Foreword

This document is a course material for power electronics primarily intended for third-year
electromechanical engineering students (LEM) in the Mechanical Engineering department. It is
designed to complement the students' personal work with the assistance of the instructor.
Furthermore, it should be noted that this work is not final, and its writing is still under revision.
The first chapter is dedicated to the presentation of the tools necessary for understanding the
module (fundamental laws, power electronic components). The second chapter is devoted to
the study of the main types of rectifiers (AC-DC). The third chapter is dedicated to the study of
cycloconverters (AC-AC). The fourth chapter is dedicated to the study of choppers (DC-DC).
The fifth chapter is dedicated to the study of inverters (DC-AC).
Introduction

Power electronics is a branch of electrical engineering that deals with the problem of electrical
energy transfer between electrical sources (such as batteries, alternative voltage sources,
photovoltaic panels, etc.) and loads (such as motors, inductances, capacitors, etc.). This energy
transfer must occur with minimal losses and, therefore, with optimal efficiency. We will present
some real-life examples found in industry and everyday life to illustrate this concept.

Converter
Vrms Rectefier VDC
~ 220 V
AC-DC
DC-DC
(chopper) 3.7 V

Figure 1: Powering a Battery from an Alternative Source

Converter
VDC DC-DC VDC
12 V (Chopper) 3.7 V

Figure 2: Powering a Battery from another Battery

Converter
VDC
12 V
DC-DC
(Chopper)
M 1
2
CV 2

Figure 3: Varying the Speed of a Direct Current Motor from a Battery

 Electrical
PV
Grid

Boost
VDC Converter
DC-DC
Inverter
DC-AC ~ Vrms
20 V (Chopper)
220 V

Figure 4: Injecting Photovoltaic Energy into the Electrical Grid

Boost 3-ph VAC

VDC Converter Inverter 380 V Async
DC-DC DC-AC
12 V Machine
(Chopper)

Figure 5: Driving an Asynchronous Machine with a Battery

Vary f and V

3-ph 3-ph 3-ph

Rectefier Inverter Async
AC
AC-DC DC-AC Machine

Figure 6: Varying the Speed of an Asynchronous Machine

Electrical
Grid

3-ph 3-ph 3-ph

AC Rectefier Inverter ~
AC-DC DC-AC

Figure 7: Injecting Disturbed Voltage Generated by a Wind Turbine into the Electrical
Grid
 1. Power Computation

1.1 Instantaneous Power

The instantaneous power of an electrical component is calculated as follows:

i (t ) +

v (t ) p (t )  v (t ) i (t )
-

Figure 8: Electrical Component

if p(t )  0  the power is consumed

Conventionally  
if p(t )  0  power is supplied
Example:

i (t ) (a)
1 p (t ) (c )
1 2 3 4
v (t ) t (s) 2

2
t (s)
-2
t (s)
-2
(b)
Figure 9: (a) Electrical Current, (b) Electrical Voltage, (c) Instantaneous Power

Energy is the cumulative result of integrating instantaneous power. The amount of energy
consumed by the component between two time points, t1 and t2, can be expressed as:
t2 t2

w   p(t )dt   v(t ) i(t )dt (1.1)

t1 t1

For this component, the total absorbed energy between 0 and 1 is:
t2

w   p(t )dt  1 ( J )
t1
Note: In this course, we generally emphasize power calculations

1.2 Average Power

The average power absorbed by an electrical component over a time interval t1-t2 is
calculated as follows:

t t
1 2 1 2
t2  t1 t1 t2  t1 t1
P p (t ) dt  v(t ) i (t )dt (1.2)

Example :

1
1
1  0 0
The average power between 0 and 1 is: p(t )dt  1 (W )

2
1
2  1 1
The average power between 1 and 2 is: p(t )dt  1 (W )

3
1
3  2 2
The average power between 2 and 3 is: p(t )dt  0 (W )

