Financial Management

STUDY NOTES
SPECIALISATION
MODULE-VI
SP-603
ICPAP
The Institute of Certified Public
Accountants of Pakistan
University of Cambridge
Advance Financial Management
Table of Contents
1. Financial Management Function
2. Working Capital Management
3. Investment Appraisal
4. Business Finance
5. Cost of Capital
6. Business Valuations
7. Risk Management
8. Role and Responsibility towards Stakeholders
9. Advanced Investment Appraisal – Discounted Cash Flow
10. The Impact of Financing on Investment Decisions
11. Option Pricing Theory in Investment Decisions
12. Acquisition and Mergers versus Other Growth Strategies
13. Mergers & Acquisitions – Valuation
14. Corporate Reconstruction and Re-Organization
15. Financial Derivatives – Hedging Forex Risk
16. Financial Derivatives – Hedging Interest Rate Risk
17. Dividend policy and International Trade
18. Emerging Issuesin Financial Management
19. Question and Answers
20. Glossary
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Financial Management Function
KEY KNOWLEDGE
The Nature and Purpose of Financial Management
The main purpose of financial strategy is to ensure that financial resources are available to the
organization in support of its overall corporate objectives, which include financial objectives.
Management accounting is a set of tools and disciplines measuring corporate performance and
to facilitate decision-making; it is designed and implemented in coordination with the
company‟s strategy.
Financial accounting is concerned with maintaining the records of the transactions of the firm
and preparing financial statements for the benefit of shareholders (and other external
audiences) in conformity with established accounting standards.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Financial Objectives andthe Relationshipwith Corporate Strategy
In pursuing its financial objectives, the firm must ensure that those objectives are congruent –
i.e. consistent – with its overall corporate strategy.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Stakeholdersand Impacton Corporate Objectives
Stakeholder groups
 Shareholders: As owners of the business, they rank supreme, as reflected in US/UK

models of corporate governance;
 Lenders: Important if the business relies heavily on providers of loan capital (banks,
bondholders);
 Directors: The executive directors or senior management of the business are central
since they have “hands-on” power and can serve their own interests (giving rise to
agencyrisk);
 Employees: Often referred to as a company‟s “most valuable asset”; they must be
motivated and adequately compensated;
 Customers: No customers, no business! How influential they are or how carefully
management needs to listen to their concerns depends on the type of business activity
and the competitive environment;
 Suppliers: Good and reliable suppliers can be critical to corporate success;
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 Government: They have two major interests: (a) they receive revenue via taxes and (b)
benefit indirectly when firms create employment. Environmental and other regulatory
concerns are also within the scope of the government‟s interest;
 Public: The general public, its opinions and ability to exert pressure through lobby
groups are all relevant factor for businesses that pollute, are involved in nuclear power,
or carry out other activities that may be controversial (e.g. abortion clinics).
Conflictingstakeholderinterests
Conflicting interests can exist between various stakeholder groups.
Management must examine the degrees of stakeholder influence and actively manage the
relationship with relevant stakeholders.
Agencytheory
Agency theory addresses the risk that management will not act in the best interest of the
shareholders, but will make decisions that will serve its own interests.
Examples of self-serving management behavior could include: (a) artificially boosting corporate
profits in the short-term in order to earn bonuses; (b) paying too much to acquire another
company for reasons of prestige or in order to “build empires”; (c) rejecting opportunities, such
as takeover bids, or restructuring initiatives, that might jeopardize their positions (an
orientation to maintaining the “status quo”).
Influencing managerial behavior
In order to cause managers to behave in a way consistent with stakeholder interests, rewards
and bonus schemes need to be carefully designed. This can be seen as the “internal” dimension
to corporate governance. The other dimension -- “external” – comes in the form of regulation.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Financial and Other Objectives in Non‐for‐Profit Organisations
Profit and Not-for-profit organisations
Profit-seeking organizations exist ultimately to create wealth for their owners.
Non-profit (or not-for-profit) organizations are created to accomplish a pre-defined mission,

such as the delivery of a service; they are expected to do so in an economical manner.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Financial Management Environment
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1. The economic environment for business
The general economic environment, and in particular the influence of governments – through
its monetary and fiscal policies – has a far-reaching impact on most businesses.
2. The nature and role of financial markets and institutions
Financial markets and institutions have achieved such a degree of global integration that shocks
in one part – as shown with the onset of the financial crisis in 2008 – can have systematic
implications acrossall markets.
Working Capital Management
1. The nature, elements and importance of working capital
This is a core function of management which has day-to-day implications.
Working capital definition: Current assets – Current liabilities
This is an accounting definition. The discussion and analysis of working capital management
focuses on the “operating” elements of current assets and liabilities:
 Cash
 Inventory
 Receivables
 Payables
2. Management of inventories, accounts receivables, accounts payable and cash
These elements are linked through the Cash conversion cycle, also known as the Cash
Operating Cycle
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The above diagram shows the operating cash flows for a typical manufacturing company
converting raw materials into finished goods for sale. The company needs its own cash to pay
the supplier and can only recover this from the sale of the finished goods.
The cash invested in inventories and receivables represents a cost to the company. This is most
directly obvious in opportunity cost terms: the cash could be earning interest, reducing interest-
bearing debt, or ultimately find its way into shareholders‟ pockets as a dividend payment.
The presence of payables indicates that cash payments (outflows) are delayed; this is beneficial
to the company as long as it is not overdue on its payments, as late payment could lead to
penalties or damage to the company‟s reputation (creditworthiness).
Managing the individual parts of working capital means managing the “whole picture” in an
optimal way; doing this well can give a firm a significant competitive advantage over its
competitors.
Ratio Analysis
Liquidity ratios
The relationship between current assets and current liabilities is used as a measure of liquidity
in the firm:
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Current assets
Current ratio=
Current liabilities
Current assets - Inventories
Quick ratio = Current liabilities
Turnover ratios
1) Trade debtors (receivables)

Trade Debtors
 365
Sales
2) Inventory turnover
Inventory
365
COGS
3) Trade creditors (payables)

Trade Payables
365
COGS
Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)
Within a company, there is a natural temptation to accumulate buffer stocks (raw materials and
semi-finished goods) so that production is never interrupted.
Similarly, in order to avoid stock-outs, sales managers will insist on maintaining a plentiful
level of finished goods. All of this costs money.
The EOQ is a method which seeks to minimize the costs associated with holding inventory.
To determine the total costs, the following data is required:
Q = order quantity
D = quantity of product demanded annually
P = purchase cost for oneunit
C = fixed cost per order (not incl. the purchase price)
H = cost of holding one unit for one year
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The total cost function is as follows:
Total cost = Purchase cost + Ordering cost + Holding cost
which can be expressed algebraically as follows:
TC = P x D + C x D/Q + H x Q/2
It is this total cost function which must be minimized.
Recognizing that:
 PD does not vary;

 Ordering costs rise the more frequently one places (during the year); and
 Holding costs rise the fewer times one places orders (due to larger quantities being
ordered each time),
It follows that there is a trade-off between the Ordering and the Holding costs.
The optimal order quantity (Q*) is found where the Ordering and Holding costs equal each
other, i.e.
C x D/Q = H x Q/2
Rearranging the above and solving for Q results in
2CD
Q 
*
H
EXAMPLE
A trucking company uses disposable carburetor units with the following details:
 Weekly demand 500 units

 Purchase price USD 15 /unit
 Ordering cost USD 40 / order
 Holding cost 7% of the purchase price
Assume a 50 week year. What is the optimal order quantity?
Assessing the creditworthiness of customers
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When assessing the creditworthiness of (potential) clients, companies can use the approach
typically employed by banks, referred to (originally) as the 3 C‟s of credit, later expand to the 5
C‟s. They are
1) Character: Focuses on the reputation of the principals/decision makers at a company;

credit checking agencies and bank references assist to this end;
2) Capacity: Examines the company‟s cash flow generation in the context of management‟s
ability to perform competently and reliably in meeting their obligations, based on an
examination of their track record (either directly or via the experiences of others).
Financial statement analysis is a major part of the exercise here (and in the next point);
3) Capital: Identifies and assesses the financial “staying power” and resources of the
business; how much of a capital cushion do they have to withstand losses and how
much do they have committed at risk in a proposed transaction that incentivizes them to
succeed (one can refer to this as the “pain factor”);
4) Collateral: Assesses what (if any) security the company is willing to provide in support
of the intended transaction. Banks refer to this as providing additional exits (“ways
out”) from a transaction.
5) Conditions: This is a general review of the economic environment to appreciate to what

extent a customer may be affected by a decline in general business conditions (business
cycle influences).
EXAMPLE
A downturn in housing construction will affect a range of other businesses, from plumbers to
building material producers and companies leasing earth-moving equipment. Anyone selling to
such businesses needs to keep the “big picture” in mind so as not to be over-exposed to
secondaryinfluences.
Settlement discounts
The objective of granting a settlement discount is to give customers a financial incentive to pay
their bills more quickly (before the standard due date).
A company granting settlement discounts must ensure that the benefits of doing so will
outweigh the costs.
EXAMPLE
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Redwood Co. currently gives payment terms of 3 months to its customers. If it shortens this to
one month by offering a 2% settlement discount, calculate what the impact will be if sales of
USD 5m remain unchanged and all customers elect to take advantage of the discount. The
company‟s cost of capital is 15%.
Cost of financing receivables for 3 months:
5,000,000 x 3/12 x 15% = 187,500
Cost of financing receivables for 1 month:
5,000,000 x 1/12 x 15% = 62,500
Savings in financing costs = 125,000
Cost of settlement discount:
5,000,000 x 2% = 100,000
The discount is worth implementing as the company achieves a net benefit of USD 25,000.
Collection of debts
A company must have in place a clear policy on the collection of debts.
Even if a good screening/assessment procedure is in place for accepting and reviewing

customers, late payments are a fact of life and must be handled pro-actively. Much time can be
spent in chasing late payments and if this process is not well-organized, management may come
to the conclusion that it is not worthwhile. This is especially true in cases where a company is
growing very quickly and celebrates the signing of contracts and issuance of invoices as signs of
success. If, however, these invoices are not collected in due time (or at all), then the company is
throwing away the rewards of “success”.
Deductions
Another phenomenon which results in significant write-offs of receivable is the practice of

“deductions” in which a customer pays less than the full amount of the invoice, giving a reason
for withholding the difference. This amounts to a renegotiation of the original invoice and is
often accepted as a “fait accompli” by the supplier.
A company managing its receivables diligently will have the following:
1) A monitoring system that clearly “flags” late payers, known as an aging system. This
includes identifying properly the practice of deductions mentioned above;
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2) A follow-up system that assigns responsibility to specific staff doing the follow-up; this
includes an elevating of difficult cases to more senior and/or more experienced staff to
handle;
3) Training for staff involved in handing follow-ups, whether performed by phone, mail or
personal visits;
4) A policy determining when to involve refer the case to lawyers (preferably in-house, for
cost reasons) in preparation of follow-up letters. An external lawyer may carry more
weight, but is also morecostly;
5) Use of a collection agent to chase the receivable. Here again, a company must calculate
the costs and benefits of involving an external agent. In such an analysis, the savings of
management time (opportunity cost) is the most difficult to estimate.
Financial implications of different credit policies
Evaluating a change in a credit policy requires the identification of relevant cash flows
structured as “before” (the change) and “after” scenarios.
EXAMPLE
A company has current annual sales of USD 3,000,000 of which 50% is cash and 50% on 2 month
credit terms. The contribution on credit sales is 25% of the selling price. The company is
considering reducing its credit terms to 1 month and expects all (credit) customers to accept it
with a 2% discount. No change in sales volume is anticipated. The company uses a 15% cost of
capital.
Analysis: Contribution USD
- Before modification of terms: 375,000 (25% x 1.5m)
- After modification: 345,000 (23% x 1.5m)
Net change: (30,000)
Receivables USD
- Financing cost before modification: 37,500 (1.5m x 2/12 x .15)
- After modification: 18,750 (1.5m x 1/12 x .15)
Net change: 18,750
The change is notworthwhile.
3. Determining working capital needs and funding strategies
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The level of working capital required in a business depends on the industry it operates in, the
length of its working capital cycle and the range of funding options open to it. Retaining
flexibility is a key requirement. While overdraft financing is expensive, it does permit
spontaneous drawdowns and rapidrepayments.
Investment Appraisal
1. The nature of investment decisions and the appraisal process
The appraisal process is predicated on the fact that capital expenditures are investments which
will (hopefully) confer future benefits referred to as the payback. The payback may be a lengthy
(and risky)one.
2. Non-discounted cash flow techniques
Payback method
Initial Investment: 40,000
Cash flows Cash flows
(A) (B)
Year 1 5,000 15,000
Year 2 6,000 13,000
Year 3 12,000 12,000
Year 4 13,000 6,000
Year 5 15,000 5,000
Total 51,000 51,000
Payback Year 5 Year 3
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method?
Advantages
It is easy to understand and to use. It focuses on the time needed to cover the investment (in
money terms) and no more; it can be considered a minimalist‟s approach (psychologically).
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If you invest in a Central American country where you expect a coup in the next 2 years, the
payback method may be for you! But remember, the net (money) returns start only after that
point!
Disadvantages
It is a crude measure. It does not take opportunity costs or expected returns on money invested
into account.
Accounting Rateof Return
ARR is an accounting-based measure of return on investment.
Its definition varies. Here are some:
5 year project
Initial Investment 40,000
(20% p.a. depreciation)
Avg. Investment 20,000
Profit before Profit After
Depreciation Depreciation
Year 1 10,000 2,000
Year 2 13,000 5,000
Year 3 18,000 10,000
Year 4 20,000 12,000
Year 5 12,000 4,000
Avg. profit (p.a.) 6,600
Avg. profits
(1) ARR  
6, 600 Avg. Investment
 33%
20, 000
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ARR  Avg. profits

6, 600  16.5%
(2) 
Total Investment 40, 000
(3) ARR  Avg. profits 33, 000  82.5%

Total Investment 40, 000
Note: Always use the accounting profit after deduction of depreciation
In the case where the asset has a residual value of 5,000, then the calculation is:
5year project
Initial Investment (20% p.a. depreciation) 40,000
Residual value 5,000
Avg. Investment 22,500
Total profit before Depreciation 73,000
Total depreciation 35,000
Total profit after Depreciation 38,000
Avg. Profit 7,600
(1) ARR  Avg. profits

7,600  33.8%

Avg. Investment 22, 500
(2) ARR  Avg. profits 7, 600 19%

Total Investment 40,000
(2) ARR  Total profits  38, 000 95%
Total Investment 40,000
What‟s wrong with this measure?
1) It is using an accounting measure of profit (not cash)

2) It does not take the timing of cash flows into consideration.
3. Discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques
The preeminence of cash
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Cash, both its receipt and possession, lies at the basis of economic value. Cash is used to pay the
bills and bonuses. It is a better indicator of wealth when compared with measures defined by
accounting conventions, such as accounting profit.
Timing and value
Tracking and measuring cash flows on a time-adjusted basis is critical: cash received quickly
can be used to repay debt (avoiding interest costs) or invested (earning interest). Cash paid with
a delay can reduce costs (as long as penalties are not incurred).
It follows that the longer one waits for a receipt of cash, the less that cash is worth in today‟s
terms. Among other factors, its purchasing value may diminish due to the effects of inflation.
Instead of receiving USD 100 today, assume it will be received after one year. To compensate for
the delay, what should the value be after one year?
Present Value (PV) Future Value (FV)
100 100 x(1+r)
Interpreting “r”:
 As opportunity cost: what we “sacrifice” by not having it now.

 As risk-adjusted rate: representing the riskiness of not getting the money back.
 As cost of capital rate: representing the return that capital providers expect
From a company‟s point of view, this is the rate of return that the business must generate for its
capital providers (shareholders and lenders). If a company has to raise the necessary cash for its
activities, then this is the rate it must pay.
It reflects the opportunity cost to the investors (what investment alternatives they have) on a risk-
adjusted basis.
Discounting
The above relationship between PV and FV: PV x (1+r) = FV
FV
can be re-arranged to: PV =
(1 r)
with r representing the discount rate.
The above refers to “one-period” discounting, with r corresponding to the period.
If discounting is done over more than one period, then the discounting effect will be:
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FV
PV 
(1 r)n
where “n” refers to the number of periods.
Thus, 100 received after two years, discounted at 10% p.a. will be
100
PV  = 82.6
(1.10)2
This reflects that the uncertainty of getting money back increases with time.
This allows one to discount future values into present values and can be applied to a series of
cash flows:
Year: 1 2 3 4 5
Future Values: 100 100 125 105 140
If discounted at r = 10%, then the above cash flows can be restated at their present values:
Added together results in total PV = 426.
Reducing future cash flows – of different timings and amounts – to one PV is a powerful tool.
 Refer to Present Value tables.
Note: If all the cash flows had been equal – say 100 – then the PV calculation would have been
simplified:
The addition of the above is = 379
 Refer to Annuity tables.
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Net Present Value (NPV)
To add meaning to the future cash flows, we can include the amount invested (which gives rise
to the FVs):
Year: 0 1 2 3 4 5
Investment: (200)
FV: 100 100 125 105 140
PV: (200) 90.9 82.6 93.9 71.7 86.9
Year 0 amounts denote the present and are automatically = PV.
The NPV of the above cash flows is therefore = 226.
Discounted Payback
We can apply the concept of discounting to the Payback method in order to capture the time
value of money element.
Year: 0 1 2 3 4 5
Investment: (200)
FV: 100 100 125 105 140
PV: (200) 90.9 82.6 93.9 71.7 86.9
In the table above, the (simple) payback period is in Year 2;
The Discounted Payback period is longer (Year 3).
Relevant Cash Flows
When evaluating projects, cash flow projections must meet the criteria of relevance.
Relevance refers to cash flows that are relevant to the decision whether to accept a project or
not. Cash flows that are created (or discontinued) as a result of taking the decision (to undertake
the project) are relevant; these are also called “incremental” cash flows.
Included in relevant cash flows would be any investments in equipment and working capital
required by the project. More subtle, but no less important, are any opportunity costs incurred
as a result of accepting the project.
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Cash flows which occur whether the project goes ahead or not are not relevant. Also not
relevant are:
 Sunk costs;
 Committed costs;
 Allocated (overhead) costs;
 Non-cash expenses
Depreciation is an example of a “non-cash” expense. One may need to work with depreciation,
however, if they are related to a calculation of taxes due. Any change in the amount of taxes
paid is a very relevant cash flow!
Internal rate of Return (IRR)
The internal rate of return (IRR) is defined as the discount rate (r) at which the net present value
(NPV) of a stream of cash flows will be equal to zero. In other words,
If, at a discount rate r, NPV = 0, then IRR = r
The IRR includes among its assumptions the following: any cash flows generated in the course
of a project being evaluated are calculated as being reinvested at the IRR rate. This is illustrated
thus:
Time Cash flows
0 (20,000)
1 5,000
2 30,000
The IRR of the above cash flows (using interpolation or calculator) is 35.61%.
The above cash flows is equivalent to re-investing the 5,000 (Year 1) at the IRR rate (35.61%) to
maturity (Year 2).
Time Cash flows (A) Cash flows (B)
0 (20,000) (20,000)
1 5,000 0
2 30,000 36,780.5 (30,000 + 6,780.5*)
* 5,000 x 1.3561 = 6,780.5
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The IRR of the cash flows shown in Column (B) is 35.61% -- exactly the same as in Column (A).
Note: Column (B) cash flows resemble that of a zero-coupon bond, with investment at time 0
and no cash returns until the final year.
This calculation confirms that interim cash flows are re-invested at the IRR rate. This
assumption has been criticized for being unrealistic, since cash paid out of a project (returned to
the investors, for example) is unlikely to obtain the same rate if invested elsewhere: they may be
higher (i.e. interest rates may have risen in the meantime), or lower (placed in the bank to earn
deposit interest).
Comparison of NPV and IRR methods
The following decision rules apply to appraisal methods:
NPV: Positive NPV projects are acceptable; the higher the better.
IRR: An IRR in excess of a hurdle rate (set by the company) indicates acceptability; the higher
(the IRR) the better.
EXAMPLE
Year 0 1 IRR NPV: 10% 14% 16%
A -5,000 6,000 20% 454 263 172
B -7,500 8,850 18% 545 263 129
Intuitively, IRR should be preferable, as it relates return to amount invested.
Equal investment amounts do not necessarily remove the ambiguity.
EXAMPLE
Year 0 1 2 IRR NPV (9%)
A -500 100 600 20% 97
B -500 500 155 25% 89
4. Allowing for inflation and taxation in DCF
Inflation
Price increases reduce the purchasing power of money.
If inflation is 7% p.a., then the same amount of goods can be purchased with:
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USD 100 (today) or USD 107 (in one year)
We can express the same idea the other way around:
USD 100 received in one year will buy as much as USD 93.46 does today.
EXAMPLE
An investor considers the following investment. Her return threshold is 10% p.a.
Years Cash flows DF(10%) PV
0 -200 1.0 -200
1 115 0.909 105
2 125 0.826 103
+7.6
The investment looks acceptable.
Assumption: 10% as a real rate of return
Now, suppose that the investor had wanted a 10% p.a. real rate of return and inflation is
expected to be 5% p.a.
The cash flows shown above are money (or nominal) cash flows. We can re-state these cash
flows in real terms by adjusting for inflation:
Nominal Real
Years Cash flows DF (5%) Cash Flows
0 -200 1.0 -200
1 115 0.952 109.5
2 125 0.907 113.4
Next, we discount the real cash flows at the desired real 10% p.a.:
Nominal Real DF (10%) PV
Years Cash flows DF (5%) Cash Flows
0 -200 1.0 -200 1.0 -200
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1 115 0.952 109.5 0.909 99.5
2 125 0.907 113.4 0.826 93.7
-6.8
The investment does not meet the return requirements.
We could have avoided the re-statement of cash flows into real terms by working with only
nominal amounts. In this case, we would need to discount by a nominal rate which incorporates
both the inflation rate and the required (real) rate of return.
The nominal rate is calculated according to the Fisher formula which is used to convert real
interest rates to nominal rates (and vice versa):
(1 + Nominal rate) = (1+ Inflation rate) x (1+ Real rate)
In our example,
Nominal rate = (1.05) x (1.10) – 1
= 15.5 %
Discounting the nominal cash flows at this (nominal) rate produces the following:
Nominal DF(15.5%) PV
Years Cash flows
0 -200 1.0 -200
1 115 0.866 99.6
2 125 0.750 93.7
-6.7
The investment remains unacceptable, of course; we have simply used a second method of
discounting to confirm the same NPV result.
It is conceptually more straightforward to use nominal values when forecasting cash flows,
particularly if there are differential inflation rates applying to the future cash flows, i.e. if there
is no uniform (single) price change for revenues and various cost categories (materials, labor,
etc.).
Years 0 1 2 3
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Wages Growth: 4% p.a. 4,000 4,160 4,326 4,500
Raw materials Growth: 7% p.a. 6,000 6,420 6,869 7,350
The numbers above are discounted at nominal discount rates.
Alternatively, a 20-year utility project may make long-term projections in real rates:
EXAMPLE
Customer tariffs (revenues) are projected to be USD 6,000,000 p.a. in real terms for the next 20
years. To arrive at a PV, USD 6,000,000 would have to be discounted at the company‟s cost of
capital expressed in real terms.
Taxation
Taxes represent another cash outflow when projecting cash flows.
Care must be taken to calculate the tax impact correctly.
A company can reduce its taxable income if it can make use of tax allowances on its fixed assets.
This will reduce taxes.
EXAMPLE
Operating profit (before tax): 30,000
Tax @35% (10,500)
Net profit: 19,500
If an allowance of 5,000 can be taken for writing down fixed assets, then the profit would be
adjusted asfollows:
Operating profit: 30,000
Allowance: (5,000)
Taxable income: 25,000
Tax @35% (8,750)
Net profit: 16,250
The cash benefit attributable to tax saving is 1,750 (10,500-8,750).
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This can also be calculated as Allowance x Tax rate = 5,000 x 0.35 = 1,750.
Alternatively, taxable income can increase as a result of a cost-saving measure!
EXAMPLE
The investment in a new process costing 4,000 will bring annual savings of 3,000 p.a. over 2
years. The cost of capital is 10% and the tax rate is 35%. Is the investment worthwhile?
nvestment Savings Tax on Net cash Present
Investment Savings Tax Net Present Value

