KOM3510

MECHATRONICS

Fall : 2023

Lecture 3

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 Amplifiers

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 Amplifiers
One of the most important functions in electronic instrumentation is that of
amplification. The need to amplify low-level electric signals arises frequently in a
number of applications. Perhaps the most familiar use of amplifiers arises in
converting the low-voltage signal from a cassette tape player, a radio receiver, or a
compact disk player to a level suitable for driving a pair of speakers.

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 Operational Amplifiers
An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled high-gain
electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.

An op amp is an active circuit element designed to perform mathematical operations

of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, differentiation, and integration.

LM741

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 Ideal Op-Amp
An ideal op amp is usually considered to have the following characteristics;

•Infinite open-loop gain G = vout / vin

•Infinite input impedance Rin, and so zero input current

•Zero input offset voltage

•Infinite output voltage range

•Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift and infinite slew rate

•Zero output impedance Rout

•Infinite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

•Infinite power supply rejection ratio.

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 Practical Op-Amp
A practical op amp is usually considered to have the following characteristics;

•Finite open-loop gain G = vout / vin

•Finite input impedance Rin, and so zero input current

•Non-zero input offset voltage

•Finite output voltage range

•Finite bandwidth with non-zero phase shift and finite slew rate

•Non-zero output impedance Rout

•Finite common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

•finite power supply rejection ratio.

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 Practical vs Ideal Op-Amp

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 Practical Op-Amp

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 Op-Amp: Input Signal Modes
Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected to one
input with the other input connected to ground.

In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at each input—this
being a double-ended operation.

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 Op-Amp: Input Signal Modes
Whereas the operation discussed so far has a single output, the op-amp can also be
operated with opposite outputs

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 Op-Amp: Common Mode
When the same input signals are applied to both inputs, common-mode operation
results,

A significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals that are opposite at
the inputs are highly amplified, whereas those that are common to the two inputs are
only slightly amplified—the overall operation being to amplify the difference
signal while rejecting the common signal at the two inputs.

Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally common to both inputs, the
differential connection tends to provide attenuation of this unwanted input while
providing an amplified output of the difference signal applied to the inputs. This
operating feature is referred to as common-mode rejection .

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 Op-Amp: Common Mode Rejection Ratio CMRR
 The measure of an amplifier’s ability to reject common-mode signals is a
parameter called the CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio).

 Ideally, an op-amp provides a very high gain for differential-mode signals and zero
gain for common-mode signals. Practical op-amps, however, do exhibit a very
small common-mode gain (usually much less than 1), while providing a high open-
loop differential voltage gain (commonly from 100,000 to 1,000,000 or more for
high-precision op-amps).

 The higher the open-loop gain with respect

to the common-mode gain,
the better the performance of the op-amp
in terms of rejection of common-mode signals.

The common-mode gain, Acm

The open-loop voltage gain, Aol

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 Op-Amp: Common Mode Rejection Ratio CMRR

CMRR as a function of frequency

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 Op-Amp: Model

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 Op-Amp: Model

Basic op-amp connection op-amp ac equivalent circuit

ideal op-amp equivalent circuit; redrawn equivalent circuit

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 Op-Amp: Model
Using superposition, we can solve for the
voltage V1 in terms of the components due to
each of the sources.
For source V1 only (-AvVi set to zero),

For source -AvVi only ( V1 set to zero),

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 Op-Amp: Types

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 Op-Amp: Types

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 Op-Amp: Why Negative FEEDBACK!?
The inherent open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is very high (usually greater
than 100,000). Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-amp into its
saturated output states.

Without negative feedback, a small

input voltage drives the op-amp to its
output limits and it becomes nonlinear.

The usefulness of an op-amp operated

without negative feedback is generally
limited to comparator applications (may
include oscillators)

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 Op-Amp: Why Negative FEEDBACK!?
Negative feedback is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an
amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that opposes (or subtracts
from) the input signal.
The closed-loop voltage
gain is the voltage gain of an
op-amp with external
feedback.

The closed-loop voltage gain

is determined by the external
component values and can
be precisely controlled by
them.

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 Op-Amp: Noninverting Amplifier
The input signal is applied to the noninverting (+) input. The output is applied back
to the inverting (-) input through the feedback circuit (closed loop) formed by the
input resistor Ri and the feedback resistor Rf. This creates negative feedback as
follows.

The closed-loop gain of the noninverting (NI) amplifier is the reciprocal of

the attenuation (B) of the feedback circuit (voltage-divider).

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 Op-Amp: Noninverting Amplifier

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 Op-Amp: Voltage-Follower
The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the noninverting amplifier
where all of the output voltage is fed back to the inverting (-) input by a straight
connection, as shown in Figure

1. Voltage follower
2. İnsulation amplifier
3. Opamp buffer

The most important features of the voltage-follower

configuration are its very high input impedance and its
very low output impedance. These features make it a
nearly ideal buffer amplifier for interfacing high-
impedance sources and low-impedance loads.

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 Op-Amp: Inverting Amplifier
The input signal is applied through a series input resistor Ri to the inverting (-) input.
Also, the output is fed back through Rf to the same input. The noninverting (+) input
is grounded.

The voltage at the inverting (-) input

is ideally zero because the noninverting (+)
input is grounded. This zero voltage at the
inverting input terminal is referred to as
virtual ground.

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 Op-Amp: Inverting Amplifier

The closed-loop voltage gain of the inverting amplifier (Acl(I)) is the ratio of the
feedback resistance (Rf) to the input resistance (Ri). The closed-loop gain is
essentially independent of the op-amp’s internal open-loop gain. Thus, the negative
feedback stabilizes the voltage gain. The negative sign indicates inversion.

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 Op-Amp: Inverting Amplifier

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 Op-Amp: Impedances of the Noninverting Amplifier

 The input impedance of the noninverting amplifier configuration with negative

feedback is much greater than the internal input impedance of the op-amp itself
(without feedback).

 The output impedance of the noninverting amplifier configuration with negative

feedback is much less than the internal output impedance, Zout, of the op-amp
itself (without feedback) because Zout is divided by the factor 1 + AolB.
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 Op-Amp: Impedances of the Noninverting Amplifier

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 Op-Amp: Voltage-Follower Impedances
Since a voltage-follower is a special case of the noninverting amplifier configuration,
the same impedance formulas are used but with B = 1.

The voltage-follower input impedance is greater for a given

Aol and Zin than for the noninverting amplifier configuration
with the voltage-divider feedback circuit. Also, its output
impedance is much smaller.

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 Op-Amp: Impedances of the Inverting Amplifier

This is because the inverting input of the

op-amp is at virtual ground (0 V), and the
input source simply sees Ri to ground,

Notice that output impedance equation for the inverting amplifier is the same as
output impedance equation for the noninverting amplifier. The output impedance of
both configurations is very low; in fact, it is almost zero in practical cases where Aol
is very large. Because of this near zero output impedance, any load impedance
within limits can be connected to the op-amp output and not change the gain or the
output voltage. The limits for the load impedance are determined by the maximum
peak-to-peak swing of the output (VO(p-p)) and the current limit of the op-amp.

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 Op-Amp: Impedances of the Inverting Amplifier

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