine surface and deep subsurface

discontinuities. A powder color is usually selected that will provide

the best color contrast with the color of the surface on which it is

being used. Care is needed in applying the powder. A light tossing

and air blowing action is needed to allow the particles to migrate to

and be held by the leakage fields at discontinuities. Excessive

application of powder can cause indications to be lost in background

accumulation.

The magnetizing force at any point on the outside surface of a

test object through which electric current is flowing will vary with

the current amperage. The greater the amperage, the greater will be

this magnetizing force. Inside the test object, just under the point on
the surface, the magnetic flux density will be the product of this

magnetizing force and the magnetic permeability of the test object at

that point. It is this magnetic flux density that determines the

leakage field strengths at discontinuities. Thus, current amperage is

directl y related to the strength of leakage fields at discontinuities,

and it is these leakage fields that capture and hold magnetic

particles. The more difficult the discontinuities are to detect, the

weaker the leakage fields for a given amperage, and greater

amperage will be required to form discernible magnetic particle

indications. The discontinuities referred to in this case are those that

parallel the direction of current flow.

Direct Contact

A problem arises when deciding what amperage to use for a

given test object, particularly when the test object has a complicated

shape. A rule of thumb suggesting 1000 A per inch of diameter is

useful when the test object is reasonably uniform and cylindrical in

shape. Except for some special alloys and cast irons, the use of

1000 A per inch of diameter will usually ensure more than enough

field strength to detect surface and near surface discontinuities. In

highly permeable material, lower amperage per inch of diameter will

produce adequate field strength within the test object.

62

Personnel Training Publications

Central Conductor

Amperage requirements using a central conductor will depend on

the test object's size and the diameter of the opening through which

the conductor is to be located. In the case of a centrally located

conductor, amperage requirements may range from 100 A per inch

of hole diameter to as much as 1000 A per inch, depending on test

object material and the nature of the suspected discontinuities. Keep

in mind that the magnetizing field strength around a central

conductor decreases with distance away from the conductor, with the

strongest flux field being present at the surface inside the central

conductor's hole.

Radial discontinuities at the ends of holes and openings can also

be detected using the central conductor method, since some portion

of the magnetic lines of force will intercept these discontinuities.

The central bar conductor should have an outside diameter as close

as possible to the inside diameter of the hole of the test object. Use

Eq. 9.1 to determine the number of times the test object must be

rotated in equal movements and remagnetized to ensure complete

testing has been obtained.

(Dp 7r)

Eq.9.1 S = ( )

4xO.9Dc

where Dp is the diameter of the test object (inner diameter for central

conductor, outer diameter for coil); D, is outer diameter for central

conductor, inner diameter for coil; and S is number of turns required

for complete overlapping coverage.

Atest object is said to have been longitudinally magnetized when

the field in it is about parallel with a major axis. A test object

magnetized in a coil, for example, will be longitudinally magnetized

in a direction parallel to the coil axis. A characteristic of a test object

that is magnetized longitudinally will be the appearance of opposite

magnetic poles, north and south, at the extreme ends of the test

object. The existence of the poles is a disadvantage when

magnetizing and testing because much of the leakage flux from the

pole ends is not parallel with the test object surface. This reduces the

magnitude of flux that is parallel, thereby weakening the leakage

fields at discontinuities on the end regions. The poles are an

advantage in demagnetizing because they make it easy to detect

magnetized test objects and to confirm removal of the residual fields

after demagnetizing procedures.

Longitudinal magnetization is used for the detection of

circumferential discontinuities that lie in a direction transverse to, or

at about right angles to, a test object's axis. Circumferential

discontinuities around a cylinder, for example, are detected by

magnetizing the cylinder longitudinally in a direction parallel with

its axis. A portion of the longitudinal field will cross the

discontinuities, creating leakage fields that can capture and hold

magnetic particles to form indications at the discontinuities.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

63

Techniques for longitudinal magnetization are accomplished in a

number of ways; magnetization in a coil being the most widely used

method. Test objects can be magnetized longitudinally by placing

them between the pole pieces of a pair of electromagnets with the

fields of the two electromagnets being directed in the same direction

through the test object. Still another method is the magnetizing of

test objects between the feet of yoke or probe, either the

electromagnetic or permanent magnet type.

Coil Shot

The usual way to longitudinally magnetize a test object is by

placing the test object in a rigid coil on a stationary magnetic

particle testing unit. The test object may be laid on the bottom inside

of the coil where the field is strongest, or the test object may be

supported in the coil by the contact heads of the unit. Special

supports are provided on some testing units for long, heavy test

objects permitting rotation of objects for testing. Coils are usually

mounted on rails, permitting movement along a long test object for

multiple tests (multiple coil shots). Because the effective field

extends only 15 to 23 em (6 to 9 in.) on either side of a coil,

multiple tests are needed on long test objects.

Cable Wrap

Cable wrapping a coil around large or heavy test objects is a

common practice. Flexible, insulated copper cable is used. A cable

wrapped coil is connected to a magnetic particle mobile or portable

power pack or it can be connected to the contact heads of a

stationary test unit. The type of power source to be used will depend

on the kind of current and amperages needed to accomplish the

particular desired test, both magnetizing and demagnetizing.

Cable lengths used to connect cable wrapped coils must be kept

as short as possible to minimize cable resistance losses and aid in

obtaining higher current amperages. In the case of alternating

current, and to some extent half wave direct current, in addition to

cable resistance, there is the inductance of the coil circuit that further

reduces current output. Twisting or taping the coil cable leads

together aids in reducing the losses of the coil circuit.

Coil inductance is the ratio of the total flux (sources and

variations) and the current. The magnetic flux and current are

directly proportional to the coil opening's area for straight coils. The

henry (H) is the unit of inductance of a coil.

Coil inductance increases directly with the coil opening area, and

increases as the square of the turns in the coil. Keeping each of these

factors as small as possible, particularly when using alternating

current, ensures the maximum amperage obtainable from the power

supply. To keep coil areas low, cable coils should be wrapped

directly on a test object or on some insulating material only a little

larger than the test object. Multiple tests along a long test object,

using a coil of only a few turns is preferable to using a coil of many

64

Personnel Training Publications

turns over the length of the test object. The latter is occasionally

done in cases where performing multiple tests is not possible or

when a power pack having the required output voltage and current
capacity is available. Any cables and cable leads used with and for

cable wrapped coils must have good quality electrical connections.

Poor connections result in overheating and reduced coil amperage.

A number of factors must be considered when determining

current amperage for longitudinal magnetization of test objects.

] . The coil diameter and the number of turns.

2. The length-to-diameter ratio of the test object.

3. The size, shape and composition of the test object.

4. The position of the test object within the coil.

5. The kind of discontinuities being sought and their ease of

detection.

6. The magnetic coupling component, or the fill factor of the

coil to the test object.

The magnetizing field strength H in the center of the magnetizing

coil increases or decreases in direct proportion to the coil current

and its number of turns. Also, the field strength will decrease if the

coil radius is made larger, or will increase if the radius is made

smaller. The field is theoretically zero in the coil center and

increases to a maximum at the inside edge of the conductor(s). Thus,

a test object placed against the inside of a coil, for example lying in

the bottom of the coil (as was shown in Figure 3.8 of Chapter 3),

will experience greater magnetizing field strength than when it is

centered in the coil.

While being magnetized in a coil, a magnetic test object has

magnetic poles generated at its ends. Rules of thumb have been

developed experimentally that include the effects of a test object's

magnetic permeability, which is assumed to be about 500 or greater,

and the demagnetizing effects of the poles at the test object ends.

These rules of thumb use the length-to-diameter ratio of a test object

that for many regularly shaped test objects is easily determined from

test object dimensions or can be estimated in the case of irregularly

shaped test objects.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 65

Chapter 10

Magnetization by Means of Electric Current

Electric currents are used to create or induce magnetic fields in

eJectrically conducting materials. Since it is possible to alter the

directions of magnetic fields by controlling the direction of the

electrical magnetizing current, the arrangement of current paths is

used to induce magnetic flux lines at right angles to expected

discontinuities in the ferromagnetic test object.

CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATION

Electric current passing through a straight conductor (a wire or

bar, for example) creates a circumferential magnetic field around

that conductor, as shown in Figure lO.1a. The magnetic lines of

force are always at right angles to the direction of the current that

induces the magnetic field.

To determine the direction taken by magnetic lines of force

around a conductor, imagine that the conductor is grasped with the

right hand so that the thumb points in the direction of the electric
current. The fingers then point in the direction taken by the magnetic

field Iines surrounding the conductor. This is called the right hand

rule, as was shown in Figure 3.2 in Chapter 3.

The passage of current induces a magnetic field strength in the

conductor as well as in surrounding space. An object magnetized in

this manner is said to have a circular field or to be circularly

magnetized, as shown in Figure lO.1b.

Figure 10.1: Fields in circular magnetization: (a) circumferential magnetic field

surrounding a straight conductor carrying an electric current; (b) circular magnetization of

a test object through which a magnetizing electric current passes.

(a) (b)

Magnetic field

rf~f-

-L9 ~ ~

.J . .J vi: J

Magnetizing current Conductor

Magnetic field

There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory regarding current polarity.

Therefore, the current polarity is not shown.

67

Circular Magnetization of Solid Test Objects

Circular magnetization can be induced into a test object by prod,

direct or indirect contact methods. It is also possible to generate a

circular field in localized areas of the test object using prods to pass

current through the area being tested.

Circular Magnetization with Prods

The prod electrodes (generally solid copper or braided copper

tips) are first pressed firmly against the test object. The magnetizing

current is passed through the prods and into the area of the object in

contact with the prods. This establishes a circular magnetic field in

the test object around and between each prod electrode.

The use of alternating current limits the prod technique to the

detection of surface discontinuities. Half wave rectified direct

current is more desirable here because its greater particle mobility

helps detect surface and near surface discontinuities with greater

particle mobility.

The prod technique is generally used with dry magnetic particle

materials because of increased particle mobility on rough surfaces

and better penetration. In the United States, wet magnetic particles

are not normally used with the prod technique because of electrical

and fire hazards. In Europe, wet particles are regularly used with

prods to achieve higher sensitivity. Care should be taken to maintain

clean prod tips, to minimize heating at the point of contact and to

prevent prod arc strikes and local heating of the test surface.

Aluminum or copper braided tip prods or pads (rather than solid

copper tips) are recommended because of the possibility of copper

penetration if arcing occurs. A remote control switch should be built

into the prod handles to permit control of the current after

positioning and before removing to minimize arcing.

Circular Magnetization with Direct Contact

To induce a circular magnetic field in a solid test object, current

may be passed through the object. This creates poles on both sides

of discontinuities that are parallel to the length of the test object.

These poles attract fine magnetic particles and form an indication of

the discontinuity. Figure 10.2 shows the direct contact method for

producing circular fields in a ring to indicate circumferential cracks.

To achieve a reliable test of the entire cylindrical surface, two

magnetizations are required.

This is done because the points of contact (where the current

enters and leaves the ring) are not adequately magnetized for

discontinuity indication. The ring must therefore be turned

90 degrees and then retested.

68 Personnel Training Publications

Circular Magnetization with Induced Current

Figure 10.3 shows a current flowing circumferentially around the

ring, which can be induced by making the ring a single tum, short

circuited secondary transformer. To accomplish this effect, a

standard magnetizing coil can be used.

The ring is placed inside the coil with its axis parallel to that of

the coil. When the coil is energized with alternating current, the

arrangement constitutes an air core transformer; the magnetizing coil

is the primary and the ring is the single tum secondary. The total

current induced in the ring is greatly increased by inserting a

laminated core of ferromagnetic material through the ring.

For materials with high magnetic retentivity, direct current can be

applied in the technique called quick break, and the objects may then

be tested by the residual method. Quick break is when a direct

current field is caused to collapse suddenly because of an abruptly

interrupted magnetizing current. The circular field generated by the

induced current leaves the test object with a strong residual

induction. A bearing race is a good example of the type of object

that can be tested advantageously by this method.

For test objects made of soft material with low retentivity, the

continuous method must be used and the collapsing direct current

field method is not applicable. By using alternating current (or half

wave direct current) in the magnetizing coil, the current may be left

on and an alternating current (or half wave direct current) of the

same frequency as the magnetizing current is induced in the ring.

This current should be allowed to flow long enough to produce

indications by the continuous method.

Figure 10.2: Direct contact method of

magnetizing ring shaped objects to locate

circumferential discontinuities.

Circular magnetic field

Discontinuities

c.__ ._. ---'

Figure 10.3: Induced current method of

magnetizing ring shaped objects to locate

circumferential discontinuities.

Magnetic field
Magnetizing coil

Laminated core

Ring shaped test object

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom TrainingBook

Induced current path

Circumferential

discontinuity

69

Circular Magnetization of Hollow Test Objects

With hollow objects or tubes, the inside surfaces may be as

important for testing as the outside surfaces. Since a magnetic field

surrounds a current carrying conductor, it is possible to induce a

satisfactory magnetic field by sliding the test object onto an internal

conducting bar, as shown in Figure lOAa. Passing current through

the bar induces a circular magnetic field throughout the volume of

the test object.

When a conducting bar is not available, an electrical cable may

be passed through the test object and connected to receptacles in the

magnetic particle unit, as shown in Figure lOAb. For large diameter

cylinders, the cable can be brought back on the outside of the test

object, then threaded through again; each pass through increases the

effective field by a factor of two. For long finished tubes,

uninsulated conductors are not permitted because of arc bums.

Figure 10.4: Circular magnetization of cylindrical test objects using an internal current

carrying conductor: (a) internal bar conductor; and (b) internal cable conductor.
(a) (b)

There is disagreement between common practice and electrical theory regarding current polarity.

Therefore, the current polarity is not shown.

LONGITUDINAL MAGNETIZATION

Electrical current can be used to create a longitudinal magnetic

field in magnetic materials. When electric current is passed through

a coil, a magnetic field is established lengthwise or longitudinally

within the coil.

The nature and direction of this field are the result of the field

around the conductor which forms the turns of the coil. Application

of the right hand rule to the conductor at any point in the coil shows

that the field within the coil is longitudinal. Longitudinal

magnetization methods used are coil magnetization, field flow

magnetization and yoke magnetization.

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Personnel Training Publications

Flux lines

COIL MAGNETIZATION

When magnetic material is placed within a coil, most of the

magnetic lines of force created by the electric current concentrate

themselves in the test object and induce longitudinal magnetization.

With a transverse discontinuity in the test object, magnetic poles are

formed on both sides of the crack by leakage fields. These poles

attract magnetic particles to form an indication of the discontinuity.

A magnetic field has been induced at right angles to the

discontinuity.

Test objects too large to fit in a fixed coil can be magnetized

longitudinally by making a coil from several turns of flexible cable.

The use of portable magnetizing equipment with cables and prods or

clamps broadens the use of magnetic particle testing. There is no

theoretical limit to the size of the object that can be tested in this

manner.

Important Considerations in Coil Magnetization

To induce an adequate longitudinal magnetic field with a coil, the

long dimension of the test object should be at least twice as great as

its short dimension, or end pieces should be added, and the long axis

of the test object should be parallel to the coil axis. This is especially

true in the case of irregularly shaped test objects, because the shape

of the object affects the direction of the induced flux.

When a wheel, smaller in diameter than a coil, is placed in the

coil, as shown in Figure 10.5, a field is induced in the white areas of

the test object in such a direction that radial discontinuities create

indications. However, radial cracks in the shaded areas of the test

object are parallel (or nearly parallel) to the induced magnetic field,

so that few or no indications are formed. Furthermore, magnetic

poles and attractive forces occur in these areas. To indicate radial

discontinuities in the shaded areas, it is necessary to rotate the test

object 90 degrees and remagnetize it, although this technique is not

recommended.
The detection of radial cracks in a test object of this shape is

more accurately and rapidly done using an internal conductor, as

shown in Figure 10.6. Better methods for finding circumferential

discontinuities in ring shaped test objects are shown in Figures 10.2

and 10.3. Ring shaped objects, discs or wheels are best checked for

circumferential cracks using the induced method of Figure 10.3. An

iron core, for example, is used with a coil surrounding it to produce

a toroidal field. This method has an advantage over the direct

contact method, shown in Figure 10.2, in that no danger of arcing or

burning exists, and the field is constant throughout the test object.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

71

Figure 10.5: Coil magnetization of a

circular shape; radial discontinuities will be

indicated only in white areas (to reveal

radial discontinuities in the dark areas, the

test object must be rotated 90 degrees and

remagnetized); circular discontinuities will

be indicated in the shaded areas (to reveal

circular discontinuities in the white areas,

the test object must be rotated 90 degrees

and remagnetized).

Figure 10.6: Internal conductor method

used to produce circular magnetization:

(a) several ring shaped test objects

magnetized simultaneously; and (b) close

up of a ring with cracks in several

locations and orientations.

(a)

(b)

FIELD FLOW MAGNETIZATION

Another means of producing a longitudinal field in a test object is

the field flow method. Here, the field is produced by electromagnets

and passed through the test object. The field is almost wholly

contained within the test object.

Whereas there is theoretically no limit to the length of a test

object that can be magnetized this way, as a practical matter with an

alternating current source, power requirements limit the effective

length to about 1.3 m (4 ft). However, special techniques using

direct current have accomplished longitudinal magnetization in one

step for lengths over 3 m (10 ft).

The field flow method has some advantages over the current flow

(coil) method in some production applications.

1. Moving a magnetizing coil several times may be impractical

and time consuming.

2. Test objects with length-to-diameter ratios less than 3:1

require no special handling.

3. A consistent field wholly contained within a test object may

be required.

72 Personnel Training Publications

YOKE MAGNETIZATION

A longitudinal magnetic field can be induced in a test object or in

a limited area of a test object by using a handheld yoke. A yoke is a

Ushaped piece of soft magnetic material, either solid or laminated,

around which is wound a coil carrying the magnetizing current, as

shown in Figure lO.7a.

When a test object is placed across the opening of the Ushape

and the coil is energized, the test object completes the path of the

magnetic lines of force. This sets up a longitudinal field in the test

object between the ends of the yoke. Permanent magnetic yokes can

also be used to create a longitudinal magnetic field, as shown in

Figure lO.7b. Such yokes are often specified by their lifting power

or by the tangential field strength midway between the legs. The

tangential field strength is the field strength measured with a

magnetic penetrameter midway between the yoke legs.

Figure 10.7: Longitudinal lines of force induced by a yoke

magnet: (a) electrically energized yoke magnet; and

(b) permanent yoke magnet.

(a)

Coil

Flux field

(b)

Magnetic

particles

collectat crack
Combined Circular and Longitudinal Magnetization

Complete testing for discontinuities in different directions

requires that two or more magnetizations and tests be performed.

The test object should first be circularly magnetized and examined

for indications, then longitudinally magnetized and tested.

Demagnetization is the final step. It is critical to remember that

discontinuities are best detected when they are atright angles to the

magnetic lines of force.

Units of Measure and Terminology

One of the major sources for confusion when applying

electromagnetic field theory is the system of units used for

measurements. The centimeter gram second units, including the

electromagnetic system of units and the meter kilogram second

ampere units, are among the most familiar. However, other systems,

such as the absolute magnetic, the absolute electric and the

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

73

normalized system, are also used. What is more disturbing is that

mixed units are often used. For example, it is common for

practitioners to use SI units such as the ampere for electrical

quantities, and gaussian EMU units such as the gauss for magnetic

quantities. Only SI units are used throughout this section.

Another problem encountered in practice is the confusion

between magnetic field strength H, sometimes calledfield intensity,

and magnetic flux density B. The term magnetic field is often used
for H or B or both, depending on the situation. To avoid such

confusion, the quantity B is used consistently for the magnetic flux

density, whereas H is the magnetic field strength. Similarly, E is the

electric field intensity and D is the electric flux density.

TYPES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

All materials are affected by magnetic fields. Matter is made up

of atoms with a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a field or

cloud of negatively charged electrons. The electron field is in

continual motion, spinning around the nucleus. When the material is

subjected to a magnetic field, the electron orbits are slightly

distorted. The amount of this distortion (or the corresponding change

in magnetic characteristics) when subjected to an external magnetic

field provides a means of classifying materials into three groups:

diamagnetic, paramagnetic or ferromagnetic.

Diamagnetic Materials

The term diamagnetic refers to a substance with magnetic

permeability slightly less than that of a vacuum. When placed in a

strong magnetic field, their induced magnetism is in a direction

opposite to that of iron. Diamagnetic materials include mercury,

gold, bismuth and zinc.

Paramagnetic Materials

Paramagnetic denotes a substance with permeability slightly

greater than that of air. When such materials are placed in a strong

magnetic field, there is a slight alignment of the electron spin in the

direction of the magnetic flux flow. This alignment exists only as

long as the paramagnetic material is in the external magnetic field.

Aluminum, platinum, copper and wood are paramagnetic materials.

Ferromagnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic materials have a permeability greater than that of

air. When placed in an external magnetic field, the magnetic

domains align parallel with the external field and remain aligned for

some period of time after removal from the field. This continued

alignment after removal from the external field is called retentivity.

It can be an important property in some magnetic particle testing

procedures.

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Personnel Training Publications

CALCULATION OF MAGNETIC FORCE REQUIREMENTS

Prods

With prods, the circular magnetization strength is proportional to

the amperage used, but varies with prod spacing and the thickness of

the section being tested. It is recommended that a magnetizing

current of 90 to 110A for each 2.5 em (1 in.) of prod spacing should

be used for material under 2 em (0.75 in.) thick. A magnetizing

current of 100 to 125 A for each 2.5 em (l in.) of prod spacing is

recommended for material 2 em (0.75 in.) and over in thickness.

Prolonged energizing cycles may cause undesirable localized

overheating. Prod spacing less than 8 ern (3 in.) is usually not

practical because the particles tend to band around the prods,

making interpretation difficult. When the area of examination

exceeds a width of one quarter of the prod spacing, measured from a

centerline connecting the prod centers, the magnetic field intensity

should be verified at the edges of the area being examined.

Yokes

The field strength of a yoke (or a permanent magnet) can be

empirically determined by measuring its lifting power. If a hall

effect probe is used, it should be placed on the surface midway

between the poles.

Coil

Two rules of thumb have been developed for use in determining

coil amperages to use for longitudinal magnetization. One is for a

test object centered in a coil, and the other is for a test object located

against the inside surface of a coil. These rules of thumb apply

particularly to regular cylindrically shaped test objects, the diameters

of which do not exceed about one tenth that of the coil and the test

object length-to-diameter ratio does not exceed fifteen. Long test

objects having length-to-diameter ratios greater than fifteen will

require more than one test along their length. In these cases, the

most effective longitudinal field in a test object only extends about

23 em (9 in.) on each side of the coil. Amperages calculated using

the rule of thumb formulas will produce in cylindrically shaped steel

test objects a flux density of about 70000 lines/in.? (10 850 G),

which density is sufficient for detection of most surface and near

surface discontinuities.

A characteristic of longitudinal magnetization when using a coil

is the difficulty in producing good indications near the ends of the

test object. This difficulty is caused by the leakage field that

emanates from the magnetic poles generated at the test object ends.

The leakage field from these poles reduces the flux within the test

object, and because this leakage is at right angles to the surface, it

reduces particle mobility. This holds particles in the form of

background instead of permitting migration to form indications.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

75

Testing at the ends of cylindrically shaped test objects is

improved when the residual method is used and the test objects are

magnetized using a very rapid decay of the coil field. The rapid

decay of the field generates a pulse of induced current that in turn

produces a strong surface residual field over most of the length of a

test object. Test objects must be moderately retentive for this type of

residual test, and their shape must be generally cylindrical and have

no long slots or cuts that would interrupt an induced current path

around the test object near its outer surface.

Air Core Coil Longitudinal Magnetization

Longitudinal test object magnetization is produced by passing a

current through a multi turn coil encircling the test object or section

of the test object to be examined. A magnetic field is produced

parallel to the axis of the coil.

The unit of measurement is ampere turns: the actual amperage

multiplied by the number of turns in the encircling coil or cable. The

effective field extends on either side of the coil a distance about

equal to the radius of the coil. Long test objects should be tested in

sections to ensure this length is not exceeded. There are four

empirical longitudinal magnetization formulas for using encircling

coils, the formula to be used depending on the fill factor.

The formulas are included for educational purposes only. They

are based on the use of three phase alternating current, rectified full

wave direct current or peak amperages. Their use should be limited

to simple shaped test objects. It would be quicker and more accurate

to use a tesla (gauss) meter, lay its probe on the test object and

measure the field rather than to calculate using the formulas.

Fill Factor Coils

In this case, the cross sectional area of the fixed encircling coil

greatly exceeds the cross sectional area of the test object (less than

10% coil inside diameter). For proper test object magnetization, such

test objects should be placed well within the coils and close to the

inside wall of the coil, as shown in Figure 10.8. With this low fill

factor, adequate field strength for eccentrically positioned test objects

with a length-to-diameter ratio between 3 and 15 is calculated from

the following equations. Equation 10.1 should be used for test objects

with low fill factor positioned close to the inside of a coil.