on Savings cash flow
Year 0 (4,000) (4,000) (4,000)
Year 1 3,000 (1,050) 1,950 1,773
Year 2 3,000 (1,050) 1,950 1,612
NPV: -615
5. Adjusting for risk and uncertainty in investment appraisal
Risk and Uncertainty
These are commonly used interchangeably, but there is a formal distinction.
Risk: whichever way it is defined, is a quantification of probability. In other words, it is

susceptible to measurement, statistically or mathematically. Risk may be viewed as relating to
objective probabilities.
Uncertainty: in contrast to risk, is not capable of being quantified. It has also been referred to as
subjective probability (or immeasurable uncertainty).
Sensitivity Analysis
This asks the following question: What happens to the NPV of a project if certain key variables
are altered. It is a one-dimensional approach as it isolates and alters each (key) variable in turn
in order to measure the impact.
EXAMPLE
The following cash flows have been projected for a business
Years Investment Cash Variable Net DF (12%) PV

sales costs cash flow
0 (12,000) (12,000) 1.0 (12,000)
1 36,000 (26,400) 9,600 0.893 8,571
2 36,000 (26,400) 9,600 0.797 7,651
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4,224
We can perform the following sensitivities:
 Investment: Would need to increase by 35% (by 4,224 to 16,4224) to reduce the NPV to
zero;
 The cost of capital would have to rise to 38%;
Sales price and sales volume sensitivities are a bit more complex to calculate:
Taking sales, we can ask the following question:
How much do sales have to drop in order to make the NPV = 0.
The same can be applied to the other variables.
Alternatively, one can work within likely ranges of variable movements (i.e. sales not likely to
drop by more than 10%; costs not likely to vary beyond a certain level; interest rates are likely to
stay stable +/- 1.0% within the next 12 months.
Scenario Analysis
One can also go beyond determining project sensitivity to one variable and define scenarios, in
which several variables move simultaneously (as outlined in the previous paragraph).
Based on these scenarios, the NPV outcomes can be evaluated.
Discounted Payback
We can apply the concept of discounting to the Payback method in order to capture the time
value of money element.
Year: 0 1 2 3 4 5
Investment:(200)
FV: 100 100 125 105 140
PV: (200) 90.9 82.6 93.9 71.7
86.9
In the table above, the (simple) payback period is in Year 2;
The Discounted Payback period is longer (Year 3).
6. Specific investment decisions (Lease or buy; asset replacement; capital rationing)
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Leasing
Leasing is a form of fixed asset financing, in which a lessor, as owner of an asset, makes it
available to, and for the use of, a lessee in return for a stream of payments over a period of time.
Operatingleases
These are generally short-term rental contracts in which the lessor services and insures the
asset. They are usually cancelable during the lease period at the choice of the lessee.
Financeleases
These are also known as “capital” leases and are in substance similar to the use of a secured
bank loan to acquire and use an asset. Main features include:
 Lease term covering most of the asset‟s economic useful life;

 The lessee assumes responsibility for servicing the asset;
 Any cancellation clause would require the lessee to cover the lessor for any losses;
 Lessee will usually have an option to buy the asset at the termination of the lease (note:
the transfer of ownership, if any, outside and after the end of the lease contract);
 The lessee must show the lease asset and liability on its balance sheet.
Attractiveness of Leasing
Leasing has been attractive to lessees (the users of the asset) for a several possible reasons:
 Conservation of cash flow: If a bank loan cannot be arranged, then leasing provides a
way of financing the asset;
 Cost reasons: The leasing costs may be more competitive than a bank loan;
 From the lessor‟s perspective, leasing can be attractive for tax reasons, where the tax
benefits of ownership are useful to the lessor.
Asset replacement decisions
Consider the following situation:
A skating rink operator has an ice-cleaning machine costing USD 20,000 with the following
data:
Year Operating costs Resale value
1 2,000 14,500
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2 2,500 8,000
3 3,000 7,000
4 3,500 6,000
The company wishes to determine how often to replace the machine. Its cost of capital is 10%.
The best method to use is to convert all the cash flows into a single figure!
Look at how to do this:
1. The NPV of replacing the machine after 1 year
Year USD PV (10%)
0 Purchase price 20,000 20,000
1 Operating costs 2,000 1,818
Resale value (14,500) (13,181)
8,637 /0.909 =9501
2. The NPV of replacing the machine after 2year
Year USD PV (10%)
Resale value (8,000) (6,612)
17,272 /1.736 =9949
3. The NPV of replacing the machine after 3 years
Year USD PV (10%)
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Resale value (7,000) (5,259)
20,878 /2.487 =8394
Applying the profitability index to single-period, divisible projects
For projects that require single period investments and where projects are divisible, the
Profitability Index can be applied.
PV of cash flows
Profitability Index PI 
Investment
Rule: If PI > 1; If < 1, Reject
EXAMPLE
Investment PV of Inflows NPV PI Ranking

Angola (30,000) 40,000 10,000 0.33 4
Burundi (20,000) 29,000 9,000 0.45 3
Chad (15,000) 21,000 6,000 0.40 2
Djibouti (10,000) 16,000 6,000 0.60 1
Investment limit: 25,000.
Under conditions of:
a) Divisible projects
b) Non-divisible projects
What is capital rationing?
Ideally, a company should like to pursue all projects that generate a return in excess of its cost
of capital. This may not be practically possible, as funding sources may be limited, in which
case the company is forced to employ its scarce capital resources optimally according to a clear
decision rule.
Softrationing
This refers to internal, self-imposed, limitations on projects undertaken by a corporation. These

limits may have the effect of frustrating consideration of projects that would otherwise be NPV-
positive. The limits may be practical, such as scarce management time or lack of specialist skills.
Hard rationing
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This exists when the market imposes constraints on a company‟s access to capital in cases where
projects would otherwise be NPV-positive. The implication is that the market suffers from
imperfections. This is rare, however, in highly sophisticated markets.
Business Finance
1. Sources of and raising short-term finance
A developed money market will offer a comprehensive range of short term instruments with
which a company can finance its operations. These include overdrafts, short-term loans, trade
credit and leasefinance.
2. Sources of, and raising, long-term finance
Equityfinance
Ordinary shares (or common shares)
These are the basic units of ownership of a corporation. The common shareholders are the main
beneficiaries of the success of a business. Their potential “upside” gain is therefore theoretically
unlimited. This potential gain is associated with the risk that such shareholders face: in the
event of bankruptcy or liquidation, they are the residual claimants on a corporation‟s assets
after all other claims (whether suppliers, employees, lenders, the state, etc.) have been satisfied.
Non-Equity Shares
Preference shares
Preference shares (or “pref” shares) this is often referred to as a form of non-equity capital.
 Preference shareholders rank preferentially to common shareholders;

 Pref shares may be redeemable or irredeemable;
 Dividends are not tax deductible;
 The dividend rate is usually fixed (as a percentage of the par value of the issue);
 The dividend rate can be participating, i.e. share in some of the excess profits;
 Voting rights: may or may not be accorded preference shares;
 Prefs may be cumulative, where dividends not paid in one year are carried forward and
have to be paid before a common dividend payment resumes;
 Prefs may be convertible into common shares
Debt
In contrast to equity, debt:
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 Is a liability of the business;
 Pays interest which is tax deductible;
 Does not represent ownership in the firm
Debt comes in many forms. Straight long-term debt (also called “loan capital” – avoid
confusion!) includes:
 Bonds: Secured by a mortgage on tangible assets of the firm

 Debentures: Unsecured corporate debt
Note: The term “bonds” is commonly used for both categories above. In the event of default,
debt holders with a security interest over assets enjoy a prior claim in the event such assets are
sold. Debenture holders can be paid only after (secured) bondholders have been repaid.
 Convertible debt: This is debt which is convertible (at the option of the convertible debt
holder) into equity, based on pre-defined “conversion” conditions;
 Subordinated loans: Refers to any kind of debt which ranks inferior to more senior debt;
it cannot be repaid until more senior-ranked creditors have been repaid;
 Warrants: A security giving the holder the option to buy common shares from a
company for a pre-set price valid for a period of time. These are usually tradable in a
secondary market and therefore have a market price;
 Deep discount bonds: Debt issued with a very low or no (zero) coupon, so that the issue
price will be far below the par value of the bond. Such instruments with no coupon are
also called “pure-discount” or “zero” bonds.
 Junk (high yield) bond: A speculative debt instrument that either carries no rating or a
low rating by the rating agencies (below “investment grade”);
Hybrid securities
Companies are imaginative in creating hybrid securities as debt in order to achieve tax
deductibility but with conditions that avoid bankruptcy costs (i.e. payouts contingent only on
the achievement of profits).
Rights issues
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When a company issues new shares, it is usually obliged to first offer these to its shareholders in
proportion to their existing shareholdings. Such pre-emption rights protect shareholders against
dilution of their holdings, provided they have the cash to subscribe.
Calculating the price of rights
EXAMPLE
A company has a capital of 300,000 shares with a market price of USD 10. It plans to raise
additional capital by making a rights issue of 100,000 shares at a price of USD 7.
i. Procedurally, the company issues 300,000 rights to the existing shares, so that 3 existing
shares possess (3) rights to one new share.
ii. 3 rights plus USD 7 will buy one new share.
iii. A shareholder with 3 existing shares has an initial portfolio value of USD 30 (3 x 10)
iv. Using his 3 rights, he can acquire an additional share for USD 7.
v. After the rights offer, his portfolio will be 4 shares at a value of USD 37. The value per
share after the rights issue is USD 9.25.
The value of a right is therefore the difference in the share prices:
Old price – New price (of a share) = USD 0.75 (10 – 9.25)
Alternatively, this can be calculated as:
New price - Subscription price 9.25 - 7

  USD 0.75
No. of rights for a share 3
Placing
The company‟s shares are offered to a selected base of institutional investors (chosen by the
company). Raising capital in this way is less costly and the company retains greater freedom.
The restricted range of shareholders means that the liquidity of the shares will be lower.
Initial public offering (IPO)
In an IPO, an adviser is retained by the company to offer shares to private and/or institutional
investors. The offer may be underwritten, meaning the adviser, usually an investment bank,
will commit to buy shares that do not find a buyer. An IPO is an important way to increase the
liquidity of the company‟s shares; it is also the most costly method. It is used by larger
companies or those looking for substantial amounts of capital.
There are several ways for a company to list its shares:
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1) An offer for sale, which is a public invitation by a sponsoring intermediary such as an
investment bank. An offer for sale refers to the sale of existing shares.
2) An offer for subscription (or direct offer), which is a public invitation by the issuing
company itself in which new shares are issued.
The offer can be made at a price that is:
i. fixed in advance; or
ii. by tender, in which investors state the price they are prepared to pay. After all bids are
received, the lowest clearing price (strike price) is set which is charged to all investors.
3. Islamicfinance
Islamic finance refers to financial practices and instruments which are consistent with Islamic
law(Sharia).
Sharia prohibits the payment or acceptance of interest (“riba”, literally meaning “excess or
addition”) on loans of money at pre-set terms. It also prohibits investments in businesses that
provide goods or services that are contrary to its principles (e.g. gambling, pork processing).
Prohibited activities or practices are referred to as “haraam” (forbidden).
Short and long term Islamic financial instruments available to businesses include:
i) Trade credit (murabahah);
ii) Lease finance (ijara);
iii) Equity finance(mudaraba);
iv) Debt finance (sukuk)
4. Internal sources of finances and dividend policy
Internally generated sources of long-term finance
As a matter of practicality, managers usually choose to finance new projects or investments by

making use of the following sources in the order shown:
(i) Internally-generated funds
(ii) Debt
(iii) Equity
The above sequence is referred to as the “pecking order theory” and is based on observations of
business behavior. The first choice is a natural one: positive operating cash flows are already at
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the disposal of the company without involving costs or formalities. They are not considered to
be a free (costless) form of finance, however; they are available for distribution to the
shareholders and as long as they are not paid out by the firm, management is expected to earn a
cost of equity return on suchfunds.
5. Gearing and capital structure considerations
Choosing between ordinary shares, preference shares and loan capital is based on financial
strategic decisions taken by a corporation regarding capital structure.
Debt andEquity
The amounts of debt and equity appropriate at a company depend mainly on the industry, in
which the company operates, and also its internal policies and attitudes toward financial risk.
The industry in which the company operates has an important impact on:
 Revenue volatility; and

 Operating leverage (cost structure)
A company cannot use too much debt for fear of encountering bankruptcy when economic
conditions decline.
The reasons for issuing different kinds of debt (loan capital).
Companies need to take a variety of factors into consideration when deliberating the use of
debt:
 Capital structure constraints: Is there enough equity underpinning?

 Term of borrowing: This must be determined in relation to the use to which the
proceeds will be put. Cash flow projections and repayment provisions must be
analyzed (bullet repayment or amortizing schedule).
 Currency and interest rate base (fixed/floating): What are the company‟s views on
currency and interest rate market risks? What hedging possibilities exist?
 Security: What tangible security is available to support borrowings?
6. Finance for SMEs
Working capital management
Small businesses are handicapped by their lack of scale.
The reality is that many small businesses are chronically under-capitalized. They often neglect
to plan for growth, and risk falling into the “overtrading” trap. The result can be negative
working capital, “permanent” overdrafts and, eventually, insolvency.
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Cost of Capital
1. Sources of finance and their relative costs
The relationship between Risk and Return
A rational investor, when given the choice between different investments, will expect to be
compensated – i.e. earn a higher return – for accepting an investment with a higher risk
compared toother investments.
When a company raises finance – whether in the form of debt or equity – it must determine the
rate of return that investors will expect in order to compensate them for the risk they are
assuming in making funds available to the company.
Risk-free rate
Short of holding cash (which earns no interest) the safest investment an investor can make is to
buy Treasury bills (T-bills) of the US government. These instruments are virtually risk free and
the return they offer the investor should at least cover the rate of inflation.
2. Estimating the cost of equity
Cost of Equity
The cost of equity provides the link between the price of a share and its future dividend stream.
According to the Dividend Discount Model:
D D2 D3  .........  Dn
P  1   (1 k)3
o 2
(1 k) (1 k) (1 k)n
Assuming the dividends above are constant, the formula can be reduced to:
D1
P 
o
k
If we factor in a constant growth rate (g) for dividends, then:
D1
P 
o k g
which can be re-arranged to arrive at:
D1
k g
Po
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Remember that Pois the current share price, while D1 is the anticipated dividend.
Note: Do not confuse the most recent dividend Do with D1 ; D1 = Do x (1+g)
The growth rate “g” can be determined by extrapolating their recent growth.
EXAMPLE
The dividend history of Ajax Corp. is as follows:
Year 1: 2.30
Year 2: 2.48
Year 3: 2.68
Year 4: 2.89
The current share price is 23.00
The compounded growth rate based on the above data is:
g (2.89 / 2.30)1/3 1
= 7.9%
The cost of equity is:

2.89 (1.079)
k  0.079 = 21.5%
23
Capital Asset Pricing Model
There is another way to derive the cost of equity, which we will now denote as ke. Ke is derived
from statistical measures of the risk of investing in equities; when investing in an asset class,
such as equities, an investor can eliminate “non-systematic” risks through diversification: as
shares of different kinds are added to a portfolio, the good performers offset the losers and
“non-systematic” risk declines.
What cannot be diversified away is the “systematic” risk due to general economic and market
fluctuations. This risk is measurable by a factor called beta: ß
ß reflect the sensitivity of an individual stock‟s price to price movements in the stock market
(index) as a whole. It is derived by (empirical) statistical observations of market data and
figures prominently in the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM):
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ke  rf  (rm  rf )ße
Where:
ke = cost of equity
rf = risk-free rate
rm = expected rate of return on the (equity) market portfolio
If ß = 1, then ke = rm ; If ß > 1, then ke > rm ; If ß < 1, then ke < rm
EXERCISE
If:
rf =2%; rm = 16%; ße = 1.3
Then:
ke = 2% + (16% - 2%) x 1.3

= 20.2%
3. Estimating the cost of debt and other capital instruments
Cost of preference shares
If the preference share is irredeemable, then we can use the perpetuity formula:
D
kp  p
po
kp = return on preference shares
Dp = dividend on the preference share
po = market price of the preference share
If the preference shares are redeemable, then they can be modeled thus:
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Advance Financial Management ICPAP
Dp Dp D p
p   D  ..........  n n
(1 k ) (1 k )2  (1 k )3
o p
(1 k )n
p p p p
Where:
n = no. of years until redemption
pn = redemption (nominal) value of the preference shares
As all the terms above, except for kp , are known, and then kp can be derived by calculator or
manually (trial-and-error).
Cost of loan capital (debt)
Specific debt issues, with contractually repayable dates (e.g. bonds), are handled in a similar
way to redeemable preference shares:
i i i
p     .........  i  pn
o 2 3
(1 k ) (1 k ) (1 k ) (1 k )n
d d d d
Where:
kd = return on debt
i = nominal interest rate
po = market price of debt
Note: kd refers to the rate of return required by debt providers.
If irredeemable debt is evaluated, then this will be done with the perpetuity formula:
kd = i / po
Where:
kd = return on debt
i = nominal interest rate
po = market price of debt
Note: kd refers to the rate of return required by debt providers.
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Impact of taxes
In the cases above, we have not mentioned taxation.
As interest on debt is tax deductible, we need to look at the cost of debt from two perspectives,
making a distinction between:
1) The rate of return on debt required by debt providers (as above); and
2) The effective cost of that same debt to the borrowing company
EXAMPLE
A company issues a bond with a nominal (face) value of USD 100m in perpetuity with a coupon
(nominal interest rate) of 4%. The bond is now trading at 95% of its nominal value. The
corporate tax rate is 35%.
1) The rate of return to an investor buying this bond is: 4 / 95 = 4.21%

4 (1 0.35)
2) The cost of the debt to the company is:  2.74%
95
Because of the tax deductibility of interest, company‟s after-tax cost of debt is: i (1 – t)
Where:
t = corporate tax rate
The application of tax also applies to redeemable debt, but care must be taken.
EXAMPLE
The following bond was issued:
 Face value: USD 100m;

 Coupon: 5%
 Redemption in 3 years at 100%
 Current market yield: 6% (required by lenders)
 Corporate tax rate: 30%
What is the current market value of the bond?
Years Cash flow DF (6%) PV
1 Interest 5,000,000 0.943 4,716,981
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2 Interest 5,000,000 0.890 4,449,982
3 Interest 5,000,000 0.840 4,198,096
3 Interest 100,000,000 0.840 83,961,928
97,326,988
From the company‟s point of view, its cost of debt will be 4.47% (the IRR of its cash flows):
Years Cash flow DF(4.47%) PV
0 Market value (97,326,988) 1.0 (97,326,988)
1 Interest (after tax) 3,500,000 0.957 3,350,244
3 Interest 100,000,000 0.877 87,705,174
approx. 0
4. Estimating the overall cost of capital
Average and Marginal Cost of Capital
The different types of financing a company can avail itself of can be combined in an average
cost of capital (as in the weighted average cost of capital – WACC – see next section).
If the cost of capital reflects a current market rate, then it can be regarded as a marginal cost of
capital, i.e. it expresses what the cost is to the company of borrowing additional capital.
Weightedaveragecostofcapital(WACC)
The WACC is the formula that is used to calculate a company‟s overall cost of capital,
incorporating the costs of equity: ke; and debt: kd (1 - t), in proportion to the amount of equity
and debt is in the capital structure of the company:
E D
WACC   ke   kd (1 t)
D E DE
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Where:
D = market value of Debt
E = market value of Equity
Assumptions underlying the use of WACC in investment decision making
Use of a company‟s WACC when appraising a project is appropriate if business and financial
risks do not change.
5. Capital structure theories and practical considerations
The traditional view of capital structure has it that as the debt-to-equity (gearing) ratio rises, the
cheaper debt reduces WACC until an optimal point; after that point the costs of financial
distress (risk of bankruptcy) cancel the benefits of further debt and WACC begins to rise.
Modigliani and Miller (MM) developed a theory which suggested that financial gearing does
not matter. WACC stays the same as (cheaper) cost of debt is offset by rising cost of equity.
Their theory at this stage ignored taxes.
They further concluded (in MM Proposition 1) that the enterprise value of a company remains
the same, regardless of its capital structure.
Furthermore (MM Proposition 2) the addition of debt introduces financial risk, which causes the
cost of equity to rise. WACC remains unchanged.
The drawback of MM theory is that it ignores the tax deductibility of interest payments. When
this possibility is introduced (tax relief on debt), MM observed that the WACC will decline in
linear fashion. MM concluded that on this basis, a company should (theoretically) borrow as
much as possible!
Another conclusion of MM is that the value of a leveraged company will exceed the value of the
same company unleveraged by the value of its tax shields.
6. Impact of cost of capital on investments
The cost of capital is the discount rate used to evaluate the acceptability of investments.
Business Valuations
1. Nature and purpose of the valuation of business and financial assets
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The key to a functioning economic system is the ability to transfer property from one person to
another. In order to do this, the value of the property being transferred needs to be determined.
2. Models for the valuation of shares
Valuation Methods
The following are some standard valuation methods.
Book value methods
Book value methods are based on tangible assets (less liability) and, include intangible assets.
(Note: A more restrictive definition excluding intangibles is referred to as “tangible book
value”.)
Intangibles can take the form of patents, copyrights, brands and goodwill, franchise value, i.e.
they have no physical manifestation
For small, unlisted companies, a “goodwill” factor can be added to the tangible asset value. For
large companies, brand value can be determined through separate, specialist valuations.
Market-relative methods
Price-Earningsratio
Limitation of the P/E multiple: It assumes that the companies being compared are similar in
terms of (i) business risk; (ii) finance risk; and (iii) prospective growth. By choosing a “peer”
group of similar companies with care, one can improve the relevance of such market-relative
data.
i. Business risk: means companies in the same industry – relevance is assured;
ii. Financial risk: companies in the same industry can have different levels of gearing,
which affects the earnings (net profits) of the companies chosen; therefore, the “peer”
group of similar companies must take similar gearing ratios into account;
iii. Growth rates: If two companies in the same industry, serving the same markets and
with the same gearing have different growth rates, then one must try to isolate the
reasons that explain the difference. If the reason is superior management (at the higher
growth company), for example, then that company would deserve an upward
adjustment to its P/E ratio relative to the other.
Other methods: Earnings Yield
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The reciprocal (inverse) of the P/E ratio expresses the yield, or the level of earnings one would
expect to generate from investment in the equity of the company.
This yield can then be applied to similar companies to determine whether it is fairly priced.
Cash flow-basedmethods
1) Dividend Value Method