4
1 1
The average power between 3 and 4 is: 
43 3
p(t )dt  (W )
2

1.3 The average power of a periodic signal:

If the current and voltage are periodic signals and they have the same period, the power
absorbed by the electrical element in one period is:
t0 T t0 T
1 1
P
T 
t0
p(t )dt 
T 
t0
v(t ) i(t )dt (1.3)

to : could be any moment, and we just need to study the circuit within a time interval.
1.4 Behavior of the inductance under a periodic current
If the current through the inductance is periodic, then: i (t ) +
diL (t )
vL (t )  L
i L (t0  T )  i L (t0 ) (1.4) dt
-
Figure 10: An electrical inductance
The average power absorbed by the inductance is:
t0 T t0 T t0 T t0 T
1 1 1 di(t ) L 2
PL 
T 
t0
p(t )dt 
T 
t0
v(t ) i (t )dt 
T 
t0
L
dt
i (t )dt  i (t ) 
2T  t 0

L 2
 i (t0  T )  i 2 (t0 )   0
2T 
Thus, we can conclude that the average power absorbed by an inductance when subjected to a
periodic current is zero.
The voltage across the inductance is:
t0 T
di 1
vL  L L
dt
 iL (t0  T ) 
L 
t0
vL (t ) dt  iL (t0 ) (1.5)

If we divide everything over one period, we obtain:

t0 T
L 1
T
(iL (t0  T )  iL (t0 ) 
T 
t0
vL (t ) dt  0

vL (t ) 0 (1.6)
vL (t ) 0
vL (t ) moy  0

We can conclude that with a periodic current, the average voltage across an inductance is
zero.

1.5 Behavior of the capacitor under a periodic voltage

If vc (t ) is periodic, and we apply the same method that was applied to the inductance.

t0 T t0 T t0 T t0 T
1 1 1 dv C 2
Pc 
T 
t0
p(t )dt 
T 
t0
v(t ) i (t )dt 
T 
t0
v(t )c dt 
dt
v (t ) 
2T 
+
t 0 dvc (t )
C 2 ic (t )  c
 v (t0  T )  v 2 (t0 )   0 dt
2T
Therefore, we can conclude that the average power absorbed by a -
capacitor under a periodic voltage is zero.
Figure 11: An electrical capacitor

The current absorbed by the capacitor is:

t0 T
dv 1
ic  c c
dt
 vc (t0  T ) 
C 
t0
ic (t ) dt  vc (t0 ) (1.6)

We divide everything by the period:

 t0 T
C 1
T
(vc (t0  T )  vc (t0 ) 
T 
t0
ic (t ) dt  0

ic (t ) 0 (1.7)
 ic (t )  0
ic (t ) moy  0

We can conclude that with a periodic voltage, the average current through a capacitor is zero.

1.6 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value

The RMS value of a periodic signal is the square root of the mean value of the signal squared,
as given by the following relationship:
t0 T
1
X rms 
T 
t0
x 2 (t ) dt (1.8)

Example 1:
We have a signal with two positive half-cycles

v (t )

The RMS value of this signal is:

 2 wt
t0 T t0 T
1 2
Vrms   v 2 (t ) dt   V sin(wt ) dt
2
m
Figure 12: A voltage with two positive half-cycles
T t0
T t0

We use trigonometric transformations

1  cos(2wt )
sin( wt )2  (1.9)
2
To simplify the calculations, we employ the angular variable t  wt

 
2 Vm 2 1  cos(2wt )
Vrms   Vm sin(wt )  0
2
d ( wt )  d ( wt )
2 0
2
Vm 2  Vm
 
 2 2
Example 2 :
We have a signal consisting of two sinusoidal signals
v(t )  2sin wt  3sin 2wt
Its RMS value is :
T T
1 1
Vrms 
T0 (2sin wt  3sin 2wt ) 2 dt 
T 0
(4sin wt 2  9sin 2wt 2  12sin wt sin 2wt ) dt

T
1
T 0
We have: (12sin wt sin 2wt ) dt  0

4 9
Vrms    I1,2rms  I 2,2 rms (1.10)
2 2

Therefore, if we have a signal composed of multiple signals and A0 is its mean value, the
RMS value is given as follows:
 
An2
F (t )  A0   An sin(nwt )  Frms  A02   (1.11)
n 1 n 1 2

1.7 Apparent Power

If i(t ) and v(t ) are periodic, the apparent power is:

S  Vrms I rms (1.12)

Figure 13: Electrical component powered

1.8 Power Factor by a sinusoidal source

Power factor is defined as the ratio of the average power

absorbed by the load to the apparent power supplied by the io (t ) +
source.
vs (t ) ~ vo (t )
average power P
Fp   (1.13)
apparent power Vs ,rms I s ,rms -