K 45000

Eq.10.1 NI =-- (±10%) or ampere turns =--

LID LID

where N is number of turns in the coil, I is coil current to be used,

K is 45 000 (empirically derived constant), L is test object length

and D is test object diameter.

Equation 10.2 should be used for test objects with low fill factor

positioned in the center of the coil.

_ KR +

Eq.10.2 NI - ( ) (_10%)

6L1 D -5

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Personnel Training Publications

where N is the number of turns in the coil, I is the coil current to be

used, K is 43 000 (empirically derived constant), R is coil radius,

L is test object length and D is test object diameter.

Equation 10.3 should be used for intermediate fill factor coils

when the cross section of the coil is greater than twice and less than

ten times the cross section of the test object.

Eq.10.3 NI = (NIh! )(10 - Y) +(NIif )(Y ;2)

where NIh/is the value of NI calculated for high fill factor coils, Nlif

is the value of NI calculated for low fill factor coils and Y is the ratio

of the cross sectional area of the coil to the cross section of the test

object.

Equation lOA should be used for high fill factor coils, shown in

Figure 10.9. In this case, when fixed coils or cable wraps are used

and the cross sectional area of the coil is less than twice the cross

sectional area (including hollow portions) of the test object, the coil

has a high fill factor, as shown in Figure 10.10.

K

Eq.10.4 NI = ( (±1O%)

LI D)+2

where N is the number of turns in the coil or cable wrap, I is coil

current, K is 35 000 (empirically derived constant), L is test object

length, D is test object diameter and NI is ampere turns.

For length-to-diameter ratios less than 3, a pole piece

(ferromagnetic material about the same diameter as the test object)

should be used to effectively increase the length-to-diameter ratio, or

an alternative magnetization method should be used, such as induced

current. For length-to-diameter ratios greater than 15, a maximum

length-to-diameter value of 15 should be used for all formulas cited

above.

When calculating the length-to-diameter ratio for a hollow piece,

D shall be replaced with an effective diameter Deff calculated using

Eq.l0.5.

E 105 (At -Ah)Z

q. . Del! =2-'-------'--

where At is the total cross sectional area of the test object and Ah is

cross sectional area of the hollow portiones) of the test object. For a

cylindrical test object, this is equivalent to:

Eq.10.6 De!I =[(OD)2 -(IDfF

1
where OD is the outside diameter of the cylinder and ID is the inside

diameter of the cylinder.

These equations are included for educational purposes or

emergencies only. It is faster to buy a tesla (gauss) meter, lay the

probe on the test object and measure the field strength than

calculating with the equations.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

77

Figure 10.8: Low fill factor

coil.

Test

object

Coil

Figure 10.9:Intermediate

fill factor coil.

Test

object

INTERPRETATION OF INDICATIONS

Figure 10.10: High fill

factor coil.

Test

object

All valid indications formed by magnetic particle testing are the

result of magnetic leakage fields. Indications may be relevant,

nonrelevant or false.
Relevant Indications

Relevant indications are produced by leakage fields that are the

result of discontinuities. Relevant indications require evaluation with

regard to the acceptance standards agreed on between the

manufacturer's test agency and the purchaser.

Nonrelevant Indications

Nonrelevant indications can occur singly or in patterns as a result

of leakage fields created by conditions that require no evaluation,

such as changes in section (like keyways and drilled holes), inherent

material properties (like the edge of a bimetallic weld) and magnetic

writing.

False Indications

False indications are not the result of magnetic forces. Examples

are particles held mechanically or by gravity in shallow depressions

or particles held by rust or scale on the surface.

78 Personnel Training Publications

Coil

Chapter 11

Demagnetization

---------------------------------------------

Most ferromagnetic materials subjected to magnetic particle

testing will require demagnetization. When performing magnetic

particle testing, it is essential to demagnetize. The technician should

understand the reasons for this step, as well as the problems

involved and the available means for solving them.

The Earth's magnetic field plays a part in the difficulty of

demagnetizing test objects. A long test object to be totally

demagnetized should be placed so that its principal axis, or longest

member, is in an east to west direction. A long test object.lying in a

north to south direction can never be demagnetized below the level

of the Earth's field. Rotating the test object on its eastto west axis

while demagnetizing often helps reduce the field in transverse

members that are not lying east and west. Vibration of the structure

during the demagnetization process is also helpful under these

circumstances. Complete removal of all magnetic fields is virtually

impossible. Understanding and applying proper measurement

techniques is critical to the proper outcome.

PURPOSE

Test objects fabricated from ferromagnetic material retain a

certain amount of residual magnetism, or remnantfield, after

application of a magnetizing force. This does not affect the

mechanical properties of the test object. However, it is necessary to

reduce the residual magnetism retained in a test object by

demagnetization.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION FOR DEMAGNETIZATION

Demagnetization may be accomplished in a number of different

ways. The method used depends on the electrical power and

equipment available, the degree of demagnetization required and the

skill of the technician. One of the more simple methods subjects the

magnetized test object to a magnetizing force that continually

reverses its direction. At the same time, this force is gradually

decreased in strength. As the decreasing magnetizing force is

applied, first in one direction and then the opposite direction, the

magnetization of the test object is decreased.

79

This decreasing magnetization is accomplished by smaller and

smaller hysteresis loops created by the application of decreasing

current. The smaller the hysteresis loop produced, the more

demagnetization that has been accomplished. All steels have a

certain amount of coercive force, making it extremely difficult, if

not totally impossible, to demagnetize them completely. In fact, it is

so difficult that for all practical purposes the only way to completely

demagnetize them is to heat the test object to its curie point or

above. Under normal conditions, a test object is considered to be

satisfactorily demagnetized if the magnetic field is lowered to

acceptable limits when checked with a field indicator. For example,

in the aircraft industry this level is typically 2 G or less.

REQUIREMENTS TO DEMAGNETIZE

Ferromagnetic component test objects used in navigation

equipment require demagnetization principally to prevent magnetic

flux from affecting the instrumentation. This is the primary reason,

and there are several additional reasons supporting demagnetization.

Other critical components like gears and bearings require

demagnetization to prevent build up of wear fragments leading to

early failure.
Demagnetization is required when the residual field in a test

object may interfere with subsequent machining operations by

causing chips to adhere to the surface of the test object or the tip of

a tool that may become magnetized from contact with the

magnetized test object. Such chips can interfere with smooth cutting

by the tool; adversely affecting both finish and tool life. Small wear

particles may be attracted to a magnetized test object, resulting in

reduced service life or catastrophic failure. Subsequent operations

may be affected, such as welding, electroplating and electron beam

welding.

Reasons to Demagnetize

Objects that have been magnetic particle tested retain some

magnetism. The amount of residual magnetism depends on the

material and its condition. Low carbon steel in the annealed

condition retains little or no magnetism, whereas hardened alloy

steels retain strong magnetic fields for long periods of time.

Reducing or removing residual magnetism is not a direct function

of the intensity of the retained magnetic field but is a direct function

of the coercive force of the material. The ease of demagnetization

depends on the magnetic properties or hysteresis curve of the

material.

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Personnel Training Publications

Justification for Demagnetizing

There are several ways that an object can be magnetized: induced

magnetization from Earth fields, use of a magnetic chuck or plate

during machining, mechanically induced magnetization and

magnetic particle testing. Demagnetization is required for the

following reasons, despite the source of the magnetization.

1.

A magnetized object can affect the accuracy and function of

some instruments and meters.

Removal of the magnetic particle media following testing is

necessary because residual particles can cause problems

during subsequent operations, such as machining and surface

coating. Retained particles can also cause excessive wear on

moving components in assemblies. Demagnetization is

3.

4.

5.

6.

necessary because flux leakage can retain particles despite a

typical cleaning process.

Machining of magnetized objects is objectionable because

chips and shavings may adhere to the surface, disrupting the

surface finish and dulling the cutting tool.

Magnetized objects attract and retain metallic debris during

handling and cleaning before the application of surface

coatings. The entrapped metal particles create serious

imperfections in painted or plated surfaces.

Demagnetization is required when objects are to be electric

arc welded. A residual magnetic field can cause the arc to

deflect or wander. Arc deflection, called arc blow, is a

particular problem in automated welding systems that do not

compensate for a shift in arc.

Demagnetization may be required when remagnetizing in

another direction, if the second magnetizing field intensity is

less than the original. If the second magnetic field strength

does not equal or exceed the initial field strength, the initial

magnetic field remains dominant.

Reasons Not to Demagnetize

Although demagnetization is often required, is is not always

necessary. Demagnetization is not required when the test objects have

very low retentivity (such materials are demagnetized when the

magnetic field strength is removed). Sometimes,the residual magnetic

field is such that it does not affect the function of the test object nor its

service life; or the test object is magnetic particle tested a second time,

with equal or greater magnetic field strength in another direction.

Demagnetization is not necessary when test objects are subjected

to external magnetic fields, such as clamping with a magnetic chuck

during machining or hoisting with an electromagnetic crane. Finally,

there is no need for demagnetization if the test object is exposed to a

subsequent heating above the curie point, the temperature where

magnetic domains become random and the material becomes

unmagnetized.
Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 81

DEMAGNETIZATION METHODS

Heating Above Curie Point

All ferromagnetic materials containing magnetic flux can be

demagnetized by heating to a specific temperature and allowing the

material to cool in the absence of an external magnetic flux. The

temperature at which the material changes from ferromagnetic to

paramagnetic is called the curie point. This temperature varies

widely depending on alloy composition. For example, the curie point

for nickel containing 1% silicon is 320°C (608 OF),whereas the

curie point for nickel containing 5% silicon is 45°C (113 OF).The

curie point for ferrous alloys ranges from about 650 to 870°C (1200

to 1600 OF).

The transition from ferromagnetic to paramagnetic at the curie

point reverses on cooling and the material becomes ferromagnetic in

an unmagnetized condition. Some X-ray diffraction studies show

that this transition is not a crystalline structure transformation, but a

rearrangement of magnetic domains. Demagnetization by heating

through the curie point is the most thorough demagnetization

possible but because of its expense it is not commonly used.

Electromagnetic Demagnetization

There are several techniques for demagnetizing an object using

electromagnetic energy. All of these techniques subject a magnetized

object to a magnetic force that is reversed in its direction and

gradually decreasing in intensity.

In Figure 11.1, the bottom curve illustrates the magnetic field

strength used to generate the flux intensity curve below. As the

current diminishes in value with each reversal, the hysteresis curve

traces an increasingly smaller path. The top curve illustrates the

decreasing residual flux intensity in the test object, indicated by the

shrinking hysteresis loops. The magnetizing current and flux

intensity curves are plotted against time. When the current reaches

zero, the residual magnetism approaches zero.

Successful demagnetization depends on several requirements.

First, the magnetic field strength at the start of the demagnetizing

cycle must be high enough to overcome the coercive force and to

reverse the direction of the residual field. This is typically

accomplished by demagnetizing at a slightly higher current than that

used in the magnetizing cycle.

The second requirement is that, in each successive cycle, the

reduction of magnetic field strength must be small enough that the

reverse magnetic field strength exceeds the coercive force and

reverses the flux direction from the previous reversal. This requires a

number of cycles, depending on the permeability of the material.

Ten to thirty reversals are often required.

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Personnel Training Publications

; Figure 11.1: Demagnetization hysteresis loops with current and flux intensity curves.

B+

-1-1-
+ -:;-.

I•

II

H- -r==t==t=+===:;==f::i--- H+

B-

------------------------------------------------'

Alternating Current Demagnetization

A common method of demagnetizing small test objects is by

passing them through a coil carrying alternating current, as shown in

Figure 11.2. The test objects are moved into the coil while the

current is flowing for exposure to the maximum magnetic flux. The

test objects are then slowly and axially withdrawn some distance

from the coil. This procedure serves to reduce the magnetic field

strength because flux intensity decreases with distance from its

source. To ensure that the flux is reduced to a minimum level, the

trailing edges of the test objects should be withdrawn to a distance at

least twice the coil diameter.

Alternating current demagnetization can also be accomplished by

placing the test object in the coil and gradually reducing the current

to zero. Some coils and some magnetic particle system designs have

built in circuitry for current reduction. When decaying alternating

current is available on wet horizontal units, the current can be

applied directly to the test object through the headstock and tailstock
instead of passing the test object through the coil. This is more

Time_

FLUX CURVE

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

83

Figure 11.2: Alternating current coil demagnetizing unit with

rail assembly.

effective than the coil technique for long, circularly magnetized test

objects.

There are some limitations to alternating current

demagnetization. Most important is the fact that alternating current

concentrates the magnetic flux at the test object surface. Large test

objects are not effectively demagnetized by the alternating current

method because of its skin effect.

This lack of penetration also prohibits demagnetization of a

number of small test objects piled in a basket (the alternating current

skin effect demagnetizes only the outside surface of test objects on

the outer layer). Quantities of small test objects can be demagnetized

with alternating current techniques only by placing them in a well

separated single layer with their long dimensions parallel to the axis

of the coil.

Direct Current Demagnetization

The principle of demagnetizing with direct current is identical to

that of alternating current demagnetization. The magnetic field

strength or current must be sequentially reversed and gradually

reduced. One of the advantages of reversing direct current

demagnetization is the deep penetration that is possible.

Because reversing the direction of direct current is done through

electrical circuits, it is possible to control the rate of reversal. The

most commonly used reversal rate is two cycles per second or a

frequency of 2 Hz. This produces the optimum depth of penetration,

permitting the demagnetization of large test objects. Direct current

demagnetization often reduces the residual field to a value lower

than is possible with alternating current. In practice, the test object is

placed within the coil, or between the head and tailstock, where it

remains until the demagnetization cycle is complete.

84 Personnel Training Publications

Yoke Demagnetization

Yokes or prods are often used for demagnetization when

portability is required. Either alternating current or reversing direct

current can be used, depending on the available power supply.

Pulsating half wave direct current found in many self contained

power yokes cannot be used unless the unit also contains a current

reversing circuit. Demagnetization is accomplished by passing

objects through the poles of the yoke and withdrawing them while

the current is flowing.

Yokes can also be used to demagnetize local areas on large test

objects. The poles are placed on the surface to be demagnetized,

moved in a circular pattern and then slowly withdrawn while the

yoke is energized. When demagnetizing small areas on a large test

object, care must be exercised to avoid magnetizing adjacent areas.

The yoke magnetic flux for successful demagnetization must

exceed that of the test object's magnetic field. Several yokes may be

grouped to demagnetize larger volumes of the test object.

Demagnetization Practices

There are practical limits to the demagnetization process. These

limits are controlled by the equipment, the size and material of the

test object and the Earth's magnetic field. Generally, the practical

limit of demagnetization occurs at a point where a residual field

remains but at a level that does interfere or complicate the intended

function of the test object in service.

Longitudinal residual magnetic fields are usually measured with a

field meter. Some meters read relative units and are useful for

comparison purposes only; other meters read directly in tesla or

gauss. The greatest flux leakage in a longitudinally magnetized test

object is at the ends or comers of the test object. These are the best

places to check for the effectiveness of demagnetization. Note that

when the readings are in relative units, there may be differences

between the readings of different manufacturers' field meters.

The magnetic field of a circularly magnetized object is

completely contained within the object, and there are no flux

leakage points except at discontinuities. Therefore, field strength

meters cannot indicate residual magnetism of a circularly

magnetized object. A common practice is to perform longitudinal

magnetization as the last step in a two step operation, and then

demagnetize in a longitudinal direction. This procedure allows the

use of a field meter to check the effectiveness of demagnetization.

The Earth's magnetic field is in a north to south direction and can

cause problems when demagnetizing test objects with a high length

to-diameter ratio. When low residual fields are required, these

problems can be reduced by placing the demagnetizing unit's coil

axis in an east to west direction.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

85

Chapter 12

Equipment

A variety of equipment is available for either circular or

longitudinal magnetization. The equipment ranges in size from

general purpose portable units small enough to be carried by hand to

large, custom built stationary units with separate power supplies.

STATIONARYEQUIPMENT

Mechanized Equipment

Mechanized equipment for magnetic particle testing gives extra

capability to the technician who has primary control over the

operation. The technician directs the flow of test objects, applies the

magnetic field, controls the application of media and reads the

indication patterns.

Semiautomatic Equipment

Semiautomated equipment delivers the test object to the

technician's station, applies the magnetic fields, allows the

technician to apply media and interpret the indication pattern. The

contact heads, coils and yoke stages are easily changeable to quickly

adapt to a wide range oftest objects. .

Single Purpose Semiautomatic Equipment

Single purpose semiautomatic equipment is designed to handle a

single type of test object, such as a crank shaft, connecting rod or

landing gear. The magnetization fixturing can be changed, but it is

typically set up for one type and size of test object. These test

objects may be cycled at high rates, but a technician will read each

magnetic particle indication pattern. Automatic sensors may be used

to sense the presence of indications and the effectiveness of

demagnetization. Indication patterns may be captured on video tape.

Fully Automatic Equipment

Fully automated equipment is designed to handle a single type of

test object with a limited sequence of magnetization at each station.

The magnetization fixturing can be changed, but it is typically set up

for one type and size of test object. These test objects may be cycled

at high rates. Filtered light, meters, cameras and lasers are used to

detect indication patterns. These automatic sensors are used to

._ .. ".,_ .._--_._..---,-------------------------------

87

evaluate the indications and the effectiveness of demagnetization.

Indication patterns may be captured on video tape.

PORTABLE EQUIPMENT

Versatile mobile testing units are available in several sizes

ranging from 2000 to 6000 A of alternating current, half wave direct

current and full wave direct current outputs. The units have remote

current output, on/off, magnetize and demagnetize controls that

permit operation at the site of testing. The units are supplied with

either rigid or cable wrapped coils for longitudinal magnetization

and demagnetization. Cables connected to a test object or passing

through a test object are used for circular magnetization or

demagnetization. Mobile units canbe easily moved to any test site

where suitable line input voltages and current capacity are available.

Both half wave direct current and alternating current outputs are

included in most portable units to increase their versatility. Half

wave direct current and dry magnetic powder make the best

combination for detecting subsurface discontinuities in welds,

particularly when used with the prod method of testing. Half wave

direct current is also useful for detecting subsurface discontinuities

when the wet method is used. The use of alternating current is

limited to detection of discontinuities that are open to the surface,

such as cracks, and for demagnetizing testobjects.

Small portable units that can be hand carried are shown in

Figure 12.1. These units have both alternating current and half wave

direct current outputs and must be used with portable or cable

wrapped coils to longitudinally magnetize. The units usually have a

remote on/off control. They can be used wherever alternating current

power source exists.

Figure 12.1: Portable magnetic particle testing equipment: (a) direct or alternating current
model with infinite current control; (b) lightweight pulse portable operating from outlet;

and (c) adjustable yoke, coil (for magnetizing or demagnetizing) and assorted accessories.

(a)

(b)

(c)

88 Personnel Training Publications

Alternating current and direct current yokes are specialized

electromagnets of special design that allow the testing of complex,

large and small test objects, and small batch sizes.

Yoke Break or Lift Test

There are reports of both successful and unsuccessful magnetic

particle tests of welds through paint. Such a wide variation in

reported feasibility is not entirely surprising. Thousands of different

paints exist and are applied in a wide range of thicknesses and in a

nearly infinite number of primer and top coat combinations. Each

paint or coating system has a characteristic magnetic permeability

that influences the degree to which magnetic flux may be introduced

to a ferromagnetic substrate.

A yoke break test was devised to help evaluate the effect of

coating type and thickness on the introduction of flux to a

ferromagnetic substrate. This simple test relies on the contention that

the flux strength produced in a ferromagnetic material may be gaged

by the amount of pull produced by the yoke on that material. The

test uses a dynamometer to pull an energized yoke from a bare test

plate. The plate is then coated with progressively increasing

thicknesses of paint. After the application of each paint layer, the

force required to pull (or break) the yoke from the plate is measured

along with the coating thickness. During this test, the poles of the

yoke are maintained at a constant spacing.

Such a test was performed using ASTM A-36 (1018) steel plates

as a substrate. Four separate coating types were evaluated, including

inorganic zinc, zinc chromate, enamel and phenolic epoxy. Yoke

break test data obtained for each coating are presented in

Figure 12.2, where pull is plotted against applied coating thickness.

Weld Bead Crack Reference Standards

In an attempt to quantify the thickness of the coating at which

sensitivity is diminished, four ASTMA-36 plates were prepared,

each containing a single shielded metal arc weld bead in which

copper ferrite dilution cracking had been induced. Copper ferrite

cracks are very fine and barely visible to the unaided eye. Each plate

was tested with yoke magnetization, and a record of the particle

indications was made for each direction of magnetization.

Each plate was then coated with inorganic zinc, zinc chromate,

enamel or phenolic epoxy. Coating thicknesses were measured and

recorded, and the plates were then retested with a yoke technique.

Particle indications were recorded, and the indications were

compared to those obtained during magnetic particle tests of the bare

metal. This process was repeated until each plate reached the point

at which coating thickness diminished the indication detectability.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 89

Figure 12.2: Decrease in pull with increase in coating

thickness; yoke produces a pull of 8.7 kg (19.3 lb) on a bare

test plate; yoke center-to-center pole spacing maintained at

10.8 em (4.25 in.) during all tests.

----

CJ)

"Cl

Enamel

8.0 (18)

7.6 (17)

7.2 (16)

::l

0..

'-'

'3

</J

c,

ro

....

01)

6.8 (15)
6.3 (14)-

5.9 (13)

.3

5.4 (12)

:.g

5.0 (11)

4.5 (10)

Inorganic zinc

Zinc chromate

Phenolic epoxy

25 50 75 100 150 160 170 180

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Coating thickness

micrometer (milli-inch)

Reference Standards for Weld Cracking

To confirm that bead crack test data would be valid when applied

to actual welds, three additional plates were prepared to contain

multipass groove butt welds with multiple bead weld reinforcement,

or caps. Each weld cap was about 2.5 em (1 in.) wide. These welds

contained undercuts of varying severity, as well as copper ferrite

dilution cracks. Except for the cracking, the welds were typical of

those commonly encountered during industrial magnetic particle

tests.

An initial test was performed and records of particle indications

were made. Each plate was then coated with inorganic zinc, zinc
chromate or enamel. The paints were allowed to dry, coating

thicknesses were measured and recorded and each plate was retested

with yoke magnetization.

Records of the particle indications were made and test results

were compared to those obtained from the unpainted plates. Even

though each of the applied coating thicknesses was less than

0.002 em (0.008 in.), all of the test objects revealed a dramatic loss

of indication detectability.

Effect of Coating Thickness on Test Results

The introduction of magnetic flux to a ferromagnetic substrate

with an alternating current yoke is affected by interposing

thicknesses of paint. The extent of this effect may be significant,

depending on the type of paint and its thickness.

90 Personnel Training Publications

There is a surprisingly large difference in the data obtained from

single bead test welds and from multiple bead test welds, especially

as they relate to the coating thicknesses that permit yoke

magnetization. This difference may be the result of concurrent

leakage fields that existed in the multiple bead weld cap but not in

the single bead weld, as shown in Figure 12.3. This could have

produced decreased flux density in leakage fields at the crack sites,

and in tum could have reduced the ability to attract and hold

particles through the coatings.

Figure 12.3: Concurrent leakage fields produced in a multibead

weld cap as the result of abrupt cross sectional change at the

weld toes; redistribution of the magnetic flux caused by these

fields reduces the leakage field in an adjacent discontinuity.

Single

weldbead

Discontinuity

leakagefield

Concurrent

leakagefields

Concurrent Leakage

The concept of concurrent leakage was investigated further. A

single shielded metal arc weld bead containing copper ferrite

dilution cracking was deposited on a carbon steel plate. The bead

was tested with magnetic particle yoke techniques, and the

discontinuity indications were recorded.

An additional bead was then deposited on each side of the

original weld, and the new weld was retested. After seven beads had

been deposited (three on each side of the original weld bead), a

distinct decrease in indication detectability was observed.

This indicates that magnetic particle testing of painted welds is

dependent not only on coating type and thickness, but also on the

weld profile.

Wet Magnetic Particles for Yoke Magnetization

One of the important factors that determine the effectiveness and

reliability of wet method magnetic particle testing is the efficacy of

the magnetic particle suspension. The commonly required settling

test has some important limitations that become evident during field

tests using the wet method with an electromagnetic yoke. The

settling test is appropriate for a suspension that is mechanically

agitated in a large stationary magnetic particle system, but the test is

less appropriate for suspensions applied manually from pump spray

bottles or for suspensions purchased in sealed pressurized cans.

When spray bottles are used, the technician is responsible for mixing

Multiple

bead welds

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

91

the suspension properly and agitating it sufficiently during use.

Pressurized cans, on the other hand, are labeled to show the particle

concentration when filled, but this concentration level may not be

maintained from the first use to the last. Pressurized cans must be

thoroughly agitated before each use.