It is important to be confident in using the basic dividend model:
Po = D1
ke – g
In which:
P0 is the value of the equity of the company (one share or all the shares);
D1 is the expected dividend;
ke is the return shareholders expect (cost of equity); and
g is the growth rate in the dividend
(2) Free Cash Flow (FCF)
This has been referred to earlier in the discussion of discounting future cash flows of a project.
If we view a company as a “never-ending” project, then we would seek to discount its cash
flows into perpetuity.
The preferred method indicated is to discount future Free Cash Flows to all Capital Providers,
as this avoids the complexity of forecasting financial cash flows, such as debt
drawdowns/repayments as well as interest payments.
Since the resulting FCFs are available to debt and equity holders, the appropriate discount rate
is derived from the weighted average cost of capital.
The forecasting of FCFs is typically in two chronological segments:
(i) Forecast horizon
The forecast horizon is a “manageable” period of time, typically 5 years, during which the
company can explicitly model its expected revenues, costs and investment (both capital
expenditures – capex – and working capital).
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This is the “unique” part of the modeling, as it reflects factors particular to the company being
valued: for example, they may include a new product launch at the company, or a new strategic
departure, with investment spending carefully timed and quantified, and expected revenue
growth and margins projected based on market research or experience.
(ii) Terminal (Continuing) value
This is the residual value into “perpetuity” of the firm. Since it is impossible to explicitly model
cash flows 20 years into the future (unless one were valuing a utility, for example), then it is
common practice to make a “continuing value assumption” based on a realistic sustainable
growth rate of the FCF into thefuture.
The FCFs derived above are discounted at the WACC. The resulting Present Value of the FCFs
will represent the Enterprise Value of the company. Think of the Enterprise Value as being the
value of all the assets of the company.
If the company is leveraged (i.e. has debt in its capital structure) then the Debt has to be
subtracted from the Enterprise value to arrive at the value belonging to the shareholders, i.e. the
Equity value.
Consider the following FCFs:
------------------------Forecast Horizon ----------------------------- TV
Years 1 2 3 4 5 5+
FCF 1,000 1,200 1,350 1,300 1,370 FCF5+
The FCF in Year 5+ has to be modeled with care as it represents all future FCFs and must
therefore be an average future FCF, rather than specific to Year 6.
If we establish, based on average future cash flows, that the Year 5+ is, say, 1,350, with a
continuing growth rate of 2% p.a., then the present value of all the FCFs above, at a WACC of
10%, will be:
Forecast Horizon value: Σ PV (Years 1-5) = 4,654
Terminal value: PV (1,350 / WACC-g) = 10,478
Enterprise value (EV) = 15,132
The Terminal (Continuing) Value has been calculated using the Gordon growth formula and
has been discounted back to t=0! Don‟t be surprised by its high value (as a proportion of overall
EV).
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Finally,
EV minus the (market) value of Debt = Equity value
Limitations of the valuation methods
The major limitation in the more sophisticated share valuation models – those based on
projected cash flows – is that the future resists precise measurement and that outlooks differ.
This, of course, is what creates opportunities for investors.
A share that is considered over-valued by an analyst, therefore, should be sold (by her);
however, the share may continue to rise for a period of time as a result of general sentiment,
even if the “fundamentals” suggest otherwise. The main difference therefore lies in timing.
3. The valuation of debt and other financial assets
Redeemable debt can be valued using the net present value technique.
If debt is irredeemable, then a perpetuity formula can be used.
Convertible debt and preference shares likewise can be valued as above.
4. The Efficient Market Hypothesis and practical considrations in the valuation of shares
This theory maintains that financial markets are efficient with respect to information; in other
words, that the prices of traded assets embody all known information and that they adjust to
new pieces of information becoming known. It is therefore practically impossible to outperform
the market, at least systematically.
Main forms of market efficiency
1) Strong efficiency – Share price incorporates all information, public or private; this means
even “inside information”, so that an insider trader would not derive an advantage.
2) Semi strong form: reflect all information known at present about the company, including
analysis, opinions and anticipated news; prices adjust quickly to such information, so
that little advantage can be taken of them;
3) Weak-form: share prices reflect only to facts or accomplished actions by the company
and therefore have little value for the future.
Risk Management
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1. The nature and types of risk and approaches to risk management
There are three categories of foreign exchange risk:
i. Transaction risk: This refers to the foreign exchange risks relating to the purchase or
sale of goods in foreign currencies, or the borrowing or investing of foreign currencies.
Assuming that the risk has not been neutralized through “hedging” (to be discussed),
then an actual risk of loss exists in cash terms to the company.
ii. Economic risk: Economic risk refers to the long-term impact of foreign exchange rate
movements on the international competitiveness of a company.
Economic exposure can be viewed as strategic in nature, while transaction exposure has
atacticalcharacter.
iii. Translation risk: This is the impact of changing exchange rates on the reporting of assets
and liabilities within a group containing one or more foreign subsidiaries.
Losses here are not necessarily realized in cash, but are reported as accounting losses
due to exchange rate differences.
Interest rate gap exposure
The risk of interest-bearing assets and liabilities having different periods and re-set dates, so
that a rise or fall in interest rates causes their values to change to differing degrees; the result is
a gain or loss on the net position.
Basis risk
The risk of the prices of interest-bearing assets and liabilities not moving in line with each other
over time; this can occur when imperfect hedges are employed.
2. Causes of exchange rate differences and interest rate fluctuations
Balanceof Payments
A measure of the payments flow in and out of a country relative to the rest of the world. If the
country spends more than it earns, then its currency will come under pressure to devalue
relative to foreign currencies.
Purchasing power parity (PPP)
The exchange rate at which the same good in two countries are priced at the same level.
Interest rate parity theory (IRP)
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The theory (and mechanism) by which forward foreign exchange rates reflect the differences in
interest rates oftwocurrencies.
Four-way equivalence
This model ties together four concepts:
(i) PPP (as above);
(ii) Fisher formula (the link between real and nominal interest rates);
(iii) IRP (as above);
(iv) Expectations: all relevant information is reflected in market prices.
The Fisher formula is: 1+Nominal rate = (1+Real rate)(1+Expected inflation rate). A country‟s
exchange rate will adjust to offset the inflationary impact on prices. The four theories (above)
combine consistently to explain foreign exchange rates (spot and forward) and the link to
interest rates.
Exchange rate forecasting
 Using purchasing power parity:
The Big Mac costs USD 3.57 in the US and EUR 3.31 in Europe. PPP suggests that the EURUSD
should be 1.08 (3.57/3.31).
Any rate above (below) this means that the EUR is over (under)-valued.
 Using interest rate parity:
EURUSD spot rate is 1.3300; the EUR 1 year interest rate is 4% p.a.; the USD 1 year rate is 2%
p.a.
The implied EURUSD 1-year forward rate will be: 1.33 x (1.02/1.04) = 1.3044.
Interest rates
These are the prices borrowers and investors pay, resp. receive, for funds in the money and
capital markets. Interest rate curves are normally upwardly sloping, showing that rates are
higher the longer the maturity date.
The difference in rates along the maturity curve can be explained by the:
1) Expectations theory: Investors expect higher interest rates in the future, if only to offset
inflation;
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2) Liquidity preference: investors have to be compensated for not having the use of their
money now;
3) Market segmentation: The market for debt is divided into different maturity ranges
meeting different investor preferences. Borrowers can move between these different
“markets” for their funding.
3. Hedging techniques for foreign currency risk
There are a number of methods by which a company can protect (hedge) itself against adverse
movement in exchange rates.
a) Currency of invoice: A firm can invoice in its home currency, thus avoiding forex risk
altogether;
b) Netting and matching: A firm can systematically match and offset foreign currency
payables and receivables when planning its forex purchase and sales; also identifying a
liability (such as a cost) denominated in the same currency as an asset.
c) Leading and lagging: Timing the receipts and payments of foreign currencies so as to
collect depreciating currencies more quickly and to slow payments of such currencies;
d) Forward exchange contracts: Buying and selling currencies on a forward basis with
banks;
e) Money market hedging: See example below;
f) Asset and liability management: Firms can actively adjust their assets and liabilities
according to the currencies in which they are denominated so as to limit forex risk.
Money market hedge:
A firm will receive GBP 1m in 6 months. It fears a decline in the value of the GBP.
Spot rate: GBPUSD 1.4800 – 10
GBP 6-month interest rates: 4 7/8 - 5 % p.a.
USD 6-month rates: 2 - 2 ¼ % p.a.
1. Borrow GBP 975,610 for 6 months at 5%;

2. Sell GBP 975,610 and buy USD at 1.4800 (= USD 1,443,903);
3. Place USD 1,443,903 for 6 months at 2%;
4. At maturity, receive GBP 1m and repay the loan of GBP 1m (principal plus interest).
Net position in GBP: 0;
5. Receive USD maturing deposit (USD 1,458,342)
The net result is that GBP has been sold in advance for USD at GBPUSD 1.4583. Other types of
derivatives include:
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Futures
A contract, transacted over an exchange, representing a standard amount of currency which can
be bought or sold with a specified future settlement (delivery) date, at a rate denominated in
counter-currency.
Options
The right to buy or sell a currency at an agreed price set in advance (called the strike price).
Calls
A call option on EUR (vs. USD) at 1.4000 guarantees a holder (of the option) the right to buy
EUR at USD 1.4000.
If, at the end of the option period, the market price is EURUSD 1.5000, then the holder will
exercise the option and buy the EUR at 1.4000 (profit is USD 0.10);
If the market price had been EURUSD 1.3500, then the holder can buy EUR at 1.35 (market) and
let the option lapse (expire unused).
Puts
In the example above, the firm receiving GBP 1m could have bought an option to sell GBP.
Swaps
A company can use swaps to borrow a foreign currency without foreign exchange risk by fixing
the exchange rate corresponding to the maturity date of the loan.
4. Hedging techniques for interest rate risk
There are various methods used to manage interest rate risk:
a) Matching and smoothing: This is the process of matching assets and liabilities with
similar interest rate conditions (fixed/floating) so as to “smooth”, or minimize, the
impact of rate fluctuation;
b) Asset and liability management (ALM): This is the active management of interest rate
risk by actively adjusting the combination of the fixed/floating interest rate profile of a
firm, using also external hedging instruments to this end;
c) Forward rate agreements (FRA): A contract which allows buyers and sellers to fix an
interest rate in advance for a specified currency, amount and settlement date.
EXAMPLE
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A borrower planning to take a loan in 2 months (see diagram) can buy an FRA today (t=0) to
protect against a rise in rates. The FRA contract rate is agreed at e.g. 3% (t=0). This becomes an
2x5 FRA at a price of 3% (2x5 means 2-by-5 and refers to the 2 and 3 month periods shown in
the diagram above)
 If rates rise to e.g. 5% when the loan is taken (t=2), then the borrower gets 2% (5- 3);
 If rates had dropped below 3% at t=2, then the borrower would have paid the difference
Other derivatives exist to hedge interest rate risk:
Futures
A borrower sells futures contracts to protect (hedge) against a rise in rates:
1. Sell futures contracts at 3% (t=0 in the diagram above)

2. At t=2, the future must be settled; if:
I. Interest rates rise to e.g. 5%, and then borrower makes a profit on the future
(an increase in interest rates reduces the value of futures);
The profit on the future offsets the higher rates. Effective borrowing cost:
3%.
II. Rates decline to e.g. 2%, then the borrower makes a loss on the future (a
decrease in rates increases the value of the futures);
The loss on the future offsets the lower rates. Effective borrowing cost: 3%.
In this way, the future allows the borrower to fix the loan rate in advance.
Options
A borrower‟s option is a “call” option hedging against rising interest rates. In the diagram
above:
The buyer of a call option at a guaranteed rate of 3% (purchased at t=0) can:
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i. Use the option (at t=2) if rates have gone up, e.g. to 5%.
The borrowing takes place at 3%.
ii. Let the option lapse (i.e. not use it) if rates fall to 2% (at t=2).
The borrowing takes place at this lower rate (2%).
The borrower using an option to hedge avoids higher interest rates, but benefits from lower
rates. An option allows you to “having your cake and eat it”.
Swaps
An interest rate swap allows a company to change a fixed rate into floating rate (and vice versa)
on a loan without altering the loan contract itself.
If a borrower has a floating (variable) rate debt and expects interest rates to rise, it can avoid this
rise by swapping its floating rate commitment into fixed rate.
Role and Responsibility towards Stakeholders
The formal separation between management and ownership in a corporation has important
behavioral andorganizational consequences.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Conflicting Stakeholder Interests
Maximize shareholder value: It is the duty of management (toward the owners of the business,
the shareholders) to maximize shareholder value (or wealth).
Shareholder value is measured by the dividends that shareholders receive and by the increase
in the value of their shares (capital gain).
Agency theory: addresses the risk that management will not act in the best interest of the
shareholders, but will make decisions that will serve its own interests.
Examples of self-serving management behavior could include: (a) artificially boosting corporate
profits in the short-term in order to earn bonuses; (b) paying too much to acquire another
company for reasons of prestige or in order to “build empires”; (c) rejecting opportunities, such
as takeover bids, or restructuring initiatives, that might jeopardize their positions (an
orientation to maintain the “status quo”).
Transaction cost economics refer to the evaluation of corporate alternatives in search of the
most beneficial outcomes for the company. As seen in the foregoing paragraph, what is best for
the company may not coincide with self-interest of the managers?
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Other stakeholder conflicts
The agency problem between management and shareholders is only one of many potential
conflicting interests that can exist between various stakeholder groups. A stakeholder is defined
as anyone with an interest in the affairs of a company:
 Management and employees are most intimately interested in the company, since they
seek to preserve employment and to collect salaries/wages. Unions represent the
employees collectively, seeking job security and good wages;
 Customers, suppliers and creditors are also closely interested in a company based on
financial and other benefits received;
 The public, via public interest groups and concerned citizens, may take an interest in a
company for reasons of product safety and environmental concerns;
 The government has an interest in seeing that a company creates/maintains jobs and
also generates corporate taxes;
 Even competitors may be regarded as stakeholders, though usually with a less than
generous motives.
Management must understand the power/influence and level of active interest of the various
stakeholder groups in order to reconcile, or at least prioritize, and address their concerns.
Mendelow‟s matrix is one tool which can be used in order to examine stakeholder influence and
to actively manage the relationship with relevant stakeholders.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Corporate Governance
Corporate governance structures have been developed setting forth guidelines and principles
on which corporate management is expected to conduct its business.
The need for good corporate governance has been spurred by such highly-publicized corporate
scandals as the failure of Enron; however, corporate governance is not limited to the detection
of fraud and crime.
Good corporate governance includes:
 Strengthening the role of non-executive directors on the board of directors;

 Holding management accountable for their actions;
 Ensuring that the interests of shareholders are protected;
 An ethical approach to behavior towards all stakeholders;
 Clear policy-making processes;
 Explicit risk management policy and monitoring systems; and
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 Transparencyand professionalism.
Corporate governance models
There are several models of corporate governance: Shareholder based models and (continental)
European-basedmodels.
Shareholder-based models
The US and UK are typically cited as basing their principles of corporate governance on a
shareholder-based system, where shareholdings are widely dispersed among many individuals
and therefore require protection:
 Sarbanes-Oxley: Refers to legislation in the USA that imposes corporate governance

principles on publicly-quoted US corporations. It seeks to safeguard the economic
interests of shareholders;
 Combined Code: In the UK, these are a set of principles that are voluntarily adopted by
public companies.
In contrast to the US/UK, there is the
 European model: Continental Europe has a greater prevalence of bank and industrial
shareholdings, which concentrate corporate control; such interests tend to take a broader
and more participatory approach to stakeholder interests.
In Germany, for example, there is a two-tier board structure: the supervisory board and
the executive/ management board. The supervisory board, which monitors the activities
of the management board, has among its membership representatives from the trade
union.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
The Role of Senior Financial Executive / Advisor
The CFO Role
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Consistent with the principles of corporate governance outlined above, the role of the Chief
Financial Officer (CFO) is to advise the board of directors of the firm in setting the financial
goals of the business and its financial policies.
A CFOwill typically address the following areas:
a) The allocation of capital and investment choices;

b) Minimizing the cost of capital;
c) Dividend policy;
d) Communicating with key constituencies;
e) Planning, control and risk management;
f) Ethical standards
KEY KNOWLEDGE
The Impact of Environmental & Ethical Issues
Environmental concerns
Issues of environmental concern and sustainability have become established and recognized
agenda points for corporations. Many stakeholders are coming to expect explicit
acknowledgment of suchmatters.
The “triple bottom line” approach expands the scope of a company‟s concerns, beyond the
merely economic, to social and ecological as well.
Carbon trading programmes are schemes by which a company which outperforms its
environmental targets is rewarded by being able to sell its credits to companies that pollute
beyond permitted limits. To operate properly, this arrangement requires supervision by a
central authority (government) in what is known as a “cap and trade” regime.
Ethical Issues
An ethical approach to doing business is not just a matter of personal virtue, but needs to be
addressed by policy (and action) at the company level as well. Ethical frameworks are not
merely “nice to have”, but are considered crucial to building long-term professionalism. Their
absence can undermine motivation and the sense of purpose a company must have in order to
succeed.
Advanced Investment Appraisal – Discounted Cash Flow
Discounting Free Cash Flows
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In order to value a project or company, it is necessary to forecast free cash flows and to discount
these at an appropriate cost of capital.
Note: Be sure to review your mathematical discounting methods from earlier papers.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Free cash flow
This is the amount of net cash generated from period-to-period and available to capital
providers (i.e. it is not re-invested in the project/company).
Free cash flow is “relevant”: non-cash, sunk, committed or allocated costs should be ignored
when forecasting revenues, costs and investments.
Free cash flow = Revenues – Costs – Investments (capital expenditures / working capital)
Forecasting of cash flows must take the following into consideration:
(i) The role of inflation
It is conceptually most straightforward to use nominal values when forecasting cash flows,
particularly if there are differential inflation rates applying to the future cash flows, i.e. if there
is no uniform (single) price change for revenues and various cost categories (materials, labor,
etc.).
Fisher formula: used to convert nominal rates to real (and vice versa)
(1 + i) = (1 + r) (1 + h)
i = nominal (or money) rate
r = real rate
h = inflation rate
If the nominal interest rate is 8% p.a. and inflation is running at 6%, then the real rate is 1.88%.
(ii) Taxation
The impact of taxation is reflected in the cash flows showing explicitly:
1) Tax payable on operating cash flows; and

2) Tax relief derived from Written Down Allowances (WDA)
Be sure to preserve this distinction when performing calculations.
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Free Cash Flows to Equity vs. Free Cash Flows to Capital (providers)
When forecasting cash flows, there are two “levels” of Free Cash Flow one can choose from:
1) One can model operating cash flows (revenues, costs and investments, including
taxation effects) and derive a bottom line entitled “Free Cash Flow to Capital Providers”,
which represents the cash flow available to providers of debt and equity to the
company.
This is the recommended method and follows the definition of Free Cash Flow
presented earlier.
Free Cash Flows to Capital Providers must be discounted at the company‟s Weighted
Average Cost of Capital (WACC)
Recall from Paper FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT:
E D
WACC  k  e k
(1 t) D d E DE
Note: be sure to use market values of Debt (D) and Equity (E) wherever possible. The
cost of equity (ke) is derived from the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM). The cost of
debt is after-tax (the cost to the company!). The pre-tax cost of debt (kd) must therefore
be multiplied by (1-t) to obtain the after-tax cost.
2) The alternative method to modeling cash flows is to derive the Free Cash Flow to
Equity (Holders). In order to arrive at this level of cash flow, one must perform the
following steps:
(Starting point : ) Free Cash Flow to Capital Providers (as in 1 above)

