What is an error and what is the role of error in Second Language

Learning

Errors happen to be the very common part of Second Language

Learning (L2). However, in order to become an effective learner or
teacher of the L2, it is significant to develop the awareness that
errors hold a positive aspect of learning.
First of all, it is essential to explain what an error means. According
to the Cambridge Dictionary, error is “a mistake, especially one that
can cause problems”[i]. On the other hand, William Littlewood
describes errors as not the ones that are causing problems or are
considered failures in L2, but he presents them as tools for
identifying the learners’ development in L2, and the ways the
learners process the knowledge of a target language. This
contemporary viewpoint was established around 1960s. Formerly,
people had believed that errors were intolerable parts of L2 as they
were preventing the learner from producing the correct version of a
language.[ii]Another definition of the subject would say that errors
“happen when learners try to say something that is beyond their
current level of language processing.” What is more, in this case,
learners are unable to correct themselves because they are
unaware of their inaccuracies.[iii]
Secondly, errors are divided into two subcategories:
 errors in production – errors that appear while performing the tasks
concerning productive skills (speaking, writing);
 errors in comprehension – errors that appear while performing the
tasks concerning receptive skills (listening, reading).
The second subcategory seems to be more problematic to detect as
it is often impossible to locate the source of an error. [iv]
Thirdly, it is essential to explain what causes learners to perpetrate
errors. There are two main sources of errors[v]:
–interference from the native language – also called interlingual
factors;these particular errors occur due to the fact that the native
language of a learner influences the second language processing. A
notable example of errors that are affected by the native language is
the incorrectness in pronunciation. The common error among Polish
Second Language Learners, especially at the beginning of L2,
appear in the pronunciation of a word “thing”/θɪŋ/[vi] which is
pronounced /fing/, /ting/, or even /thing/. Such an errors occur
because of the fact that Polish phonetic transcription differs from the
English one. In this case, Polish phonetic transcription lacks [θ], [ɪ],
and [ŋ] and is compensated by [f], [t], [h], [i], and [ing]. [vii]
–developmental factors – also called intralingual factors, appear as
an effect of the difficulty which learners encounter on their way of
learning a new language. Hanna Y. Touchie enumerates the
following developmental factors[viii]:
1. simplification –learners refuse to use complex forms of a language
which, as a final result, appears to be an error. It can be illustrated by
the usage of the present simple tense instead of present perfect
simple because of its more advanced structure.
2. overgeneralisation –learners apply one structure to different contexts
inaccurately. The most common overgeneralisation is adding -ed
ending to each and every verb in order to gain the simple past forms
of the verbs, such as “go”à “goed”, or “break” à “breaked”.
3. hypercorrection –learners, while producing speech,are inaccurately
corrected by their teachers. In this particular issue, L2 learners
formulate structures incorrectly even though they used to practise the
accurate forms. Hanna Y. Touchie exemplifies the issue by the Arab
ESL learners who pronounce the phoneme [b] as [p] as they were
told to do so by their teacher.
4. faulty teaching –learners produce the language incorrectly because of
the fact that their teacher, while explaining the language, provides
them with confusing materials or presentations. In practice, if a
learner was taught that the article “a” is used with plural forms of the
nouns, he or she would be reduplicating such an error.
5.fossilisation –learners begin to use incorrect forms for a longer
period of time. This particular problem happens to be extremely
difficult to overcome. For example, learners that develop in their
interlanguage[ix] an error, are likely to fossilise it and produce it
constantly.
6. avoidance –learners simply avoid using too difficult structures. In
such case, they stop the development of the process of learning as
well as they are likely to go wrong. For instance, a learner would use
the present simple (instead of present continuous) tense in order to
describe an action that is taking place at the moment of speaking.
7. inadequate learning –learners tend to make errors because of the fact
that they ignore the rules or they learn incompletely. One of the most
common examples is the omission of the -s ending while speaking
about the third person singular –“she go to school every day”.
8. false concepts hypothesised –learners incorrectly hypothesise about
the target language and its structures. For instance, a large number of
L2 learners identify “is” as an inseparable part of the present simple
tense. Because of this, they very often formulate structures such as
“she is go to the cinema once a month” or “you is wonderful”. At the
same time, they apply the rule to other tenses creating in that manner
sentences such as “Tom was visited Rome in 2012”.
The number of developmental errors as well as interference errors
may decrease because of the fact that the learners are remaining in
the process of learning. What is more, errors not necessarily have to
be corrected by the teacher. The natural process of learning allows
learners to become aware of their own errors and provides them
with a green light to correct those errors.[x]
Furthermore, it is also worth mentioning, that every learner creates
his or her own interlanguage. As mentioned before, interlanguage is
“the type of language (or linguistic system) used by second- and
foreign-language learners who are in the process of learning a target
language”[xi]. According to Rod Ellis, interlanguage[xii]:
–consists of implicit linguistic knowledge where learners are
unaware of the rules of their interlanguages,
–is a system with regularities such as grammar is a system to a
native speaker,
–is permeable, which means that interlanguage is constantly
changing because of the fact that during the process of learning the
language accuracy develops,
–is the product of general learning strategies,
–may be supplemented by the means of communication strategies
such as paraphrasing, asking for help, or generally speaking,
compensation for lack of knowledge.
–may fossilise.
According to professor Pit Corder from the University of Edinburgh,
errors play an important role in the process of learning.
First of all, errors are used by teachers all over the world as tools
which help to recognise what the learners have already mastered or
what issues or structures remain still problematic for them.
Secondly, pedagogically speaking, researchers use errors in order
to examine the ways in which the languages are learnt. Thirdly, they
are helpful in the process of self-correction, when learners are to
discover themselves the rules of the language they are learning by
obtaining the feedback on their errors. Last, but not least, the
appearance of errors in the language production is the proof that the
language is still being learnt by the learner. [xiii]
To summarise, errors may have a positive impact on one’s Second
Language Learning as long as they are not fossilised. It is also
important to become aware that errors are not the failures in L2, but,
if used aright, they cause a positive effect on the process of self-
correction, acknowledging the rules of language, and they can
become helpful in L2 research.
Teaching approaches: task-based learning
What is TBL?
How often do we as teachers ask our students to do something in
class which they would do in everyday life using their own
language? Probably not often enough.
If we can make language in the classroom meaningful therefore
memorable, students can process language which is being learned
or recycled more naturally.