The time and amount of material required for settling tests to

monitor each container (and each technician's agitation technique)

make this method much slower and more expensive than testing

with dry magnetic powder techniques. For example, if testing

continues while waiting for the results of a settling test, then a

reading outside acceptable limits make it necessary to retest every

area tested since the last acceptable settling test. This is avoided by

stopping all tests while waiting for the results of a settling test.
Neither alternative is efficient enough for production applications.

DRY POWDER TEST EQUIPMENT

The dry powder method is primarily used for the testing of welds

and castings and where the detection of discontinuities lying wholly

below the surface is important. The particles used in the dry method

are provided in the form of a powder. They are available in red,

black, yellow, gray and other colors. The magnetic properties,

particle size and shape and coating method are similar in all colors,

making the particles equally efficient. The choice of powder is

determined primarily by which powder will provide the best contrast

and visibility on the test objects and the degree of sensitivity

desired.

Powder Selection

Selection of the color of particles to use is essentially a matter of

securing the best possible contrast with the background of the

surface of the test object. The differences in visibilities among the

black, gray, yellow and red particles are considerable on

backgrounds that may be dark or bright, and which may be viewed

in various kinds of light.

Outstanding properties of the dry powders are their more

favorable shape and higher permeability in comparison with the wet

particles. It is these two characteristics, more than any other, that are

responsible for the good performance of these dry powders within

their field of application. Available powders for the dry method

include the following.

92

Personnel Training Publications

1. Gray powder: general purpose high contrast powder, by far

the most widely used of the dry powders. It is effective on

dark surfaces, whether black, gray or rust colored.

2. Black powder: specially designed for use on light colored

surfaces. This is the cleanest powder to use, as it is dust free.

It is also the most sensitive of the dry powders. Its higher

sensitivity is caused by the fact that it contains the highest

proportion of magnetic material of all the dry powders.

3. Red powder: dark reddish powder is used on light colored

surfaces, as is the black powder. However, since the black

powder on a silvery or polished surface is sometimes hard to

see, the red color may offer better contrast, particularly

under incandescent lighting where the red color stands out.

4. Yellow powder: pale yellow powder features fair sensitivity

and good contrast on dark colored surfaces.

Powder Applications

Rules for the application of dry powder will make the process of

testing easier and more effective. The dry particles are heavier and

individually have a much greater mass than the very fine particles of

the wet method. If they are applied to the surface of a test object

with any appreciable velocity, the fields at the discontinuities may

not be able to stop and retain them. This is especially true when

vertical or overhead surfaces are being tested.

The powder should reach the surface of test objects as a thin

cloud with practically zero velocity drifting to the surface so leakage

fields have only to hold it in place. For vertical and overhead

surfaces, the fields must overcome the pull of gravity that tends to

cause the particles to fall away. Since the dry particles have a wide

range of sizes, the finer particles will be held under these conditions

unless the leakage fields are extremely weak. On horizontal surfaces,

this problem is minimized.

The usual mistake is to apply too much powder. Once on the

horizontal surface of a test object, the powder has no mobility

(unless alternating current or half wave direct current is being used),

and a heavy application tends to obscure indications. If the test

object can be lifted and tapped, the excess powder will fall away and

indications will be more readily visible. The excess powder can also

be gently blown away with an air stream not strong enough to blow

off magnetically held particles forming an indication.

Applicators

Various devices have been used to make proper powder

application easy. The squeeze bottle is light and easy to use. With

some practice, by a combination of shaking as with a salt shaker and

a gentle squeeze on the bottle, powder can be ejected with minimum

velocity. Practicing with the bottle on a sheet of white paper will

train the technician to produce an even gentle overall coverage.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

93
A powder gun or blower improves application, especially on

vertical and overhead surfaces. The powder gun throws a cloud of

powder at low velocity, much like a very thin paint spray. When held

about 0.3 m (l ft) from the test surface, a very light dusting of

powder permits easy observation of indications. On horizontal

surfaces, excess powder is blown away with a gentle air stream from

the blower.

Typically, there are two push button valves on a blower gun

control: the flow of powder or clean air. Less powder is used with

the gun, which helps to ensure better testing. A more elaborate gun

powder blower has amotor driven compressor integral with a

powder container and an air powder mixer. A multichannel rubber

hose connects to the gun. A work light is contained in the gun tip to

illuminate the test area. A trigger on the gun controls the discharge

of the powder and air mixture and the blow off air.

WET VISIBLE TEST EQUIPMENT

Wet method magnetic particles are similar to each other once

they are dispersed in the suspending liquid. In the past, the most

common form of the wet visible material concentrate was a paste.

Today, however, the pastes have been almost exclusively

reformulated and produced as dry powderconcentrates. These

powders incorporate the needed materials for dispersion, wetting,

rust inhibiting, etc.

The powders are much easier to use, as they need merely to be

measured out and added directly to the agitated bath. The agitation
system of the modern magnetic particle units will pick up the

powder and quickly disperse it in the bath in the process of

circulation and agitation.

Particle Selection

The need to meet a variety of conditions for successful magnetic

particle testing has resulted in the development of different materials

to obtain this result. The most commonly used materials are listed

with the special characteristics of each.

Black Powder Concentrate

Black powder concentrate is available as an oil or water

suspendible dry powder. It is especially suited for finding fine cracks

on polished surfaces, such as bearings or crankshafts. It is the most

sensitive of the nonfluorescent wet method powders for such

applications, though indications may be hard to see.

Red Powder Concentrate

Red powder concentrate is available as a reddish brown oil or

water suspendible powder. It is fully the equivalent of the black

powder for all applications except the very fine cracks in polished

94

Personnel Training Publications

surfaces. The red color gives improved contrast and visibility in

situations where the black on silver contrast of the black powder is

poor. This color tends to be more visible than black under

incandescent light.

Suspension Characteristics
Particles may be suspended either in water or in a petroleum

distillate. Water is initially cheaper, but additions are typically made

before water becomes a suitable medium for suspending wet

magnetic particles. Wetting agents, antifoaming materials, corrosion

inhibitors, suspending and dispersing agents are all necessary and

must be carefully controlled. To ensure proper control of the water

conditioners, water should not be used as a suspending liquid unless

water chemistry services are available.

Particles

Dry material concentrates used for water suspension must contain

all the extra ingredients necessary to make the finished suspension.

Cost of the concentrates is comparable for water or oil suspension.

The need to incorporate all the special ingredients for water or oil

suspension into the concentrate necessitates two separate and distinct

products. Water suspendible concentrates cannot be used in oil. The

various additives are insoluble in oil and will not disperse the

particles in an oil bath. The additions made to the concentrates

intended for oil suspension are not soluble in water. However, with

suitable water conditioners, some of the oil suspendible concentrates

can be used in water.

The outstanding characteristic of wet visible method particles is

their extremely small size. These very fine particles do not act as

individuals but agglomerate into groups. Two colors of particles are

available: red and black. Dry concentrates are formulated to include

other bath constituents, with the fine magnetic particles already

bonded together in optimum sizes.

Media

The bath liquid or media may be either a light petroleum

distillate of specific properties or water. Water baths require

conditioners to maintain proper dispersion of the particles and to

permit the particles freedom of action in forming indications on the

surfaces of test objects. These conditioners are usually incorporated

in the powders. Oil was a natural first choice as a bath liquid

because most machine objects that are tested tend to have an oily

film on their surface. Gross amounts of oil or grease should be

removed, but any film remaining is readily wetted and dissolved by

the light oil of the bath. The oil should have very definite properties

to be suitable for bath purposes. It should be a well refined, light

petroleum distillate of low viscosity, odorless and transparent in

ultraviolet radiation with a low sulfur content, a high flash point and

a fairly high, narrow boiling range.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

95

Of these properties, viscosity is probably the most important

from a functional standpoint. High viscosity sufficiently retards the

movement of particles under the influence of leakage fields to have

a definite effect in reducing the build up, and therefore the visibility

of an indication of a small discontinuity. Heavy oil from the surface

of test objects tends to build up in the bath and increase its viscosity.

This is the main reason for precleaning test objects to remove oil
and grease.

Much lighter distillates would have a much lower viscosity than

those usually used, but they would have other properties undesirable

in a magnetic particle bath. Lighter distillates would have an initial

boiling point lower than that specified, and therefore a lower flash

point, making them a greater fire hazard; Also, evaporation losses

from the tank would be greater with lighter oil. Breathing unpleasant

fumes from a light distillate leads to technician discomfort. Odor of

distillate is associated with color and sulfur content, which is the

reason for specifying that these properties be within limits. The

approved, highly refined oils are nearly odorless and meet the color

and sulfur specifications.

WET FLUORESCENT METHOD

When exposed to near ultraviolet radiation, fluorescent dye

coated magnetic particles glow with their own light, having a highly

visible yellow-green, red or other color. Indications produced are

easily seen, and the fluorescent particles give much stronger

indications of very small discontinuities than do the ordinary

nonfluorescent magnetic particles. Tests are faster and more reliable

than with the nonfluorescent particles.

The differences between the wet visible method and the wet

fluorescent method are comparatively minor regarding suspension

characteristics, maintenance and application, as well as the test

variables and demagnetization techniques.

Test Variables
Four basic test variables must be considered that affect the results

obtained in wet fluorescent tests. These variables will change

depending on the discontinuities sought and the material in which

the discontinuities are located.

1. Bath strength.

2. Type of current to be used.

3. Current/suspension application.

4. Lighting conditions.

96 Personnel Training Publications

The strength of the bath is the major factor in determining the

quality of the indication obtained. Too heavy a concentration of

particles gives confusing background and excessive adherence of

particles at external poles, interfering with clear indications of very

fine discontinuities, so that there is danger of the indications being

missed or hidden.

The magnetic particles are considerably heavier than the media in

which they are suspended. When the agitation system is shut off, the

particles rapidly settle out. It is important that all particles be in

suspension before conducting any tests or concentration tests. When

the agitation system has been off for several hours, the agitation

system should be turned on for at least 0.5 h before conducting a

test. This agitation time varies with the down time because of

compacting of the particles from their own weight. If the machine

has been off for 0.5 to 1 h, a 10 min agitation is usually adequate. If

the unit has been off for a week or more, 0.5 h of agitation plus
supplemental stirring may be necessary.

Concentrate should be added when the particle concentration is

low. Evaporation should be watched, and volume maintained when

the level drops appreciably. This loss of liquid is sometimes called

drag out. Loss of liquid may be either by drag out or by evaporation,

and corrective measures are different for these two types of loss. To

compensate for evaporation loss, only additional oil or water is

required. To compensate for the drag out loss, the addition of bath

liquid and particles is required.

It is difficult to know what the cause of volume loss actually is in

any given case. For a unit in constant use, it can be assumed that

more than 50% of the loss is caused by drag out. For a unit used

only occasionally, loss by evaporation is likely to be the major cause.

Actually, with constant use, the accumulation of dirt, scraps and lint

requires the dumping of the tank and development of a new bath

before loss of liquid becomes serious. Magnetic particle content is of

most critical importance and should be carefully monitored.

Dirt accumulation in the bath can usually be determined, as it

shows up in the settling rate for magnetic particles. When the

settling test is run, the heavy particles settle out first. Dirt and lint

are lighter and settle more slowly. They are seen as a second layer

on top of the particles. For particle determination, this layer of dirt

must be carefully excluded from the total volume. When the layer of

dirt reaches about 30% of the volume of the particle layer, formation

of proper indications will be impeded, and the bath should be

dumped and a new one made. This may occur as often as once a

week when a unit is in constant use. The layer of dirt and the media

immediately above it should not fluoresce. If oil is used as a

suspension, it must be considered a petroleum product and

disposition of the bath must conform to all applicable regulations.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 97

Surface Preparation

In general, the same requirements apply for the wet method as for

the dry method. Dirt, rust, loose scale and oil or grease should be

removed. The oil bath will dissolve oil or grease, but this builds up

the viscosity of the bath and shortens its useful life. With a water

bath, oil on the surface of the test object makes wetting more

difficult, although the conditioners in the bath are usually sufficient

to take care of a slight amount of oil.

Excessive oil on test object surfaces contaminates the water bath.

Paint and plated coatings over 0.013 em (0.005 in.) thick should be

stripped. Tests have shown that nonmagnetic coatings of any kind in

excess of 0.013 cm (0.005 in.) in thickness seriously interfere with

the formation of magnetic particle indications of small

discontinuities.

Suspension Application

Many methods are used to apply magnetic particles in media

carriers. These range from a simple hand pouring of a bath onto a

test object to large industrial systems in which the bath is applied

automatically, either by immersion or flooding, then recirculated and

reused. Occasionally, small; handheld lever operated sprayers are

used.

Prepared bath is widely available in pressurized aerosol cans for

spraying. Such cans, usually containing oil based baths, are very

convenient to use for spot checking, or small area tests in the field.

They are often furnished in kits, including a permanent magnet or

electromagnet yoke, which makes a portable package for small field

testing jobs or for maintenance testing around the shop.

Various sizes of ordinary pressurized paint spray tanks equipped

with special guns are used, particularly with water baths. Aerosol

containers should be checked for residual magnetism before being

used to perform a test and if necessary demagnetized to less than

two increments on the magnetic field indicator. This is necessary to

preclude the magnetic particles from agglomerating and prohibit

them from being expelled from the container. One method practiced,

mostly on small test objects, is where the test objects are magnetized

one at a time then placed in a tray and immersed in a tank

containing an agitated bath of magnetic particles. The test objects

must be placed in the tray so they do not touch one another, or else

nonrelevant indications may be produced at the points of contact.

Haphazard loading into a basket for immersion application should

not be permitted.

Bath strength and immersion time both have an effect on the size

of the indications produced. If the leakage field at a shallow crack is

weak, prolonged immersion permits more particles to come into the

influence of the field and makes the indication more prominent and

visible.

98 Personnel Training Publications

Water Problems

Ordinary potable tap water is suitable for use, and hardness is not

a problem because the mineral content of the water does not

interfere with the conditioning chemicals necessary to prepare the

bath.

Wetting agents, rust inhibitors and other water conditioners must

be used with water baths. Usually, the magnetic particle concentrates

include the correct amounts of wetting agent and rust inhibitor for

initial use. However, these materials are available separately so the

concentration can be maintained or adjusted to suit the particular

conditions. If no rusting can be tolerated, a higher concentration of

rust inhibitor may be used. If the test objects have an oily film, more

wetting agents are required so the test object surfaces will be

completely wetted and covered with the bath. The observance of the

bath breaking into rivulets as it is applied over a test object is an

indication of a need for additional wetting agent ortest object

cleaning.

The use of water bath suspension is not recommended for field

testing operations unless facilities exist to test the serviceability of

the wetting agents, dispersing agents, rust inhibitors, antifoam agents

and other additives that are required in the water suspension. Wet

baths should be carefully controlled to prevent corrosion and provide

wettability of testing components. This requires regular chemical

analysis of corrosive inhibitor and wetting agent concentration.

Suspension Preparation

When a new unit is being installed, or after dumping a dirty bath

from a unit in use, the agitation system must be tested to ensure it is

clean and not clogged by dried particles or accumulated dirt. Fill the

tank with oil or water as required, and operate the agitation system

to ensure it is functioning properly. Magnetic particles are then

added to obtain a suspension concentration within the following

ranges: visible particle concentration range, 1.2 to 2.4 mL/100 mL;

fluorescent particle concentration range, 0.1 to 0.4 mLllOO mL.

Before adding the magnetic particles to the media, they should be

demagnetized to eliminate any agglomerations that might have

developed during storage because of magnetization.

The fluorescent dye separation check should be performed on all

new batches or different manufacturers' magnetic particle materials

before use. The following procedures will require the use of a

100 mL capacity constant speed mixer.

1. Place one heaping tablespoon of the fluorescent magnetic

particle material in the blender vessel.

2. Add about 100 mL bulk media to the vessel.

3. Operate the blender at high speed for up to 10 min. Do not

overheat the particles.

4. Pour 100 mL of mixture into a test centrifuge tube.

5. Place centrifuge tube in stand.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 99

6. Place a magnet at the bottom of the centrifuge tube. This is to

drag the fine magnetic particles out of the bath media and

into the bottom of the tube.

7. Let mixture stand for 0.5 h with magnet in place.

8. After standing 0.5 h, illuminate the tube with a ultraviolet

radiation in a darkened area.

9. Only the particle layer should fluoresce.

10. Fluorescence in the liquid indicates that the dye is separating

from the magnetic particles.

11. Do not use these magnetic particle materials for mixing test

baths.

12. If no fluorescence is visible in the media, proceed with its

use according to the manufacturer's instructions.

DRY POWDER LIQUID CONCENTRATE

Measure out the required amount of powdered concentrate and

pour it directly into the bath liquid in the tank. The agitation system

should be running and the concentrate poured in at the pump intake,

so that it will be quickly drawn into the pump and dispersed. The

new bath strength should be checked with a settling test.

Paste Concentrate

The procedure is similar to that followed in the case of the dry

powder concentrates, except that the paste must be weighed instead

of measured. It is transferred to a mixing cup or bowl, bath liquid is

added little at a time and mixed until a smooth, thin slurry has been
produced. This slurry is then poured into the tank at the point where

the agitation system will pick it up and disperse it. After agitating

for 10 min, the strength should be checked by the settling test, as in

the case of the dry powder concentrate. As it is used for testing, the

bath will undergo changes during use. Some of these changes

include the following.

1. Drag out of magnetic particles, by mechanical and magnetic

adherence to test objects, tending to reduce particle

concentration in the bath.

2. Drag out of liquid caused by the film that adheres to the

surface of test objects.

Water Baths

Water baths without auxiliary heating can be used only in shop

areas where the temperature is above freezing. Use of antifreeze

liquids is not feasible because the quantities needed raise the

viscosity of the bath above the maximum allowable. Use of

detergents to ensure the wetting of oily surfaces causes foaming of

the bath. Circulation systems must be designed to avoid air

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Personnel Training Publications

entrapment or other conditions that produce foam. Antifoaming

agents are used to minimize this tendency, but are not 100%

effective.

Water Bath Safety

Since water is a conductor of electricity, units in which it is to be

used are designed to isolate all high voltage circuits in such a way to

avoid all possibility of a technician receiving a shock. The

equipment should be thoroughly and positively grounded using

ground fault interrupter circuitry. Electrolysis of test objects or entire

units can occur if proper provision is not made to avoid this. Units

designed for use with water as a suspension are, however, safe for

the technician and minimize the corrosion on the test objects if the

proper chemistry is maintained during use.

Water Bath Concentration

It is recommended that the range for any selected concentration

be ±O.OSmLllOO mL for fluorescent particles, and ±O.S mLllOO mL

for visible particles. Thus, a laboratory may select 0.3 mLllOO mL

for optimum fluorescent particle concentration, or 2.4 mL/lOO mL

for optimum visible particle concentration. This concentration would

then be maintained within ±O.oS or ±O.S mL respectively.

It is important that the proportion of magnetic particles in the

bath be maintained uniform after a satisfactory concentration is

obtained. If the concentration varies, the strength of the indications

will also vary, and interpretation of an indication may be erroneous.

Fine indications may be missed entirely with a weak bath.

The important consideration in bath strength is the proportion of

active ingredients available. Since the proportion of particles varies,

the amount of these materials required to produce the necessary

concentration of magnetic particles in the bath will also vary. To

determine the actual amount of particles in the bath, a measured

sample of the bath is filtered, the particles filtered from the various

soluble compounding materials and the separated particles then dried

and weighed. This is, however, a laboratory test and not readily used

by the technician at the unit. Since the bath strength must be checked

at specific intervals, a quick and easy test method is required.

Fluorescent Background Check

The initial fluorescent background check (not required for visible

magnetic particle testing method) is accomplished on media used in

the fluorescent magnetic particle testing method, as follows.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

101

1. Obtain a clean glass tube of sufficient length to reach from

the middle of the bulk media container to at least 15 em

(6 in.) above the container opening when it is in the vertical

position.

2. Insert the tube slowly into the bulk media.

3. Place thumb over protruding end of the glass tube and remove

the tube from the container.

4. Illuminate media in the glass tube with ultraviolet radiation in

a darkened area.

5. If media does not fluoresce, proceed with its use.

Fluorescence in the media indicates that it is unsuitable for

fluorescent magnetic particle testing method.

Oil Based Media Contamination Check

The petroleum based bulk media check is used to prevent

unsatisfactory bulk magnetic particle media from being introduced

into the magnetic particle testing system. This test should be

performed on bulk media before formulating the test bath. The initial

contamination check for petroleum products is as follows.

1. Loosen cap, cover, seal or plug on the bulk media container.

2. Leave the container undisturbed for at least 1 h to allow

contents to settle.

3. Remove the cap, cover, seal or plug from the media container.

4. Use a clean glass tube of sufficient length to reach from the

bottom of the bulk media container to at least 15 em (6 in.)

above the container opening when the tube is held in the

vertical position.

5. Place a thumb over one end of the glass tube. Insert the other

end of the glass tube slowly in a vertical position into the

bulk media. Ensure that the tube is all the way to the bottom

of the container.

6. Release thumb pressure on the upper end of the glass tube for

5 to 10 s, then replace the thumb over the end of glass tube.

Remove the glass tube slowly from the bulk media,

maintaining its vertical position.

7. Before removing thumb pressure on the end of the glass tube,

observe the level of contamination in the glass tube. Water

and other contaminants should be evident in the lower portion

of the glass tube, if present.

8. If contaminants are evident in the bottom of the container,

siphon off the good media to within 5 em (2 in.) of the

contamination level.

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Settling Test

A settling test is easily and quickly performed at the magnetic

particle testing unit. It is not as accurate as the laboratory test, but is

reasonable, quantitative and reproducible for the same type and

brand of magnetic particles. It can be easily standardized with the

material in use, and is quite satisfactory as a daily guide for the

technician.

A settling centrifuge test device is shown in Figure 12.4. The

bath strength for oil bath suspensions should be checked daily before

use and after every 8 h of continuous operation. Water suspensions

should be checked for bath strength and wettability daily before use

and after every 4 h of operations. More frequent checks may be

required, depending on test object surface area and texture.

Figure 12.4: Diagram of a typical centrifuge tube used for

magnetic particle settling tests.

The following procedure should be used in performing the

settling or concentration test. Equipment required is a 100 mL pear

shaped, graduated centrifuge tube and stand.

1. Thoroughly agitate the suspension to ensure particle

distribution.

2. Run suspension through the hand hose and nozzle for at least
60 s. This ensures the suspension in the hose is fresh and

agitated.

3. Fill the 100 mL centrifuge tube with agitated suspension

using the hand hose.

4. Demagnetize the suspension in the tube to reduce clumping.

5. Place the centrifuge tube in its stand and allow it to settle on a

vibration free surface for 0.5 h.

6. Illuminate the suspension in the centrifuge tube with

ultraviolet radiation in a darkened area.

Only the particle layer should fluoresce. Fluorescence in the

liquid indicates bath breakdown, fluorescent pigmentation being

stripped from the magnetic particles or fine magnetic particles

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

103

remaining suspended in media. If this condition exists, place the

centrifuge tube in its stand with a horseshoe magnet, isolated from

the magnetic stand, in contact with the centrifuge tube, and let set on

a vibration free surface for 0.5 h. Illuminate the suspension in the

centrifuge tube with ultraviolet radiation in a darkened area. If the

suspension's fluorescence is reduced or eliminated, the cause of the

fluorescence is fine magnetic particles remaining suspended in the

media. If the level of fluorescence remains at the same level, the

fluorescent pigmentation is being stripped from the magnetic

particles. If it is determined that the cause of the suspension's

fluorescence is stripping off the pigmentation, the suspension should

be replaced, especially if it is serious enough to interfere with the

results of the system effectiveness check using the tool steel ring. If

it is determined that the cause of the excessive suspension

fluorescence is fine magnetic particles remaining suspended in the

media and they are of a volume to interfere with the results of the

system effectiveness, check using a tool steel ring. An effort may be

made to remove fine particles from the holding tank's magnetic

particle bath.

Fine particles can be removed from the holding tank's magnetic

particle bath with the use of magnets. The bath in the magnetic

particle machine's holding tank should be allowed to rest (not

agitated) for 0.5 h. Place the magnets in the bath, ensuring not to

place them so deep that they will attract the particles that have

settled out of suspension. The length of time or number of times that

the magnets will have to be cleaned of particles and resubmerged is

dependent on the seriousness of the problem. The bath should be

able to pass the system effectiveness check, after the removal of as

many suspended particles as possible, or be replaced.

FLUORESCENT TEST MATERIALS

There is no difference between the fluorescent and

nonfluorescent materials as far as the liquids and bath requirements

are concerned. Petroleum distillates must meet the same

specifications as the dry particle media with one additional

requirement. The media itself must not fluoresce strongly and

without any other color than the usual bluish white of most
petroleum products. Most of the commercial distillates approved for

the regular wet method are also satisfactory for use with fluorescent

particles. The reason for limiting the fluorescence of the bath itself is

because fluorescence of the film of oil on a test object would

produce a confusing overall background.

The particles for this method are magnetically the same as the

visible type, but they must carry the fluorescent dye and the binding

material that holds the dye and particle together. This coating of the

particles would tend to make them less effective in producing

indications were it not for the fact that to be easily visible, a

104 Personnel Training Publications

fluorescent particle indication requires only a small fraction of the

particles needed for the nonfluorescent type. Thus, the overall effect

is a large practical and effective increase in sensitivity.