Less: Interest payments on debt (cash outflow)
Less: Repayments of debt (cash outflow)
Add: New debt raised (cashinflow)
Free Cash Flows to Equity must be discounted at the company‟s Cost of Equity (note the
difference to 1 above)
Both approaches (1 & 2) are equivalent to each other, i.e. different paths to ultimately
determining the share value of the same company. Method 1, however, is considered easier to
apply (reduces errors). It is also conceptually more satisfying, as it “isolates” debt and equity
from operating cash flows.
Many industry practitioners recommend Method 1 for its conceptual clarity, as debt and equity
are addressed directly when considering the company‟s capital structure.
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Calculating the value of a company using the discounted cash flow method (DCF) is covered in
a later section of these Notes.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
IRR and MIRR
The internal rate of return (IRR) is defined as the discount rate (r) at which the net present value
(NPV) of a stream of cash flows will be equal to zero. In other words,
If, at a discount rate r, NPV = 0, then r = IRR
The IRR includes among its assumptions the following: any cash flows generated in the course
of the project being evaluated are calculated as being reinvested at the IRR rate. This is
illustrated thus:
Time Cash flows
0 (20,000)
1 5,000
2 30,000
The IRR of the above cash flows (using interpolation or a calculator) is 35.61%.
The above cash flows are equivalent to re-investing the 5,000 (in Year 1) at the IRR rate (35.61%)
to maturity (Year 2).
Time Cash flows (A) Cash flows (B)
0 (20,000) (20,000)
1 5,000 0
2 30,000 36,780.5 (30,000 + 6,780.5*)
* 5,000 x 1.3561 = 6,780.5
The IRR of the cash flows shown in Column (B) is 35.61% -- exactly the same as in Column (A).
Note: Column (B) cash flows now resemble that of a zero-coupon bond, with investment at time
0 and no cash returns until the final year.
This calculation confirms that interim cash flows are re-invested at the IRR rate. This
assumption has been criticized for being unrealistic, since cash paid out of a project (returned to
the investors, for example) is unlikely to obtain the same rate if invested elsewhere: they may be
Page | 54
higher (i.e. interest rates may have risen in the meantime), or lower (placed in the bank to earn
deposit interest).
Modified IRR (MIRR)
This method modifies the “re-investment rate” assumption by applying a different interest rate
to the interim cash flows.
Thus, to take our example above, suppose the 5,000 in Year 1 would earn only 12% if invested
(outside the project).
In this case, the MIRR would be calculated as follows:
Time Cash flows (A) Cash flows (C)
0 (20,000) (20,000)
1 5,000 0
2 30,000 35,600 (30,000 + 5,600*)
* 5,000 x 1.12 = 5,600
The IRR modified this way (the MIRR) is 33.42%.
The Impact of Financing on Investment Decisions
The financial techniques discussed thus far exist to assist management in making investment
decisions. Here are a few qualitative concepts, based on practical reality, that need to be taken
into account by managers:
Financing Decisions
a) Pecking order theory
As a matter of practicality, managers usually choose to finance new projects or investments by

making use of the following sources in the order shown:
i. Internally-generated funds (positive operating cash flow)

ii. Debt
iii. Equity
b) Static tradeoff
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This theory refers to one explanatory model of the way management chooses between debt and
equity in making their financing decisions; managers must balance (trade) off the advantages of
debt (cheaper, tax deductible, not permanent) with the disadvantages (costs of distress,
bankruptcy, liquidity constraints and discipline imposed by debt servicing).
c) Agency effects
Connected to the above, this refers to the information asymmetries that management have vis-à-
vis the market (lenders and investors) in making financing decisions.
EXAMPLE
If management is more pessimistic than market sentiment, then equity will be over-priced and
managers will take advantage of this by issuing shares; conversely, if management is more
optimistic, then they will prefer the use of debt.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Adjusted Present Value (APV)
When a company evaluates a project using the APV approach, the following steps are followed:
1. Calculate the NPV of the Project using 100% Equity financing; this is called the Base
Case;
2. Calculate the NPV of the (incremental) benefits of introducing debt into the financing
of the project
The addition of Steps 1 and 2 results in:
3. The NPV of the Project using the combination of debt and equity (selected in Step 2)
In other words, the operating cash flows (Step 1) and the net benefits of using debt finance (Step
2) are separated from each other. This allows management to see clearly where and how value
is derived from the project.
EXAMPLE
An agricultural silo project (period: 4 years), if 100% equity financed, will have a negative NPV
of (2,000). Thisis the Base case.
If the project is financed using debt (50%) and equity (50%), then we need to determine the
financial impact of this financing structure; in particular:
a) The issue costs of the equity;

b) The issue costs of the debt; and
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c) The tax benefit of usingdebt
In this example, assume the total financing requirement of the project is 1,000,000, with equity
issuance costs of 3% and debt 2%. Assume debt is irredeemable and risk-free. The risk-free rate
is 5%. Corporate tax is 30%.
Since we need 500,000 equity for the project, there needs to be issued 515,464 (gross amount),
with issue cost of 15,464 (3%).
The same approach applies to the debt: 500,000/0.98 = 510,204 (gross); issue cost = 10,204 (2%).
In addition, unlike equity, the debt issue cost may attract tax relief; if this is the case, then:
10,204 x 30% = 3,061.
Net cost of debt issuance is 7,143.
The tax relief on the debt is the NPV of (Amount borrowed x Interest rate x Tax rate)
The annual tax relief = 510,204 x 5% x 30% = 7,653
This is multiplied by the annual annuity factor (of 4 years at 5%) to obtain the PV of the annual
tax relief:
7,653 x 3.546 = 27,138
PV of financing:
Equity (15,464)
Debt (net) (7,143)
PV of debt relief 27,138
Net benefit 4,531
The adjusted present value of the project is therefore (2,000) + 4,531 = 2,531.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Monte Carlo Simulation
This is a simulation model that uses probability distribution analysis to analyze the possible
outcomes of a project. It is built on the simultaneous changes of many variables, the
relationships between these variables being defined in advance, e.g. if price is reduced, how
much demand may go up.
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Each variable itself has a probability distribution and the combinations of variables are modeled
by running the model repeatedly, resulting in a distribution of simulation results.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Value at Risk (VAR)
This is also a statistics-based model, using the distribution of outcomes to measure the
probability of loss. It goes beyond the expected value of an asset, and looks at the range of
probabilities of downside (or loss) situations.
VAR can be applied to the following situation: If a portfolio of investments has an expected
value of $50m, what is the probability that the value could drop to $40m?
One might look at this the “other way around” and ask: what level of value (expressed in USD)
would correspond to a 5% chance of occurrence?
Option Pricing Theory in Investment Decisions
Options
Plain-vanilla options are covered in earlier papers and it is essential to have a clear grasp of the
practical effects of buying and selling these instruments.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Puts
An investor bought shares (in this case, the underlying asset) at $40 which have since increased
to $52, a gain of 30%. To protect a budgeted return of 20% (corresponding to $48, or $40 x 1.20),
she decides to buy a put option on the shares at a strike price of $50. Expiry of the option is year-
end.
The strike (or exercise price, $50) is the minimum that the investor will get for selling her
shares:
a) If the market price is higher than the strike price (say, $52), then the investor can sell the
shares at the market price; the option is out-of-the-money and expires unused;
b) If the market price drops below strike, say to $47, then the investor can exercise the
option and sell for $50. The option, being-in-the-money, has an intrinsic value of $3;
In this case, the investor has achieved a hedge against her share investment dropping in value.
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KEY KNOWLEDGE
Calls
The treasurer of the Italian subsidiary of a UK group plans to pay a dividend of £500,000 to the
parent company in December. Since the treasurer believes that GBP (in this case, the underlying
asset) could become cheaper by the end of the year (GBP/EUR is currently 1.14), he does not
buy it now; instead he buys a call option at the rate of GBP/EUR 1.15 (strike, or exercise, price)
with a December expiry date.
The treasurer has hedged against an appreciating GBP; €1.15 is the maximum price that he
willhave to pay for the GBP.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Black-Scholes Formula
The Black-Scholes option pricing formula is core to this part of the syllabus. The formula is
based on 5 principal drivers of value, several of which have appeared in the preceding
examples:
a) Underlying asset ( Pa ): the “subject” of the option; the asset on which its value is based;
b) Exercise price ( Pe): the price at which the option buyer has the right to buy the
underlying asset;
c) Time to expiry (t): the validity period of the option (expressed as a fraction of a year);
d) Volatility (s): the variability of the price of the underlying asset (standard deviation);
e) Risk-free rate (r): the continuously compounded annual rate of interest – in practical
terms, this means that $1 invested for one year in a riskless asset will equal er (where e
is 2.7183 – the base of natural logarithms)
Option value
The general formula for the value of a call option (c) is
C  PaN(d 1)PeN(d2 )ert

in which
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In(P / P)(r 0.5s2)t

d1 
a e
sVt
d2  d1 sVt
Note: A modified form of this formula applicable to currency options will be discussed later.
Value of a put option (p) is
pcP P ert
a e
(this is known as the Put-Call Parity and is included on the formula sheet)
Structure: Themeaningoftheformula
To sum up the Black-Scholes formula in one sentence: It computes the present (i.e. today‟s) fair
value of a “game”, repeated many times over, that results in a share price higher than the strike
price at expiry (that is, where intrinsic value occurs).
N(d1), N(d2) represent values of the cumulative normal distribution (at points d1 and d2);
ert is the (risk-free interest rate ) factor by which the exercise price is discounted to a present
value
Dynamics: The moving parts of the formula
When using the formula, an intuitive grasp of the following is essential:
Increase in the: Results in an:
 Underlying asset (Pa) Increase in the Call value & Decrease in the Put value
 Exercise price (Pe) Decrease in the Call value & Increase in the Putvalue
 Time to expiry (t) Increase in the Call value & Increase in the Put value
 Volatility (s) Increase in the Call value & Increase in the Put value
 Risk-free rate (r) Increase in the Call value & Decrease in the Put value
Assumptions
There are a number of assumptions relating to Black-Scholes:
1. Taxes are zero;
2. Transaction costs are zero;
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3. Constant risk-free rate;
4. Continuously functioning market;
5. Stock prices can be plotted as a continuous function;
6. No penalties in the event of short selling of the stock;
7. Option is exercisable only at expiry date (European-style);
8. No cash dividends are paid on the shares
Most of the above are simplifying assumptions behind the formula. The last two require
comment:
 Option is exercisable only at expiry date (European style) – Assumption 7 (above)
This is in contrast to the American-style option, which can be exercised at any time until
maturity.
Comment: The difference is not important, since practically speaking, no option should be
exercised before its expiry date (otherwise the time value would be forfeited!)
 No cash dividends paid on shares – Assumption 8 (above)
Comment: If dividends are payable before the option expiry date, then Black-Scholes can be
used by subtracting the present value of the dividends payable from the current share price.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Real Options
Options theory has been applied to other areas of business decision-making. Real options are a
way of valuing and factoring potential benefits into investment decisions. There are four basic
scenarios: Options to (a) Expand; (b) Delay; (c) Redeploy; and (d) Withdraw.
(a) Expand
This is structured as a call option involving a two-stage project, the first stage of which permits
the possibility to proceed to the second-stage.
EXAMPLE
A company faces a $5m investment to set up a facility in a neighboring country. This facility on
its own would represent a negative NPV of $(1m); however, by making it, the company creates
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the possibility of building a second facility for $8m which will generate net receipts with a PV of
$6m. The volatility of the cash flows (standard deviation) is 30% for the second facility. A
decision (to build the second facility) must be made within 3 years. The risk free rate is 4%.
Analysis: The facts above allow one to value the option to expand. Applying the Black- Scholes
structure allows us to arrange the data as follows:
Cost of the project (Exercise price): $8m
Present Value of net receipts: $6m
Volatility (std dev): 30%
Timing: 3 years
Risk-free: 4%
These can be inserted into the formula to derive a value of the option to expand.
(b) Delay
The option to delay is also a call option. It is merely a simpler version of the option to “expand”.
EXAMPLE
A company can invest in a new product now or it can wait a year to see if the market will
improve so as to make the investment more attractive. The project may have a negative NPV
now, but it may be worth keeping the possibility open to invest later. The value to the company
of keeping available this opportunity to invest later is represented by the value of a call option.
Analysis: Following the same logic as in the option to expand, the Black-Scholes formula can be
used to value this call option, in which the cost of the project is the Exercise (or strike) price and
the present value of the net cash receipts of the project represent the “underlying asset”. One
also needs to establish the volatility of the cash flows, the validity period (of the option) and the
risk-free rate.
(c) Withdrawal
A company calculates what the consequences are if it abandons a project. For example, it may
have the right under a license to manufacture a product, but can (at its “option”) sell those
(license) rights to a third party at any point in time. The relevant factors in this case become the
NPV of cash inflows from production (the “underlying asset”) compared to the price at which
the company can sell the license (the “strike” price).
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Such an option (the right to sell) is a put. A withdrawal option is also referred to as an option to
Abandon.
(d) Redeploy
This is similar to the withdrawal (abandon) option, with the possibility to employ the assets
withdrawn from one use to another use, thus “rescuing” some value. The present value of the
alternative use therefore becomes relevant. An option to redeploy is a put option.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
International Investment & Financing Decisions
The evaluation of international investment decisions
International investment involves forecasting foreign currency flows and converting them back
into a company‟s home currency in an accurate and consistent manner.
Treatment of forecast foreign exchange flows
When forecasting foreign exchange flows, assumptions must be made about future expected
exchange rates.
This can be achieved with the use of forecast inflation rates for the two (foreign and home)
currencies.
EXAMPLE
Spot rate GBP/USD 1.6000
Expected inflation rate GBP: 4% p.a.
Expected inflation rate USD: 2% p.a.
Projected exchange rate in 1 year:
1.60 x (1.02/1.04) =1.5692
This process can be repeated for a series of years, using the preceding year as the base year
Fiscal and other exchange controls and restrictions on remittances must be modeled with care.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
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Impactof Capital Investment on Financial Reporting
Note some other factors that influence the amount of foreign-generated cash that can be
remitted to the home (parent) company:
 Alternativefinancing strategies
 Foreign exchange translation
 Taxation and double taxation
 Capital allowances and the problem of taxexhaustion.
Acquisition and Mergers versus Other Growth Strategies
Mergers& Acquisitions(M&A)
There are various reasons why companies engage in M&A:
In the context of horizontally integrating (that is, targeting a company in the same line of
business),
 To grow the business faster (than would be possible organically);

 To eliminate a competitor (an example of revenue synergy);
 To defend or build out market position (in a declining or consolidating industry);
 To achieve synergies (a much over-used term); cost synergies involves eliminating
duplications and realizing economies of scale;
Vertical integration involves integrating up-stream (acquiring suppliers) or downstream (to

move closer to the market), some reasons being:
 Gain control over supplies of raw/intermediate supplies (avoid interruptions);

 Increase bargaining power vis-à-vis suppliers
 Capture wholesale and/or retail margins (downstream)
Vertical integration via M&A and the creation of conglomerates (groups of companies in
unrelated businesses, in an effort to achieve diversification of business risk) have been in
decline in the last decades.
Out-sourcing and leaner organizations provide greater flexibility. Vertical integration can also
be used to achieve the strategic re-positioning of a business; this can result from value chain
analysis, and it usually leads to the divestment of businesses.
Other reasons for M&A involve the pursuit of financial synergies to:
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 Utilize available tax shields: Some companies do not generate sufficient revenue to
exploit loss carry-forwards and seek companies that have taxable income that can be
sheltered through merger; or
 Utilize surplus cash: Mature companies seeking to spend cash (that otherwise should be
returned to shareholders)
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Risks of Failure of M&A
There are various risks of failure of M&A, including:
 Integrating the newly acquired company turns out to be more time-consuming and
requires more management resources than originally budgeted;
 Cost synergies not realized (eliminating duplications);
 Failure to exploit purchasing power; other “market-enhancing” measures frequently do
not materialize;
 In most M&A, it turns out that the price paid by the acquirer is excessive
M&A Process
To minimize the risk of failure in the M&A process, acquiring companies should follow a
systematic series of steps prior to launching a bid:
1. Clarify strategic reasons for wanting to acquire a company;

2. Draw up a short list of possible takeover targets and select the preferred one;
3. Value the target based on publicly available information and establish opening bid;
4. Identify financing options for the transaction
The steps in launching/announcing a bid must conform to stock exchange and other regulatory
requirements, including the monopoly commission.
Mergers & Acquisitions – Valuation
Business Valuation
Valuation is a key tool in the M&A business, as buyers wish to avoid overpaying for an
acquisition.
Competition for a target company tends to push its price up (in what, in the extreme case, is
termed a “bidding war”).
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Impact on Risk Profile
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Acquirers need to be aware of the impact the takeover will have on their risk profile; these are
classified asfollows:
a) Type 1 acquisitions: Do not alter the financial or business risk of the acquirer; for
example, the target company is in the same industry (as the acquirer) and with a similar
level of financial gearing (debt: equity ratio);
b) Type 2 acquisitions: Both the acquirer and the target have the same business risk (e.g.
similar industry) but have different levels of financial gearing (different degrees of
financial risk);
c) Type 3 acquisitions: The acquirer buys a company in a different field (different business
risk) and which has a different level of financial gearing (thus altering the financial risk).
KEY KNOWLEDGE
The Valuation of Type 1 Acquisitions
a) Book valuemethods
Book value methods based on tangible assets (less liability) have been covered in Paper.
This paper covers book value methods that include intangible assets.
Intangibles can take the form of patents, brands and goodwill, or franchise value, i.e.
they have no physical manifestation
For small, unlisted companies, a “goodwill” factor can be added to the tangible asset
value.
For large companies, brand value can be determined through separate, specialist
valuations.
b) Market-relative methods
1) Price-Earnings (P/E) ratio (covered in previous papers)
Limitation of the P/E multiple: It assumes that the companies being compared are
similar in terms of (i) business risk; (ii) financial risk; and (iii) prospective growth. By
choosing a “peer” group of similar companies with care, one can improve the relevance
of such market-relative data.
i. Business risk: means companies in the same industry – relevance is assured;
ii. Financial risk: companies in the same industry can have different levels of gearing,
which affects the earnings (net profits) of the companies chosen; therefore, the “peer”
group of similar companies must take similar gearing ratios into account;
iii. Growth rates: If two companies in the same industry, serving the same markets and
with the same gearing have different growth rates, then one must try to isolate the
reasons that explain the difference. If the reason is superior management (at the higher
Page | 66
growth company), for example, then that company would deserve an upward
adjustment to its P/E ratio relative to the other.
2) Other methods: Earnings Yield

The inverse of the P/E ratio expresses the yield, or the level of earnings one would
expect to generate from investment in the equity of the company.
This yield can then be applied to similar companies to determine whether it is fairly
priced.
c) Cash flow-basedmethods
1) Dividend Value Method

It is important to be confident in using the basic dividend model:
D1
Po 
Ke  g
In which
Po is the value of the equity of the company (one share or all the shares);
D1 is the expected dividend;
Ke is the return shareholders expect (cost of equity); and
g is the growth rate in the dividend
2) Free Cash Flow (FCF)

This has been referred to earlier in the discussion of discounting future cash flows of a
project.
If we view a company as a “never-ending” project, then we would seek to discount its
cash flows into perpetuity.
The preferred method indicated is to discount future Free Cash Flows to all Capital
Providers, as this avoids the complexity of forecasting financial cash flows, such as debt
drawdowns/repayments as well as interest payments.
Since the resulting FCFs are available to debt and equity holders, the appropriate
discount rate is derived from the weighted average cost of capital (WACC, also covered
in a previous paper).
The forecasting of FCFs is typically performed in two chronological segments:
a) Forecast horizon
The forecast horizon is a “manageable” period of time, typically 5 years, during which
the company can explicitly model its expected revenues, costs and investment (both
capital expenditures – capex – and working capital).
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This is the “unique” part of the modeling, as it reflects factors particular to the company
being valued: for example, they may include a new product launch at the company, or a
new strategic departure, with investment spending carefully timed and quantified, and
expected revenue growth and margins projected based on market research or
experience.
b) Terminal (Continuing) value:

This is the residual value into “perpetuity” of the firm. Since it is impossible to explicitly
model cash flows 20 years into the future (unless one were valuing a utility, for
example), then it is common practice to make a “continuing value assumption” based on
a realistic sustainable growth rate of the FCF into the future.
The FCFs derived above are discounted at the WACC. The resulting Present Value of the FCFs
will represent the Enterprise Value of the company. Think of the Enterprise Value as being the
value of all the assets of the company.
If the company is leveraged (i.e. has debt in its capital structure) then the Debt has to be
subtracted from the Enterprise value to arrive at the value belonging to the shareholders, i.e. the
Equity value.
Consider the following FCFs:

------------------------Forecast Horizon------------------------------
Years 1 2 3 4 5 5+
FCF 1,000 1,200 1,350 1,300 1,370 FCF5
The FCF in Year 5+ has to be modeled with care as it represents all future FCFs and
must therefore be an average future FCF, rather than specific to year 6.
If we establish, based on average future cash flows, that the Year 5+ is, say, 1,350, with a
continuing growth rate of 2% p.a., then the present value of all the FCFs above, at a
WACC of 10%, will be:
Forecast Horizon value: Σ PV (Years 1-5) =
4,654 Terminal value: PV (1,350 / WACC-g) = 10,478
Enterprise value (EV) =
15,132
The Terminal (Continuing) Value has been calculated using the Gordon Growth formula
and has been discounted back to t=0! Don‟t be surprised by its high value (as a
proportion of overall EV).
Finally, EV minus the (market) value of Debt = Equity value
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3) EVA – Economic Value Added

The EVA method is a complex method to operate, since it involves extensive
adjustments to be made to the financial statements of a company in order to determine
whether the company has created (or destroyed) value during the year.
EVA is arrived at by calculating two values based on a company‟s financial statements:
(i) The amount of capital employed in a business during the year (or period):
Capital Employed = Assets – non-interest bearing current liabilities
(ii) The (cash) profits (called “net operating profit after tax” -- NOPAT) that the
company is able to generate during the year (or period).
The EVA formula also requires the company‟s WACC (r) such that:
EVA = NOPAT – r x Capital Employed

In other words, the formula says: Economic value is created at the time when the
management is able to generate sufficient returns (NOPAT) to cover the charge on
capital which represents the expected return by capital providers.
If the NOPAT fails to reach the required cost of using the capital employed, then
economic value is being destroyed.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
The AdjustedNPV
This has been discussed in the discussion of the APV (above).
Recall that a Type 2 acquisition involves a changing financial risk only.
Therefore, if Co. A seeks to buy Co. B, it needs to:
a) Determine the value of Co. B in the unleveraged state (as though it were 100% equity-
financed). This was called the Base Case; and
b) Calculate the NPV of the benefits (net of costs) of the Debt at Co. B
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Iterative methods
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The iterative method is a modeling process by which the projected cash flows of the company
are separated into different strands: (i) the cash flows of the acquiring company “as is”; (ii) the
incremental cash flows of the acquired company; and (iii) any synergies in costs that are
relevant to the combined company.
The DCF (discounted cash flow) technique is applied to the above.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Regulatory Framework and Processes
Regulatory Framework
The regulatory framework in the UK consists of a number of rules that companies are expected
to follow. Details can be found from public sources. In particular, note should be taken of the:
 City Code on Takeovers and Mergers (the “Code”), which reflects appropriate business
standards in takeovers. It has a statutory basis in the UK.
 The Competition Commission is an independent public body which conducts in-depth
inquiries into mergers, markets and the regulation of the major regulated industries
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Financing Acquisitions and Mergers
Other M&A Financing issues
There are three general levels on which acquisitions need to be examined:
1. Whether the acquirer purchases the shares or the assets of the target company;
2. Whether the acquirer will pay in cash or via share swap (or some combination); and
3. In cases where cash is used, the preferred route by which the acquirer raises it:
 Mobilizing available cash resources;
 Issuance of new shares;
 Taking a loan (bank or bond issuance); or
 Some combination of the above.
At each of the levels, tax, capital structure and corporate control considerations will influence
the appropriate method(s) selected.
Corporate Reconstruction and Re-Organisation
Multivariate techniques
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This refers to statistical processes that combine and weight variables based on observation.
Models such as Altman‟s Z-score were developed to predict corporate distress.
The corporate distress index (denoted Z) is defined as
Z 1.2X1 1.4X2 3.3X3 0.6X4 1.0X5

where
X1 = working capital/total assets,
X2 = retained earnings/total assets,
X3 = earnings before interest and taxes/total assets,
X4 = market value equity/book value of total liabilities,
X5 = sales/totalassets
A score below 1.8 is an indication of probable failure, and a score above 3 indicates financial
soundness.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Financial Reconstruction
Financial reconstruction refers to the rearrangement of a company‟s finances. This may be

voluntary in nature – by a solvent company seeking to improve the structure of its financing –
or forced by circumstances, such as the threat of bankruptcy. In the latter case, where a
company may be unable to meet its obligations, a financial reconstruction scheme is designed to
avoid liquidation.
Before any reconstruction scheme can be evaluated, a liquidation scenario is first performed; the
purpose of the liquidation scenario is to determine the minimum acceptable outcomes facing
each class of shareholder/creditor. This sets the basis on which the reconstruction scheme can
be analyzed.
Reconstructions are proposed and evaluated according to the legal framework within which the
company resides or operates. Therefore, the rules governing the acceptance of a proposal are
defined by the law. This is to protect the rights of various stakeholder groups (including
workers who may have unpaid wages or pension claims).
The ranking of claimants on a company‟s assets, in the event of liquidation, is typically as

follows:
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 Creditors with fixed charges