Task-based learning offers the student an opportunity to do

exactly this. The primary focus of classroom activity is the task and
language is the instrument which the students use to complete it.
The task is an activity in which students use language to achieve a
specific outcome. The activity reflects real life and learners focus on
meaning, they are free to use any language they want. Playing a
game, solving a problem or sharing information or experiences, can
all be considered as relevant and authentic tasks. In TBL an activity
in which students are given a list of words to use cannot be
considered as a genuine task. Nor can a normal role play if it does
not contain a problem-solving element or where students are not
given a goal to reach. In many role plays students simply act out
their restricted role. For instance, a role play where students have to
act out roles as company directors but must come to an agreement
or find the right solution within the given time limit can be
considered a genuine task in TBL.

In the task-based lessons included below our aim is to create a need

to learn and use language. The tasks will generate their own
language and create an opportunity for language acquisition
(Krashen*). If we can take the focus away from form and structures
we can develop our students’ ability to do things in English. That is
not to say that there will be no attention paid to accuracy, work on
language is included in each task and feedback and language focus
have their places in the lesson plans. We feel that teachers have a
responsibility to enrich their students’ language when they see it is
necessary but students should be given the opportunity to use
English in the classroom as they use their own languages in
everyday life.

How can I use TBL in the classroom?

Most of the task-based lessons in this section are what Scrivener**
classifies as authentic and follow the task structure proposed by
Willis and Willis***.
 Each task will be organized in the following way:

 Pre-task activity an introduction to topic and task

 Task cycle: Task > Planning > Report
 Language Focus and Feedback
A balance should be kept between fluency, which is what the task
provides, and accuracy, which is provided by task feedback.

A traditional model for the organization of language lessons, both in

the classroom and in course-books, has long been the PPP
approach (presentation, practice, production). With this model
individual language items (for example, the past continuous) are
presented by the teacher, then practised in the form of spoken and
written exercises (often pattern drills), and then used by the
learners in less controlled speaking or writing activities. Although
the grammar point presented at the beginning of this procedure
may well fit neatly into a grammatical syllabus, a frequent criticism
of this approach is the apparent arbitrariness of the selected
grammar point, which may or may not meet the linguistic needs of
the learners, and the fact that the production stage is often based
on a rather inauthentic emphasis on the chosen structure.

An alternative to the PPP model is the Test-Teach-Test

approach (TTT), in which the production stage comes first and the
learners are "thrown in at the deep end" and required to perform a
particular task (a role play, for example). This is followed by the
teacher dealing with some of the grammatical or lexical problems
that arose in the first stage and the learners then being required
either to perform the initial task again or to perform a similar task.
The language presented in the ‘teach’ stage can be predicted if the
initial production task is carefully chosen but there is a danger of
randomness in this model.