Fluorescent particles are supplied primarily as a dry concentrate

incorporating all the ingredients necessary for dispersion. It is

important that the bond between the fluorescent dye and the

magnetic particle is able to resist the vigorous agitation it receives in

the pump circulation. If the dye separates from the magnetic particle,

the dye tends to cling to the surfaces of the test object independent

of any magnetic attraction, causing a meaningless and confusing

background. At the same time, the magnetic particles that are held

magnetically at indications have lost some or all of their fluorescing

ability, reducing their visibility that results in a net loss in sensitivity.

Maintenance
The maintenance rules are identical to those used for the wet

visible nonfluorescent particles. There are, however, three additional

sources of deterioration in a bath of fluorescent particles that must

be monitored.

The first is the separation of the fluorescent pigment from the

magnetic particles. Such separation causes a falling off of

fluorescent brightness of indications, and an increase in the overall

fluorescence of the background. When this occurs to a noticeable

degree, the bath should be changed. This condition is difficult to

detect in the settling test, but can be observed by directing

ultraviolet radiation at the settling tube after the normal settliIlg

period. Noticeable fluorescence of the solution with a reduced'

fluorescence of the particles signifies separation. Observation by the

technician in the way the bath performs is another method of

detecting separation.

A second source of deterioration of the bath of fluorescent

particles, which does not occur in the case of visible particles, is the

accumulation of magnetic dust or dirt in the bath. When there is a

considerable amount of finely divided magnetic material in the dust

carried by the air, this material will accumulate in the bath along

with other dust and dirt. In a bath of wet visible nonfluorescent

particles, this does no specific harm until the accumulation of total

dirt is excessive. In the case of fluorescent particles, it tends to

decrease the brightness of the indication. The fine magnetic material

is attracted to indications along with the fluorescent particles, and it

takes very little of such nonfluorescent material to reduce

significantly the fluorescent light emitted by the indication.

A third source of deterioration of the fluorescent particle bath is

the accumulation of fluorescent oils and greases from the surfaces of

tested objects. In time, this accumulation builds up the fluorescence

of the liquid in the bath to a point at which it interferes with the

viewing of fluorescent particle indications.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

lOS

Surface Preparation

One precaution in the preparation of the surface of test objects

before testing must be given special attention. This is the removal of

surface oil and grease. Most petroleum distillates, lubricating oils

and greases fluoresce with various degrees of brightness. Such

materials must be kept out of the testing bath because of the increase

in background fluorescence that they produce. Application of the

suspension using fluorescent magnetic particles is identical with the

procedure described in detail for the wet visible method, except for

the examination for indications.

Test Variables

The quantity of fluorescent particles used to make up a suitable

bath is very much smaller than for the wet visible nonfluorescent

type. It is actually less than one tenth as much because fewer

particles are required to form readable indications. Concentrations

on the order of those required for the visible type particles would
result in excessive background fluorescence from the particles in the

bath surface film, making fine indications difficult to see.

The volume of particles that settles out in the test for bath

strength is larger for the fluorescent particles in proportion to the

quantity of concentrate used, as compared to the nonfluorescent

particles. This is because the fluorescent dye and binder reduce the

density of the particles so that they do not settle so rapidly, nor so

compactly, in the standard settling time of 1 h.

The amount of settled out material is not uniformly proportionate

to the amount of concentrate added, for the reason that composition

of the several concentrates varies to include necessary, conditioning

materials and the specific gravity of the several suspensions also

varies, partly as the result of these additives. These factors affect the

settling rate and the degree of compactness of the settled material in

the time allowed for the settling test.

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

Generation of Ultraviolet Radiation

In a typical mercury vapor arc discharge bulb, the high pressure

component is a quartz tube containing mercury and a small amount

of neon gas. When the lamp is first turned on, the mercury is

condensed as a liquid, and an arc between the electrodes cannot be

generated. This is the purpose of the neon. A small amount of

current, limited by the resistor, causes a discharge from the starting

electrode through the neon. This glow is sufficient to vaporize the

mercury, which then allows the arc to pass between the main
electrodes. This starting procedure requires from 5 to 15 min to fully

vaporize the mercury and produce full output of ultraviolet radiation.

Ultraviolet lamps should be energized for 15 min before the test is

106 Personnel Training Publications

performed. The ultraviolet lamp should produce a minimum light

intensity of 1000 W/cm2 at a 38 em (15 in.) distance from the test

object to the surface of the filter.

Ultraviolet Lamp Fixtures

An ultraviolet radiation mercury arc bulb requires a housing,

filter, regulating ballast or transformer and connecting cables or

wires. The housing, which may be metal or plastic, serves several

functions.

1. Hold and protect the bulb.

2. Hold and support the filter.

3. Prevent leakage of unwanted visible light and ultraviolet

radiation.

4. Permit directing the beam on the surface to be tested.

5. Provide a means for handling the bulb.

The filter is a special cobalt glass that filters short wavelength

ultraviolet radiation and long wavelength visible light. This

conditions the emitted ultraviolet radiation to the wavelength

causing maximum fluorescence of the magnetic particle dye.

Filters can be a smooth or fluted surface. The fluted surface

provides a slightly larger focused spot than a smooth surface filter. A

current regulating ballast or transformer is required for proper

functioning of the bulb.

Sources

There are three common sources used to generate ultraviolet

radiation: carbon arc systems, low pressure fluorescent bulbs and

high pressure arc bulbs.

Carbon Arc Systems

Electric current arcing between two carbon electrodes generates a

high quantity of electromagnetic radiation. The radiation spans

wavelengths from about 10 to 700 nm. This covers the entire

ultraviolet radiation and visible light ranges and a portion of the

infrared range. There are a number of disadvantages associated with

carbon arc systems. They require a high electrical power supply and

are very bulky because of the need for electrode drive mechanisms.

The principal use of carbon arc systems is in ultraviolet

spectrophotometers, rather than for fluorescent magnetic particle

testing.

Low Pressure Fluorescent Bulbs

Low pressure fluorescent bulbs are similar to standard fluorescent

tubes. However, instead of an inert gas, the tube contains metallic

mercury. When an electric current is applied, the mercury vaporizes

and emits ultraviolet radiation with a wavelength of about 254 nm.

This wavelength is not useful for fluorescent testing. Therefore, the

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

107

inside of the tube is coated with a phosphor that is activated by the

hard ultraviolet radiation and emits ultraviolet radiation and visible

light in the wavelength range of 320 to 440 nm.

The amount of useful ultraviolet radiation at 350 nm is relatively

small. However, there is a large amount of both harmful short

wavelength ultraviolet radiation, below 320 nm and visible light

about 400 nm, which is emitted through the phosphor. Some of these

undesirable wavelengths are often removed by making the tube from

cobalt glass. While this reduces the unwanted radiation, it also

reduces the already low amount of useful 350 nm ultraviolet

radiation. In addition, fluorescent ultraviolet radiation bulbs, because

of their configuration, cannot be easily focused and their intensity

per unit area is below that of other types of bulbs. Until recently,

these bulbs were not used for fluorescent magnetic particle tests.

High Pressure Bulbs

High pressure arc bulbs are the most common source for

ultraviolet radiation. They are preferred for fluorescent magnetic

.particle tests because they have an acceptable output at a reasonable

distance from the bulb and under conditions of less than complete

darkness. They can be focused to increase their intensity on a

localized area. There is a wide range of sizes from a 2 W pencil, to a

400 W floodlight. The smaller sizes should not be used for magnetic

particle tests. The most frequently used size is the 100 W bulb.

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Chapter 13
Types of Discontinuities

Discontinuities are imperfections in a test object that interfere

with the usefulness of test object or exceed acceptability limits

established by applicable specifications. Such changes inherently

affect the physical properties of the test object and may in turn have

an effect on the test object's ability to fulfill its intended service life.

Not all discontinuities are defects. The definition of defect changes

with the type of component, its construction, its materials and the

specifications or codes in force. It should be well understood that a

harmless discontinuity in one object may be a critical flaw in

another kind of object.

Detection of discontinuities is a process that is largely dependent

on the discontinuity's physical characteristics. In the case of cracks,

a critical parameter is the ratio of surface opening to crack depth.

However, crack depth and width are not the only factors affecting

detectability; length and orientation to the surface are also important.

To better detect and interpret magnetic particle discontinuity

indications, it is necessary to know the basic material characteristics

of the test object. Furthermore, it is also important to consider how

the material is produced, what manufacturing processes are used to

form the finished product and what discontinuities are typically

initiated by the processing operations.

During the various stages of material processing, certain

discontinuities can be expected. Typically, a discontinuity is

categorized by the stage of manufacturing or use in which it initiates:

inherent, primary processing, secondary processing and service related

discontinuities. The text that follows is a description of discontinuities

that may originate from the processing operations in each of the four

categories. The listing is provided only for educational purposes and

may not apply to all magnetic particle test objects.

INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES

When ferromagnetic materials are produced, molten metal

solidifies into ingot form, potentially producing discontinuities

known as inherent discontinuities. Many of these are removed by

cropping, but a number of them can remain in the ingot. Such

discontinuities can then be rolled, forged and sectioned along with

the material in its subsequent processing operations. Table 13.1

briefly describes common inherent discontinuities that may occur in

ferromagnetic materials.

109

Table 13.1: Inherent discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.

Discontinuity Location

Cause

Cold shut

surface or subsurface

meeting of two streams of liquid metal that do not fuse together

Pipe

subsurface

absence of molten metal during the final solidification process

Hot tears
surface

restraint from the core of mold during the cooling process

Porosity surface or subsurface

entrapped gases during solidification of metal

Inclusions surface or subsurface

contaminants introduced during the casting process

Segregation surface or subsurface

localized differences in material composition

Cold Shut

A cold shut is initiated during the metal casting process. It occurs

because of imperfect fusion between two streams of metal that have

converged. Cold shuts may also be attributed to surging, sluggish

molten metal, an interruption in pouring or any factor that prevents

fusion where two molten surfaces meet.

This discontinuity produces magnetic particle indications similar

to those of cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges similar to

those of Figure 13.1.

Pipe

During solidification of molten metal, a progressive reduction in

volume occurs. In the case of a casting, there eventually can be

insufficient molten metal for completely filling the top of the mold.

As a result, a shrinkage cavity forms, usually in the shape of an

inverted cone or cylinder, as shown in Figure 13.2.

If this shrinkage cavity is not completely removed before rolling

or forging into final shape, it becomes elongated and appears as

voids, called pipe, in the finished product. Pipe can also result from

extrusion, caused by the oxidized surface of a billet flowing inward

toward the center of a bar at the back end. The presence of pipe is

Figure 13.1: Magnetic

particle indication of a cold

shut in a casting.

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Personnel Training Publications

Figure 13.2: Longitudinal section of two types of ingots

showing typical pipe and porosity.

Pipe

Porosity

Bar rolled from ingot above Bar rolled from ingot above

usually characterized as a small, round cavity located in the center of

an end surface.

Hot Tears

At the elevated temperatures associated with solidification, cast

materials are susceptible to hot tears. Segregation of low melting

point impurities results in localized loss of ductility and strength.

Lacking these, the cooling metal can tear and crack in the mold

because of restraint from the mold. In addition, uneven cooling in

thin sections or corners that adjoin heavier masses of metal can

result in higher metal surface stresses that in turn produce hot tears.

Hot tears appear on the surface as a ragged line of variable width

and numerous branches. Sometimes the cracks are not detectable

until after machining because the tearing can be subsurface.

Blowholes and Porosity

Gas porosity or blowholes are rounded cavities (flattened,

elongated or spherical) caused by the accumulation of gas bubbles in

molten metal as it solidifies. A small percentage of these bubbles

rise through the molten metal and escape. However, most are

trapped at or near the surface of the ingot when solidification is

complete, as shown in Figure 13.2. During rolling or forging of the

ingot, some of these gas pockets are fused shut.

The remaining pockets may appear as seams in the rolled

product. Deep blowholes that are not rolled shut may appear as

laminations after becoming elongated in the rolling operation.

Nonmetallic Inclusions

Inclusions in ferrous alloys are usually oxides, sulfides or

silicates introduced in the original ingot. During the melting

operation, the use of dirty remelt, crucibles or rods, or poor linings

may introduce nonmetallic inclusions into the molten metal. Other

contributing factors are poor pouring practice and inadequate gating

design that can produce turbulence within the mold.

Nonmetallic inclusions can become stress risers because of their

shape, discontinuous nature andincompatibility with the

surrounding material. It is often the presence of these inclusions that

lowers the ability of a metal to withstand high impact, static or

fatigue stresses. Moreover, the effect of inclusions depends on their

size and shape, their resistance to deformation, their orientation

relative to applied stress and the tensile strength of the material.

Many inclusions can be of a more complex intermediate

composition than their host materials, and each grade and type of

metal has its own characteristic inclusions.

Typically, inclusions are mechanically worked (from rolling or

forming), causing them to deform plastically into elongated shapes

and to appear in longitudinal sections as stringers or streaks. In

transverse cross sections, the inclusion's shape is more globular or

flat, as seen in Figures 13.3 to 13.6.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 111

Figure 13.3: Inclusions

present in wrought product

were elongated through the

rolling process and discovered

at a weld upset that joined

two rails together; magnetic

particle indications shown in

the web adjacent to the weld.

Figure 13.5: Microstructure of

transverse (perpendicular to

rolling direction) section

through rail sample, away

from weld.

Segregation

Figure 13.4: Cross section

through rail sample, showing

magnetic particle indications

at center.

Figure 13.6: Microstructure of

longitudinal section through

rail sample; inclusion runs the

length of the test object.

Segregation is localized differences in a material's chemical

composition. During solidification of molten metal, certain elements

may concentrate in limited areas, resulting in an uneven distribution

of some of the alloying elements of the steel. Equalization of the

compositional differences can be achieved by hot working (forging

or rolling). However, segregation is sometimes carried into the

wrought product.

When not detected, segregation can affect corrosion resistance,

forging and welding characteristics, mechanical properties, fracture

toughness and fatigue resistance. Furthermore, quench cracks,

112 Personnel Training Publications

hardness variations and other discontinuities are likely to result

during heat treating of materials that exhibit segregation of alloying

elements.

PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

Discontinuities that originate during hot or cold forming are

called primary processing discontinuities. The processing of a

wrought product by rolling, forging, casting or drawing may

introduce specific discontinuities into the product and inherent

discontinuities that were at one time undetectable or insign.ificant

may propagate and become detrimental. Table 13.2 briefly describes

common primary processing discontinuities that may occur in

ferromagnetic materials.

iTable 13.2: Primary processing discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.

Discontinuity Location

Cause

Seams

Laminations

Stringers

Cupping

COOlingcracks

~aps

Bursts

Hydrogen flakes

surface

subsurface

subsurface

subsurface

surface

surface

surface or subsurface

subsurface
Seams

elongation of unfused surface discontinuities in rolled products

elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities

elongation and compression of inherent discontinuities

internal stresses during cold drawing

uneven cooling of cold drawn products

material folded over and compressed

forming processes at excessive temperatures

an abundance of hydrogen during the forming process

As an ingot is processed, inherent surface discontinuities such as

gas pockets, blowholes and cracks are rolled and drawn

longitudinally. When these discontinuities exist, an underfill of

material occurs during the rolling operation. Seams may also be

initiated in the semifinishing and finishing mills because of faulty,

poorly lubricated or oversized dies.

As a result of multiple passes during rolling operations,

underfilled areas are rolled together to form a seam, as shown in

Figure 13.7. The surfaces are typically oxidized and may be

intermittently welded together to form very tight, usually straight

cracks that vary in depth from the surface, as shown in Figures 13.8

and 13.9.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

113

Figure 13.7: Formation of a seam: (a) underfill results when

there is not enough metal to fill the rolls; and (b) a seam in the
finished bar occurs when underfill is squeezed tight on a

subsequent rolling pass.

(a) (b)

'-...... Underfill

Figure 13.8: Wet fluorescent

magnetic particle indication

of a seam in a steel billet.

Laminations

'Seam

Figure 13.9: Seams in bars,

from left: as-received

condition, sandblasted

surface, pickled surface and

wet fluorescent magnetic

indication.

Laminations are separations that are typically aligned parallel to

the worked surface of a material. They may be the result of

blowholes, internal fissures, pipe, inclusions, seams or segregations

that are elongated and flattened during the rolling process. They are

subsurface, generally flat and extremely thin. Laminations can be

detected by magnetic particle testing at an end or at a transverse

cross section taken through the rolled plate.

Stringers

Stringers are predominantly found in bar stock. They originate by

the flattening and lengthening of nonmetallic inclusions during the

rolling operation. Stringers are typically subsurface, sernicontinuous

straight lines parallel to the length of the bar stock.

Cupping

Typically occurring during the extrusion operation or as a result

of severe cold drawing, cupping is a series of internal ruptures

(chevrons) in bar or wire, as shown in Figure 13.10. Because the

interior of a metal cannot flow as rapidly as the surface, internal

stresses build, causing transverse subsurface cupping cracks.

114 Personnel Training Publications

Cooling Cracks

After the rolling operation of cold drawn bars, cooling cracks

may develop because of internal stresses caused by uneven cooling

of the material. Such cracks are typically longitudinal and usually

vary in depth and length. Although often confused with seams,

cooling cracks do not exhibit surface oxidation.

Forged and Rolled Laps

Forging laps are the result of metal being folded over, forming an

area that is squeezed tight but not welded together, as shown in

Figures 13.11 and 13.12. They are caused by faulty dies, oversized

blanks or improper handling of the metal in the die. Forging laps are

usually open to the surface and are either parallel or at a small angle

to the surface.

Rolled laps are a condition similar to a seam. Excessive material

is squeezed out during a rolling pass, causing a sharp overfill or fin.

When rotated for the following pass, the material is rolled back into
the bar. Because of its heavily oxidized surface, the overfill cannot

be welded together by the rolling operation. Rolling laps are usually

straight or slightly curved from the longitudinal axis and are either

parallel or at a small angle to the test object surface, as shown in

Figure 13.13.

Internal and External Bursts

Internal bursts are found in bars and forgings and result from

excessive hot working temperatures. Discontinuities that exist before

forming (porosity, pipe, inclusions or segregation) are pulled apart

because of the high tensile stresses developed during the forming

operation.

Rolled and forged metals may also develop internal bursts when

there is insufficient equipment capacity for working the metal

throughout its cross section, as shown in Figure 13.14.

Figure 13.10: Cross section

showing severe cupping in

a 3 ..'1 em (1.4 in.) bar.

Figure 13.12: Micrograph

of a forging lap with

included oxide in the lap.

Figure 13.11: Wet

fluorescentmagnetic particle

indication of a forging lap in

a connecting rod.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 115

i,

Figure 13.13: Formation of a lap: (a) an

overfill produces excess metal squeezed

out of the rolls causing a fin; (b) a lap

results when the projection is folded over

and forced back into the bar's surface

during a subsequent pass.

(a)

(b)

Fin

"-

Lap

Figure 13.14: Cross section of a bar

showing a forging burst near the

centerline; arrow indicates the direction of

working.

External bursts typically occur when the forming section is too

severe or where sections are thin. External bursts may also be

formed when the capabilities of the equipment are not great enough:

the outer layers of the metal are deformed more than the internal

metal and the resulting stress causes an external burst. Forming

during improper temperatures may also cause external bursts.

Hydrogen Flakes

Flakes are formed while cooling after the forging or rolling

operations. They are internal fissures attributed to stresses produced

by localized metallurgical transformations and decreased solubility

of hydrogen (hydrogen embrittlement) resulting from excessively

rapid cooling.

Hydrogen is available in abundance during all manufacturing

operations. When permitted, hydrogen dissipates freely at

temperatures above 200°C (390 OF),so that the solubility of

hydrogen in material proportionally increases with increasing time

and temperature. Hydrogen flakes are usually found deep in heavy

steel forgings, are extremely thin and are aligned parallel with the

grain.

Welding Discontinuities

The following discontinuities are related primarily to the fusion

welding process, although a few may also apply to resistance and

solid state processes. This compilation covers only those

discontinuities that typically lend themselves to detection by

magnetic particle testing. Table 13.3 briefly describes common

primary processing discontinuities that may occur in welds.

116 Personnel Training Publications

Table 13.3: Primary processing discontinuities in welds.

Cause

Location

Discontinuity

Cold cracking

Hot cracking

Solidification
Liquidation

Lamellar tearing

Lack of fusion

Lack of penetration surface or subsurface

Porosity surface or subsurface

Inclusions

Slag

Tungsten

Oxide

surface or subsurface atomic hydrogen, hardenable material and high residual stress

surface or subsurface

surface or subsurface

surface

subsurface

subsurface

subsurface

surface

surface

Undercut

Overlap surface

low melting point constituents opening up during solidification

segregation of material in the liquid state during solidification

delamination of base material during solidification and cooling

failure of the filler metal to coalesce with the base metal

inadequate penetration of the weld joint root by the weld metal

entrapped constituents in molten weld metal during solidification

improper cleaning of a previous weld pass

molten weld pool contact with filler metal and tungsten electrode

mixing oxides on the base metal surface into the weld pool

oversized weld pool

insufficient amperage or travel speed

Acceptance or rejection of a weldment is determined by the

requirements of the designer and the applicable code.

Cold Cracking

Cold cracking is also known as underbead or delayed cracking.

It is a form of hydrogen induced cracking that appears in the heat

affected zone or weld metal of low alloy and hardenable carbon

steels. Cracking of this type may occur immediately on cooling or

after a period of hours or even days. The principal factors

contributing to cold cracking are the presence of atomic hydrogen, a

hard martensitic microstructure in the heat affected zone and high

residual tensile stresses resulting from restraint.

Sources of atomic hydrogen include moisture in the electrode

covering, shielding gas or base metal surface (including hydrated

rust), as well as contamination of the filler or base metal by a

hydrocarbon (oil or grease). Dissociation of water vapor or a

hydrocarbon in the welding arc results in the rapid diffusion of

atomic hydrogen into the molten weld pool and subsequently into

the base metal's heat affected zone. If the zone's cooling rate is high

enough and the steel is hardenable enough (a function of carbon and

alloy content), a martensitic microstructure may form and the

hydrogen atoms may then collect at internal discontinuities. Residual

stresses caused by weld shrinkage, or externally applied tensile

stresses, result in hydrogen induced cracks initiating at the hydrogen

rich discontinuities.

Cold cracks produce sharply defined, heavy magnetic particle

indications if they are open to the test object surface, as in the case

of underbead cracks that extend to the weld toe, as shown in

Figure 13.l5. Weld metal cracks may be oriented in any direction

and are often associated with nonmetallic inclusions, as shown in

Figure 13.l6. Subsurface indications may be harder to detect.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

117

Figure 13.15: Cross section of a weld joint

exhibiting hydrogen induced cold cracking

in the heat affected zone (underbead): this

crack is detectable by magnetic particle

testing because it extends to the outside

surface.

Figure 13.16: Cross section of a weld joint

exhibiting hydrogen induced weld metal

cold cracking; this crack is oriented

longitudinally, but weld material cracks

may be oriented in other directions

depending on joint restraint.

0.5 cm (0.2 in)

Hot Cracking

Hot cracking is a term applied to several varieties of weld metal

and heat affected zone cracking, all of which occur at elevated

temperatures. The following types are two of the most common hot

cracks.

Solidification cracking occurs near the solidification temperature

of the weld metal and is caused by the presence of low melting point

constituents, typically iron sulfides, that segregate to the weld metal

dendrite surfaces during the liquid-to-solid transformation process.

The shrinkage stresses induced by cooling cause cracks to open

between the dendrite surfaces, as shown in Figure 13.17.

One common form of solidification cracking is called centerline

hot cracking, because it follows the longitudinal centerline of the

deposited weld bead, as shown in Figure 13.18. During weld

deposition, solidification of the progressing weld pool occurs from

the outside in, beginning at both toes and meeting at the center. The

low melting point impurities are pushed ahead of these two joining

solidification fronts where they are concentrated at the centerline

and open up as a longitudinal hot crack under transverse

solidification shrinkage stresses. The likelihood of this occurrence is

increased by high travel speed, high depth-to-width ratio of the weld

bead and a small weld bead, particularly in the root pass.

Another frequently observed type of solidification cracking is

called crater cracking, which occurs in the crater formed at the

termination of a weld pass, as shown in Figure 13.19. Crater cracks

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Figure 13.17: Cross section of a weld joint

exhibiting solidification cracking; the weld

on the right side contains an inter dendritic

crack associated with a slag inclusion

which acted as a nucleation site.

Figure 13.18: Section through a weld joint

exhibiting centerline solidification

cracking, a form of hot cracking.

Figure 13.19: Location and typical

appearance of crater cracks.

Crater cracks

are typically star shaped on the surface, and are the result of three

dimensional shrinkage stresses brought about by crater

solidification. Sudden termination of the welding arc, rather than

pausing at the end of a weld pass to fill in the crater, is a common

contributor to crater cracking.