 Administrator costs (of liquidation)
 Preferential creditors (taxes, unpaid wages, etc.)
 Floating charge creditors
 Unsecured creditors
These are followed by the shareholder classes:
 Preferredshareholders, and
 Common shareholders
When analyzing reconstruction schemes (in the context of financial distress) it is important to
realize that there is no one right answer, only educated guesses as to what is likely to meet with
the approval of different classes of creditors.
Banks, for example, may feel obliged to push for liquidation, even if they receive less cash than
they might were they to agree to a rescheduling of loans. In most cases, banks do not like to
commit fresh amounts of money to a restructuring plan.
The attitudes of other creditors being asked to accept equity in place of debt likewise raises the
question of “how much”? The answer is based more on negotiation and business policy than
financialscience.
Financial Derivatives – Hedging Forex Risk
Foreign exchange risk- illustration
Assume a company wins a law suit that will bring a guaranteed payment of £1m in 6 months.
The company is now LONG £1m. If the GBP depreciates, the company will suffer a foreign
exchange loss.
To mitigate this risk, the company can sell GBP forward with maturity (value date) in 6 months.
Banks will provide forward quotations. The forward contract entered into with the bank is
known as an Over-the-Counter (OTC) contract, which takes the form of a bilateral transaction
between two counterparties.
An alternative hedge would be a money market solution:
EXAMPLE
Note: Interest rate calculations for 6 months are taken as half of the p.a. rate.
Spot rate: GBP/USD 1.4800 – 10
GBP interest rates are 4 7/8 - 5 % p.a. and USD rates are 2 - 2 ¼ % p.a.
Page | 72
A money market hedge is constructed as follows:
1. Borrow £1m for 6 months at 5%;

2. Sell £1m in the spot market; receive $1.48m;
3. Deposit $1.48m for 6 months at 2%;
4. At maturity, repay £1,025,000 and keep $1,494,800
Conclusion: The (implied) GBP/USD 6-month forward is 1.4583
In the example, the GBP amount actually borrowed (Step 1) should be:
£975,610 (1,000,000 / 1.025)
so that the GBP amount at maturity will be £1m.
Using the same market data as above, a money market hedge can be constructed for a company
paying £1m in 6 months:
1. Borrow $1,445,760 for 6 months at 2¼%;

2. Sell $1,445,760 and buy £976,205 in the spot market;
3. Deposit GBP for 6 months at 4 7/8%;
4. At maturity, repay $1,462,025 and receive £1,000,000
Conclusion: The (implied) GBP/USD 6-month forward is 1.4620
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Long and Short Positions
A long position is the equivalent of having an asset in a given currency. If the price of that
currency goes down, then the holder of the currency makes a loss.
A short position is the equivalent of having a liability in a given currency. If the price of that
currency goes down, then the holder of the short position makes a gain.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Hedging
Hedging refers to the transaction by which a company or individual effectively mitigates

(eliminates) their currency risk, i.e. eliminates a long or short position by neutralizing (squaring)
that position.
In the cases described earlier, the company had the opportunity to hedge its foreign exchange
risks by use of the money market and/or the forward market.
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KEY KNOWLEDGE
Forward (Swap) Points
Another way of quoting the forward (mentioned earlier) is by calculating the forward (or swap)
points:
GBP/USD
Spot 1.4800 – 1.4810
6-month 1.4583 – 1.4620
Fwd points 217 -- 190
The forward (fwd) points (or pips) are the difference between the spot and forward prices and
are expressed as an adjustment to the spot price:
GBP/USD
Spot 1.4800 – 1.4810
6 mo Fwd points 217 -- 190
 The forward points are the points by which the spot has to be adjusted to derive the
forward rate
 When the points decline, from left to right, then they are deducted from the spot rate
 When the points increase, from left to right, then they are added to the spot rate
 The currency with the higher level of interest rates trades at a lower price (relative to the
other currency) in the forward market.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Currency Futures
These are contracts, transacted over an exchange, representing a standard amount of currency
which can be bought or sold with a specified future settlement (delivery) date, at a rate
expressed in another currency. Settlement is guaranteed by the exchange, which acts as
counterparty. Someexchanges are:
 Chicago Mercantile Exchange

 Euronext – LIFFE
 Tokyo Financial Exchange
Futures compared to Forwards
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Buying, on 15 May, one contract of June EUR futures (against USD) at the market price of 1.4300
is the economic equivalent of
buying €100,000 against USD at a forward rate of 1.4300 as quoted by a bank on 15 May (trade
date) for value (settlement) date in June corresponding to the day which the future contract
(above) settles (settlement date).
On the final day of trading a futures contract (2 working days before settlement date), the
futures price will be the same as the corresponding spot rate.
Futures used for hedging purposes
Illustration
Take the company expecting to receive £1m after 6 months.
The company now has a third possibility to hedge itself against a declining GBP: It can sell GBP
futures.
To hedges its £1m long position using futures, consideration must be given to:
Settlement date: The appropriate futures contract will not settle before the expected date of
receipt of the currency inflow (£1m); in other words, the future contract must cover the entire
period of risk.
No. of contracts: This is determined by dividing the amount to be hedged (in the above
example, £1m) by the standard size of a GBP contract (£62,500); therefore, in the above case, 16
contracts will be sold.
Closing out of the futures contract
When the expected receipt of £1m takes place, then the futures contract will have served its
purpose and the futures position must be closed, or “squared”. In the above case, this is
achieved by buying back the GBP futures originally sold.
EXAMPLE
Assume £1m was expected in August and the company hedged this exposure by selling 16
contracts of the September GBP/USD futures at a rate of 1.4585.
Assume further that on the day (in August) that the £1m is actually received:
GBP/USD spot rate: 1.4050
September GBP futures: 1.3980
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Company‟s position at settlement date
The GBP has depreciated against the USD.
When received, the £1m is sold at spot 1.4050 (proceeds are $1,405,000);
The futures position is closed out by buying back (closing out) the 16 contracts at 1.3980:
16 contracts sold at 1.4585 = $1,458,500
16 contracts bought at 1.3980 = $1,398,000
Profit on futures = $ 60,500
The company‟s net receipt in selling £1m is $1,465,500.
Tick value
In the example above, the smallest price movement in the GBP futures contract is either +/-
0.0001 USD per GBP. This smallest increment (up or down) is called a “tick” and is valued at
$6.25 (£62,500 x $0.0001).
Counterparty Risks/Margin Requirements
These risks are excluded by the exchange where currency futures are traded, as the exchange
requires that all clients deposit in advance a cash amount known as “margin” to cover losses.
Market (Price) risk
When a client buys or sells a future, his position is subsequently marked-to-market on a daily
basis and potential losses must be covered by the client by providing additional margin.
Settlementrisk
This is usually excluded for currency futures by cash settlement of the difference.
Basis Risk
This refers to situation where a hedge does not “fit” (or exactly offset the risk of) the underlying
situation. This can occur due to a mismatch in maturities.
EXAMPLE
Today‟s (June) spot rate for the EUR/USD: 1.4500
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Today‟s price of Euro Future maturing in 6 mos (Dec): 1.4320
0.018
The difference between the two rates above (0.018) should decline to zero in 6 months (when
the spot in 6 months is effectively the same as a futures contract on its final day of trading).
Using this relationship, we can assume that the difference between the spot rates in 3 months
will differ from the futures contract price on the same day (with 3 months to maturity
remaining).
In 3 months (March), the spot rate rises to 1.4700. If, as we assume, the basis declines linearly to
zero at the end 6 months, then the expected futures contract after 3 months is estimated to be
1.4610 (1.4700 – 0.018/2).
Swaps (long-term)
EXAMPLE
A US company is looking to expand in Japan and seeks finance of Yen 950m. It can borrow at
the following fixed rates: USD 5.0% and JPY 3.0%.
A Japanese company is seeking to buy an American company and seeks $10m of financing. It
can borrow at the following fixed rates: USD 5.4% and JPY 2.5%.
The current spot rate is USD/JPY 95.00
A „fixed for fixed‟ currency swap for 5 years would look like this:
1. The US company borrows the $10m (on behalf of the Japanese company);
2. The Japanese company borrows Yen 950m (on behalf of the US company);
3. The companies swap the principal amounts at the beginning at spot (USD/JPY 95.00);
4. During the 5 years, each company pays the other‟s loan interest;
5. At maturity, after 5 years, the companies re-swap the principal amounts at the original
spot rate(95.00).
The savings of each party are the difference between what each would have had to pay on its
own and what was effectively paid:
 The US company saves ¥4.75m p.a. (950m x (3% - 2.5%));

 The Japanese company saves$40,000 p.a. (10m x(5.4%- 5%))
Remember: Forwards, Futures and Swaps are obligations!
Options
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Options have been introduced in an earlier section.
Currencyoptionscanbevalued with the Black-Scholesformulamodified for this purpose:
c  ert  F0 N (d1)  XN (d2 ) 


Care must be taken to use the foreign exchange version of the Black-Scholes option pricing
formula. The modification arises because there are two interest rates involved (one for each
currency).
The modified formula is included on the formula sheet provided at the exam and the
variables are interpreted as in the standard expression of the formula; however, particular care
must be paid to F0 which is the forward rate.
A US company may have a payment in Euros in 6 months. It wishes to hedge this potential
liability with a Euro call option.
EUR/USD is 1.3400 (€1 = $1.34)
EUR interest rate 3%
USD interest rate 2%
For use in the pricing formula, the F0 (which is in Euro, the underlying asset in this case) must
be expressed as a 6-month forward rate. This is done by the calculating interest differentials:
1.02 / 2 
EUR/USD 6-month rate = 1.34 x 
1 .03 / 2 

= 1.3334
Financial Derivatives – Hedging Interest Rate Risk
Interest Rate Futures
An interest rate future is a contract based on an underlying interest rate instrument which
permits interest rates to be fixed in advance of the day on which they would take effect.
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Interest rate futures can be bought and sold on organised exchanges and can be classified
according to the term of the underlying asset, i.e. short-term interest rate futures and long-term
interest rate futures (orbondfutures).
Short-term interest rate futures are based on underlying assets taking the form of “notional”
money market deposits or instruments such as US Treasury bills of standard amount and
specified term.
Examplesof 3-monthinstrumentsinclude:
Instrument Standard (notional) deposit amount
 3-month Eurodollar $1 million

 3-month Sterling £500,000
 3-month Euro €1 million
 3-month Euroswiss CHF 1 million
 90-day US Treasury bill $1 million
Pricequotation of Interest Rate Futures
The price of an interest rate futures contract reflects the value of the underlying instrument
traded in advance, i.e. before the underlying instrument takes effect (or when interest starts
accruing). The prices are quoted as a discount from a par value of 100.
A price of 92.00, for example, reflects an interest rate for an underlying deposit of 8% per
annum (100 - 92.00 = 8.00).
The higher the interest rate is, the larger the discount from the par value of 100, and therefore
the lower the price of the future will be. (This is similar to how bond prices move, i.e. inversely
to movements in interest rates.)
Prices are quoted to one hundredth of 1%, or 0.01%; a price of 93.70, for example, reflects an
interest rate of 6.30% (100 - 93.70). The price of a future can move up or down by increments of
at least 0.01 (0.01%, which is the equivalent of one basis point, also called a “tick”).
Purchase of an interest rate future
Technically, the buyer of an interest rate future is buying a future money market deposit or
placement (the underlying instrument) and is fixing in advance the interest rate (and, in effect,
the stream of interest income) to be received.
Settlement Date
The settlement date of the future corresponds to the day on which the underlying instrument
would begin, i.e. the deposit or placement takes effect.
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Market Price Dynamics
As mentioned above, the value of a futures contract behaves similarly to a bond: if interest rates
go up, then the value of the futures contract will decline, since the future (fixed) stream of
interest income will have a lower value. The buyer of such a futures contract will incur a loss on
the contract.
EXAMPLE
At the end of August, a dealer buys one 3-month Eurodollar interest rate futures contract which
settles at the end of September. The market price of the contract is 93.50 (reflecting an interest
rate of 6.50%). The futures contract has a daily quoted price, reflecting the market rate, and
must be settled any time until the end of September, at which time the future expires (and the
notional placement would commence).
If interest rates fall to 5.00% in the middle of September, the future‟s price would rise to 95.00.
The dealer could sell the future at this price. Alternatively, he could continue holding the future
until the settlement date, at which point he would have to sell the future at the governing
market price. If by settlement, interest rates had risen to 5.50%, then the dealer would obtain a
price of 94.50.
At the prices mentioned (above) the dealer‟s net gain/loss would be:
 Sale at 95.00: 150 tick gain

 Sale at 94.50: 100 tick gain
The value of a tick for a 3-month Eurodollar contract is $25 (.01% x 1m x 3/12)
The value of a tick for a 3-month Sterling contract is £12.50 (.01% x 0.5m x 3/12)
Use of Interest rate futures
Interest rate futures allow buyers and sellers to:
 Hedge a position, i.e. protect themselves against a change in interest rates by fixing
rates in advance of an intended transaction (depositors or borrowers);
 Take a position, i.e. to benefit from a change in interest rates, provided rates move in a
favourable direction.
Hedging -- The Borrower‟s perspective
The borrower‟s underlying position is cash “short”; if the price of cash (the interest rate) rises,
then the borrower loses.
The appropriate hedge transaction is one in which a rise in interest rates will result in a profit.
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Appropriate hedging strategy for a borrower: Sell futures.
Hedging -- The Depositor‟s perspective
The appropriate hedging strategy for a depositor: Buy futures.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Other Features and Terminology
Training periods
All contracts have a defined starting date when trading can begin, and a last day when trading
ceases (and when open positions must be closed). These dates are defined in advance by the
respective exchange (these are publicized on their websites).
Contracts carry the name of the month in which they settle. A June contract on the 3-month
Euro, for example, can be bought and sold on a daily basis until two business days before the
third Wednesday of the month on the London International Financial Futures Exchange
(LIFFE).
Positions: Open/Closed/Squared
This follows the general definition: An open position exists if the buyer (or seller) is long (or
short) a financial instrument (or instruments, on a net basis). A position is closed if the long or
short position is eliminated by making an off-setting sale or purchase of instruments.
Settlement Terms
All short terms interest rate futures contracts are settled by cash, i.e. the difference between the
originally agreed price and the price at the time of closing the contract.
Note: Long term (bond) futures are settled by physical delivery of the instrument, i.e. the seller
delivers the bond to the buyer at the previously agreed price.
Initial, maintenanceandvariationmargins
Before trading on an exchange, market participants are required to make a deposit (“initial”
margin) to cover trading losses. On a daily basis, the potential gain or loss on the trading
position is calculated and potential losses are counted against the margin. The amount of the
margin may not fall below a minimum level (called the “maintenance” margin).
Fluctuations in the level of required margin is referred to as “variation” margin.
Interest Rate Swaps
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An interest rate swap is an agreement between two counterparties to exchange streams of

interest payments with different bases (see next paragraph). The interest payments are based on
an agreed amount of a notional principal and for a specified period of time.
Interest Rate Bases
The interest payments on long-term borrowings and investments may be set on different bases,
e.g. either at a fixed rate or at a variable (or floating) rate. In the case of floating rate loans, the
interest rate is normally defined in the loan contract by specifying a predetermined spread
(reflecting the credit risk) over a benchmark interest rate, such as LIBOR.
Companies borrowing for medium and long terms (i.e. more than one year, but more typically
in a 3 to 7 year period) need to determine the cheapest way to find the necessary funding.
Interest rate swaps provide flexibility to companies seeking to secure the best deal terms by
entering into an exchange of one set of interest payments for another.
EXAMPLE
Two companies X and Y require financing in the same currency and for identical maturities.
Their borrowing terms for fixed and floating rates are shown below:
Company Fixed rate Floating rate
X 5.7 3 month Libor + 10

Y 6.0 3 month Libor + 20
If X is looking for floating rate finance and Y fixed rate, then each could achieve the following
borrowing terms via aswap:
X: (3 months) LIBOR p.a.; and
Y: 5.90 % p.a.
The above terms reflect benefits shared equally between the two companies (10 b.p. each) and
no bank fees are assumed.
Interest rate options
Interest rate options form another category of derivatives which allow market participants to
profit (or lose!), or alternatively, to hedge against, movements in interest rates. They operate on
the basis of the classic options mechanism.
Interest rate guarantees
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These are bilateral (OTC) contracts giving the buyer the right to buy or to sell specifically
defined Forward Rate Agreements (FRA) by an expiry date corresponding to the FRA
settlement date.
 A borrower‟s option is a “call” option hedging against rising interest rates;

 A lender will buy a “put” option;
 Position takers, as opposed to hedgers, can act on their respective views on the market:
those believing that rates will go up will buy a Call while those acting on the belief in a
decline will buy a Put.
The above options are essentially short-term instruments. Interest rate guarantees can also be
arranged for longer terms, for example to hedge medium-term borrowings and deposits
(referred to as “caps” and “floors”).
Exchange-traded interest rate options
These contracts are structured as options to buy or sell interest rate futures contracts as the
underlying asset. The value of the option is therefore based on the futures price, which in turn is
based on the movement in interest rates (e.g. LIBOR).
A company planning to borrow GBP can protect itself against a rise in interest rates by buying
put options (which gives the right to sell GBP interest rate futures) at a strike price reflecting the
maximum rate to be paid (excluding the loan margin).
Dividend Policy and International Trade
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Dividend Policy in Multinationals & Transfer Pricing
Reference was made earlier to modeling cash flows across international boundaries, taking into
account restrictions imposed by the authorities. A corporation consisting of a group of related
subsidiaries operating in different countries must plan its payments in an optimal way.
Optimality in this respectincludes:
 Limiting total tax payments in a legitimate way (mitigation rather than avoidance);
 Minimizing the amount of foreign currency that has to be bought and sold across the
group (intra-group netting systems exist to achieve this); and
 Ensuring that the system of transfer pricing operates in a rational way within the group.
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Transfer pricing is an issue which affects groups of companies whether they are operating in
one country, or in several. It refers to the prices at which sister companies buy from and sell to
oneanother.
There are a number of different methods of transfer pricing practiced by companies; in order to
promote the economic interest of the company as a whole, they must be carefully designed to
avoid sub-optimal or dysfunctional behavior by managers.
In principle, transfer pricing is similar to a “make-buy” decision based on relevant costs: Is it

cheaper for Sister Co. X to supply itself from Sister Co. Y or to buy from a 3rd party?
The most effective transfer pricing systems are usually based on a variable cost and opportunity
cost approach in order to arrive at an agreed price between sister companies that is acceptable
to the heads of both companies, while achieving an optimal outcome for the group as a whole.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Management of International Trade & Finance
International Trade and Finance -- Institutions
An understanding of the global financial and trade a system is a basic requirement for anyone
involved in business activities.
Since World War II governments have sought to facilitate world trade by reducing barriers to
trade (tariffs, quotas, etc.). The current international body coordinating this effort is the World
Trade Organisation.
Barriers to trade remain in place for reasons of national preference and economic protectionism.
Agriculture in the western countries enjoys considerable protection in the form of government
subsidies.
The international financial architecture is under-going significant reforms as a result of the

financial crisis of 2008-09. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was formed to assist
governments in overcoming balance of payments deficits. The World Bank focused on financing
developing and emerging economies to modernize and achieve growth through infrastructure
projects.
The Bank of International Settlements (BIS) was created as an institutional coordinating body
between central banks and now hosts (and gives its name to) efforts to devise international
capital adequacy standards in the banking sector.
The monetary policy setting powers at the national level are located within the central banks of
those countries which maintain their own currencies (Federal Reserve in the US, Bank of
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England, Bank of Japan, and the Swiss National Bank) and at the supra-national level for the
European currency (at the European Central Bank).
Regular reading of international business publications is the best way to understand the above
organizations in their contemporary context.
Emerging Issues in Financial Management
Staying up-to-date
The best way to stay abreast of key developments in world financial markets is to read
reputable business journals on a regular basis. This will not only provide one with interesting
facts on current events, but also help to develop the logical thinking and argumentation crucial
to writing a good exam (and, beyond that, to a successful professional career).
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Recent Developments
The global themes of recent years can be summarized as follows:
1. World markets had been de-regulating, globalizing and integrating for several decades
– people seem to have forgotten that the world is still subject to business cycles;
2. All this came crashing down in 2008 with the burst of the subprime market; the
spillover effect ruined a number of investment banks, and then the general markets,
starting with real estate.
3. Governments were forced to step in with bail-out packages; several financial

institutions in the US and the UK have effectively been nationalized; “too big to fail” is
still with us! Moral hazard has not gone away!
4. There is now a move to re-fashion the international financial architecture, with renewed
regulation (self-regulation has its limitations). Basel 2 is to be revised.
5. The fight against money-laundering has also strengthened international regulatory

cooperation. Money-laundering refers to the effort by criminal elements to cover up the
source of ill-gotten gains. International cooperation seeks to impose basic rules
regarding the administration and movement of funds, including:
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a) The beneficial owners of accounts are known to the financial institutions opening
them;
b) Suspicious financial transactions and irregularities are reported to the authorities;
c) Penalties are imposed on perpetrators, as well as institutions failing to observe
regulations.
6. International cooperation experienced a renewed urgency in 2001 following the terrorist

attacks in the US and the US government‟s interest in denying funding to terrorists.
7. The international fight against money-laundering and terrorist financing has been
broadened to combating tax evasion and off-shore tax havens, an effort which has
received added impetus by the current economic recession and governments‟ desire to
increase revenues and cover budget deficits.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Financial Engineering & Emerging Derivative Products
Financial Engineering
Derivative markets have become a focal point of discussion as a result of the financial crisis.
Derivatives (meaning, forwards, options and swaps) have been discussed in their essential
forms in earlier s. They have grown in variety and complexity; for example:
 CDO: Collateralized Debt Obligations

 CDS: Credit Default Swaps
Many institutions ran into trouble due to several factors:
i. Complicated trading strategies;

ii. Magnitude of risk and counterparty effects of default;
iii. Pricing and liquidity;
iv. Excessive reliance on rating agencies
It should be noted that all the above have systemic implications.
The response of authorities has been reactive and in some cases controversial. Evaluate the
following, for example:
i. Banningshort-selling of shares of banks;

ii. Moves to bring most derivatives trading onto regulated exchanges (instead of OTC).
Risk management models have been placed in question:
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i) Value at Risk
ii) Scenario analysis
iii) Stress testing
Developments in international trade and finance
While the current economic downturn clearly dominates business headlines, it is important for
companies to evaluate their position in the business cycle and what the relevant factors and
timing of a recoveryare.
Companies have learned through painful experience that markets do not increase inexorably
and that they must have plans for reacting to downturns. In particular, the difficult access to
credit has been an important theme: even financially sound companies have had their bank
facilities frozen, or even cut.
The severity of the recession has demonstrated that governments will act in drastic
circumstances: the bank bail-outs and the introduction of economic stimulus plans provide
ample evidence of the need to prevent the “meltdown” of financial markets and to counteract
the collapse in consumerdemand.
Companies are struggling with the full gamut of challenges:
 Deficient market demand;

 Liquidity shortages due to slower collection of receivables;
 Sub-optimal inventory management;
 Demand and currency risks in export markets;
 Short-term cost-cutting measures(layoffs, delayed investments and training!);
 Long-term cost-cutting: restructuring measures;
 Strategic reappraisal ;
 Financing options when recovery occurs;
 M&A opportunities (industry consolidation)
Businessesmust also take macro-economic factorsinto account:
 Demand levels in the future (return to pre-crisis levels?)