Jane Willis (1996), in her book ‘A Framework for Task-Based

Learning’, outlines a third model for organizing lessons. While this is
not a radical departure from TTT, it does present a model that is
based on sound theoretical foundations and one which takes
account of the need for authentic communication. Task-based
learning (TBL) is typically based on three stages. The first of these
is the pre-task stage, during which the teacher introduces and
defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either
help them to recall words and phrases that will be useful during the
performance of the main task or to learn new words and phrases
that are essential to the task. This stage is followed by what Willis
 calls the "task cycle". Here the learners perform the task (typically a
reading or listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise) in pairs
or small groups. They then prepare a report for the whole class on
how they did the task and what conclusions they reached. Finally,
they present their findings to the class in spoken or written form.
The final stage is the language focus stage, during which specific
language features from the task and highlighted and worked on.
Feedback on the learners’ performance at the reporting stage may
also be appropriate at this point.

The main advantages of TBL are that language is used for a genuine
purpose meaning that real communication should take place, and
that at the stage where the learners are preparing their report for
the whole class, they are forced to consider language form in
general rather than concentrating on a single form (as in the PPP
model). Whereas the aim of the PPP model is to lead from accuracy
to fluency, the aim of TBL is to integrate all four skills and to move
from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of tasks available
(reading texts, listening texts, problem-solving, role-plays,
questionnaires, etc) offers a great deal of flexibility in this model
and should lead to more motivating activities for the learners.

Learners who are used to a more traditional approach based on a

grammatical syllabus may find it difficult to come to terms with the
apparent randomness of TBL, but if TBL is integrated with a
systematic approach to grammar and lexis, the outcome can be a
comprehensive, all-round approach that can be adapted to meet the
needs of all learners.

Tasks: Getting to know your centre

The object of the following two tasks is for students to use English
to:

 Find out what resources are available to them and how they can use
their resource room.
 Meet and talk to each of the teachers in their centre.
To do these tasks you will require the PDF worksheets at the bottom
of the page.

Task 1: Getting to know your resources

Level: Pre-intermediate and above
 It is assumed in this lesson that your school has the following
student resources; books (graded readers), video, magazines and
Internet. Don’t worry if it doesn’t, the lesson can be adjusted
accordingly.

Pre-task preparation: One of the tasks is a video exercise which

involves viewing a movie clip with the sound turned off. This can be
any movie depending on availability, but the clip has to involve a
conversation between two people.

Pre-task activity: In pairs students discuss the following

questions:

 Do you use English outside the classroom?

 How?
 What ways can you practise English outside the classroom?
Stage one - Running dictation
Put the text from worksheet one on the wall either inside or outside
the classroom. Organize your students into pairs. One student will
then go to the text, read the text and then go back to her partner
and relay the information to her. The partner who stays at the desk
writes this information. When teams have finished check for
accuracy. You can make this competitive should you wish.

Stage two
In pairs students then read the Getting To Know Your Resources
task sheet (worksheet two). Check any problem vocabulary at this
stage. This worksheet can be adapted according to the resource
room at your school.

 Stage three
Depending on how the resources are organized in your centre,
students then go, in pairs, to the resource room or wherever the
resources are kept and complete the tasks on the task sheet.
 Stage four
Working with a different partner students now compare and share
their experience.
 Stage five - Feedback
Having monitored the activity and the final stage, use this
opportunity to make comments on your students’ performance. This
may take form of a correction slot on errors or pronunciation,
providing a self-correction slot.
 Task 2 - Getting to know your teachers
Level: Pre-intermediate and above

Students may need at least a week to do this activity, depending on

the availability of the teachers in your centre

Pre-task activity: In pairs students talk about an English teacher

they have had.

 What was her name?

 Where was she from?
 How old was she?
 Do you remember any of her lessons?
 What was your favourite activity in her class?
Stage one
Using the Getting To Know Your Teachers task sheet (worksheet
three) and the Interview Questions (worksheet four) students write
the questions for the questionnaire they are going to use to
interview the teachers.

Stage two
To set up the activity students then interview you and record the
information.

Stage three
Depending on which teachers are free at this time they can then go
and interview other teachers and record the information. You may
wish to bring other teachers into your class to be interviewed or
alternatively give your students a week or so to complete the task,
interviewing teachers before or after class, or whenever they come
to the centre.

Stage four
Working with a different partner students compare their answers
and experiences then decide on their final answers on the
superlative questions.

Stage five
Feedback and reflection. Allow time for students to express their
opinions and experiences of the activity. Provide any feedback you
feel is necessary.