Liquation cracking, or hot tearing, occurs in the heat affected

zone of a weld when the temperature in that region results in the

liquation of low melting point constituents (inclusions or segregated

alloying elements). These form a liquid grain boundary film that is

unable to support the shrinkage stresses of the welding process.

Such cracks are often microscopic in size, but may link up under
applied stresses to form a continuous surface or subsurface crack.

In general, hot cracking is associated with steels having high

sulfur content, and the effect is accentuated as carbon content

increases. The detectability of hot cracks by magnetic particle

methods is similar to that of cold cracks and depends on their

proximity to the surface.

119Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

Lamellar Tearing

A lamellar tear is a base metal crack that occurs in plates and

shapes of rolled steel exhibiting a high nonmetallic inclusion

content. These inclusions are rolled flat in the steel plate

manufacturing process, severely reducing strength and ductility in

the through-thickness direction. When the shrinkage stresses induced

by weld solidification are imposed in that direction on the base

metal plate, separation of the base metal at the flattened inclusions

might occur, as may shearing between those lamellar planes,

resulting in a terraced fracture.

Lamellar tearing is readily detectable by magnetic particle

techniques and is most often seen in base metal on the edge of a

steel plate or structural shape, adjacent to a deposited weld bead, as

shown in Figure 13.21.

Figure 13.21: Weld joint designs in steel plate that are prone to lamellar tearing; typical

locations of tears are shown.

Lack of Fusion

Lack of fusion occurs when some portion of the weld filler metal
fails to coalesce with the adjacent base metal or the weld metal from

a previous pass. In welding processes that use no filler metal, lack of

fusion refers to incomplete coalescence between the two base metal

components being joined.

This condition is caused when the base metal surface fails to

reach melting temperature after application of the weld metal. This

typically occurs when welding a large component that can transfer

heat rapidly because of its thermal mass, particularly when it is at a

relatively low temperature before welding, thereby absorbing the

heat applied to its surface by the welding process. Lack of fusion is

often seen at the beginning of the first weld pass, where the base

metal is at its lowest temperature during weld deposition. This is

commonly called a cold start.

One welding process that is particularly susceptible to this

discontinuity is gas metal arc welding in the short-circuiting arc

mode, because of its inherently low heat input. Another frequent

cause of lack of fusion is attempting to weld on top of a previously

deposited weld pass that has been inadequately cleaned of slag or

welding on a dirty base metal surface, so that the heat of the arc is

unable to reach the underlying metal.

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Lack of fusion mayor may not occur near the outside surface of

the weld joint. The closer it is to the surface, the sharper the

magnetic particle indication. Lack of fusion is usually oriented

parallel to the direction of welding and the test indication often

appears at or near the toe of the weld.

Lack of fusion in autogenous welds (without filler metal) may be

the result of large inclusions in the base metal or impurities that

become trapped between the faying surfaces of the joint before

welding. Susceptible processes are those that produce a relatively

shallow melted zone at the faying surfaces and then expel most of

that zone by a subsequent upsetting force (high frequency resistance

welding, projection welding, flash welding, friction welding). Other

causes of lack of fusion in autogenous welds include inadequate

heating and insufficient upsetting force. Figures 13.22 and 13.23

show a typical discontinuity of this type.

Lack of Penetration

Lack of penetration is sometimes confused with lack of fusion.

Lack of penetration is inadequate (less than specified) penetration of

the weld joint root by the weld metal, as shown in Figure 13.24. The

condition can result from a number of incorrect parameters, most of

them related to welding technique. These include low amperage, use

of an oversized electrode, excessive travel speed, improper electrode

angle, improper arc manipulation and inadequate preweld cleaning.

Often, the joint design does not facilitate good penetration

because of too large a root face, too narrow a root opening or too

Figure 13.22: Magnetic particle indication

of lack of fusion in a high frequency

resistance welded tube.

Figure 13.23:Metallographic cross section

of the tube shown in Figure 13.22,

showing the depth of lack of fusion from

the outside surface inward.

Figure 13.24: Cross section of a weld joint

exhibiting lack of penetration.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

121

small a bevel angle. Many procedures for double groove welds

specify backgouging of the first pass on the first side before

deposition of the first pass on the second side. If this is neglected or

performed inadequately during the joining operation, lack of

penetration will likely occur.

The magnetic particle indication produced by lack of penetration

has an appearance similar to a subsurface longitudinal crack and

usually follows the centerline of the weld.

Porosity

Porosity is composed of cavities or pores that form when some

constituent within the molten weld metal vaporizes and forms a

small pocket of gas that is entrapped when the weld metal solidifies.

The pores can take a variety of shapes and sizes although they are

usually spherical. One type of elongated pore is often called an

elongated porosity, as shown in Figure 13.25. The distribution of

porosity within the weld metal may be clustered (usually results

from improper initiation or termination of the welding arc) or linear

(indicates gas evolution by welding over a contaminant confined to a

linear junction such as a corner or crevice). .

In general, porosity is often the result of dirt, rust or moisture on

the base or filler metal surface before welding and can be prevented

by maintaining cleanliness and dryness. Other contributing factors

include base metal composition (such as high sulfur content), high

solidification rate and improper welding technique (such as

excessive arc length).

A magnetic particle indication of subsurface porosity is typically

weak and not clearly defined. All but the smallest surface pores

should be visible to the unaided eye.

Inclusions

Many weld processes use flux shielding, including shielded metal

arc welding (SMAW), submerged arc welding (SAW) and flux cored

arc welding (FCAW). Welds produced by these methods are

particularly susceptible to discontinuities known as slag inclusions.

Slag can be entrapped in the weld metal during solidification if it is

unable to float out while the pool is still liquid. The factors that

promote slag entrapment include high solidification rate, high weld

pool viscosity, use of an oversized electrode and improper joint

geometry.

Slag allowed to remain on the surface of a deposited weld bead is

rarely completely dissolved by subsequent passes. Therefore, it is

essential to remove all slag from each pass. Joint designs that exhibit

a high depth-to-width ratio and weld beads with an excessively

convex profile are promoters of slag entrapment, as shown in

Figure 13.26. A magnetic particle indication produced by a slag

inclusion is weak and poorly defined and high magnetizing field

strength is required for detection.

122 Personnel Training Publications

Figure 13.25: Longitudinal section

through weld metal containing elongated

porosity.

Figure 13.26: Cross section of a weld joint

containing slag inclusions; note that the

high depth-to-width ratio of the weld on

the left side contributed to slag

entrapment.

Tungsten inclusions are found in the weld metal deposited by the

gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process and are usually the result

of allowing the molten weld pool or the filler metal to come in

contact with the tip of the tungsten electrode. This type of inclusion

is virtually undetectable by magnetic particle methods.

Oxide inclusions are particles of high melting point oxides

present on the base metal surface. During welding, these oxides are

then mixed into the weld pool. The magnetic particle indications

produced by oxide inclusions of significant size and quantity are

similar to those produced by subsurface porosity. Small and isolated

oxides are extremely difficult to detect by magnetic particle

methods.
Undercut

Undercut occurs at the toe of a weld when the base metal

thickness is reduced. Essentially, a narrow crevice is formed in the

base metal, paralleling the weld toe and immediately adjacent to it,

as shown in Figure 13.27a. Undercut lessens joint strength in the

static sense by reducing the base metal section thickness. It also

creates a stress concentration that reduces the impact, fatigue and

low temperature properties of the joint. Undercut is caused by an

oversized molten weld pool, which is in turn related to excessive

amperage, travel speed and electrode diameter.

A magnetic particle indication produced by undercut appears less

pronounced than that produced by lack of fusion. Undercut is easily

detected by visual examination.

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123

Overlap

Overlap is the protrusion of weld metal over the weld toe,

producing a form of lack of fusion that creates a sharp mechanical

notch or stress concentration, as shown in Figure I3.27b. Some

codes refer to this discontinuity as cold lap. The condition is caused

by insufficient amperage or travel speed.

Overlap produces a magnetic particle indication at the weld toe

similar to that produced by lack of fusion. It is often detectable by

visual examination.

Figure 13.27: Diagram of weld discontinuities: (a) undercut (at

arrow); and (b) overlap (at arrow).

(a)

(b)

SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES

Discontinuities that originate from grinding, heat treating,

machining, plating and related finishing operations are categorized

as secondary processing discontinuities. Such discontinuities may be

the most costly because all previous processing costs are lost when

the component is diverted from service. Table 13.4 briefly describes

the most common secondary processing discontinuities.

Cracks

Grinding cracks can be attributed to the use of glazed wheels,

inadequate coolant, excessive feed rate or attempting to remove too

much material in one pass. Grinding cracks develop where there is

localized overheating of the base material. They are typically at right

angles to the grinding direction and are very shallow. Often,

Table 13.4: Secondary processing discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.

Discontinuity Location

Cause

Grinding cracks

surface localized overheating of the material caused by improper grinding

Heat treating cracks

subsurface uneven heating or cooling

Quench cracks

surface sudden cooling from elevated temperatures

Pickling cracks surface

residual stresses being relieved

Machine tears surface improper machining practices

Plating cracks surface residual stresses being relieved

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grinding cracks are forked and sharp at the root, as shown in

Figure 13.28.

Figure 13.28: Wet fluorescent magnetic particle indication of

grinding cracks in diesel engine connecting pin.

When located in high stress areas, such cracks may result in

fatigue failures. Materials that have been hardened or heat treated

can be more susceptible to grinding cracks because high residual

stresses are retained during the quenching operation.

Heat Treating and Quench Cracks

To obtain a specific hardness and microstructure, materials are

customarily heat treated. During this operation, the metal is heated

and cooled under controlled conditions. However, in some cases,

this process produces stresses that exceed the material's tensile

strength and cause it to crack, as shown in Figure 13.29. Similarly,

when a test object is heated to a very high temperature then rapidly

cooled (in air, oil or water), quench cracks may develop.

During the transformation from austenite (a face centered cubic

structure) to ferrite (body centered cubic) and martensite (body

centered tetragonal) on cooling, a volumetric expansion occurs.

When a test object is quenched following heat treating, the initial

transformation occurs at the test object's surface. Immediately after

the quenching process begins, a layer of body centered tetragonal or

body centered cubic material is formed at the surface. When the

interior cools and transforms, volumetric expansion takes place but

the interior expansion is restrained by the solidified layer. If the

solid layer does not expand enough or if the internal expansion is

great enough, cracking through the outer layer results.

A tempering process normally follows the quenching operation.

Because of this exposure to a high temperature, the surface of

quench cracks become oxidized. Identifying oxidation is one method

of determining If a crack was caused by quenching.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

125

Quench cracks serve as stress concentration sites for fatigue

crack initiation and propagation. This may also serve as the initiation

sites for overload failures. Some quenching operations are so severe

that test objects break up during the process.

The amount of volumetric expansion is governed primarily by the

chemistry of the metal, particularly carbon. As the carbon content

increases, so does the amount of expansion.

The severity of the quench can be lessened by using a lower

carbon content material or by quenching in a less harsh media, such

as oil or an elevated temperature bath.

Heat treating and quench cracks usually emanate from locations

of thin cross section, corners, fillets, notches or material thickness

changes because these areas cool quicker and therefore transform

first. Restricted movement of the material also influences the

location of cracks during the heat treating or quenching operations.

Heat treating or quench cracks are typically forked, surface

indications that are randomly placed in any direction on the test

object.

Pickling Cracks

A pickling operation is used to remove unwanted scale for the

purpose of a more thorough test of the base material. It can also be

used to prepare the surface for finishing operations, such as plating.

Pickling cracks are predominately found in materials that have high

residual stresses (hardened or cold worked metals) and in materials

with voids or similar discontinuities.

During pickling, hydrogen is generated at the surface of the

material. The diffusion of hydrogen into the metal causes a

breakdown of the molecular structure and a subsequent propagation

of cracks. When high internal stresses are present with preexisting

cracks or other discontinuities, hydrogen accelerates propagation of

the crack to relieve the stresses in the material.

Machining Tears

A dull machining tool shears metal off in a manner that produces

rough, torn surfaces. As a result, the surface is work hardened to a

degree that depends largely on the depth of cut, the type and shape

of the tool and the material properties, as shown in Figure 13.30.

Heavy cuts and residual tool marks from rough machining act as

stress risers and can contribute to premature failure in a component.

Stress risers may also occur at a change in section, such as in small

fillet radii between two shaft sections of different diameters or the

poor blending of fillets with shaft surfaces. Although difficult to

detect, machining tears must be thoroughly and meticulously

located.

126 Personnel Training Publications

Figure 13.29: Magnetic

particle indications of quench

cracks.

Plating Cracks

Figure 13.30: Magnetic

particle indications of cracks

resulting from cold working

during machining.

Plating is used for decoration, corrosion protection, wear

resistance and to correct undersized dimensions for a wide variety of

steel components. However, specific plating materials produce

residual stresses that can be either tensile or compressive. Plating

materials that develop residual tensile stresses (chromium, copper

and nickel) can reduce the fatigue strength of a component.

Plating cracks may develop when there is penetration of either

hydrogen or hot plating material into the base metal. This action

produces crack propagation or initiation. Materials high in hardness

or residual stresses are more susceptible to damage from hydrogen

absorption during plating or pickling operations. Furthermore, cracks

that initiate exclusively in the plating material may act as stress

risers and cause cracking in the base material.

INSERVICE DISCONTINUITIES

The life expectancy of a component is dependent on its service

environment (both mechanical and chemical), the quality of its

maintenance and the appropriateness of its design. It is essential for

testing personnel to know the service conditions of a component to

accurately perform a magnetic particle test. Although inservice

discontinuities appear similar, the mechanisms that cause them are

quite different in each case. Table 13.5 briefly describes common

inservice discontinuities found in ferromagnetic materials.

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Table 13.5: Inservice discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.

Discontinuity Location

Cause

Fatigue surface cyclically applied stress below the ultimate tensile strength

Creep surface or subsurface material subjected to high temperatures and stress

Stress cracking surface

combined effects of a static tensile load and corrosiveenvironment

Hydrogen cracking surface or subsurface combined effects of applied tensile or residual stress and

Fatigue Cracking

hydrogen enriched environment

Fatigue is a fracture mechanism induced by a cyclically applied

stress that is lower in magnitude than the ultimate tensile strength of

the material, but high enough to initiate a crack or to propagate a

preexisting crack.

Fatigue cracks can develop from stress risers such as machining

or tooling marks, nonmetallic inclusions present at or near the

material surface, pores, holes or notches, keyways and may even

develop on a smooth surface, as shown in Figures 13.31 and 13.32.

As a fatigue crack begins to propagate, the stress intensity at the

tip of the crack starts to increase. With every incremental growth

period of the crack, there is a proportional, incremental increase in

the stress intensity. This process continues until the stress intensity K

reaches the critical value K1C where failure occurs.

This K1C factor, also known as thefracture toughness, is unique

for each material. The variance in fracture toughness partially

explains the behavior of fatigue cracks: why there is such a range of

fatigue crack sizes; why some cracks may only propagate a small

amount; and why others propagate through nearly all the material

before final fracture.

Fatigue Crack Structure

From an external surface, a fatigue crack resembles any other

crack, but internally a fatigue crack has certain unique

characteristics. Macroscopically, features called beach marks or

clamshell marks can be found. These distinct markings are the result

of variations in cyclic loading, either in frequency, environment or

stress. Such marks are actually small ridges that develop on the

fracture surface and they indicate the position of the advancing crack

at a given time. The geometry and orientation of beach marks can

help establish the location of the crack origin and the direction of

propagation, as shown in Figure 13.33.

Microscopically, the fatigue fracture mechanism is characterized

by features known as striations. Each striation represents one

applied stress cycle. The distance between striations can be equated

to the crack growth rate.

Striations and beach marks are not always observed on the

fracture surface. Many times, loading is such that striations formed

128 Personnel Training Publications

Figure 13.31: Helicopter rotor component:

(a) no discontinuities revealed by visual

examination; and (b) fatigue cracks

revealed by wet fluorescent magnetic

particle tests.

(a)

(b)

Figure 13.32: Magnetic particle indications

of fatigue cracks in a gear.

Figure 13.33: Photograph of a fracture

surface typical of fatigue; note initiation

area in the upper left comer.

during the tensile or positive stress cycle are obliterated during

compressive or negative stress. Striations appear more often in softer

materials, such as aluminum or low carbon steel.

Fatigue cracks normally originate on the surface but can begin

below the surface at discontinuities if the applied and residual

stresses exceed the subsurface fatigue strength of the material. When

this occurs, a circular pattern of beach marks may form around the

origin, producing a bull's-eye appearance.

The probability of fatigue cracking can be dramatically reduced if

the designer is aware of the material's fatigue properties and designs

the component accordingly. Proper care in machining is necessary to

ensure that no unanticipated stress risers are introduced. Additional

fatigue resistance can be gained by stress-relieving a component or

by shot peening to introduce a compressive stress on the test object's

surface.

Creep Cracking

At temperatures greater than half the melting point and at stresses

below the yield strength of the material, deformation can occur by

the action of grains gradually separating over an extended period of

time. This can eventually lead to cracking and finally to failure. This

deformation or failure mechanism is called creep.

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129

Figure 13.34 shows a schematic representation of creep or

deformation with a constant load. The curve can be broken down

into four regions. The first is the material's initial response to

loading. This is usually elastic in nature and is applied very quickly,

accounting for the vertical portion of the curve. The next portion of

the curve is where the material's rate of straining or creep is

decreasing with time. This is called primary or transient creep.

Figure 13.34: Typical curve showing the three stages of creep:

(a) constant load test; and (b) constant stress test.

I-CII r III

(a)

Primarycreep

Tertiarycreep

£0

Secondarycreep

~-

=--..J ~~ = Minimumcreeprate

Time

Fracture

__ - (b)

The third portion is called secondary or steady state creep. This

period accounts for the majority of a component's life and the rate of

creep is nearly constant. During this stage, small voids begin to form

and grow at the triple points of the grain boundaries. Because the

void formation is nearly constant, the creep rate can be predicted

and the remaining service life of the component can be estimated,

based on the steady state creep.

Once the material moves into the region of tertiary creep, the

useful life of the material is over. In the tertiary stage, the creep

voids have become so large that they begin to link, forming a crack

network that quickly leads to failure.

Creep can be detected and controlled. Periodic tests, particularly

those involving field metallography and circumferential

measurement can be used to monitor the creep process, as shown in

Figures 13.35 and 13.36. By slightly decreasing operating

temperature or stress, a substantial decrease in the creep rate yields

greater service life. Figure 13.37 shows the effect that various

temperatures have on creep.

It is generally recognized that the most direct way to improve the

creep properties of a metal is by adding alloying elements. Carbide

forming elements, such as molybdenum, tungsten and, to a lesser

degree, chromium and vanadium, effectively enhance the creep

resistance of steels.

130 Personnel Training Publications

Figure 13.35:

Photomicrograph of fracture

and creep in various stages in

heat affected zone near fusion

zone interface.

Figure 13.36:

Photomicrograph of linked

creep voids in weld zone.

Figure 13.37: Curve showing the effect of temperature on creep

over time.

620°C 605 °C

(l150 OF) (1l20 OF)

580°C

(1080 OF)

Time

565°C

(1050 OF)

Nickel additions are beneficial if sufficient quantity is added to

produce an austenitic structure that is more resistant to creep.

Austenitic stainless steels (particularly 18Cr-8Ni types) have much

better creep properties than carbon steels.

Aside from alloying additions, heat treatment has an effect on

creep properties. Heat treatment generally controls grain size and it

has been found that a coarser grain at elevated temperatures has

higher creep strength than a finer grain.

Since materials can be subjected to such a variety of loads and

temperatures for a particular application, the type of heat treatment

should be based on the degree of stability that it imparts to the

component initially and throughout its service life.

Stress Corrosion Cracking

540 °C

(1010 OF)

Stress corrosion cracking is a fracture mechanism that results

from the combined effects of a static tensile load and a corrosive

environment. The stress involved can either be from actual applied

loads or from residual stresses.

520°C

(970 OF)

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The corrosive environment varies from material to material.

Some common examples of materials and their corrosive

environments include: aluminum and austenitic stainless steels

exposed to saltwater; copper and its alloys exposed to ammonia

(NH3); and mild steel exposed to sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

The stress intensity versus time dependence for a typical stress

corrosion cracking situation is shown in Figure 13.38. The basic

stress-time curve can be expressed in terms of the initial level of Kb

which is based on the tensile load and a known crack length. The

threshold value of stress intensity is designated K/scc. Crack growth

does not occur if the stress intensity is below this value. If the initial

stress intensity is above K1SCC' a crack propagates. The higher the

initial K[ or the closer the value gets to the critical stress intensity

factor K1C' the shorter the life of the component.

The initiation site of a stress corrosion crack may be a preexisting

discontinuity or it may be a small pit acting as a stress riser and

produced by corrosive attack on the surface, as shown in

Figure 13.39. Once a crack is formed, the corrosive environment

penetrates the surface of the material. The tip of an advancing crack

has a small radius and the attendant stress concentration is great.

This stress at the crack tip ruptures the normally protective corrosion

film and aids in the corrosion process, as shown in Figure 13.40.

In addition to this, the formation of corrosion products by local

attack in confined areas produces high stress levels in materials if

the corrosion products occupy a larger volume than the metal from

which they are formed. This wedging action of corrosion products in

cracks has been measured to produce stresses over 34 MPa (5 ksi)

which aid in the propagation of the crack.

Stress corrosion cracking produces brittle failure, either

intergranular or transgranular, depending on the type of alloy or the

corrosive environment. In most cases, while fine cracks penetrate

into a the cross section of a component, the surface shows little

evidence of corrosion.

To keep the stress intensity to a minimum, care must be taken to

avoid stress concentrations, such as tooling marks, notches, arc

strikes and large inclusions near the surface.

Hydrogen Cracking

Hydrogen cracking or hydrogen embrittlement is a fracture

mechanism that results from the corrosive environment produced by

a hydrogen media and usually occurs in conjunction with an applied

tensile stress or residual stress. Hydrogen is introduced into a

material by processes such as electroplating, pickling, welding in a

moist atmosphere or the melting process itself. Hydrogen may also

come from corrosion or the presence of hydrogen sulfides, hydrogen

gas, water, methane or ammonia.

If no crack or stress riser is present on a material surface,

hydrogen can diffuse into the metal and often initiates cracks at

subsurface sites, where triaxial stress conditions are at maximum

132

Personnel Training Publications

Figure 13.38: Stress intensity

versus time dependence for a

typical stress corrosion

cracking situation.

10

100

Time

(minutes)

Figure 13.39: Stresscorrosion

cracking found in a stainless

tube (dye penetrant was used

to illustrate the random crack

orientation and branching);

note that similar cracking

could exist in ferromagnetic

alloys.

Figure 13.40:

Photomicrograph showing a
typical stress corrosion crack;

note small pit produced by

corrosive attack acting as a

stress riser.

levels. In low strength alloys, this condition can lead to what is

known as hydrogen blistering.

If a crack is already present, it is quite common to see hydrogen

induced cracking initiated at the tips of preexisting cracks.

In many instances, hydrogen is already present internally in a

metal before it is placed into service. Hydrogen is readily absorbed

into molten metal during the initial solidification of the material and

during welding processes. The solubility of hydrogen is quite high at

elevated temperatures and in some cases, metals can become

supersaturated with hydrogen during cooling.

Hydrogen cracking follows grain boundaries and rarely shows

any signs of branching. When such cracking results from blistering

or from a static load, it always originates below the component's

surface. Hydrogen cracking from other causes can begin below the

test object's surface or at a stress riser.

-------------------------------------_--_

133Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

Chapter 14

Evaluation Techniques

REFERENCE STANDARDS

Nondestructive tests are typically designed to reveal the presence

of discontinuities or to measure specific properties in a structure or

material. The discontinuity may be an anomaly in a homogeneous

material or a change in one of the material's properties (thickness,

hardness or density, for example).

Before testing, some form of artificial discontinuity or reference

standard is commonly used to verify the operation of a magnetic

particle testing system. This verification is performed for two

reasons.

1. Provide a sensitivity check of the testing procedure.

2. Establish a known correlation between the response of the

test system, the magnitude of the material property or the

severity of a discontinuity.

Magnetic particle testing uses magnetic fields to test

ferromagnetic materials. Discontinuities in the material cause

disturbances in the magnetic field, and this in tum produces a

leakage flux. It is this leakage flux that permits the formation of

particle indications. Both the direction and intensity of the magnetic

field are critical in determining the sensitivity of the test procedure.

Both of these factors are in tum affected by the nature of the

material, the test object geometry and the way in which the magnetic

field is induced.

All of these parameters are interrelated to determine the direction

and intensity of the magnetic field in a particular location in a test

object. The mathematics of these interrelationships does not lend

itself to straight forward solutions, even for relatively simple

geometries.

Empirical Rules for Using Reference Standards

Perhaps more than any other nondestructive technique, magnetic

particle testing has based its procedures on empirical data (rules of

thumb) developed by trial and error in the early days of the method.