 In a recovery phase, how government policies are likely to be adjusted with respect to:
a) Monetary policy: Effect on interest rates, exchange rates and inflation (the latter
may eventually increase with economic recovery);
b) Labor policy: If labor markets tighten, how fast will restrictions (imposed on
foreign labor, for example) be relaxed?
c) Fiscal policy: Tax increases (both personal and corporate);
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d) Trade policy: to what degree is any protectionism likely to stay in place?
Again, actively keeping up with reading on these issues will be the best way to prepare for this
section of the exam.
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Question andanswer
Question 1:-
a) “A high EPS may not always maximize the stock price.” Do you agree? Discuss.
b) List out the benefits of issuing bonus shares.
c) “Stability in payment of dividends has a marked bearing on the market price of the
shares of a corporate firm.” Explain the statement.
d) Describe the responsibility of treasury manager.
Answer:-
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a) The statement is true due to the following reasons:

1. EPS may be high due to profit maximization, which itself is not a sure shot for a
high stock price.
2. High EPS may be due to financial leverage effect, which increase a firm‟s risk
prospects of growth rate.
3. If the business prospects of a company are not good the stock price may not go up
in spite of high EPS.
4. The nature of business and the industry in which the company operates also affects
the stock price and not the EPS alone.
b) Benefits of issuing Bonus Shares

Though the effect of issuing bonus shares on shareholders wealth is in fact neutral, and
bonus share can also not be issued in lieu of dividend. The companies issue bonus
shares because of the following benefits:
1. Bonus issue is a signal of bright future of a company. It increases the firm‟s
value.
2. Company utilizes permanently a part of the profit of the company for its
businesses without affecting the liquidity.
3. After the bonus issue share price comes down and the share becomes affordable
(within the reach) of the investors.
4. Bonus shares, are a capital receipt, it is not taxable. It is taxable on sale only.
5. It increases the goodwill of the company.
6. It improves market sentiments.
c) The net cash flows generated from successful business operations are divided into
dividend payments and corporate retentions. The dividend policy determines the
division of earnings between the dividend distribution and reinvestment in the firm.
The distribution of earnings between the two depends upon the need of funds
internally for reinvestment purposes and expectations of shareholders. It has been
observed that dividends have informational value. Usually, an increase in the dividend
leads to a stock price increase while a decrease in dividend results into a stock price
decline. Reason being dividend conveys a positive signal to shareholders about strong
profitability and financial position. Any change in dividend policy is considered by the
investors that it is in response to an expected change in firm‟s profitability, which will
last long. An increase in dividend payout is considered by the investors as permanent
or long-term increase in firm‟s expected earnings and considered as good news
resulting in an increase in stock price. Not only increase dividend is important but also
its stability is equally significant. Fluctuating dividend policy will not create the desired
impact over the stock price. Hence, it is said that stability in payment of dividends has
a marked bearing on the market price of the shares of a corporate firm.
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d) In a business entity, a treasury manger is expected to play a variety of roles. Along with
different roles, a treasury manager has the following responsibilities:
- A treasury manger is expected to establish the operational system of the firm to
ensure compliance of all statutory and regulatory guidelines. Compliance of tax
provisions and payment of all Government dues must also be ensured.
- A treasury manger should be fair in dealings while playing the supportive role.
No undue favour or bias should reflect in his working.
- In case of system breakdown, during periods of cash crunch and under crisis
situation, a treasury manager is expected to exhibit traits of public relationships
and networking.
- In case of system breakdown, during periods of cash crunch and under crises
situation, a treasury manger is expected to exhibit traits of public relationships
and networking.
- A treasury manger is expected to be honest and straightforward in his dealings.
- In order to prove true professionalism, the treasury manager is required to
update his knowledge as and when developments in his field take place.
Question No 2:-
a) If the use of financial leverage magnifies the earnings per share under the favourable
economic conditions, why do companies not employ very large amount of debt in
their capitalstructure?
b) Discuss the foreign sources of finance available to the corporate sector.
c) Discuss in brief the factors to be considered while evaluating the technical feasibility
ofa project.
d) Discuss in brief the attributes of debt securitization.
Answer:-
a) Under favourable economic conditions a company may use financial leverage to

magnify the shareholder‟s return. The financial leverage magnifies shareholder‟s return
on the assumption that the debt funding can be had a cost lower than the firm‟s rate of
return on net assets. The difference of earnings generated on fixed cost funding and cost
of such funding when distributed among equity shareholders magnifies their return and
thus EPS or ROE increase.
There is negative impact of financial leverage if a firm fails to earn adequate
returns on investment to finance the cost of debt funds. The difference of earnings cost
will have to be compensated by the equity shareholders by reducing their return. That is
why, companies do not employ very large amount of debt in their capital structure
despite the advantages of financial leverage.
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b) Finance from foreign sources is available for the corporate sector in various ways as
stated below:
1. Sub-loans in foreign currency are available from All India Financial Institutions.
IDBI and IFCI have been linked with lines of credit in DM from West Germany,
pound Sterling from U.K and Sw. under Indo-Swedish Development
Corporation Agreement. Sub-loans are granted under the aforesaid line of credit
as also against DM revolving funds for financing the import of capital goods
required for new projects or expansion or balancing or modernization of existing
undertakings. In the case of Pound Sterling credit, import of machinery is to be
made only from U.K. sources but in the case of DM or Swedish or Swedish
Kroners, there is no such restriction and import of machinery can be made from
the approved countries.
2. Sub-loans are also available from All India Financial Institution in other
currencies like Japanese Yen and U.S. Dollars. All India Financial Institution have
been raising resources in International Capital market through bonds issues and
are in better position to cater the needs of the industries in much better way
today.
3. Public limited companies are also permitted by Government of India onselective
basis to issue bonds in international market for raising foreign finance for the
industry.
4. Foreign Banks operating in India are having good business of loan syndication in
foreign currency of arranging foreign loans from the banks who make available
foreign finance to the corporate sector.
5. Finance from foreign sources is also available to the company from the
international institutions like IMF, IBRD, ADB, ICF(W), IFAD (International
Fund for Agriculture Development), EEC etc.
Foreign counties viz. UK, Spain, France, Austria, Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland,
Norway, Sweden, Italy, Japan, Australia, Canada, Belgium provide financial assistance to India
for the development of corporate sector.
Amongst the finances from foreign sources UK has been the largest and most
concessional ever since 1958.
c) While evaluating technical feasibility of a project, the following factors should be given
due considerations:
- To protect firm from possibility of obsolescence of technology adopted, proper
evaluation of available technology, use of plant and machinery to be used, must
be made carefully.
- Scale of operation plays an important role in the operations of a firm
economically.
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- While evaluating the technical viability of a project minimum level of scale of

operations must be ensured to gain economy in operation.
- The location of the project in proximity to source of raw material, power, fuel
transport, labour and finished product market facilitates a lot to the firm.
Hence, the location should be properly evaluated.
- The credibility and experience of supplier of equipment and machinery has to
be valuated carefully, to ensure better equipment‟s supplied.
- Evaluation of the layout of the plant at the location site is important for proper
expansion activities and smooth functioning of operations.
- It is to be ensured that proper arrangement for the supply of water, power, gas
and other facilities has properly being made. Proper arrangement has been
made to install generating setoff power sources etc.
- Proper arrangements for transport facilities should be made.
- It must be ensured that proper arrangement have been made for securing
technical know-how and training of workers who would be handling
production operations at the floor.
- A realistic assessment of the construction schedule is very important for the
successful completion of the project work.
-
d) Debtsecuritization
Debt securitization is a method of recycling of funds. It is especially beneficial to
financial intermediaries to support the lending volumes. As sets generating steady cash
flows are packaged together and against this asset pool market securities can be issued.
Functions ofsecuritization process:

1. The origination function.
2. The pooling function.
3. The securitization function.
Benefits ofsecuritization
1. Off balance sheet funding;

2. Conversion of illiquid assets into liquid portfolio;
3. Better balance sheet management;
4. Enhancement inoriginator‟s creditrating;
5. Opening of new investment avenues for investors;
6. As against factoring or bill discounting securitization helps in converting the
stream of cash receivables into a source of long-term finance.
Question No 3:-
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a) Explain the procedure of arrangement for corporate restructuring that can be made
without application of to the court.
b) Strong Ltd. Of which you are the company secretary has two business units, cement
unit and steel unit. The core competency of Strong Ltd. is in steel business. The Board
of directors of the company is considering exiting from its non-core area, i.e., cement
business. You are asked to prepare a detailed not outlining the procedures and steps
involved therein.
c) Balance sheet of ABC Ltd. as on 31st March, 2004 reads as follows:
Liabilities (Rs. in„000) Assets (Rs. in „000)
Share capital 2,26,000 Fixed assets

Reserve 30,000 (net block)
Secured loans 5,17,800 Current assets 6,15,000
Current liabilities 2,80,000 Investments 1,69,800
Profit and loss a/c 1,500
Misc. expenses 2,66,890
(to the extent not written
off)
610
10,53,800 10,53,800
Net worth of ABC Ltd. has completely eroded as on 31 st March, 2004. What are the
steps required to be taken for making a reference to the Board for Industrial and
Financial Reconstruction (BIFR) under the provisions of the Sick Industrial
Companies (Special Provisions) Act, 1985 indicating the time limit wherever
applicable?
Answer:-
a) Procedure for Corporate Restructuring without court approval.

Section 395 of the Companies Ordinance, 1984 enables a company to transfer the whole
of its undertaking to another company by a scheme or contract involving offer by the
transferee company to purchase the shares of the transferor company, when all or the
statutory majority of the shareholders of the transferor company agree to such a scheme
or contract.
The section does not require any application to be made to the Court either by the
transferor company or by the transferee company, as is required under Section 391 for
carrying out thescheme.
The company proposing to takeover, referred to as the transferee company, is required
to make an offer to the company whose shares it proposes to acquire, referred to as the
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transferor company. If within four months after the making of the offer, it is approved
by the shareholders of the transferor company by nine-tenth in value of the shares
whose transfer is involved, the transferee company may at any time within two months
after the expiry of the said four months, give notice in the prescribed manner to any
dissenting shareholder stating that it desires to acquire his shares. When such a notice is
given, the transferee company shall entitled and bound to acquire those shares on the
terms on which, under the scheme or contract, the shares of the approving shareholders
are to be transferred to the transferee company. However, if an application made by the
dissenting shareholder within one month from the date on which notice was given, the
court may direct otherwise.
As per the above provision, after the offer in the form of a draft scheme or contract, from
the transferee company, the Board of Directors of the transferor company is required to
consider and either accept or reject the scheme. If the board considered the offer to be
fair and reasonable and in the interest of the shareholders, creditors and employees of
the company, it may decide to accept the same. However, the Board may decide
otherwise, if it is of the opinion that the offer is not fair and in the interest of all the
concerned parties. In either case, the Board is required to inform the transferee company
accordingly.
If the Board of the transferor company accepts the offer, it must call and hold a general
meeting of the shareholders of the company to pass a resolution by the shareholders of
not less than nine-tenth in value.
The proviso to the said Sub-section (1) of Section 395 lays down that if the shares in the
transferor company of the same class as the shares whose transfer is involved already
held as aforesaid are in excess of one-tenth of the aggregate of the value of all the shares
in the company of such class, the provision of Sub-section (1) shall not apply unless-
a. The transferee company offers the same terms to all holders of the shares of that
class, whose transfer is involved; and
b. The holders who approve the scheme of contract, besides holding not less than
nine tenth in value of the shares, whose transfer in involved, are not less than
three fourths in number of the holders of those shares.
The offer of scheme or contract as referred to in the Section shall be accompanied by the
prescribed information and the same shall be presented to the Registrar for registration.
No circular of scheme of contract shall be issued until it is registered with the Registrar.
The Registrar may refuse to register nay such scheme which does not contain the
required information or which contains such information as is likely to give a false
impression. The company concerned can file an appeal to the Court against the order of
the Registrar refusing to register the scheme.
b) Strong Ltd. can exit from its non-core area i.e. cement business by choosing any of the
following methods.
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(A) By selling or otherwise disposing of the whole or substantially the whole of the
undertaking of the company. [Section 293 (1) (a) of the Companies Ordinance,
1984].
(B) By demerger.
A. The procedural steps involved in case company sells or disposes off the
undertaking are:
- Call a Board meeting after giving notice to all the directors of the
Company as per Section 286 of the Companies Ordinance, 1984 to fix up
the date, time, place and agenda for a General Meeting to pass an
Ordinary Resolution for selling, or otherwise disposing of any of
undertaking of the Company.
- Issue notice of general meeting proposing the Ordinary Resolution with
suitable explanatory statements, hold General Meeting and pass
Ordinary Resolution by simple majority.
- In case Strong Ltd. is listed, the resolution relating to sale of whole or
substantially the whole of undertaking should be passed through postal
ballot.
- Give effect to such sale, lease etc. by executing necessary sale deed.
B. The procedural steps involved under a scheme of arrangement for
demerging of Strong Ltd. are:
- A scheme of demerger is required to be prepared by the Board of
Directors of the demerged company and offered to the Board of
Directors of the resulting company for consideration and approval with
or without modification.
- On receipt back of the approved scheme of demerger, the Board of
Directors of the demerged company is required to peruse the same. If it
contains certain modifications, the modifications are considered.
- Both the companies are required to make separate applications under
Section 391 of the Companies Act to their respective High Courts for
direction for convening and holding general meetings of their
shareholders and creditors for approving the scheme.
- On receipt of the High Court‟s directions, separate general meetings of
the members and creditors of each company are required to be convened
and held by the chairman appointed by the Court. The chairman of the
meeting(s) should, within one week, send his/their reports on the
meeting(s) to the Court.
- When a majority in number representing three-fourths in value of the
creditors or members, as the case may be, present and voting either in
person or, where proxies are allowed, by proxy, at the meeting, approve
the scheme of demerger and the same in sanctioned by the Court on a
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petition by the demerged company under Section 394, it becomes

binding on the company, all the members, creditors and other concerned
parties. No order sanctioning the scheme of demerger shall be made by
the Court unless the court is satisfied that the company or any other
person by whom an application has been made under Sub-section (1) as
disclosed to the court, by affidavit or otherwise al material facts relating
to the company, such as the latest financial position of the company, the
latest xauditor‟s report on the accounts of the company the pendency of
any investigation proceedings in relation to the company under Sections
235 to 251, and the like.
- The order made by the court shall have effect only after a certified copy
of the order has been filed with the Registrar of Companies.
c) Section 3(1)(o) of the Sick Industrial Companies (Special Provisions) Act, 1985, where an
industrial company has become a sick industrial company, the Board of Directors of the
company, shall, within sixty days from the date of finalization of the duly audited
accounts of the company for the financial year as at the end of which the company has
become a sick industrial company, make a reference to the Board for the determination
of the measures which shall be adopted with respect to the company. Where the Board
of Directors had sufficient reasons even before such finalization to form the opinion that
the company had become a sick industrial company, the Board of Directors, shall within
sixty days, after it has formed such opinion, make a reference to the Board for the
determination of the measures which shall be adopted with respect to company. The
accumulated losses in this case are Rs.2, 66,890 while the net worth is [Capital Rs.226000
plus Reserves Rs.30, 000 = Rs. 256000]. It has become a sick industrial company.
Therefore in the case of ABC Ltd., Board of Directors shall within sixty days after it has
formed such opinion, make a reference to the Board for Industrial and Financial
reconstruction for the determination of the measures which shall be adopted with
respect to the company.
Question No 4:-
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a) “A key challenge in merger and acquisition is their effective implementation, as there

are chances that mergers and acquisitions may fail because if slow integration.
“Explain the key factors which are required to be recognized in post-merger or
acquisition.
b) “The reconstruction involves the idea of substantially the same person carrying on
substantially the same undertaking or enterprise in the name of a new company.
“Elucidate the statement in the light of legal provisions and judicial pronouncements.
c) In the scheme of amalgamation, the court is not required to ascertain with
mathematical accuracy of the terms and targetsset out in the proposed scheme; what is
required to be evaluated in the general fairness of the scheme. Discuss in the light of
judicial pronouncements.
Answer:-
a) The statement „A key challenge in merger and acquisition is their effective

implementation as there are chances that mergers and acquisitions may fail because of
slow integration‟, is true. The key is to formulate in advance, the integration plants that
can effectively accomplish the goals of the merger and amalgamation process. To
implement the objectives of merger or acquisitions, there are various factors, which are
required to be reorganized in the post merged or acquired company such as:
i. Legal Requirements: Fulfillments of legal requirements in post-merger
reorganization of any amalgamating company becomes essential for an
effectives and successful venture. The legal counsel of the amalgamating
company of its consultant would have to ensure that the company meets its
legal obligations in all related and requisite areas.
ii. Combination of operations: Combination of operations of two companies
requires proper planning for phased transitions, extensive preparation and
intensive testing.
iii. Top Management Changes: There is change at the Board as well as at the senior
executive‟s level. It is necessary to adjust in suitable positions the top executives
of the amalgamating company to create a congenial environment and cohesive
group leadership within the organization.
iv. Management of financial resources: It is important to revamp the financial
resources of the company to ensure optimum utilization of the financial
resources available and the liquidity requirements.
v. Financial Restructuring: Financial Restructuring becomes essential in post-
merger reorganization. Replacement of costlier funding by cheaper borrowings
on a long and short-term basis as per requirement is one of the several ways
and means of financial restructuring for a company.
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vi. Rationalization of Labour cost: Post merger reorganization need rationalization

of labour cost as it forms the primary factor of prime cost of any product and
service.
vii. Production and marketing management: With regard to the size of the company
and its operational scale, its product mix should be adjusted during post-
merger period. Revamping of marketing strategy becomes essential, which is
accomplished on the basis of market surveys, and recommendations of
marketing experts. Pricing policy also deserves attention for gaining
competitive strength.
viii. Corporate planning and control: Corporate planning and control techniques
which are used by the units would also require changes from traditional to
moderncontrol techniques.
ix. Cultural Integration: The most important problem is that of two different
leadership and organizational cultures of hitherto different organizations
coalescing with one another. For smoothing this process careful planning is
required.
b) The expression “reconstruction” has been used in Section 394 of the Companies
Ordinance, 1984 along with the term amalgamation. It is however, not been defined
therein. The term “reconstruction” is usually meant the transfer of an undertaking or
business of a company to one or more companies specially formed for the purpose. The
old company goes into liquidation and its shareholders, instead of being repaid their
capital are issued and allotted equivalent shares in the new company. Consequently, the
same shareholders carry on almost the same undertaking or enterprise in the name of a
new company. The Supreme Court is Textile Machinery Corporation Ltd. CIT (1977) 107
ITR 195 (SC) held that reconstruction of business involves the idea of substantially the
same persons carrying on substantially the same business.
c) The Supreme Court in the case of Hindustan Lever Employees Union v. Hindustan
Lever Ltd., (1994) 4 Comp LJ 267 (SC) held that it is not the part of the judicial process to
exercise entrepreneurial activities to ferret outflows. The court is least equipped for such
oversights, nor indeed is it a function of the judges in our constitutional scheme. The
internal management, business activity or institutional operation of public bodies cannot
be inspected by the Court. The Court‟s obligation is to satisfy that the valuation was in
accordance with the law.
The nature of jurisdiction of the court, while considering the question of
sanctioning the scheme of amalgamation or compromise, is of sentinel nature and is not
of appellate nature to examine the arithmetical accuracy of scheme approved by
majority of the shareholders. The court held that while considering the sanction of a
scheme of merger, the court was not required to ascertain the mathematical accuracy of
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the terms and targets set out in the proposed scheme; what was required was to evaluate
the general fairness of the scheme.
Question No 5:-
a) Determine the risk adjusted net present value of the following projects:
Project – A Project – B Project – C
Net cash outlay (Rs.) 1, 00,000 1, 20,000 2, 10,000
Project life (years) 5 5 5
Annual cash inflow (Rs.) 30,000 42,000 70,000
Coefficient of variation 0.4 0.8 1.2
The company selects the risk adjusted rate of discount on the basis of coefficient of
variation:
Coefficient of Variation Risk Adjusted Rate of Discount
0.0 10%
0.4 12%
0.8 14%
1.2 16%
1.6 18%
2.0 22%
More than 2.0 25%
b) Vijay Ltd. has got to have the following capital structure:

Rs.
Ordinary share capital 60, 00,000
8% Preference Shares 10, 00,000
Free reserves 35, 00,000
9½% Debentures 5, 00,000
Total 1,10,00,000
In addition to above, the bankers has sanctioned a cash credit limit of Rs. 10,00,000 with
interest chargeable @ 10% per annum with the condition that in case the company fails
to utilise the cash credit limit in full, bank would recover commitment charges @ 8%.
The cash credit limit as such could be utilized on an average to the extent of 80% only.
Among other obligations, the company has to ensure –
i. Payment of all interest;
ii. Dividend pay – out ratio of 60%; and
iii. Dividend of 12% to equity shareholders.
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You are required to calculate company‟s overall rate of return on capital employed assuming
income – tax rate to be 35%. Also indicate cost of capital after tax.
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Question No 6:-
a) “Treasury management has both macro and micro aspects.” Explain.