1.9 Average Power of a Sinusoidal Signal i (t )

+
If the electrical current i (t ) and voltage v (t ) are sinusoidal, with their maximum
2 v (t )
values I m and Vm and their period being T 
w -
Figure 14: Electrical Component
i (t )  I m cos(wt   ) et v (t )  Vm cos(wt   )
 Im Vm
Its root mean square (RMS) values are: I rms  and Vrms 
2 2
• Instantaneous Power
Vm I m
p(t )  v(t ) i(t )  cos(2wt     )  cos(   )
2

• Average Power

T 2
1 V I
P
T0 p(t )dt  m m
2  2  cos(2wt     )  cos(   )dt
0

2
We have:  cos(2wt     )dt  0
0

Vm I m cos(   ) Vm I m
P  cos(   )  Vrms I rms cos(   )
2 2 2
• Power Factor
P P
Fp    cos(   ) (1.11)
S vrms I rms

This expression is valid only for sinusoidal signals.

1.10 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

Total harmonic distortion is a measure of a signal's similarity when compared to a perfectly

sinusoidal signal.

N
If F (t )  A0   An sin(nwt ) (1.12)
n 1

Root mean square values of non  fundamental terms

THD 
Root Mean Square Values of Fundamental
2
A 
N
A   n 
2
0
(1.13)
n2  2

A1
2
 2. Power Electronics Converters

The most commonly used semiconductor components for power electronics are:

• Power Diodes

• Thyristors

• Power Transistors

2.1 Diode

iD
Forward biased region "on"

iD 
Anode + v - Cathode
D vD
(A) (K)
Reversed-biased region "off"

ideal characteristics of i  v
Figure 15: Power Diode

vd  0 si id  0
If the diode is ideal 
id  0 si vd  0
2.2 Thyristors or SCR (Silicon-Controlled Rectifier)

ith
Gatte
On
ith 
Anode + v - Cathode
th vth
(A) (K) Off
Off

ideal characteristics of i  v
Figure 16: Power thyristor
The current in a thyristor flows from the anode (A) to the cathode (K). The thyristor becomes
conducting when it is forward-biased, and a pulsed current is applied to the gate (G).
 R
I IG

+
t
vs v AK
v AK
IG
-
t
I

t
Figure 17: Electrical Circuit Controlled by a Thyristor

R
I IG

IG +
t
vs v AK
v AK
-
t
I

t
Figure 18: Case where the thyristor is reverse-biased

The thyristor continues conducting even when the gate current (control) becomes zero (as
shown in Fig. 17). Conversely, if the thyristor is reverse-biased, and a positive gate current is
applied, the thyristor remains in the off state (as depicted in Fig. 18)
Note: the thyristor is connected in reverse compared to Fig. 17.
2.3 Power Transistor (MOSFET)
The transistor is exclusively used in the saturation state and not in the linear region.

ID  ID
Drain (D)
 On
(Saturation)
vDS
Gate (G)  vDS
Source (S) Off

ideal characteristics of i  v
Figure 19: MOSFET-Type Transistor

si vGS  VT  switch " on "  VDS  0 and I D  0


si vGS  VT  switch " off "  I D  0

VT : is the threshold voltage, typically between 10-15 volts.

R
I VGS
+
D
t
G vDS
vs
vDS
vGS S
-
t
I

Figure 20: Circuit controlled by a MOSFET

The transistor acts as an electronic switch that can be controlled to open and close by
applying a control voltage VDS .
 2.4 - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

IC  IG
Collecteur (C)
 On
(Saturation)
vC E
 vC E
Gachate (G)
Emeteur (E) Off

Ideal characteristics of i  v
Figure 21: IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

An IGBT-type transistor with an NPN junction

si vGE  VT  switch " on "  VGE  0 and I C  0


si vGE  VT  switch " off "  I C  0

In our case, MOSFET and IGBT may appear similar, but in reality, they are different.

Frequency on/off Voltage Max Maximum current

MOSFET Very high 1kw 150A

IGBT high 3.5kw 2 KA

The following table provides various characteristics of power electronic switches.

Diode SCR MOSFET IGBT
Controlled when closing’on ‘ X   
Controlled when opening ‘off’ X X  
Continuity of control signal X X  
(gate)
Bi-directional X X X X