These rules have persisted in various standards and specifications.

The reliance on empirical data occurred because of the enormous

complexity of magnetic fields and their interactions with

ferromagnetic components. Unfortunately,rules of thumb have

sometimes been used exclusively for determining the adequacy of

135

certain test setups. As with most empirical data, the rules developed

for magnetic particle testing should be used with caution and with an

understanding of their limits. Caution dictates that regular system

monitoring be used to verify acceptable test sensitivity. Most

existing formulas ensure over magnetization in some test objects.

It is easy to demonstrate the connection between misused rules of

magnetization and inaccurate testing. Figure 14.1 shows where a

null field is produced at the fork in a simple test object

configuration. Failure to use some form of field strength indicator to

verify the presence of a valid magnetic flux could lead to inadequate

testing of this critical area. Measurements with the means described

here have shown a variation from 0.3 to 8.5 mT (3 to 85 G) within

the same test object because of its geometric differences.

Figure 14.1: Magnetic particle testing problem area in a simple

test object geometry.

SYSTEM EVALUATION

Unlike other nondestructive testing methods, magnetic particle

testing systems give little evidence of malfunction. The absence of a

test indication could mean that either tests were properly performed

on samples without discontinuities or the testing system was not

working and therefore not locating existing discontinuities.

As a result, some form of reference standard is needed to

determine proper system performance and adequate sensitivity. Such

a system evaluation tool should check for contamination of the

magnetic particle bath, material visibility (loss of fluorescence on

fluorescent oxides), particle concentration (for wet methods),

adequate particle mobility and the ability to generate an appropriate

magnetic field. Test objects with known discontinuities can also be

used to check system performance.

System Standardization

When multiple variables can affect the outcome of a test, a, means

should be used to normalize or standardize the test. This ensures that

consistent, repeatable results are achieved, independent of the

machine, the technician or the time of the test.

136

Personnel Training Publications

The most direct way to achieve consistent results is to regularly

use a reference standard to compare system sensitivity to

preestablished tolerances. If the desired sensitivity is not achieved,

testing should be stopped to allow required system adjustments.

Parametric Evaluations

At times, it is useful to examine a system's sensitivity to changes

in one or more variables. For example, to evaluate the effectiveness

of magnetic particle testing on chromium plated components, it

would be appropriate to investigate the following factors.

1. The effect of various plating thicknesses.

2. The sensitivity of the test to changes in current levels or field

strength.

3. The effect of changes in the particle type or bath

concentration.

Reference standards are used to study these changing parameters.

Indications of the known discontinuities help determine the effect of

the individual parameters on test sensitivity. The results of such

studies are used to generate or modify testing procedures for the

material and geometry of interest.

Technique Development

In the past, it was COmmonfor some technicians to rely solely on

empirical rules for establishing magnetic particle testing procedures.

This practice frequently leads to over magnetization, poor coverage,

inappropriate selection of test geometries or some combination of all

three disadvantages.

The selection of an appropriate test technique may be the single

most important factor in the success of a magnetic particle test. The

use of reference standards and artificial indications can significantly

improve system performance, and may also reduce the cost of

testing by eliminating unnecessary configurations or scrappage

caused by excessive current. The use of reference standards during

technique development can quickly verify the completeness of

coverage, the direction of magnetizing fields and the level of field

strengths.

In many cases, common rules of thumb produce field strengths in

excess of those needed for detecting discontinuities. Excessive field

strength might appear to provide a margin of safety for unknown

effects of test object material and geometry. However, in many

cases, this excess produces a significant field component normal to

the test object surface. This in tum reduces particle mobility,

increases particle background and actually reduces, rather than

enhances, the sensitivity of the test. Reference standards are often

used to regulate field strength to avoid excess flux while achieving

accurate indications. Two kinds of artificial discontinuities are used

for magnetic particle test systems.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

137

1. Those designed to indicate the adequacy of the field in an

unknown test object.

2. Those designed to measure the effectiveness of the testing

system independent of the test object.

Reference Standards for System Evaluation

Reference standards may be used to evaluate the functionality or

performance of a magnetic particle testing system. On a periodic

basis, reference standards are used as test objects to monitor the

system for changes in magnetic field production, particle

concentration, visibility or contamination. It is helpful to have

graduated discontinuities so that a numerical indicator of the system

performance can be recorded and monitored.

STANDARD TOOL STEEL RING

The tool steel ring is a commonly used and universally

recognized reference standard for magnetic particle testing systems,

as shown in Figure 14.2. It essentially indicates only particle

efficacy. It appears in virtually all United States codes and

specifications as the means for checking magnetic particle

performance.

The ring was first used in 1941. Since that time, its use has

expanded for both wet and dry methods, to the point that the ring is

widely used for measuring systemperformance. It is important,

however, to recognize the ring's limits. For example, a current density

level less than 20% of that usually applied is all that is needed to

indicate a surface discontinuity depth, as shown in Table 14.1.

Figure 14.2: Tool steel ring.

)'1.9 em

4)(
_A

\_ _l

5S

61

17

C"'!

C'"l

r-:

.-<

138 Personnel Training Publications

Table 14.1: Comparative dimensions for a

tool steel ring standard.

Distance from Edge

Diameter

to Center of Hole

Hole

centimeter

centimeter

Number
(inch)

(inch)

O.1S

(0.07) O.1S

(0.07)

O.1S (0.07)

0.36 (0.14)

O.1S (0.07)

0.53 (0.21)

O.1S (0.07) 0.71

(0.2S)

O.1S (0.07) 0.S9

(0.35

O.1S (0.07)

1.07 (0.42)

0.18 (0.07) 1.24

(0.49)

8
O.IS (0.07)

1.42 (0.56)

O.1S (0.07) 1.6

(0.63)

10

0.18 (0.07)

1.78 (0.70)

11

O.IS (0.07) 1.96 (0.77)

12.

O.1S (0.07)

2.14 (0.84)

Using the Ring Standard

The ring standard is used by passing a specified direct current

through a conductor that in turn passes through the ring's center. The

magnetic particle testing procedure (or system) is evaluated based on

the number of holes detected at various current levels. The number

of holes that should be detected at a particular current level is

provided by written specifications.

Standard test objects like the ring have proven to be a valuable

aid in controlling magnetic particle test system parameters.

However, in addition to magnetizing current level, other factors

influence test results, including the properties of the particles,

technician skill, magnetization level, direction of the magnetic fields

produced and particle concentration. An evaluation of all the

contributing factors requires the development of mathematical

models to describe their effect on the formation of test indications.

Ring Standard Magnetic Fields

All magnetic leakage fields are a superposition of dipolar fields.

This dipole character is usually evident when the field from the

discontinuity is measured. The field arising from a long cylindrical

discontinuity in a linear isotropic medium can be exactly calculated

and has a pure dipolar character.

Limitations of the Ring Standard

A 1986 study revealed a lack of uniformity among ring standards

used around the United States. When tested in a prescribed manner,

the rings were found to produce indications anywhere from four to

eleven holes, while indicating no difference in hardness or

spectrographic analysis. The data appear to cluster around two

sensitivities, one at five to six holes (40% of the rings) and the other

at nine to ten holes (46% of the rings).

A ring that showed five holes at a given current density produced

nine holes in a repeat of the sensitivity test after annealing.

Standardization efforts have been implemented to help control this

problem.

REFERENCE STANDARD TEST BLOCKS

Split Prism Test Block

The prism block, shown in Figure 14.3, is another reference

standard containing an artificial discontinuity. Truncated half prisms

are built with one face at an angle and when two such components

are bolted together, an artificial crack is formed. The sloped surface

of the block can be positioned at variable distances from the

conductor.

When current is passed through the conductor, the leakage field

from the crack gradually weakens along the prism face. Specified

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

139

amperage is applied through the conductor and the length of the

magnetic particle indication is used to measure the test sensitivity.

Magnetized Test Blocks

Another version of the block standard consists of two ground

steel blocks forming an artificial crack at their contact surfaces, as

shown in Figure 14.4, similar to the discontinuity formation in the

split prism test block. On one of the face ends, a small permanent

magnet is fixed below a brass cover, causing magnetic flux leakage

from the artificial discontinuity. This leakage field decreases with

greater distance from the magnet, so that longer discontinuity

indications reveal higher test sensitivity.

This same task can be fulfilled by another block standard using a

slightly different test principle. A residually magnetized block is

manufactured to contain a network of many different crack widths

on its surface. A typical standard of this type is 5 em (2 in.) in

diameter and 1 em (0.4 in.) thick. Very fine cracks are situated

between bigger discontinuities across the block standard's face. As

an example of this standard's use, the loss of indications for the fine

cracks (or their appearance as points rather than lines) indicates that

the magnetic particle bath is no longer usable.

Figure 14.3: Prism sensitivity indicator.

s),), ·1 --,:/ --::j

?,/t d ?_/ 01

LSo;~ L}/'

~I

Prism Block Standards

Figure 14.4: Block standard containing a

permanent magnet.

A prism block standard consists of a steel block with an artificial

linear discontinuity and a calibrated scale. The zero end of the scale

is adjacent to a permanent magnet. The strength of the leakage field

across the crack is inversely proportional to the distance from the

magnet. The better the quality of the suspension, the lower the

magnetic field strength required for it to produce an indication.

Therefore, the length of an indication measured from the scale is

directly proportional to suspension sensitivity.

To make a measurement, the block is held with the artificial

discontinuity on top, tilted enough to allow excess suspension to run

off. Suspension is applied, and the length of the indication is read

140 Personnel Training Publications

from the scale under ultraviolet radiation. After making the reading,

the indication can be removed by wiping the block with a lint free
cloth. Magnetic particles remaining in the discontinuity can be

removed with a soft bristle brush.

To develop a working procedure for using a block standard,

freshly prepared suspensions were evaluated by the settling test and

the block standard. These tests gave a range of acceptable values for

periodic field checks of suspensions applied from a pump bottle. It

is practical to repeat these tests frequently because the block

standard field checks are almost instantaneous and use only a small

amount of suspension.

For pressurized spray cans, the prism block standard may also be

used to verify concentration levels as the can is used or to check

variations between different cans of particles.

Block Standard Measurements

It is important to understand what the block standard test does

and does not do. It evaluates the magnetic particle suspension as an

independent variable. It gives no information about the functioning

of the yoke (or any other magnetizing apparatus that might be used

for the test) or about the effectiveness of any specific test setup for

detecting discontinuities. Its use can replace some settling tests, but

not any required test of field strength, field direction or equipment

function for overall test sensitivity.

A block standard test does not provide a traceable calibration

procedure because there are slight variations between blocks. For

example, a test of the same suspension with several different blocks

might give a range of readings from 1.8 to 2 em (0.7 to 0.8 in.). This
variation is not critical to a technician using a single block.

However, it must be considered in any applications where different

blocks are used.

There is no predetermined minimum reading for a good

suspension. Appropriate suspension concentrations must be

determined for a specific application (with reference standards), and

these concentrations may then be verified with the block standard.

Tests made by preparing suspensions of low, medium and high

sensitivity magnetic powders according to their manufacturers'

recommendations gave block readings from 0.6 to 2.8 em (0.25 to

1.1 in.).

One example of the significance of the numerical readings was

obtained by testing a natural crack visible to the unaided eye at one

end and tapered to a sharp edge at the other. Two particle materials

and three suspension concentrations of each material were

compared, as shown in Table 14.2.

When the suspension concentration is repeatedly increased, a

point is reached where block standard readings no longer increase

proportionally and background fluorescence does increase. Although

the block does give a qualitative indication of background

fluorescence, this is better judged on the actual test surface. It

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 141

Table 14.2: Comparative discontinuity indications on a block

standard.

Particle
Block Standard

Length of Indication

Material

Reading

centimeter (inch)

2.3 (0.9)

A 12

2.8 (1.1)

A 15

(1.2)

B 15

(1.2)

B 17

3.3

(1.3)

21

3.3

(1.3)

appears that an optimum combination of high sensitivity and low

background is typically reached at concentrations well below the

maximum allowable settling volume reading.

ELECTRONIC REFERENCE STANDARDS

Hall Effect Meters

Hall effect meters are commonly used to measure the strength of

the magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test object.

Though often called a gauss meter, the device does not actually

measure the magnetic flux B within the component. Rather, it

measures the magnetic field strength H adjacent to the test object.

The hall effect meter is a relatively effective indicator, and is in

widespread use for establishing magnetic particle testing procedures.

They effectively measure residual fields and indicate the direction of

the remanence.

Various specifications call for the use of different tesla (gauss) or

ampere per meter (oersted) values in particular applications. In air,

the nonmetric gauss and oersted units are numerically equal in

value. Required values commonly range from 1.6 kA· m-I (200e)

to 4.8 kA· m-I (60 Oe) when the residual method is used. A residual

field less than 240 A . m-I (3 Oe) usually does not attract

conventional magnetic particles.

Eddy Current Devices

The ability of a material to store electromagnetic energy in the

form of eddy currents is a function of both the conductivity and

permeability of the material. Because the permeability of a

ferromagnetic material changes as the material is magnetized (from

a relatively low initial permeability through a higher maximum

value), the eddy current coil impedance also changes.

Several eddy current procedures have been developed to detect

this change in permeability and thereby indicate the degree of

142

Personnel Training Publications

magnetization. Because of poor repeatability, few of these

procedures are widely used. The repeatability problem stems from

the large number of variables that can affect eddy current response

in a ferromagnetic material.

A magnetization level indicator has been developed to detect

imbalance in the permeability along the lines of flux compared with

the permeability transverse to the lines of flux as the material

approaches magnetic saturation.

CONCLUSION

Magnetic particle testing historically relied on empirical

guidelines for the development of test procedures. This practice led

to widely varying discontinuity detection capabilities. Various codes

and specifications have perpetuated the problem by citing rules of

thumb for establishing procedures.

Several forms of reference standards are available for verifying

procedures and for evaluating the performance of a magnetic particle

testing system (as a whole or by components). Reference standards

for this purpose are usually made of high permeability materials

containing controlled graduations of artificial discontinuities.

Reference standards are also available for evaluating the

effectiveness of a magnetic particle test for a particular test object.

These devices include a variety of shim configurations containing

known discontinuities.

The use of a block standard with a permanent magnet and a

scaled artificial discontinuity is a simple and practical way to

monitor two of the three important characteristics (sensitivity and

repeatability) of wet magnetic particle suspensions used in the field

with yokes.

The third important characteristic, background fluorescence

(signal-to-noise ratio) is a function of the test surface as well as the

suspension. The block standard can be used to find the concentration

above which sensitivity shows little or no increase and background

fluorescence is expected to increase.

The use of the block standard with understanding of its functions

and limitations can greatly improve the effectiveness and control of

wet magnetic particle tests performed in the field with yoke

magnetization.

Electronic reference standards, such as hall effect meters and

eddy current devices, can also be used to evaluate the adequacy of a

test procedure. Widespread use of reference standards and test

discontinuities is needed to improve the consistency of magnetic

particle tests and to increase the detection reliability of the method.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

143

Chapter 15
Quality Control

This chapter provides basic operating and advanced level

information on the procedures necessary to ensure a high quality

performance for the magnetic particle testing system. Magnetic

particle testing is not a fail safe process. The presence of indications

confirms the existence of discontinuities in the test object. However,

the absence of indications does not guarantee the absence of

discontinuities.

Discontinuities can be present and not be indicated for a number

of reasons. The two main reasons for discrepancies in testing results

are: substandard materials either as received or through service

degradation; and process deviations either in equipment, procedures

or condition. Materials and process deficiencies may not be readily

evident during the examination of a processed test object. It is

necessary to periodically test the materials and to test the equipment

and process to be sure they are functioning.

New Materials

Magnetic particle materials are subjected to extensive testing

during their formulation to ensure their proper composition.

However, materials that do not perform satisfactorily can be

received.

Many times the discrepancies in performance are not detected

until a number of test objects have been processed. Considerable

effort must then be expended to locate and retest the suspect objects.

Unsatisfactory materials can result from a number of causes. The

magnetic particle and vehicle suppliers may inadvertently omit an

ingredient or a process. They may substitute an ingredient that is not

compatible with testing requirements. The substitution of ingredients

may occur anytime during the magnetic particle manufacture or

vehicle refinement. Experience has shown that all newly received

magnetic particle bath materials must be tested to verify

performance characteristics.

In Use Materials

Some testing processes use the magnetic particle materials one

time. The materials are usually applied by spraying or dusting, and

only enough material to properly function is applied. The materials

are stored in closed containers until they are used. These processes

minimize the possibility of material contamination or degradation

during use. More often, however, the materials are used in open

tanks, where the surplus materials are allowed to drain from the test

145

object back into the tank. This method provides numerous

opportunities for contamination and deterioration, and such materials

must be checked periodically to ensure they are functioning

properly.

MATERIAL CONTAMINATION

Material contamination is a primary source of degrading

magnetic particle bath performance. There are a number of

contaminating materials, and their effect on performance depends on

the type of material. Some of the common contaminants frequently

encountered include the following.

1. Water is a common contaminant of petroleum based baths. It

can occur because of condensation, humidity or carried in on

test objects from a previous operation.

2. Organic coatings, such as paint, lubricants, oils, greases and

sealants, are another source of contamination. If not removed

from test objects during precleaning, these materials can be

introduced into a magnetic particle bath and react with or

dilute it so that it loses some or all of its ability to function.

3. Organic solvents, such as degreaser fluid, cleaning solvent,

gasoline and antifreeze solution, are common types of

contaminants. These materials mix with the test bath or float

on top of it reducing the bath's effectiveness.

4. Dirt, soil and other insoluble solids are carried into the

magnetic particle bath as a result of improper precleaning.

5. Acid and alkaline solutions are a serious contaminant of

fluorescent magnetic particle baths. Acids react with the

magnetic particle bath to destroy the fluorescence of the dye

stuffs, even when present in fairly small quantities. Acid and

alkaline solutions result from residues of previous plating,

paint stripping and cleaning processes that have not been

removed. These contaminants could also have an adverse

reaction with the physical properties of all test objects.

Evaporation Losses

Magnetic particle bath vehicle materials used in open tanks are

continuously undergoing evaporation. The rate of evaporation is

increased with warmer temperatures and large tank surfaces.

Evaporation losses take place very gradually so performance change

may become significant over time.

146

Personnel Training Publications

Heat Degradation

Fluorescent dyes are sensitive to elevated temperatures.

Temperatures of over 60°C (140 OF)may destroy it completely.

High temperatures in magnetic particle testing materials usually

occur when materials are improperly stored. A dark colored

container stored in direct sunlight can reach temperatures above

60 °C (140 OF).

Process Degradation

In addition to materials degradation during use, the equipment

and process can deteriorate. Ultraviolet radiation bulbs age and

become dirty, reducing their output and critical procedures may be

performed incorrectly. During service, periodic material and process

tests should be accomplished to ensure satisfactory performance.

MATERIAL CONTROL REQUIREMENTS

Material tests apply to newly received materials and in use

material. They are designed to ensure unsatisfactory materials do not

enter the magnetic particle testing system and that established

system materials are performing satisfactorily. All new material tests

should be performed before materials are put into use.

1. Perform petroleum based bulk media contamination and

background fluorescence check. .

2. Perform fluorescent dye separation check.

3. Commercial prepared and new technician prepared bath

check.

3.1. Perform an initial concentration check.

3.2. Perform a background fluorescence check.

3.3. Perform a contamination check.

3.4. Perform magnetic material performance check.

4. Perform dry powder materials performance check.

S. Perform aerosol magnetic particle performance check.

Before new material replacement in a magnetic particle testing

unit, the equipment must be cleaned thoroughly according to the

equipment maintenance manual. The technician should reject all

materials not meeting minimal requirements.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

147

USE OF THE SETTLING TEST

The settling test is intended to evaluate the bath's characteristics

based on the assumption that they are directly related to the

concentration of magnetic particles in the suspension. The

availability of magnetic materials with different particle size

distributions (to produce suspensions of low, medium or high

efficacy) is another reason for adopting alternative means of

evaluating the suspension. Tests to measure the overall sensitivity of

a testing procedure are not specified for yoke techniques. Reference

standards can help evaluate the end product of several independent

variables and how they work in the overall test system, but they do

not specifically address the quality of the magnetic particle

suspension. One way to evaluate the quality of a suspension is to use

a block standard.

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION AND FACILITIES

Ultraviolet is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength

ranging between X-rays and visible light. The ultraviolet range is

usually divided into three bands.

1. Short wavelength (4 to 10 nm) or hard ultraviolet which is

used in germicidal or sterilizing lamps.

2. Medium wavelength (10 to 320 nm) which is mainly used in

suntan lamps and soft ultraviolet.

3. Long wavelength (320 to 400 nm) has the smallest band

width of the ultraviolet range and is just below visible

wavelength light.

The chart shown in Figure 15.1 of the electromagnetic spectrum

shows the relatively small band of ultraviolet radiation used in

fluorescent magnetic particles (320 to 400 nm). The eye is not very

responsive to ultraviolet radiation, especially if visible light is

present. However, with reduced visible light, the eye's pupil dilates

and the sensitivity of the eye increases for ultraviolet radiation

containing the longer wavelengths. Note that violet colors may be

visible.
When fluorescent materials are energized by ultraviolet radiation,

they emit visible light. The quality of color of the emitted light

depends on the material. Each type emits a specific wavelength

ranging from violet (400 nm) to red (700 nm). One of the factors in

selecting a dye for use in fluorescent magnetic particles is the color

emitted. The most frequently used dyes emit a yellow-green in the

wavelength band of 510 to 550 nm. This color is chosen because the

eye has its highest response to wavelengths in this range.

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Personnel Training Publications

Figure 15.1: Electromagnetic spectrum showing the narrow range of ultraviolet radiation

used for fluorescent magnetic particle testing.

X-rays

(10 pm to

Visible light

(400 to 700 nm)

10 nm)

Ultraviolet

(4 to

400 nm)

Microwave

(l mm to 1m)

Infrared

(700 nm to 1 mm)

UHF VHF
I

I I II

Radio waves

(10 to 100 000 m)

10 100 10 100

10 100

10 100

10 100

Micrometers

10 100

Meters

KilometersMillimetersPicometers Nanometers

Radiation used for fluorescent

magnetic particle tests

(320 to 400 nm)

WAVELENGTH

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION INTENSITY REQUIREMENTS

Testing of an object for fluorescent magnetic particle indications

should always be done under the lowest possible level of ambient

light. This increases the contrast between the light emitted from the

indication and the background, hence the sensitivity of the test. At

the same time, the ultraviolet radiation intensity must be as high as

possible because the luminance of the indication is directly

proportional to the quantity of ultraviolet radiation exciting it.

The adequacy of an ultraviolet radiation source for fluorescent

magnetic particle testing is determined by measuring the intensity of

the ultraviolet radiation at a distance of 38 em (15 in.) from the front

or outside surface of the ultraviolet radiation source filter. This

intensity should be at least 1000 W/cm2, and sources providing less

than this intensity should not be used. The actual intensity needed at

the surface of the test object will vary depending on the ambient

light conditions and size of the suspected indication. Values of

3000 W/cm? can be achieved with acceptable ultraviolet radiation

sources by moving the source closer than 38 em (15 in.) to the test

object, yet leaving sufficient space to observe the specific area of

interest.

Test booths of a stationary fluorescent magnetic particle system

should not exceed 20 lx (2 ftc) per square foot of ambient light. At

this level, the intensity of ultraviolet radiation striking the test object

surface should not be less than 800 W/cm2. As the ambient light

level is increased, the intensity of ultraviolet radiation must also be

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

149

increased. When performing portable fluorescent magnetic particle

tests, a dark colored canvas or photographers black cloth should be

used to darken the area of interest to the lowest possible ambient

light levels during the test. Ultraviolet radiation and ambient light
measurements should be taken before any testing begins.

Ambient Light Measurements

The measurement of visible light is accomplished by using

selenium cell photometers. The selenium cell is photosensitive and

responds to electromagnetic energy with wavelengths of about

380 to 450 nm. This range extends into the longer wavelength

ultraviolet radiation and shorter wavelength visible ranges. Precise

measurement is possible with filters that exclude ultraviolet and

infrared radiation. Filters are not normally used since the variation is

within acceptable limits. The units of measurement are footcandles,

or in SI lumens, where one footcandle equals one lumen. Another

term often used is lux, which equals one lumen per square meter.'

The commonly used conversion factor is 10 lux equals 1 lumen or

footcandle.

Ultraviolet is electromagnetic radiation and must be measured in

units of irradiance, hence the watts per square meter or microwatts

per square centimeter where 1 W/m2 equals 100 IlW/cm2. The

ultraviolet spectrum is divided into three bands.

There are two types of instruments available; however, separate

instruments are intended for each of the ultraviolet ranges. Care

must be exercised to ensure the instrument is designed for the

ultraviolet radiation or 350 nm band.

VARIABLES

Ultraviolet lamps are manufactured for other purposes than

nondestructive testing. The primary users do not require a specific

output or consistency between bulbs. Consequently, new bulbs can

vary by as much as 50% in their initial output. This means that with

two new bulbs, one may have an intensity that is double that of the

other without either having defects. New ultraviolet bulbs should be

tested for output before being used.