b) “Reserves and surpluses have no cost.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
c) Explain „capital account convertibility‟.
d) Distinguish between the hedging and conservative approaches to financing of
working capital.
Answer:-
a) Treasury management has both macro and micro aspects. At the macro level, the inflows
and outflows of cash, credit and other financial instruments are the functions of the
government and the business sectors. The inflows are supplements by them by
borrowing from the public. In these sectors, the ratio of saving to investments is less
than one, i.e. the saving are inadequate to fund the investments. Hence the need for
borrowing. The accordingly issue securities or promissory notes which are part of the
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financial system. These borrowings for financial needs are met by surplus savings and
funds of the household and the foreign sector, where the ratio of savings to investments
in positive. The micro units utilize these inflows and build up their capacities for
production of output. This leads to establishment of a production system which logically
leads us to the natural consequence, i.e. the establishment of distribution and
consumption systems. Once the production, distribution and consumption systems are
in place at the micro level, the generation of surpluses at the units begins. These
surpluses are channeled back into the macro system as outflows from the micro system.
The inflows are in the form of the taxes paid to the government and repayment of loans
made to the banks and financial institutions. These inflows and outflows at the macro
level and the micro level have to be managed by the treasury managers.
b) Reserves and Surpluses are funds accumulated over the years, of the company, by
keeping past of the profits generated without distribution as dividend amongst
shareholders. The funds so generated become one of the major sources of funding for
the company to finance its expansion and diversification programs. The funds belong to
equity shareholders and are taken into account while calculating cost of equity capital of
the company. Many people consider reserves and surpluses as a cost free source of
funds, which may not be a correct approach. The reason is that reserves and surpluses
indicate the amount of profits not distributed among equity shareholders. These
retained earnings belong to shareholders only. If they have been distributed among the
equity shareholders by way of dividend, some earnings would have resulted to them by
re-investing them. Virtually, the company has deprived the equity holders of this
earning by retaining a portion of profit with it. Therefore, the cost of reserves and
surpluses may be considered as equivalent to the earnings foregone by the shareholders.
In other words, the opportunity cost of reserves and surpluses may be considered as
their cost, which is equal to the income that they would otherwise earn by placing these
funds in alternative investment. Therefore, the statement that reserves and surpluses
have no cost is not correct. It is a source of funds, which has cost equivalent to
opportunity rates of earnings of equity shareholders which is being foregone
continuously.
c) Capital Account Convertibility in simple term refers to an economic tool expected to
engender more efficient capital flows and catalyse growth impulses and enable the
society to achieve a stable balance between its internal and external prices. The basic
objective of capital account convertibility is to:
a. Deepen and integrate financial markets;
b. Raise the access to global savings;
c. Discipline domestic policy makers; and
d. Allow greater freedom to individual decision making.
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A more open capital account facilitates higher availability of larger capital stock,
supplementing domestic resources thereby leading to higher growth and reducing the
cost of capital and also facilitating access to the international financial market.
d) An aggressive current asset policy aims at minimizing the investment in current assets
corresponding to increase in sales thereby exposing the firm to greater risk but at the
same time resulting in higher expected profitability. On the other hand conservative
policy aims at reducing the risk by having higher investment in current assets and
thereby depressing the expected profitability. In between these two, lies a moderate
current asset policy.
The following figure shows the relationship between current asset policy and current
asset financing policy thereby reflecting the overall working capital policy.
Current Aggr
Moderate Aggressive
Asset
Financing Conservative Moderate
Policy
Cons.
Conservative Aggressive
Current Asset
Working Capital Policy
Question No 7:-
a) What is credit rating and how does it benefit the investors and the company?
b) Describe the meaning of „index futures‟. What is the scope of risk management by
using indexfutures”
c) Distinguish between capital market line and „security market line‟.
d) Discuss the basic characteristics of depository system implemented in India.
Answer:-
a) Credit Rating is a symbolic indication of the current opinion regarding the relative
capability of a corporate entity to service its debt obligations in time with reference to
the instrument being rated. It enables the investor to differentiate between debt
instruments on the basis of their underlying credit quality. To facilitate simple and easy
understanding, credit rating is expressed in alphabetical or alphanumerical symbols.
Benefits For Investors: The remain purpose of credit rating is to communicate to the
investors the relative ranking of the default loss probability for a given fixed income
investment, in comparison with other rated instruments. In a way it is essentially an
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information service. In the absence of professional credit rating, the investor has to
largely depend on his familiarity with the names of promoters or collaborators of a
company issuing debt instruments. This is not a reliable method. Credit rating by
skilled, competent and credible professionals eliminates or at least minimizes the role of
name recognition and replaces it with a well-researched and properly analyzed opinion.
This method provides a low cost supplement to investors. Large investors use
information provided by rating agencies such as upgrades and downgrades and alter
their portfolio mix by operating in the secondary market. Investors also use the industry
reports, corporate reports, seminars and open access provided by the credit rating
agencies.
Benefits For Issuers: The market places immense faith in opinion of credit rating
agencies, hence the issuers also depend on their critical analysis. This enables the issuers
of highly rated instruments to access the market even during adverse market conditions.
Credit rating provides a basis for determining the additional return (over and above a
risk free return) which investors must get in order to be compensated for the additional
risk that they bear. The difference in price leads to significant cost savings in the case of
highly rated instruments.
b) Futures contract based on an index i.e. the underlying asset is the index, are known as
Index Futures Contracts. For example, futures contract on NIFTY Index and BSE-30
Index. These contracts derive their value from the value of the underlying index.
Index Futures and Risk management have been widely accepted as an immediate
success. Fund managers welcome the emergence of index futures as an extra tool for
hedging their portfolio against market risk. Hedging against market risk involves
transaction on a futures market in order to insure against wealth fluctuations from stock
market movements. A hedger is a trader whose net position in the cash market is offset
by his position in the futures market.
Before the existence of futures, one of the few ways a portfolio manager could hedge
against market risk was by switching out of high beta shares into low beta ones when
the market is heading downwards (i.e. just before a bear market) and the reverse when
the market is surging upwards (i.e. a bull market). This was not a practical strategy
because not only is it time consuming, it involved huge transactions costs and there was
also the problem of market timing. Another way to the manager can hedge against
market risk is by trading in options on equities. This involves the transaction of a large
number of options and so incurs huge transactions cost too. In fact, it is now well know
that stock index futures or options on the stock index are superior instruments to hedge
equity against market risk.
c) Capital Market Line and Security Market Line
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Capital Market Line (CML) shows the linear relationship between expected rate of
return and total risk for efficient portfolios whereas Security Market Line (SML)
describes the risk-return relationship (linear) for both efficient and inefficient portfolios.
Some of the major points of distinction between the two are as under:
- In CML, the risk is defined by total risk (r), while in SML the risk is defined by
diversifiable market related risk (β).
- CML is valid only for fully diversified (efficient) portfolios while SML is valid
for all portfolios and for individual securities as well.
d) The legal framework for depository system as envisaged in the Depositories Act, 1996
provides for the establishment of single or multiple depositories.
Anybody to be eligible for providing depository services must be formed and
registered as a company under the Companies Ordinance, 1984 and seek registration
with SEBI and obtain a Certificate of Commencement of Business from SEBI on
fulfillment of the prescribed conditions.
The investors opting to join depository mode are required to enter into an agreement
with depository through a participant who acts as an agent of depository.
The agencies such as custodians, banks, financial institutions, large corporate
brokerage firms, non-banking financial companies etc. act as participants of
depositories.
The companies issuing securities are also required to enter into an agreement with
the Depository.
The depository‟s legislation aims at providing for:
- A legal basis for establishment of depositories to conduct the task of
maintenance of ownership records of securities and effect changes in ownership
records through book entry;
- Dematerialization of securities in the depositories mode as well as giving option
to an investor to choose between holding securities in physical mode and
holding securities in a dematerialized form in a depository;
- Making the shares, debentures and any interest thereon of a public limited
company freely transferable; and
Question No 8:-
i. Leveraged lease
ii. Green shoe option
iii. Bonusdebentures
iv. Systematic and unsystematic risks
Answer:-
i. Leveraged lease
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It is special form of leasing. In this form, lessor borrowed the majority of funds required
to purchase the leased property from a bank or other lender. Thus, in case of leverage
lease there are three parties to the lease transaction-the lessee, the lessor and the lender.
These types of leases are popular in financing of assets which require larger capital
outlays. From the lessee‟s point of view, however there is no difference between a
leveraged lease and a non-leveraged lease except that in the case of the former, the lessee
may be required to guarantee the debt incurred by the lessor. The loan is usually
secured by a mortgage on the asset, as well as by the assignment of the lease and the
lease payments. As owner of the asset, the lessor is entitled to deduct all depreciation
charges associated with the leased asset and residual value, if any, at the end of the lease
period.
ii. Green Shoe Option Facility

As Issuer Company making a public offer of equity shares can avail of the Green Shoe
Option (GSO) for stabilizing the post listing price of its shares, subject to the provisions
stipulated in the guidelines.
A company desirous of availing this option, should in the resolution of the general
meeting authorizing the public issue, seek authorization also for the possibility of
allotment of further shares to the „Stabilizing Agent‟ (SA) at the end of the stabilization
period.
The company should appoint one of the merchant bankers or book runners, amongst the
issue management team, as the “stabilizing agent” (SA), who will be responsible for the
price stabilization process, if required. The SA shall enter into an agreement with the
issuer company, prior to filing of offer documents with SEBI, clearly stating all the terms
and conditions relating to this option including fees charged/expenses to the incurred
by SA for this purpose.
The SA should also enter into an agreement with the promoter(s) or pre-issue
shareholders who will lend their shares under the provisions of this scheme, specifying
the maximum, number of shares that may be borrowed from the promoters or the
shareholders, which shall not be in excess of 15% of the total issue size.
The details of the agreements mentioned above should be disclosed in the draft
prospectus, the draft Red Herring prospectus, Red Herring prospectus and the final
prospectus.
iii. Bonus Debentures

The issue bonus debentures, the company capitalizes its retained earnings into
debentures. Bonus debentures are like Bonus Shares. There are a number of benefits to
the issuing company, namely:
1. The following stock of shares in the market does not increase.
2. Company gets tax advantage on interest payments on debentures.
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3. These are issued when the issuing company anticipates that in the coming years,
the company will have cash balances and the same would not been needed for
financing. The expected return on internal retention would be lower than market
return. In such circumstances cash outflows in redeeming the debentures would
not affect the company‟s liquidity position.
4. The cost of debt Capital (Kd) would be lower than cost of equity (Ke).
The practice of issuing bonus debentures, however, is not popular in India.
iv. Systematic and Unsystematic Risk

Systematic risk is that part of total risk that results from the tendency of stock prices to
move together with the general market. It reflects the fluctuations and change of the
general market. Some of the examples of systematic risk include market risk, interest
rate risk and purchasing power risk, etc. On the other hand, unsystematic risk is that
portion of a security risk which emerges as a result of known and controllable factors.
Some of the major examples of unsystematic risk include business risk, financial risk,
and default and insolvency risks. The basic distinction between two is that unsystematic
risk is diversifiable and can be eliminated by increasing the number of securities in the
portfolio but the systematic risk is non-diversifiable and cannot be eliminated.
Question No 9:- “Corporate restructurings one of the means that can be employed to meet the
challenges which confront business.” Discuss this statement and outline the scenario on
corporate restructuring in India.
Answer: - Corporate restructuring is concerned with arranging the business activities of the
corporate as a whole, so as to achieve certain predetermined objectives at corporate level. These
objectives include orderly redirection of the firm‟s activities, deploying surplus cash from one
business to finance profitable growth in another, exploiting inter-dependence among present or
prospective businesses within the corporate portfolio, risk reduction and development of core
competencies. Corporate restructuring aims at improving the competitive position of an
individual business and maximizing its contribution to corporate objectives. It also aims at
exploiting the strategic assets accumulated by a business i.e. natural monopoly, goodwill,
exclusively through licensing etc. to enhance the competitive advantages.
The words of Justice Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud that corporate restructuring is one of the
means that can be employed to meet the challenges which confront business, is true and
appropriate statement.
The unleashing of Indian economy has opened up lucrative and dependable opportunities to
business community as a whole. The absence of strict regulations about the size and volume of
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business encouraged the enterprises to opt for mergers and amalgamation so as to produce on a
massive scale, reduce costs of production, makes price internationally competitive etc.
Companies, by merging and amalgamation, reduce the number of competitor, increase their
market share, provides economies of scale, reduction in production, administration, setting,
legal and professional expenses, provides the benefit of integration, tax advantage, strengthen
its financial strength, revival of week or sick company, synergistic operational advantages,
competitive advantage, optimum use of capacities & factors of production, advantage of brand
equity, and diversification.
Question No 10:- A stable dividend protects the underlying asset against loss and the
underlying asset protects the option against loss.
Answer: - A stable dividend policy is always preferable to fluctuating dividend policy. A

dividend announcement by the company carries a lot of information about the performance of
the company. Stable dividend policy conveys the idea that the operations of the company are
stable and in comfortable position. A fluctuating dividend implies that the company is not able
to maintain the performance. Shareholders and investors prefer a company which has a stable
dividend policy; so that they are sure about the quantum of their dividend income and they can
plan for reinvestment of this income.
Question No 11:-
a) Describe „financial restructuring‟. What step may be taken in case of under-

capitalization and over-capitalization?
b) State whether the following statements are true or false citing briefly relevant
provisions of the law:
“Debenture holders enjoy different position other than that of secured
creditors in a scheme of amalgamation.”
Answer:-
a) Financial restructuring deals with the restructuring of capital base and raising finance
for new projects. This involves decisions relating to acquisitions, merger, joint ventures
and strategic alliances. Financial restructuring of a company involves a rearrangement
of its financial structure to make the company‟s finances more balanced.
Restructuring of under-capitalized company
An under cap8italized company may consider restructuring its capital by taking one or
more of the following corrective step:
a. Injecting more capital whenever required either through right issue/
preferential issue or additional public issue;
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b. Resorting to additional borrowings from financial institutions, banks, etc.

c. Issuing debentures, bonds, etc.; o
d. Inviting and accepting fixed deposits from directors, their relatives, business
associations and public.
Restructuring of overcapitalizedcompany
If a company is over capitalized, its capital also requires restructuring by taking

followingcorrectivemeasures:
a. Buy back of ownshares;

b. Paying back surplus capital to shareholders;
c. Repaying loans to financial institutions, banks, etc.;
d. Repaying fixed deposits to public etc.;
e. Redeeming its preference shares, debentures, bonds, etc.
b) False. All the secured creditors including the debenture holders enjoy the same status
and rights and that there is no conflict of interest at all amongst them. They constitute
one class as was held in the decision of the Supreme Court in National Rayon
Corporation Limited v Commissioner of Income Tax.
Question No 12:-
Distinguish between the following.
i. „Merger‟ and „acquisition‟.

ii. „Effective date‟ and „transfer date‟ in a scheme of merger.
iii. „Split-off‟ and „split-up‟.
Answer:-
i. Merger
The terms merger is not defined in the Companies Ordinance, 1984. Broadly speaking a
merger may be defined as a combination of two or more companies into a single
company, where one or both lose(s) its corporate existence. It is an arrangement
whereby the assets of two or more companies become vested in or under the control of
one company, which may or may not be one of the original two companies. Such
company has as its shareholders, all or substantially all the shareholders of the two or
more merging companies. Mergers are also considered as revival measures for industrial
sickness.
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Acquisition
Acquisition in general sense is acquiring the ownership in a property. In the
context of business combinations, an acquisition is the purchase by one company of a
controlling interest in the share capital of another existing company. Companies go in
for acquisitions for a number of strategic or tactical reasons, like growth orientation;
access to raw materials, technology, cheaper labour, innovations; reduction in
dependence on exports. It can be enforced through an agreement with the persons
holding a majority interest in the company‟s management or through purchasing shares
in the open market or purchasing new shares by private treaty or by making a take-over
offer to the general body of shareholders.
ii. Effective Date

This is the date on which the transfer and vesting of the undertaking of the transferor
company shall take effect i.e., all the requisite approvals would have been obtained.
Transfer Date
This is usually the first day of the financial year preceding the financial year for which
audited accounts are available with the companies. In other words, this is a cutoff date
from which all the movable and immovable properties including all rights, powers,
privileges of every kind, nature and description of the transferor-company shall be
transferred or deemed to be transferred without any further act, deed or thing to the
transferee company.
iii. Split-off
It is a process of reorganizing a corporate structure whereby the capital stock of a
division or subsidiary of a corporation or of a newly affiliated company is transferred to
the stakeholders of the parent corporation in exchange for part of the stock of the latter.
Split-up
It is a process of re-organizing a corporate structure where by all the capital stock and
assets are exchanged for those of two or more newly established companies, resulting in
the liquidation of the parent corporation.
Question No 13:-
a) “A high EPS may not always maximize the stock price.” Do you agree? Discuss.
b) List out the benefits of issuing bonus shares.
c) “Stability in payment of dividends has a marked bearing on the market price of the
shares of a corporate firm.” Explain the statement.
d) Describe the responsibilities of treasury manager.
Answer:-
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a) The statement is true due to the following reasons:

1. EPS may be high due to profit maximization, which itself is not a sure shot for a
high stock price.
2. High EPS may be due to financial leverage effect, which increases a firm‟s risk
prospects of growth rate.
3. If the business prospects of a company are not good the stock price may not go
up in spite of high EPS.
4. The nature of business and the industry in which the company operates also
affects the stock price and not the EPS alone.
b) Benefits of issuing Bonus Shares
Though the effect of issuing bonus shares on shareholders‟ wealth is in fact neutral, and
bonus shares can also not be issued in lieu of dividend. The companies issue bonus
shares because of the following benefits:
1. Bonus issue is a signal of bright future of a company. It increases the firm‟s
value.
2. Company utilizes permanently a part of the profit of the company for its
businesses without affecting the liquidity.
3. After the bonus issue share price comes down and the share becomes affordable
(within the reach) of the investors.
4. Bonus shares, are a capital receipt, it is not taxable. It is taxable on sale only.
5. It increases the goodwill of the company.
6. It improves market sentiments.
c) The net cash flows generated from successful business operations are divided into
dividend payments and corporate retentions. The dividend policy determines the
division of earnings between the dividend distribution and reinvestment in the firm.
The distribution of earnings between the two depends upon the need of funds internally
for reinvestment purposes and expectations of shareholders. It has been observed that
dividends have informational value. Usually, an increase in the dividend leads to a stock
price increase while a decrease in dividend results into a stock price decline. Reason
being dividend conveys a positive signal to shareholders about strong profitability and
financial position. Any change in dividend policy is considered by the investors that it is
in response to an expected change in firm‟s profitability, which will last long. An
increase in dividend payout is considered by the investor as permanent or long-term
increase in firm‟s expected earnings and considered as good news resulting in an
increase in stock price. Not only increase in dividend is important but also its stability is
equally significant. Fluctuating dividend policy will not create the desired impact over
the stock price. Hence, it is said that stability in payment of dividends has a marked
bearing on the market price of the shares of a corporate firm.
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d) In a business entity, a treasury manager is expected to play a variety of roles. Along with
different roles, a treasury manager has the following responsibilities.
- A treasury manager is expected to establish the operational system to play a
variety of roles. Along with different roles, a treasury manager has the following
responsibilities:
- A treasury manager should be fair in dealings while playing the supportive role.
No undue favour or bias should reflect in his working.
- In case of system breakdown, during periods of cash crunch and under crisis
situation, a treasury manager is expected to exhibit traits of public relationships
and networking.
- A treasury manager is expected to be honest and straightforward in his dealings.
- In order to prove true professionalism, the treasury manager is required to
update his knowledge as and when developments in his field take place.
Question No 14:-
a) “There are legal constraints on payment of dividends.” Discuss it in the light of

statutoryframeworkexistingin Pakistan.
b) Describe the main objectives of syndication of euro currency loans.
c) State with reasons whether the investment, financing and dividend decisions are inter-
related.
Answer:-
a) In the company organization, dividend policy is determined by the Board of Directors

having taken into consideration a number of factors which include legal restrictions
imposed by the Government to safeguard the interests of various parties or the
constituents of the company. As regards cash dividend policy several legal constraints
bear upon it – a firm may not pay a dividend which will impair capital. Dividend must
be paid out of firm‟s earnings/current earnings. Contract/Agreements for bonds/loans
may restrict payments. The purpose of legal restriction is to ensure that the payment of
dividend may not cause insolvency. In Pakistan, dividend cannot be declared except out
of profit. It pre-supposes that there is a trading of profit or surplus for distribution
arrived at after providing for depreciation on assets, not only for the current year but
also for any arrears of depreciation on assets of the past years. In the case of banks, the
Banking Regulation Act requires that 20 per cent of the profit of a banking company
must first be transferred to the General Reserve before any dividend can be distributed.
Similarly, the company law authorizes the Government to compel companies to transfer
a part of their after – tax profits to reserve before dividend is paid.
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b) Main Objectives of Syndication of Euro Currency Loans can be looked into from
borrowers point of view and from lender‟s point of view
From borrower‟s point of view
1. Large sum is arranged without delay and at least cost.
2. Gets better introduction to enter into international loan market without much
difficulty.
3. Funds are made available easily for meeting balance of payment deficit and
for financing large industrial projects.
4. The borrower is allowed to select the length of the roll over period and in
choosing different currencies to repay or cancel agreements after a short
notice period without penalty.
Lender‟s point ofview
1. It helps the bank to share large credits with other banks, to finance many
borrowers.
2. Different size banks can participate.
3. It provides more profitability to banks as costs are relatively low.
4. Syndicated loan is under-written by a small group banks which resell
portions of the commitments to other banks.
c) Financial Management, to be more precise, is concerned with investment, financing and
dividend decisions in relation to objectives of the company. In the ultimate analysis,
such decisions have to take care of the interest of the shareholders. Investment
ordinarily means profitable utilization of funds. Investment decisions are concerned
with the question whether adding to capital assets today will increase the net worth of
the firm. Financing is next step in financial management for executing the investment
decision once taken. Financial decision making is concerned with the question as to how
funds requirements should be met keeping in view their cost, and how far the financing
policy influences cost of capital. This would provide a cut off rate whether corporate
funds be committed to or withheld from certain projects and how the expected returns
on projects be measured. The dividend decision is another major area of financial
management. The financial manager helps in deciding whether the firm should
distribute all profits or retain them or distribute a portion and retain the balance.
Thus, from the point of view of a corporate unit, financial management is related not
only to „fund raising‟ but encompasses wider perspective of investing and distributing
the finances of the company efficiently. As such it is true to say that investment,
financing and divided decisions are inter-related.
Question No 15:
a) “Liquidity and profitability are competing goals for the finance manager.” Comment.
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b) “Depreciation is a part of cost of production and is at the same time an important

source of internal finance.” Discuss this statement.
c) “Retained earnings have no cost.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
d) “Efficient cash management will aim at maximizing the availability of cash inflows
by decentralizing collections and decelerating cash outflows by centralizing
disbursements.” Discuss.
Answer:-
a) One of the most important problems faced by the finance manager is the dilemma of
liquidity vs. profitability. Liquidity ensures the ability of the firm to honour its short
term commitments that mean, the firm has adequate cash; to pay for its bills, to make
unexpected large purchases and to meet contingencies, at all time. It also reflects the
ability of the firm to convert its assets into cash and pay off liabilities quickly. Ezra
Soloman states “liquidity measures a company‟s ability to meet expected as well as
unexpected requirements of cash to expend its assets, reduce its liability and cover up
any operating losses.” Under liquidity management, the finance manager is expected to
manage all its current assets including near cash assets in such a way as to ensure its
affectivity with the view to minimize its costs. On the other hand, under profitability
objective, the finance manager is expected to utilize the funds of the firm in such a
manner as to ensure the highest return. However, the two objectives of liquidity and
profitability have inverse relationship. If liquidity increases profitability decreases and
vice-versa. Thus, in almost all the decision taken by the finance manager, profitability
and liquidity goals conflict. For example, the finance manager may follow a liberal credit
policy with the view to push-up its sales and thus generate higher revenue, but its
liquidity position will affect adversely. Hence the finance manager has to strike a
balance between these twoconflicting objectives.
b) While calculating cost of production of an item, prime costs and factory overheads are
considered. Under factory overheads depreciation on plants and machinery and other
assets are included. Thus depreciation forms part of cost of production. Depreciation
indicates the decreases in the value of assets due to wear and tear, lapse of time,
obsolescence, exhaustion and accident and hence some funds are desired to be set apart
for replacement of worn-out assets. “It is a deduction out of profits of the company
calculated as per accounting rules on the basis of estimated life of each asset each year
over the life of the assets to an amount equal to original value of the assets”. The pool of
funds generated due to accumulation of depreciation provides an opportunity to a firm
to use it in the funding of its working capital requirements, acquisition of new assets or
replacement of worn out plant and machinery.
Thus, there is no doubt that depreciation is a part of cost of production. However,
there exists a lot of controversy among academicians and business executives whether
depreciation is a source offunds.
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Those who consider depreciation as a source of funds argue that depreciation does
not result into any cash outlay since it is a non-cash expense. The portion of profits
adjusted for depreciation can be used by the management to finance their working
capital requirements. Therefore, depreciation may be considered as a source of funds in
a limited sense only.
The People who oppose considering depreciation as a source of funds argue that
funds are generated by operating profits and not by making provision for depreciation.
Depreciation is considered as a special amount set aside out of the revenue generated by
the firm. If it would have been really a source of funds, any firm could have improved
its position at its will, just by increasing the periodical depreciation charge. Hence in a
strict sense, depreciation should not be considered as a source of funds.
c) Retained earnings are funds accumulated over the years, of the company, by keeping
part of the funds generated with distribution as dividend amongst shareholders. The
funds so generated become one of the major sources of funding for the company to
finance its expansion and diversification programmes. The funds belong to equity
shareholders and it is taken into account while calculating cost of equity. Many people
consider retained earnings as a cost free source of funds, which may not be a correct
approach. The reason is that retained earnings indicate the amount of profits not
distributed among equity shareholders. These retained earnings belong to shareholders
only. If they had been distributed among the equity shareholders by way of dividend,
some earnings would have resulted to them. Virtually, the company has deprived the
equity holders of this earning by retaining a portion of profit with it. Therefore, the cost
of retained earnings may be considered as equivalent to the earnings forgone by the
shareholders. In other words, the opportunity cost of retained earnings may be
considered as their cost, which is equal to the income that they would otherwise earn by
placing these funds in alternative investment. Therefore, the statement that retained
earnings have no cost is not correct. It is source of funds, which has cost equivalent to
opportunity rates of earnings of equity shareholders which is being foregone
continuously.
d) The cash management has two basic objectives:
i. To ensure availability of cash as per payment schedule;
ii. To minimize the amount of idle cash balance.
With a view to achieve the above objectives, cash budget is prepared with expected
cash inflow and outflows indicating appropriate deficiencies and surpluses at various
point of time. The finance manager is expected to ensure minimum deviations between
projected cash flows and actual cash flows. This requires proper control of cash
collections and disbursements. An efficient cash management requires accelerating cash
collection as much as possible and decelerating cash disbursement as much as possible.
That is why it is said that efficient cash management will aim at maximizing the
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availability of cash inflows by decentralizing collections and decelerating cash outflows

by centralizing disbursements.
Accelerating cash collections through Decentralizing Collections
Cash requirements of a firm can be reduced by speeding up cash collections. Cash

collections may be accelerated by a firm; by prompt processing of invoice; minimizing
the time enjoyed by the buyers in clearing of bills and efficient cheque management. A
large firm operating over wide geographical areas can accelerate its collections by
decentralized collection procedure. Under this system, the firm instead of having single
collection center centralized at the firm‟s head office opens a large number of collection
centers pm geographical basis. The objective here is to minimize lag between the mailing
time from customers to the firm and the time when the firm can make use of the funds.
Thus, accelerated system saves mailing and processing time, resulting in accelerated
cash inflows.
Decelerate cash outflows by centralizing disbursements:
Effective control over disbursements of cash may also prove helpful in conserving
cash and reducing financial requirements. Disbursements usually arise in a firm due to
trade credit. A firm is expected to enjoy full credit period and payment may be delayed
as much as possible without affecting credibility of the firm adversely. In this context, a
centralized disbursement system is usually recommended to exercise effective control
over disbursements and to enjoy credit period as much as possible. This is called
„playing float. However, the technique of „playing float‟ may be enjoyed with caution.
Question No 16:
a) Prepare working capital forecast and projected profit and loss account and balance sheet
from the following information:
Rs
Issued equity share capita 50, 00,000
Preference share capital 15, 00,000
Fixed assets 30, 66,667
Production during the previous year was 10, 00,000 units which is expected to be
maintained during the current year. The expected ratios of cost to selling price are?
Raw material 40%