Line Voltage Variations

Ultraviolet radiation intensity varies almost linearly with line

voltage. A common misconception is that an ultraviolet lamp ballast

or transformer will regulate line variations. This is not true, as

shown when comparing ultraviolet radiation output with line voltage

variation. Below about 90 V, the lamps will not sustain the mercury

arc and the lamp will extinguish. It will not restart until it has

cooled. Ultraviolet lamps should be connected to suitable power

sources. If none are available and line voltage fluctuates, a constant

potential transformer should be used.

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Personnel Training Publications

Service and Aging Variations

During use, dust and dirt will collect on both the bulb face and

filter. Even small amounts will reduce the intensity and if allowed to

build up, can result in a tenfold decrease. The bulb face and filter

should be kept clean.

The output of ultraviolet lamps will also vary because of changes

in operating characteristics. As the bulb ages, the intensity will

gradually decrease. Operating hours will decrease output, but of

greater significance is the number of bulb starts. A single start can

equate to 2 or 3 h of continuous use on operation life. Ultraviolet

lamps that will be used periodically during the day should be

allowed to remain on until its last use of the day. This practice will

extend the useful bulb life.

Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards

High pressure ultraviolet lamps that have high operating

temperatures should not be used when flammable vapors may be

present. A safety review performed by a qualified technician should

be completed before the first object is tested, and at regular intervals

to ensure safety.

Ultraviolet lamp housings and filters are extremely hot during

operation. Care must be exercised to prevent touching or contacting

the surfaces with any exposed part of the body. Severe bums may

result. The temperature of an operating ultraviolet lamp may reach

as high as 121°C (250 OF) or more during operation. This is above

the ignition or flashpoint of fuel vapors, which burst into flame if

they contact the bulb at this temperature. The bulb temperature also

heats the external surfaces of the lamp housing of some lamps. The

temperature is not high enough to be visually apparent, but is high

enough to cause severe bums with even momentary contact of

exposed body surfaces.

Ultraviolet radiation in certain wavelengths may be extremely

dangerous to unprotected skin and eyes. The ultraviolet radiation

testing environment should be evaluated for safety by a qualified

technician. Typically, high pressure ultraviolet radiation sources are

rated as high in health hazard potential, whereas fluorescent

phosphor sources are typically rated as mild health hazards. Care

must always be exercised when using an ultraviolet radiation source,

and only appropriate sources may be used by magnetic particle

testing technicians. Ultraviolet radiation exposure levels - both time

and intensity - should be monitored.

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151

PROPER PROCEDURES

There are a number of variations in procedure that may affect the

outcome of magnetic particle tests. Written procedures elaborate on

the standard variables and place them in their proper perspective.

When written procedures are not available, an awareness of the

variety and types of discontinuities that are sought, the types of

materials being tested and the need to ensure adequate sensitivity

and maximum reliability is essential. To make the proper selection

among these variables, the technician must know what they are and

how each affects the end result.

Variation in Technique

The variations that must be evaluated for the proper development

of a technique used in magnetic particle testing include the

following.

1. Type and value of current.

2. Type of particles and method of application.

3. Sequence of steps.

4. Direction of field.

5. Sensitivity level.

6. Equipment.

The technician must know the background or history of the test

object. This provides information on the potential discontinuities that

may be present. The technician should consider the following

characteristics when trying to develop a technique.

1. Are the potential discontinuities open to the surface or below

the surface?

2. Are they fine and sharp, or are they wide open?

3. Are they shallow or are they deep?

4. What is their physical size and shape?

5. Are they longitudinal or transverse to the axis of the test

object?

6. What is their location and direction with respect to the

stresses to which the test object will be subjected while in

service?

7. What is the service for which the test object is intended; is it

critical as an aircraft engine or landing gear part, or would its

failure involve no drastic consequences, as for example,

breakage of a tool?

8. What is the size and shape of the test object in which the

discontinuities occur?

9. What are the magnetic characteristics of the test object in

which they occur?

10. What equipment is available to perform the testing?

152 Personnel Training Publications

Selection of Current

Selection of the type of magnetizing current is a basic choice that

must be made before the details of the test technique can be

developed. Possible current types as include the following.

1. Straight direct current.

2. Single phase alternating current.

3. Three phase alternating current.

4. Half wave rectified alternating current.

5. Full wave rectified alternating current.

6. Three phase full wave rectified alternating current.

7. Three phase multivector magnetization units.

It should be noted that equipment using straight direct current or

three phase alternating current is not generally available.

The choice of current is dictated by the need to locate surface or

subsurface discontinuities. If the discontinuity is open to the surface,

either alternating current or direct current may be used with the

choice determined by other considerations. Straight alternating

current produces a skin effect that limits its use to the detection of

discontinuities open to the surface or only a few thousandths of an

inch below. If the discontinuity lies below the surface, a rectified

alternating current source is required. For the testing of finished test

objects, such as machined or ground surfaces, a rectified alternating

current form of direct current is frequently used so that fine

nonmetallic stringers lying just under the surface will be detected

before they initiate fatigue failure.

Current Application Choices

The amount of current to use for optimum results is a major

factor in determining the sensitivity level. The types and minimum

dimensions of the discontinuities to be located are the primary

considerations in determining current level. Insufficient current will

not produce indications at discontinuities. Too high a current will

mask indications with a background, called banding. For any given

test object with a discontinuity, there is a minimum flux level

necessary to produce an indication. As flux produced by current is

increased, the indication will improve.

A point is reached where the flux or current starts to produce

background, at which time the indication becomes obscure. When

current is not specified, general practice is to initially apply the

current at a high level. If background is experienced, demagnetize,

lower the current and reapply. This is repeated until the

objectionable background disappears. If on the initial shot,

background does not appear, increase the current and reapply. When

background appears during this process, demagnetize and reduce the

current to the preceding value. The following paragraphs provide

guidance on establishing a high level of flux for the initial current

setting.

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153

Selection of Media

The selection of media is primarily a choice between the dry and

the wet method, and secondarily among the various colors that are

available, including fluorescent particles. Dry powder is superior for

locating subsurface discontinuities because of its high permeability,

mobility and shape and size of the particles. The wet method is

superior in locating very fine surface cracks, regardless of the form

of current used. The wet method offers the advantage of complete

coverage of all surfaces regardless of size or shape.

Selection of the color of particles to use is essentially a matter of

securing the best possible contrast with the background of the

surface of the test object. The differences in visibility among the

black, gray, red and yellow particles are considerable when viewed

in various kinds of light. Black stands out against most light colored

surfaces, gray against dark colored surfaces like those of castings.

Red is more visible against silvery and polished surfaces, especially

if the light by which the test is made is from incandescent lamps.

Yellow offers good contrast when viewed against dark backgrounds.

In the case of the wet method, the ultimate in visibility and contrast

is obtained by the use of fluorescent particles.

Selection of Technique

The choice between the residual method versus the continuous

method is a relatively simple one. In the residual method, test

objects are magnetized and the magnetic particle suspension applied

later. This method can be used only on test objects having sufficient

retentivity. The permanent field retained must be sufficiently strong

to produce leakage fields at discontinuities, which in turn will

produce visible indications. In general, the residual method is

reliable only for the detection of surface discontinuities.

Either the dry or the wet method for particle application can be

used. With the wet method, the magnetized test objects may be

immersed in an agitated bath of suspended magnetic particles, or

they may be flooded with bath by a curtain spray. The residual

method, either wet or dry, has many attractive features and finds

many applications, even though the continuous method has the

inherent advantage of greater sensitivity.

Using the continuous method, the test object is covered with

magnetic particles while the magnetizing force is still acting and the

sensitivity to fine discontinuities is increased. The continuous

method is always more sensitive than the residual.

Field Orientation

The selection of field orientation is determined by the shape and

orientation of the discontinuity in relation to the shape and principal

axes of the test object. The rule of thumb requires circular

magnetization in some sections of the test object, and longitudinal

magnetization in others.

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Personnel Training Publications

If the principal direction of discontinuities is unknown, or if

discontinuities can occur in more than one direction, both circular

and longitudinal magnetization must be used to indicate all possible

discontinuities.

Head Shot

In establishing a circular field with a head shot, use 1000 A of

current per inch of diameter as an initial guide. Caution must be

exercised in applying current to small contact areas on test objects.

Small contact areas can easily over heat, ruining the test object. As a

guide, 0.6 ern- (0.25 in-') of contact area is required to conduct

1000 A without excessive heat.

Central Conductor

In establishing a circular field with a central conductor, use

1000A of current per inch of wall thickness on any test object

having a wall thickness of 1.3 em (0.5 in.) or greater. On test objects

having a wall thickness less than 1.3 em (0.5 in.), use 500 A of

current regardless of the wall thickness. These current values are

also a guide and should be combined with common sense and past

experience. The central conductor must be of adequate size to

produce sufficient flux in the test object. As a guide, the air gap

between the conductor and the test object should not exceed 2.5 em

(l in.). Larger diameters will require multiple shots with the

conductor placed near the test object wall. The portion of the test

object's circumference that will be magnetized is closest to the

conductor and about three times the conductor diameter.

Longitudinal Field
Field strength of a longitudinal field established by a coil shot or

cable wrap is dependent on ampere turns. The requirement for the

proper amount of current is determined from the length-to-diameter

ratio formula. Knowing the length-to-diameter ratio and the number

of turns in the coil or cable wrap, it is possible to determine the

required amperage. Reduce the length-to-diameter ratio to a number,

divide 45 000 by this number and the answer will be the number of

ampere turns. The number of ampere turns obtained should then be

divided by the number of turns in the coil or cable wrap to give the

correct amperage. Remember that ampere turns are the product of

current in amperes times the number of turns in the coil or cable

wrap.

Sensitivity Requirements

Although sensitivity is closely related to current selection, it is

also affected by type of current, character of the magnetic particles,

operating techniques and field orientation. In performing testing of

aircraft test objects or equipment without prior procedures, the

following selections tend to offer optimum results.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book ISS

156

1. Alternating current source for fine surface discontinuities.

2. Wet fluorescent suspension for maximum visibility and

contrast.

3. Apply in a continuous method for maximum sensitivity and

increased particle mobility.

CONCLUSION

Nondestructive testing students completing this classroom

training book will have taken an important step, from unaided visual

testing to that of a nondestructive testing method that is capable of

illuminating discontinuities invisible to the unaided eye.

Additionally, the practices in this classroom training book for

control and qualification of applied magnetic particle technology are

much like those used in ultrasonics, radiography, thermography and

other nondestructive testing methods.

Students need only add technical knowledge in other

nondestructive testing technologies to this basic understanding of

process qualifications and controls. The results are the uniform and

repeatable tests that are a hallmark of an individual certified as a

Level II in magnetic particle testing.

Personnel Training Publications

Glossary

Air gap: When a magnetic circuit contains a small gap, which the

magnetic flux must cross; the space is referred to as an air gap.

Cracks produce small air gaps on the surface of a test object.

Alternating current: Electric current periodically reversing in

polarity or direction of flow.

Ampere: The unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current

that flows through a conductor having a resistance of one ohm at

a potential of one volt.

Ampere turns: The product of the number of turns in a coil and the
number of amperes flowing through it. A measure of the

magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil.

Bath: The suspension of iron oxide particles in a liquid vehicle

(light oil or water).

Black light: See Ultraviolet radiation.

Carbon steel: Steel which does not contain significant amounts of

alloying elements other than carbon and manganese.

Carrier fluid: The fluid in which fluorescent and nonfluorescent

magnetic particles are suspended to facilitate their application in

the wet method. Also referred to as media.

Central conductor: An electrical conductor that is passed through

the opening in a ring or tube, or any hole in a test object, for the

purpose of creating a circular field in the ring or tube, or around

the hole.

Circular field: See Field, circular magnetic.

Circular magnetization: A method of inducing a magnetic field in

a test object so that the magnetic lines of force take the form of

concentric rings about the axis of the current. This is

accomplished by passing the current directly through the test

object or through a conductor that passes into or through a hole in

the test object. The circular method is applicable for the detection

of discontinuities with axes about parallel to the axis of the

current through the test object.

Coercive force: The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove

residual magnetism in demagnetizing a test object.

Coil shot: A pulse of magnetizing current passed through a coil

surrounding a test object for the purpose of longitudinal

magnetization.

Contact head: The electrode, fixed to the magnetic particle testing

unit, through which the magnetizing current is drawn.

157

Contact plates: Replaceable metal plates, usually of copper braid,

placed on contact heads to give good electrical contact, thereby

preventing damage to the test object.

Continuous method: A testing method in which ample amounts of

magnetic particles are applied, or are present on the test object,

during the time the magnetizing current is applied.

Core: That part of the magnetic circuit which is within the electrical

winding.

Curie point: The temperature at which ferromagnetic materials can

no longer be magnetized by outside forces, and at which they lose

their residual magnetism: about 649 to 871°C (1200 to 1600 OF)

for many metals.

Current flow method: A method of circular magnetization by

passing a current through a test object via prods or contact heads.

The current may be alternating, half wave rectified, full wave

rectified or direct.

Current induction method: A method of magnetization in which a

circulating current is induced in a ring shaped component by a

fluctuating magnetic field.

Demagnetization: The reduction in the degree of residual

magnetism in ferromagnetic materials to an acceptable level.

Diffuse indications: Indications that are not clearly defined as, for

example, indications of subsurface discontinuities.

Direct current: An electric current which flows steadily in one

direction.

Discontinuity: An imperfection that interferes with the usefulness of

a test object or exceeds acceptability limits established by

applicable specifications. A fault in any material or object that is

detrimental to its serviceability. Note that all cracks, seams and

laps are not necessarily discontinuities, as they may not affect the

usefulness of the object in which they exist.

Distorted field: The direction of a magnetic field in a symmetrical

object will be substantially uniform if produced by a uniformly

applied magnetizing force. But if the test object being magnetized

is irregular in shape, the field is distorted and does not follow a

straight path or have a uniform distribution.

Dry method: Magnetic particle testing in which the particles used

are in the dry powder form.

Dry powder: Finely divided ferromagnetic particles suitably

selected and prepared for magnetic particle testing by the dry

method.

Electromagnet: A magnet created by inserting a suitable metal core

within, or near, a magnetizing field formed by passing electric

current through a coil of insulated wire.

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Personnel Training Publications

Etching: The process of exposing subsurface conditions of metal

test objects by removal of the outside surface through the use of

chemical agents. Because of the action of the chemicals in eating

away the surface, various surface or subsurface conditions are

exposed or exaggerated and made visible to the eye. For example,

forging flow lines and discontinuities.

Ferromagnetic: A term applied to materials that can be magnetized

and strongly attracted by a magnetic field.

Field, bipolar longitudinal: Magnetic field within a test object that

creates two poles.

Field, circular magnetic: The magnetic field in and surrounding

any electrical conductor or test object resulting from a current

being passed through the conductor or test object or from contact

pads or prods.

Field, magnetic leakage: The magnetic field that leaves or enters

the surface of a test object at a magnetic pole.

Field, longitudinal magnetic: A magnetic field wherein the flux

lines traverse the component in a direction essentially parallel

with the axis of the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the

two poles of the magnetizing yoke.

Field, magnetic: The condition of space within and surrounding a

magnetized test object, or a conductor carrying current,

characterized by the presence of a magnetic force.

Field, residual magnetic: The field that remains in magnetizable

material after the magnetizing force has been removed.

Field, resultant magnetic: A magnetic field that is the result of two

magnetic forces impressed on the same area of a magnetizable

object at the same time, sometimes called a vector field.

Field, vector: See Field, resultant magnetic.

Flash magnetization: Magnetization by a current flow of very brief

duration.

Fluorescence: The emission of visible light by a substance as the

result of, and only during, the absorption of ultraviolet radiation.

Fluorescent magnetic particle testing: The magnetic particle

testing process using a finely divided fluorescent ferromagnetic

testing medium that fluoresces when activated by ultraviolet

radiation of 320 to 400 nm.

Flux density: This is the flux-per-unit area through an element that

cuts the unit area at rightangles to the direction of the flux. Flux

density is usually designated by the letter B, and its unit is the

gauss.

Flux leakage: Magnetic lines of force that leave and enter a test

object at poles on the surface.

Flux lines: Imaginary magnetic lines used as a means of explaining

the behavior of magnetic fields. Their conception is based on the

pattern of lines produced when iron filings are sprinkled over a

piece of paper laid over a permanent magnet. Also called lines of

force, the unit is a single line of force called the maxwell

designated by the Greek letter phi (cI».

-----~------------------------------------

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159

Flux penetration, magnetic: The depth to which a magnetic flux is

present in a test object.

Furring: Build up, or bristling, of magnetic particles caused by

excessive magnetization of the test object under examination

resulting in a furry appearance. Also referred to asfur or grass.

Gauss: The unit of flux density. Numerically, one gauss is one line

of flux per square centimeter of area, and is designated by the

letter B.

Heads: The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit.

Head shot: A short pulse of magnetizing current passed through a

test object or a central conductor while clamped between the head

contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit for the purpose of

circularly magnetizing the test object.

Henry (H): The unit of inductance of a coil.

Horseshoe magnet: A bar magnet, bent into the shape of a

horseshoe so that the two poles are adjacent. Usually the term

applies to a permanent magnet.

Hysteresis: (a) The lagging of the magnetic effect when the

magnetic force acting on a ferromagnetic body is changed.

(b) The phenomenon exhibited by a magnetic system wherein its

state is influenced by its previous magnetic history.

Hysteresis loop: A curve showing the flux density B plotted as a

function of magnetizing force H. As the magnetizing force is

increased to the saturation point in the positive, negative and

positive directions sequentially, the curve forms a characteristic

S shaped loop. Intercepts of the loop with the Band H axes and

the points of maximum and minimum magnetizing force define

important magnetic characteristics of the material.

Indication: Any magnetically held magnetic particle pattern on the

surface of a test object.

Inductance: The magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic body by

some outside magnetizing force. The magnetism is not the result

of passing current through the test object.

Interpretation: The determining of the cause and significance of

indications of discontinuities from the standpoint of whether they

are detrimental discontinuities or false or nonrelevant indications.

Leakage field: The magnetic field forced out into the air by the

distortion of the field within a test object.

Lines of force: See Flux lines.

Longitudinal field: See Field, longitudinal magnetic.

Longitudinal magnetization: The process of inducing a magnetic

field into the test object such that the magnetic lines of force

extending through the test object are about parallel to the axis of

the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two poles when

yokes (electromagnets) are used.

Magnet, permanent: A highly retentive metal that has been strongly

magnetized; for example, the alloy alnico.

Magnetic field: See Field, magnetic.

160 Personnel Training Publications

Magnetic field meter: An instrument designed to detect andlor

measure the flux density and polarity of magnetic fields.

Magnetic field strength: The measured intensity of a magnetic

field at a point always external to the magnet or conductor;

usually expressed in oersteds.

Magnetic material: Some materials are attracted by a magnet,

whereas others are repelled. From the definition of magnetism, it

follows that magnetic materials are those that are attracted by

magnetism. These materials are known as paramagnetic

materials, whereas materials that repel are known as diamagnetic

materials. The subdivision of paramagnetic, called ferromagnetic ,

is a main concern as only ferromagnetic materials can be strongly

magnetized.

Magnetic particle testing: A nondestructive testing method for

locating discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. It uses flux

leakage that forms magnetic poles to attract finely divided

magnetic particles that mark the discontinuity.

Magnetic particle testing indications: The accumulation of

ferromagnetic particles that may be either true indications of

discontinuities, or may be false or nonrelevant indications.

Magnetic saturation: In a specific material, the degree of

magnetization where an increase in H produces no further

increase in magnetization.

Magnetic writing: A form of nonrelevant indications caused when

the surface of a magnetized object comes in contact with another

piece of ferromagnetic material that is magnetized to a different

value.

Magnetizing current: The flow of either alternating, rectified

alternating or direct current used to induce magnetism into the

test object.

Magnetizing force: This is the total force tending to set up a

magnetic flux by a magnetizing current. It is usually designated

by the letter H, and its unit is the oersted.

Media: See Carrier fluid.

Nonrelevant indication: A magnetic particle indication caused by a

leakage magnetic field which is not caused by an actual

discontinuity in the magnetized material, but by some other

condition which does not affect the usefulness of the test object

(such as a change of section).

Oersted: A unit of field strength that produces magnetic induction,

and is designated by the letter H.

Paramagnetic: Materials that are slightly attracted by a magnetic

field. Examples are chromium, manganese and aluminum.

Paste: Finely divided ferromagnetic particles in paste form used in

preparing wet suspensions.

Permeability: (a) The ease with which a material can become

magnetized. (b) The ratio between field strength produced and the
magnetizing force (BIH).(c) The ratio of flux density produced to

magnetizing force.

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161

Pole: The area on a magnetized test object from which the magnetic

field is leaving or returning to the test object.

Prods: Handheld electrodes attached to cables used to transmit the

magnetizing current from the source to the test object.

Rectified alternating current: Alternating current that has been

converted into direct current.

Reluctance: The opposition of a magnetic material to the

establishment of magnetic flux. The reluctance of the material

determines the magnitude of the flux produced by a given

magnetic force. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an

electric circuit.

Residual field: See Field, residual magnetic.

Residual magnetism: The amount of magnetism that a magnetic

material retains after the magnetizing force is removed, also

called residual field.

Residual method: A procedure in which the indicating material is

applied after the magnetizing force has been discontinued.

Resultant field: See Field, resultant magnetic.

Retentivity: The ability of a material to retain a portion of the

magnetic force induced in it after the magnetizing force has been

removed.
Saturation: The point in the magnetization of a magnetizable test

object at which an increase in the magnetizing force produces no

increase in the magnetic field within the test object.

Sensitivity: The capacity or degree of responsiveness to magnetic

particle testing.

Solenoid (Coil): An electric conductor formed into a coil; often

wrapped around a central core of highly permeable material.

Subsurface discontinuity: Any discontinuity that does not open

onto the surface of the test object in which it exists,

Suspension: The correct term applied to the liquid bath in which is

suspended the ferromagnetic particles used in the wet magnetic

particle testing method.

Swinging field magnetization: Magnetic fields induced in two

different directions alternately and quickly to more accurately

detect discontinuities oriented in different directions in a test

object.

Testing: The process of examining and checking materials and

objects for possible discontinuities or for deviation from

established standards.

Toroidal field: An induced magnetic field occurring in a ring test

object when current is induced.

Ultraviolet radiation: Near ultraviolet radiation (UV-A) with

wavelengths in the range of 320 to 400 nm. Near ultraviolet

sources used for nondestructive testing ~1avea predominant

wavelength of 365 nm.

Ultraviolet radiation filter: A filter that transmits near ultraviolet

radiation (UV-A) while suppressing the transmission of visible

light and harmful ultraviolet radiation.

162 Personnel Training Publications

Vector field: See Field, resultant magnetic.

Vibratory demagnetization: The removal of magnetization by .

impulse energies that distribute the orientation of magnetic

domains in the test object.

Wet method: The testing method used ferromagnetic particles

suspended in a liquid (oil or water) as a media.

Yoke: A U or C shaped piece of highly permeable magnetic

material, either solid or laminated, sometimes with adjustable

pole pieces, around which is wound a coil carrying the

magnetizing current.

Yoke magnetization: A longitudinal magnetic field induced in a

test object, or in an area of a test object, by means of an external

electromagnet shaped like a yoke.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

163

Bibliography and Figure Sources

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. ASNT Level II Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Method. Columbus, Ohio:

American Society for Nondestructive Testing (2003).

2. ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Method. Columbus, Ohio:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing (2001).

3. Betz, Carl E. Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing. Glenview, Illinois: Magnaflux

Division of Illinois Tool Works (1997).

4. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic Particle Testing.

Columbus, Ohio: American Society for Nondestructive Testing (1989).

5. Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second edition: Magnetic Particle

Testing. Fort Worth, Texas: Convair Division of General Dynamics Corporation (1977).

FIGURE SOURCES

The following credits indicate the sources of illustrations in this book. All figures reprinted with

permission.

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic

Particle Testing.

Figure 1.2 to 1.3: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second

edition: Magnetic Particle Testing.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 to 2.2: Reprinted from ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing

Method, second edition.

~:.'.

164

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1, 3.2: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second

edition: Magnetic Particle Testing.

FIgure 3.3,3.4,3.6,3.8: Reprinted from ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing

Method, second edition.

Figure 3.5,3.7: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6,

Magnetic Particle Testing.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second

edition: Magnetic Particle Testing.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 to 5.2: Courtesy of Magnaflux, Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, Illinois.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 to 7.6: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition: Vol. 6,

Magnetic Particle Testing.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 to 8.2: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second

edition: Magnetic Particle Testing.

Figure 8.3 to 8.5: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition: Vol. 6,

Magnetic Particle Testing.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 to 9.3: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition: Vol. 6,

Magnetic Particle Testing.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1, 10.3 to 10.7: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition:

Vol. 6, Magnetic Particle Testing.

Figure 10.2: Reprinted from ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle TestingMethod,

second edition.

Chapter 11

Figure 1l.1: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic
Particle Testing.

Figure 11.2:Courtesy of Magnaflux, Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, Illinois.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 to 12.4: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6,

Magnetic Particle Testing.

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

165

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 to 13.40: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6,

Magnetic Particle Testing.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 to 14.4: Reprinted from Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second edition: Vol. 6,

Magnetic Particle Testing.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1: Reprinted from Nondestructive TestingHandbook, second edition: Vol. 6, Magnetic

Particle Testing.

166

Personnel Training Publications

acid solutions, source of material contamination, 146

aerosol magnetic particles, 50

material control requirements, 147

air core coil longitudinal magnetization, 76

aircraft landing gear, multidirectional magnetization, 17

alkaline solutions, source of material contamination, 146

alternating current demagnetization, 21,83-84

alternating current magnetization, 43-44

circular magnetic fields, 12-14

effective for inservice discontinuity detection, 30

effective for processing discontinuity detection, 30

effective for surface discontinuity detection, 9

and equipment selection, 25

for increased sensitivity, 156

longitudinal,19

portable equipment, 88

and selection of current type for magnetization, 153

aluminum

magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4

paramagnetic material, 74

ambient light, 150

antifoaming agents, 49, 95, 99

in water baths for dry powder concentrate, 101

antifreeze solutions

source of material contamination, 146

for water baths for dry powder concentrate, 100

artificial discontinuities, 135, 137-138, 143

automatic sensors, 87

automation

bath application facilities, 27

and equipment selection, 25

stationary equipment, 87-88

automotive crankshafts, multiple current levels needed, 13

background fluorescence check, 101-102, 147

background fluorescence reference standards, 143

banding, 153

barkhausen effect, 6

Index

bar magnets, 37

magnetic field surrounding, 6

poles, 7

batch demagnetization, 24

beach marks, fatigue cracks, 128

bearings

circular magnetization with induced current, 69

demagnetization, 80

billets

magnetic particle testing applicable to, 3

seams in, 114

bismuth, diamagnetic material, 74

black powder, 49, 154

for dry method, 92, 93

for wet method, 94

blow holes, 29,111

blowholes, laminations from, 114

c

cables

portable equipment, 88

quality control, 155

cable wrap, 64-65

carbon arc ultraviolet radiation sources, 107

casting

inherent discontinuities present before, 29

processing discontinuities caused by, 29-30, 113

casting cold shuts, 30

casting hot tears, 30

castings

continuous method for testing, 51

magnetic particle testing applicable to, 3

multidirectional magnetization, 17

casting shrinkage, 30

centerline hot cracking, 118, 119

central conductor method, 11, 12, 14, 18,58,59

continuous method with, 51

quality control, 155

residual method with, 53

sensitivity, 63-64

ceramics, magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4

167

certification, 4
circular magnetic fields, 8,11-14,58

circular magnetization, 11-14,58-61,67-70

field direction for, 56

with longitudinal magnetization, 73

portable equipment, 88

residual method with, 53

when principal direction of discontinuities is not

known, 155

when to use, 154

circumferential magnetic fields, 67

clamshell marks, 128

cleaning

of new magnetic testing equipment, 147

residual magnetism interferes with, 23

cleaning solvents, source of material contamination, 146

coatings

source of material contamination, 146

thickness effect on test results, 90-91

yoke break test (lift test), 89-90

cobalt, ferromagnetic material, 6

codes, 4

comparison of indications to, 3

coercive force, 39, 80

hysteresis data for unmagnetized steel, 40

and retentivity, 17
coil inductance, 64

coils, 71-72

for alternating current demagnetization, 21

continuous method with, 51

for direct current demagnetization, 22

equipment selection, 25

longitudinal magnetization, 15, 17-19

magnetic field strength, 15

magnetic force requirements, 75-77

portable equipment, 88

quality control, 155

semiautomatic equipment, 87

sensitivity, 64

typical system, 27

cold cracking, 117table, 117-118

cold lap, 124

cold shut, 110, 110table

cold start, 120

color selection, 49,154

and eye's wavelength response, 148

concurrent leakage, 91

168

Personnel Training Publications

contact plates, 14

semiautomatic equipment, 87
continuous magnetization, 16

continuous method, 50-53

when to use, 154

contrast, wet method maximizes, 156

cooling cracks, 29, 113table, 115

copper

magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4

paramagnetic material, 74

copper ferrite cracks, 89, 91

corrosion

from inservice discontinuities, 30

stress corrosion cracking, 131-132, 133

corrosion inhibitors, 95, 99

cracks, See also discontinuities; specific kinds of cracks

detectability, 109

detection using circular magnetic fields, 15

effect on materials, 9-10

from inservice discontinuities, 30

crater cracking, 118-119

creep, 128, 129-131

cropping, 109

cupping, 29, 113table, 114

curie point, heating above, 23, 82

defects, 109. See also discontinuities

degreaser fluid, source of material contamination, 146

delayed cracking, 117

demagnetization

alternating current, 21

basic principles, 21-23

direct current, 22-23

and equipment selection, 25

methods, 82-85

reasons for, 22-23, 80-81

reasons not to, 81

to reduce background, 153

diamagnetic materials, 6, 74

direct contact method

circular magnetization, 57,58,68

continuous method with, 51

residual method with, 53

sensitivity, 62

direct current demagnetization, 22-23, 84

direct current magnetization, 11,44-47

effective for inherent discontinuity detection, 29

and equipment selection, 25

longitudinal, 19

and selection of current type for magnetization, 153

collection on ultraviolet bulb surface, 151

removal from surfaces, 98

source of material contamination, 146

111 wet baths, 97

;contll1uities. See also cracks; inherent discontinuities;

reference stanelards; subsurface discontinuities;

surface discontinuities

artificial for reference standards, 135, 137c138, 143

brief summary of, 29-30

and defects, 109

detection using circular magnetic fields, 15

magnetic field from, 5-6

magnetic particle testing applicability, 3-6

opumum particle size and shape for various types df,49

reasons for not detecting those present, 145

types of, 109-133

.persing agents, 95, 99

19 our. 97

iwing. processing discontinuities caused by, 113

method,26

applicators, 93-94

direct current magnetization with, 44

equipment, 92-94

equipment selection, 25

magnetic particles for, 49-50

magnetization, 16

material control requirements, 147

media selection, 154

portable equipment, 88

powder selection, 92-93

residual method with, 55

sensitivity, 62

when to use, 154

powder liquid concentrate, 94,100-104

it. collection on ultraviolet bulb surface, 151

rths magnetic field, 5, 35

characteristics of.7

.ly current devices, 142-143

ctromagnetic spectrum, 149

ctronic reference standards, 142-143

Ingated porosity, 122, 123

nne! coatings, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90

.iipmcnr

cleaning of new, 147

dry powder, 92-94

dry powder liquid concentrate, 100-104

fluorescent test materials, 104-lO6

mobile, 26, 88

portable, 26, 88-92

selection, 25-27

stationary, 27,87-88

ultraviolet, lO6-lO8
wet fluorescent, 96-lO0

wet visible, 94-96

etching cracks, processing discontinuities, 30

evaluation

electronic reference standards, 142-143

reference standards, 135-136

reference standard test blocks, 139-142

standard tool steel ring, 138-139

system evaluation, 136-138

system standardization, 136-138

external bursts, 115-116

false indications, 78

fatigue

detectability by magnetic particle testing, 3

effect of segregation on, 112

fatigue cracking, 128table, 128-129

ferromagnetic materials, 3, 6, 34, 74

inherent discontinuities, 29, llOtable

secondary processing discontinuities, 124, 128table

surface discontinuities, 9

field flow magnetization, 72

fluorescent background check, lOl-102, 147

fluorescent dye separation check, 147

fluorescent particles, 49,104-106

effect of ultraviolet radiation, 148

heat degradation, 147

use with magnetic rubber, 14

wavelength used, 149

flux cored arc welding (FCAW), 122

flux leakage. See magnetic flux leakage

forging

inherent discontinuities present before, 29, lO9-112

processing discontinuities caused by, 29-30,113-116

forging bursts, 30, 113table, 115-116

forging flakes, 29, 113table, 116

forging flash line tears, 30

forging laps, 29, 113table, 115, 116

forgings, magnetic particle testing applicable to, 3

fracture, 130

- ----- ....------------------------------~------

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book 169

fracture toughness, 128

effect of segregation on, 112

full wave direct current, 46

full wave rectified alternating current, 43,153

full wave rectifier, 45

gadolinium, ferromagnetic material, 6

galvanization related weld cracks, 30

gasoline, source of material contamination, 146

gas porosity, 111

gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 123

gauss meters, 56, 142

gears

circular magnetization application, 14

demagnetization, 80

fatigue cracks, 129

glass, magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4

gold, diamagnetic material, 74

gray powder, 49,154

for dry method, 92, 93

grease

background fluorescence from, 62

nonferromagnetic material, 7

removal from surfaces, 98

source of material contamination, 146

grinding cracks

detectability by magnetic particle testing, 3

secondary processing discontinuities in

ferromagnetic materials, I24table, 124-125

half wave direct current magnetization, 45-46

effective for inherent discontinuity detection, 29

effective for processing discontinuity detection, 30

portable equipment, 88

half wave rectified alternating current, 43,153

hall effect meters, 56, 142, 143

head shot magnetization, 11

quality control, 155

heat degradation, of magnetic testing materials, 147

heat treating cracks, 124table, 125-126

heat treatment

demagnetization usually not required if heated above

curie point, 23, 82

effect on creep properties, 131

high pressure arc bulbs, 108

holes, 14

170

Personnel Training Publications

hollow test objects

Circularmagnetization, 70

cylinders, 13-14

horizontal unit heads, 14

horseshoe magnet, 37

poles, 7

hot cracking, 117table, 118-119

hot rolled bars, magnetic particle testing applicable to, 3

hot tears, 110table, 111

welds, 119
humidity, source of material contamination, 146

hydrogen blistering, 133

hydrogen cracking, 128table, 132-133

hydrogen embrittlement, 132-133

hydrogen flakes, 29, l13table, 116

inclusions. See also nonmetallic inclusions

laminations from, 114

nonmetallic, 29, 110table, 111-112, 114

in welds, 122-123

indication detection, 25

indication interpretation, 3,78

indication recording, 25, 87

indirect magnetization, 11

infrared filters, 150

infrared radiation, 149

ingot cracks, 29

ingot pipe, 29

inherent discontinuities

brief description, 29

detailed description of types, 109-113, 11Otable

inorganic zinc coatings, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90

inservice discontinuities

brief description, 29

detailed description of types, 127-133, 128table

detectability by magnetic particle testing, 3

internal bursts, 115-116

interpretation, 3,78

Iron

demagnetization usually not required if retentivity

low, 23

ferromagnetic material, 6

lack of fusion (welds), 30, 117table, 120-121

lack of penetration (welds), 30, 117table, 121-122

lamellar tearing, 117table, 120

laminations, 29, 113table, 114

laps

cold lap, 124

detectability by magnetic particle testing, 3

processing discontinuities, 113table, 115, 116

Levell magnetic particle testing, 3-30

Levell magnetic particle testing technician, 4

can't accept or reject test objects, 25

and equipment selection, 25

Level II magnetic particle testing. See magnetic particle

testing

Level II magnetic particle testing technician, 4

can accept or reject test objects, 25

Level III magnetic particle testing technician, 4

defines area to be tested, 25

qualifies of pie gage, 57

lift test, 89-90

lines of force, 7

liquation cracking, Il7table, 118-119

liquid metal embrittlement cracks, 30

longitudinal magnetic fields, 15, 17-19

longitudinal magnetization, 17-19,70

with circular magnetization, 73

portable equipment, 88

quality control, 155

residual method with, 53

when principal direction of discontinuities is not

known, ISS

when to use, 154

long wavelength ultraviolet radiation, 148

iow carbon steel

continuous method for, 51, 53

demagnetization usually not required, 23

low fill factor coils, 76-77

low pressure fluorescent bulbs, 107-108

lubricants

background fluorescence from, 62

source of material contamination, 146

machine grinding cracks, 30

machine tears, 30

machining

demagnetization prior to, 22

processing discontinuities, 29

processing discontinuities formed in, 20

machining tears, 124table , 126

magnesium, magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4

magnetic attraction, 6

magnetic domains, 6, 34-35

in broken magnet, 7-8

magnetic field indicators, 56-58

need to confirm valid magnetic flux, 136

use in demagnetization, 22, 23

magnetic field intensity, 74

magnetic fields, 5-6, 36

characteristics of, 7-8

circular, 8, 11-14,58

effect of materials on, 37-38

longitudinal, 15, 17-19

measurement, 56-58

orientation, 154-155

orientedperpendicularto discontinuityfor best results,4

subsurface discontinuities, 10

surface discontinuities, 9
magnetic field strength, 15, 18-19,74

magnetic flux, 7

confirming valid with magnetic field indicator, 136

magnetic flux density, 38-39, 74

magnetic flux fields, 43-46

magnetic flux leakage, 33, 36, 37

reference standards, 135

magnetic hysteresis, 39-41

demagnetization, 83

magnetic moment, 38

magnetic particle formulations, 49

magnetic particles, 49-50. See also dry method;

fluorescent particles; wet method

selection, 26

magnetic particle testing. See also demagnetization;

discontinuities; dry method; magnetization; wet

method

basic principles of, 3-8

capabilities, 3-4

certification levels: Level I, Level II, Level III, 4

continuous method, 50-53,154

current selection, 153

effective for discontinuities, 5-6

electronic reference standards, 142-143

equipment, 25-27, 87-108

evaluation techniques, 135-143

field orientation, 154-155

flux fields, 43-46

Level I, 3-30

media selection, 154

personnel qualification, 4

principles, 33-42

quality control, 145-156

reference standards, 135-136

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

171

reference standard test blocks, 139-142, 143, 148

residual method, 53-58, 69, 154

sensitivity, 61-65

sensitivity requirements, 155-156

standard tool steel ring, 138-139

system evaluation, 136-138

system standardization, 136-138

technique development, 137-138

techniques, 34

technique selection, 154

variations to evaluate, 152

magnetic permeability, 6, 38,41-42

coatings, 89

magnetic poles, 5-6, 35-36

magnetic repulsion, 6

magnetic rubber, 14

magnetic saturation, 6

magnetic writing, 53-54, 78

magnetism, 6-7

magnetization. See also alternating current magnetization;

circular magnetization; direct current

magnetization; longitudinal magnetization

basic principles, 11-19

current selection, 153

electric current, 43-47, 67-78

equipment selection, 25

field flow, 72

law of magnetism, 6-7

methods, 16-18

multidirectional,16-18

role in magnetic particle testing, 3

in wet continuous method, 52

magnetization level indicator, 143

magnetized ring, 36

magnetized test blocks, 140

magnets, 5-6

material contamination, 146-147

checking for in system evaluation, 136

material control requirements, 147

mechanized equipment, 87

media selection, 153

medium wavelength ultraviolet radiation, 148

mercury, diamagnetic material, 74

microwave radiation, 149

mobile testing equipment, 26, 88

multibead weld caps, 91

multidirectional magnetization, 17

172 Personnel Training Publications

nickel

effect on creep of steel, 131

ferromagnetic material, 6

nonferromagnetic materials, 7

magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4

nonmetallic inclusions, 29, 11Otable, 111-112, 114

laminations from, 114

nonrelevant indications, 78

north pole, of magnet, 5-6, 35

north to south direction, magnetic domains, 6

oil based media. See petroleum distillate baths

oils

background fluorescence from, 62

removal from surfaces, 98

source of material contamination, 146

organic coatings, source of material contamination, 146

organic solvents, source of material contamination, 146

overlap, 124, 177table

overload cracks

detectability by magnetic particle testing, 3

inservice discontinuities, 30

oxides, inclusions in welds, 123

paint

lift test, 89-90

nonferromagnetic material, 7

source of material contamination, 146

thickness effect on test results, 90-91

paramagnetic materials, 6, 74

parametric evaluations, 137

particle shape, 49

particle size, 49

paste concentrate, 100

permanent magnets, 5

block standard containing, 140, 143

permanent magnet testing equipment, 25

personnel qualifications, 4

petroleum distillate baths, 49, 95-96

contamination check, 102

no additives necessary, 50

phenolic epoxy coatings, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90

pickling cracks, 30, 124table, 126

pie gage, 57

pipe, 110table, 110-111

laminations from, 114

plastics, magnetic particle testing can't be used for, 4

plating cracks, 30, 124table, 127

platinum, paramagnetic material, 74

poles, of magnets, 5-6, 35-36

porosity, 110, 1l0table, III

welds, 1I7table, 122, 123

portable testing equipment, 26

ultraviolet radiation intensity requirements, 150

powder applicators, 50, 93-94

powder gun/blower, 50, 94

precleaning, material contamination from improper, 146

primary creep, I 30

primary processing discontinuities, 113table, 113-124,

117lable

prism block standards, 139-141

processing discontinuities

brief description, 29-30

detailed description of primary, 113table, 113-124,

117table
detailed description of secondary, 124table, 124-127

dctectability by magnetic particle testing, 3

prod demagnetization, 85

prod magnetization, 11, 14-15

circular, 68

magnetic force requirements, 75

qualifications, of personnel for magnetic particle testing, 4

quality control

evaporation losses, 147

heat degradation, 147

magnetic particle testing applicable to, 3

of magnetic particle testing materials and methods,

145-156

material contamination, 146-147

material control requirements, 147

new magnetic testing materials, 145

proper procedures, 152-156

settling test application, 148

in use magnetic testing materials, 145-146

ultraviolet radiation intensity requirements, 149-150

quenching cracks

delectability by magnetic particle testing, 3

secondary processing discontinuities in

ferromagnetic materials, 124table, 124,125-126,

127

from segregation, 112-113

quick break, 69

radio waves, 149

Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-IA, 4

red powder, 49, 154

for dry method, 92, 93

for wet method, 94-95

reference standards

electronic, 142-143

empirical rules for using, 135-136

and quality control, 148

for system evaluation, 138

weld bead cracks, 89-90

reference standard test blocks, 139-142, 143, 148

relevant indications, 78

reluctance, 41

remanence, 39

remnant field, 79

repeatability, 143

residual magnetism, 21, 39, 79

hysteresis data for unmagnetized steel, 40

magnetic field indicator, 23, 24

residual magnetization, 21
residual method, 53-58

circular magnetization with induced current, 69

when to use, 154

retentivity, 17, 39

reverse magnetization point, 40

reverse magnetization saturation point, 40

reverse residual point, 40

right hand rule, circular magnetic fields, 12,67

ring magnets, 7-8, 36

ring standard, 138-139

rolled laps, 115, 116

rolling

inherent discontinuities present before, 29,109-112

processing discontinuities caused by, 29-30,113-116

rules of thumb, 135-136

rust

false indications from, 78

removal from surfaces, 98

rust inhibitors, 49, 50

saturation point, 40

scale

false indications from, 78

nonferromagnetic material, 7

removal from surfaces, 98

scratches, 10

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

173

sealants, source of material contamination, 146

seams

detectability by magnetic particle testing, 3

laminations from, 114

processing discontinuities, 29, 113table, 113-114

secondary creep, 130

secondary processing discontinuities, 124table, 124-127

segregation, 110table, 111

laminations from, 114

semiautomatic equipment, 87

sensitivity, 61-65

reference standards, 135

sensitivity requirements, 155-156

service induced discontinuities. See inservice discontinuities

settling test

procedure, 103-104

quality control application, 148

for yoke magnetization with wet particles, 91-92

shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), 122

short wavelength ultraviolet radiation, 108, 148

single fatigue cycle cracking, 30

single phase alternating current, 153

single phase full wave direct current, 46-47

single purpose semiautomatic equipment, 87

skin effect, 12, 13,44,84

and selection of current, 153

slag inclusions, 117table, 122

slots, circular magnetization application, 14

soil, source of material contamination, 146

solidification cracking, 117table, 118-119

solvents, source of material contamination, 146

south pole, of magnet, 5-6, 35

specifications, 4

split prism block standards, 139-140

spray bottles, 91-92

squeeze bottle, 50, 93-94

squeeze bulbs, 50

stainless steel, effect of nickel addition on creep, 131

standards, 4

comparison of indications to, 3

demagnetization required, 23

standard tool steel ring, 138-139

stationary testing equipment, 27,87-88

ultraviolet radiation intensity requirements, 149

steady state creep, 130

steel

coercive force, 80
continuous method for low carbon, 51, 53

effect of nickel addition on creep, 131

hot cracking, 119

hysteresis data for unmagnetized, 40

seams in billet, 114

yoke break test (lift test), 89-90

steel magnetized test blocks, 140-141

straight direct current, 153

stress corrosion cracking, 131-132, 133

stress cracking

secondary processing discontinuities in

ferromagnetic materials, 128table, 131-132, 133

from underbead weld cracking, 30

striations, fatigue cracks, 128-129

stringers, 113table, 114, 153

submerged arc welding (SAW), 122

subsurface discontinuities

dry method superior for, 57

effect on materials, 10

half wave direct current magnetization for, 45

inherent discontinuities, 29

inservice discontinuities, 30

magnetic particle testing difficult to apply, 3-4, 6

optimum particle size and shape for, 49

surface discontinuities
alternating current source for, 43, 156

detection using circular magnetic fields, 15

effect on materials, 9

inservice discontinuities, 30

limitation of magnetic particle testing to, 3-4, 6

optimum particle size and shape for, 49

residual method limited to, 53

surface preparation, 98

suspending agents, 95

system evaluation, 136-138

system standardization, 138-139

tempering, 125

temporary magnets, 5

tertiary creep, 130

test blocks, 140-141, 148

three phase alternating current, 27, 153

three phase direct current, 27

three phase full wave direct current, 47

three phase full wave rectified alternating current, 153

three phase multivector magnetization units, 153

tool steel ring, 138-139

transient creep, 130

demagnetizationusually not requiredfor low carbon,23 transuranic isotopes, ferromagnetic materials, 6

174
Personnel Training Publications

trim-verse discontinuities, 15, 19

lube. :'mg magnets, 8

IUnrSlei1oxide inclusions, 117table, 123

ultraviolet filters, J07, 150, 151

ultra. iolet lamp fixtures, 107

uitravioler radiation

1acilities for, 148-149

generation, 106-107

hazards, 15I

intensity requirements, 149-150

ihrav iolet radiation bulbs, 107-108

hazards, 151

heat degradation, 147

j ntensity requirements, 149-150

<ervicc and aging variations, lSI

ulrruxiolet radiation sources, 107-108

underbead cracking, 117

underbead weld cracking, 30

unncrcut. J 17table. 123

\ ide. tape. 87

Virgincurve, 39

\ is.b.Iiry

checking for in system evaluation, 136

wet method for maximum visibility and contrast, 156

visible light, 149

interferes with ultraviolet light visibility, 148

measurement of ambient, 150

from ultraviolet radiation sources, 108

water. source of material contamination, 146

water baths, 49-50,95

for dry powder liquid concentrate, 100-101

and equipment selection, 25, 26

problems with, 99

safety, 101

weld bead crack reference standards, 89-90

weld cold cracking, 117table. 117-118

weld crater cracks. 30

weld heat affected zone cracks, 30, 117table

weIII hot cracking, 117table, 118-119

weld inclusions, 117table, 122-123

welding

demagnetization prior to, 22

,,--~ --- ------- ----

processing discontinuities caused by, 20, 29-30,

116-124,117table

weld lack of fusion, 30, 117table, 120-121

weld lack of penetration, 30, 117table, 121-122

weld lamellar tearing, 117table, 120

weld overlap, 124, 177table

weld porosity, 117table, 122

welds, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90

weld undercut, 117table, 123

wet fluorescent method, 96-100

wet horizontal bench machines, 14

wet method

continuous method, 51-53

equipment for fluorescent, 96-100

equipment for visible light, 94-96

equipment selection, 25

magnetic particles for, 49-50

magnetization, 16

material control requirements, 147

for maximum contrast, 156

for maximum visibility and contrast, 156

media selection, 154

mobile equipment, 26

particles for yoke magnetization, 91-92

portable equipment, 88

powder selection, 94-96

residual method with, 54

sensitivity, 61-62

stationary equipment, 26

surface preparation, 98
when to use, 154

wetting agents, 49, 50, 95, 99

wood, paramagnetic material, 74

written procedures, 152

X-rays, 149

yellow-green fluorescent particles, 49

yellow powder, 49,154

for dry method, 92, 93

yoke break test, 89-90

yoke demagnetization, 85

yokes, 73

block standards for control of wet field tests, 143

equipment selection, 25

magnetic field strength, 15, 16, 18

magnetic force requirements, 75

175

Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book

portable equipment, 88, 89-90

semiautomatic equipment, 87

wet magnetic particles for, 91-92

zero flux density, 40

zero magnetic field strength, 40

zinc, diamagnetic material, 74

zinc chromate coatings, yoke break test (lift test), 89-90

176

Personnel Training Publications