Direct wages 20%
Overheads 20%
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Raw material ordinarily remains in stock for 3 months before production. Every unit of
production remains in process for 2 months. Finished goods remain in stock for 3
months. Creditors allow 3 months for payment and debtors are allowed 4 months credit.
Estimated minimum cash to be held will be Rs. 2, 00,000. Lag in payment of wages and
overheads are expected to be half a month. The selling price will be Rs. 8 per unit. The
production is in continuous process and sales are in regular cycle.
b) How does „outsourcing‟ benefit the company?
Answer:
a)
Total Production 10, 00,000units
Sales Rate Rs. 8/unit
Cost per unit of:
Raw Material = 8×40% =3.20

Wages = 8×20% =1.60
Overheads = 8×20% =1.60
Current Assets (Rs)

Cash 2, 00,000
Raw Material 10, 00,000 × 3.20 × 3m/12 = 8, 00,000
Work-in-Progress 10, 00,000 × [3.20 RM]
[0.80 Wages]
[0.80 o/h]
× 2/12 = 8, 00,000
Finished Goods 10, 00,000 × 6.40 × 3/12 = 16, 00,000
Debtors 10, 00,000 × 8 × 4/12 = 26, 66,667
Total: 60, 66,667
Current Liabilities
Creditors 10, 00,000 × 3.20 × 3/12 = 8, 00,000
Wages 10, 00,000 × 8 × 1/24 = 66,667
Overheads 10, 00,000 × 1.60/1/24 = 66,667 9, 33,334
Working capital required 51, 33,333
Profit Statement (Rs)

Sales 80, 00,000
Less:
Raw Material 32, 00,000
Wages 16, 00,000
Overhears 16, 00,000 64, 00,000
Profit 16, 00,000
Balance Sheet as on…………
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Liabilities (RS) Assets (Rs)

Capital 50,00,000 Fixed 30,66,667
Pref. Share Capital 15,00,000 Raw Material 8,00,000
Profit: Previous Years (Balancing figure) 1,00,000
Current Year 16,00,000 Finished Goods 16,00,000
Creditors 8,00,000 Debtors 26,66,667
Wages Payable 66,667 Cash 2,00,000
Overhead Payable 66,667
91,33,334 91,33,334
b) Outsourcing is the practice of using outside firms to handle work normally performed
within a company. Small companies routinely outsource their payroll processing,
accounting, distribution and many other important functions often because they
have no other choice. Many large companies turn to outsourcing to cut costs. In
response, entire industries have evolved to serve companies outsourcing.
Outsourcing, if adopted wisely, can provide a number of long-term benefits:
a. Control capital costs. Cost-cutting may not be the only reason to outsource, but
it is certainly a major factor. Outsourcing converts fixed costs into variable costs,
releases capital for investment elsewhere in your business, and allows company
to avoid large expenditure in the early stages of business. Outsourcing can also
make your firm more attractive to investors, since company is able to pump
more capital directly into revenue-producing activities.
b. Increase efficiency. Companies that do everything themselves have much higher
research, development, marketing and distribution expenses, all of which must
be passed on the customers. An outside provider‟s cost structure and economy of
scale can give the firm an important competitive advantage.
c. Reduce labor costs. Hiring and training staff for short-term or peripheral
projects can be very expensive and temporary employees don‟t always live up to
the expectations. Outsourcing lets the company to focus its human resources
where one needs them most.
d. Start new projects quickly. A good outsourcing firm has to resources to start a
project right away. Handling the same project in house might involve taking
weeks or months to hire the right people, train them and provide the support
they need. And if a project requires major capital investments (such as building a
series of distribution centers), the startup process can be even more difficult.
e. Enables to Focus on core business. Every business has limited resources, and
every manager has limited time and attention. Outsourcing can help the business
to shift its focus from peripheral activities toward work that serves the customer,
and it can help managers set their priorities more clearly.
f. Level the playing field. Most small firms simply can‟t afford to match the in-
house support services that larges companies maintain. Outsourcing can help
small firms act “big” by giving them access to the same economies of scale,
efficiency and expertise that large companies enjoy.
Reduce risk. Every business investment carries a certain amount of risk. Markets, competition,
government regulations, financial conditions and technologies all change very quickly.
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Outsourcing providers assume and manage this risk for the company and they generally are
much better at deciding how to avoid risk in their areas of expertise.
Question No 17:
Solar Supermarkets, a listed company, is reviewing the approach that it should take to
remunerating its executive directors and other senior managers. Over the years, the company‟s
share price has performed well although there is now concern that price and cost competition
from overseas entrants into the domestic market will have a significant impact on the firm‟s
profitability. As a result, the directors believe that large investment in new technologies and
markets will be required over the next five years. Traditionally, management has been
rewarded by salary, a generous system of benefits, and a bonus scheme that has taken up to 4%
of turnover. The directors are considering introducing a generous share option scheme with a
five year vesting period.
There is also a view, expressed by some of the company‟s principal equity investors, that the
company should consider returning cash to them through the sale of its property holdings. The
company has over 200 stores nationally and 15 overseas, of which all except five are owned by
the company. In the domestic economy, growth in the value of commercial property has
averaged 8% per annum in recent years whilst retail growth has remained static at 5.5%. A sale
and leaseback, or the flotation of a separate property company that would rent the stores to
Solar Supermarkets at commercial rates, are two suggestions that have been made at investor
meetings. Either approach, it is suggested, would return value to investors and create a supply
of capital for further expansion. There have been press rumours, possibly fed from sources
within the investor community, that the company may be a target for a private equity
acquisition. However, no formal approach has been made to the company.
The only other area of controversy to emerge about the company which has concerned the
directors followed an announcement about the company pension scheme. Although the scheme
is well funded the directors took the decision to close the current final salary scheme to new
employees and to replace it with a money purchase scheme.
Current employees would not be affected.
Required:
Discuss the strategic, financial and ethical issues that this case presents and the merits of the
proposed share option and sale and leaseback schemes.
Answer: - Solar Supermarkets

The directors of Solar Supermarkets face a number of issues which may reflect a lack of
understandingof the consequences:
i. The company‟s more hostile competitive environment with pressure on prices and costs;
ii. The need to offer management compensation that will provide an incentive to seek
value adding businessopportunities;
iii. The investor pressure to release the value in property assets with the implied concern
that if they do not acquiesce a private equity team may well do the job for them; and
iv. The willingness of the firm to support the potential liabilities of a final salary pension
scheme for its employees.
In reviewing these issues it is important to bear in mind the overarching duty of the directors
which is to maximize the value of the firm and to act in its (i.e. the company‟s) best interests.
Page | 120
Traditionally this concept of duty to the firm has been taken to mean the same as duty to
existing shareholders. However, this is neither the legal nor arguably the moral duty of
directors. The threat of a private equity acquisition may be real or it may simply be a ploy by
institutional investors to liquidate a part of the value of the firm on the assumption that the firm
will be able to operate just as effectively without owning its premises. Leaving aside the issue of
whether such leases would be financial or operational, the investors do not appear to recognize
that the market has valued the firm currently on the basis that its value generation is both retail
and property driven. Disinvestment of the property portfolio will simply skew the risk of the
business towards retail and given the increasing international competition in the sector this may
result in the firm‟s value falling even if the firm manages to maintain its current levels of
profitability and growth. As things stand the investors (and other stakeholders) in Solar
Supermarkets benefit from its diversified value generation with the added benefit that
management can focus on the difficult job of retailing and leave the property market to look
afteritself.
Disinvestment of the property portfolio could increase the risk of the business and in this
context it is worth reviewing the share option proposal. Currently, senior management and
directors are compensated by a mix of salary, perks and profit related bonuses. To this extent
there is a degree of risk sharing between owners and managers. The problem with share options
schemes is that they tend to increase the risk appetite of managers in that the holder is no longer
so concerned about downside risk in the company‟s performance which is shifted to the writer
(effectively the shareholders). However, to the extent that the firm is financed by debt, the
shareholders in their turn hold a call option written by the lenders on the underlying assets of
the firm and so the lenders are the ones who bear the ultimate risk. The combination of limited
liability and equity options in the hands of directors may well create a wholly unacceptable
appetite for risk and a willingness to take on new projects that they would otherwise have
rejected.
Finally, the move to a money purchase pension scheme may be suggestive of a less than
generous approach to the firm‟s future employees who, in the retail sector, tend to be poorly
paid with incomes of shop floor workers close (in the UK and Europe) to the minimum hourly
wage. It is safe to assume that the pension fund is principally designed for the various
management grades within the firm. The move from a final salary scheme to a money purchase
scheme brings benefits in terms of fund management and financing but passes risk to the
beneficiaries of the fund particularly in terms of their exposure to future investment returns and
annuity rates. The maintenance of the final salary scheme for existing staff will no doubt be
welcomed by them but the firm should recognize that it may be more difficult to appoint staff
of the same quality as currently at current rates of pay. In so far as the labour market is efficient
we would anticipate wage rates to rise to compensate for the reduction of pension benefit and
so the gains from this move may well be illusory.
From an ethical perspective, the directors are in the position of attempting to balance the
interests of a range of different stakeholders as well as satisfying their own compensation
requirements. It is clear that all four options involve the transfer of risk from one stakeholder
group to another in ways which are not immediately obvious. The duties of directors in this
case can be summarised as ones of transparency, effective communication and integrity in the
Page | 121
choices that they make. It is important that the directors should not be seen as taking a more
advantageous position with respect to other groups, without their consent, either in terms of the
return they take or the risk they bear.
Question No 18:-
a) Following figures are made available to you:
Rs.
Profit for the year (before interest and taxes) 18,00,000
Less: Interest on secured debentures at 15% p.a.
(debenture were issued 3 months after the
commencement of the year) 1,12,500
Net profit for the year 16,87,500
Less: Income – tax at 35% 5,90,625
Profit aftertax 10,96,875
Number of equity shares of Rs. 10 each 1,00,000
Market quotation of an equity shares (Rs.) 109.70
The company has accumulated revenue reserves of Rs. 12, 00,000. The company is
examining a project calling for an investment obligation of Rs. 10, 00,000. This
investment is expected to earn the same rate as funds already employed.
You are informed that a debt – equity ratio (debt divided by debt plus equity) higher
than 60% will cause the price – earnings ratio to come down by 25% and the interest rate
on additional borrowings will cost the company 300 basis points more than on their
current borrowing onsecureddebentures.
You are required to advise the company on the probable price of the equity share, if -
i. The additional investments were to be raised by way of loans; or

ii. The additional investments were to be raised by way of equity.
b) Celina Ltd. wishes to borrow US Dollars at a fixed rate of interest. Priyanka Ltd. wishes
to borrow Japanese Yen at a fixed rate of interest. The amounts required by the two
companies are roughly the same at current exchange rate. The companies have been
quoted the following interest rates:
Yen Dollar
Celina Ltd. 4.0% 8.6%
Priyanka Ltd. 5.5% 9.0%
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Design a swap that will net a bank, acting as intermediary, 50 basis points per annum.
Make the swap equally attractive to the two companies and ensure that all foreign
exchange risk is assumed by the bank.
Answer:-
a) Present Position:
Profit before taxes Rs. 16,87,500
Less Taxes @ 35% Rs. 5, 90,625
Profit after taxes Rs. 10,96,875
Number of equity shares 1, 00,000
Earnings per share Rs. 10,96,875/1, 00,000
Rs. 10.97
Market Price per Share Rs. 109.70
MarketPricePerShare
Price Earnings Ratio =
EarnigsPerShare
Rs.109.70
= 10times
10.97
Present capital employed:
Equity Rs. 10,00,000
Debentures Rs. 10,00,000
15 9 
 Debentures   1,12,500 
100 12 
 
Rs.12,00,000
Accumulated Revenue Reserves
Rs.32,00,000
profitbeforeint eres t an dtaxes
Existing Rate of Return =
TotalCapitalemployed
18,00,000
=  56.25%
32,00,000
Hence, Expected Rate of Return from the new Investment = 56.25%
i. If additional investments are to be financed by way of loans, capital structure

will be as under:
Equity = Rs. 10, 00,000
Reserves = Rs. 12, 00,000
Debt (Existing & Proposed) = Rs. 20, 00,000
Rs. 42,00,000
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Debt
Debt Equity Ratio =
Debt  Equityincluding Reserves
20,00,000
  47.6%
42,00,000
Since, D/E Ratio does not exceed 60%, the P/E Ratio of the company will
continue to be 10. Thus, under debt option, the probable market price of
company‟s share will be:
Earnings of the company:
Return of 56.25% on Rs. 42, 00,000 23, 62,500
Less interest on existing debentures:
(15% on Rs. 10, 00,000) 1, 50,000
Interest on proposed amount of debt:
(18% on Rs. 10, 00,000) 1, 80,000 3, 30,000
Profit before tax 20, 32,500
Less taxes @ 35% (35% × 20, 35,500) 7, 11,375
Profit after tax 13, 21,125
No. of equity shares 1, 00,000
Earnings per share (EPS) 13.21
Probable Market Price of Share (EPS × P/E Ratio) = (13.21 × 10) Rs. 132.10
ii. Probable price of the equity share if the additional investments were to be raised
by way of equity:
10,00,000
Debt Equity Ratio =  23.80%
42,00,000
P/E Ratio of company will continue to be 10.
Profit before tax and interest (56.25% of Rs. 42, 00,000) = Rs 23, 62,500
Less: Interest on debentures (15% on Rs. 10, 00,000) = Rs. 1, 50,000
Profit before tax Rs. 22,12,500
Less Tax @ 35% Rs. 7, 74,375
Profit after tax Rs. 14, 38,125
No. of Equity Shares
(existing 1,00,000 shares + additional 10,000 shares) 1,10,000
Pr ofitafterTax
Earnings per Shares= 14,38,125
  13.07
No.ofEquityshares 1,10,000
Probable Market Price of share = (EPS × P/E Ratio) = 13.07 × 10
= Rs. 130.70
The company should go to finance expansion by way of loans as the probable
market price of equity per share is more it the additional investment is financed
by way of loans as compared to financing through equityroute.
Page | 124
Assumptions: Equity consists of equity share capital and accumulated reserves.
b) Celina Ltd. has a comparative advantage in yen but wants to borrow dollars. Priyanka
Ltd. has no comparative advantage in dollar and wants to borrow yen. There is 1.5% per
annum differential between the yen rate and 0.4 per cent per annum differential between
the dollar rates. The total gain to all parties from the swap is, therefore, 1.5 – 0.4 = 1.1%
per annum. Since the bank requires 0.5 % per annum, the leaves 0.6% per annum for
Celina Ltd. and Priyanka Ltd. since Priyanka Ltd. is going to get comparative advantage
in the deal even if it surrenders all the gain to Celina Ltd. the gain of 0.6% from swap
may be transferred to Celina Ltd. In this way, Priyanka Ltd. would be able to borrow
yen at 4.0 % whereas Celina will be able to borrow dollars at 8.4%. Alternatively, the
swap may be formulated in such a way that the bank costs are also borne by Priyanka
Ltd.
Note:
Other basis of Swaps may also be formulated.
Question No 19
a) “In the case of private enterprises, social cost benefit analysis for capital project has
no relevance.”Discuss.
b) “To Keep the risk within manageable limits, a firm which has high degree of
operating leverage should have low financial leverage and vice – versa.” Comment.
c) Write a note on „Sharpe Index Model‟.
d) Describe the mechanics involved in factoring.
Answer:-
a) Social cost benefit analysis is important for the private corporations also who have a
moral responsibility to undertake socially desirable projects. In analyzing the various
alternatives of capital expenditure, a private corporation should keep in view the social
contribution aspects. It can thus be seen that the purpose of social cost benefit analysis
technique is not to replace the existing techniques of financial analysis but to
supplement and strengthen them.
In the case of private sector, a socially beneficial project may be more easily acceptable to
the government and the society and hence this analysis will be relevant while granting
various licenses and approvals, etc. also, if the private sector includes social cost benefit
analysis in its project evaluation techniques, it will ensure that it is not ignoring its own
long – term interest, since in the long – run only those projects will survive that are
socially beneficial and acceptable to the society.
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b) Operating leverage results from the existence of fixed operating expenses in the firm‟s
income stream. Financial leverage results from the presence of fixed financial charges in
the firm‟s income stream. The operating leverage has its effects on operating risk and is
measured by the percentage change in EBIT due to percentage change in sales. The
financial leverages has its effects on financial risk and is measured by the percentage
change in EPS due to percentage change in EBIT. When these two leverages are
combined, the result is total leverage of the firm. The risk associated with combined
leverage is called as total risk confronted by the firm. The degree of combined leverage
measures the percentage change in EPS due to percentage change in sales. If the
operating leverage of a firm is 5 and financial leverage is 3, the combined leverage of the
firm would be 15 (5×3), it means, 1 per cent change in sales would bring about 15 per
cent change in EPS in the direction of the change in sales. Therefore, if a firm is
experiencing high level of operating leverage, it should bring down its financial leverage
by financing new investments with more equity than the firm has used in the past, to
keep the risk level at the desired level. That is why in order to keep the risk within
manageable limits, a firm which has high degree of operating leverage should have low
financial leverage andvice-versa.
c) Sharpe Index Model

William Sharpe introduced a model in which return on a security is correlated to an
index of securities or an index or an economic indicator like GDP or prices.
According to the Sharpe single index model, the return for each security can be given by
the following equation:
R = a  I  e
Where R= Expected return on a security
a = Alpha Coefficient
 = Beta Coefficient
I = Expected Return an index
E = Error term with a mean of zero and a constant standard deviation
Alpha Coefficient refers to the value of Y: in the equation, Y = a+  x, when x=0. Beta
Coefficient is the slope of the regression line and is a measure of the changes in value of
the security relative to changes in values of the index.
A beta of + 1.0 means that a 10% change in index value would result in a 10% change in
the same direction in the security value. A beta of 0.5 means that a 10% change in index
value would result in 5% change in the security value. A beta of 1.0 means that the
returns on the security are inversely related.
d) Mechanics involved in factoring
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Factoring offers a very flexible mode of cash generation against receivables. Once a line
of credit is established, availability of cash is directly geared to sales so that as sales
increase so does the availability of finance. The mechanics of factoring comprises of the
sequence of events outlined below:
1) Seller (client) negotiates with the factor for establishing factoring relationship.
2) Seller requests credit check on buyer (client).
3) Factors checks credit credentials and approves buyer. For each approved buyer a
credit limit and period of credit arefixed.
4) Seller sells good to buyer.
5) Seller sends invoice to factor. The invoice is accounted in the buyers account in
the factor‟s sales ledger.
6) Factor sends copy of the invoice to buyer.
7) Factor advices the amount to which seller is entitled after retaining a margin, say
20%, the residual amount paid later.
8) On expiry of the agreed credit period, buyer makes payment of invoice to the
factor.
9) Factor pays the residual amount to seller after his agreed compensation.
Question No 20:-
a) “Any arrangement or agreement under which two or more firms cooperate in order to
achieve commercial objects is a strategic alliance.” Comment and describe briefly the
various types of strategic alliances and their advantages.
b) Describe the needs for financial restructuring and what steps may be taken in case of
under capitalization.
c) The creditors present at a meeting for approving the scheme of reconstruction but
remain neutral or abstain from voting will be counted in ascertaining the majority in
number or value. Comment.
Answer:-
a) Any arrangement or agreement under which two or more firms cooperate in order to
achieve certain commercial objectives is referred to as strategic alliance. A true strategic
alliance is a written arrangement between two or more companies that complement each
other in a particular identified area. Strategic alliance is a commitment by the two or
more companies to provide capabilities or cross servicing in certain identified areas.
Strategic alliances are motivated by consideration such as cost reduction, technology
sharing, product development, market access, etc.
Types of strategic alliance
i. Management contract.
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ii. Franchising.
iii. Supply or purchase agreement.
iv. Marketing or distribution agreement.
v. Joint venture.
vi. Agreement to provide technical services.
vii. Licensing of know-how, technology, design or patent.
These arrangements differ in scope mainly by virtue of capital commitment, structure of

organization, decision-making, proportion between risks and reward.
A business strategic alliance is also means to an end and not just an end in itself.
Strategic alliance often takes place between firms of different industries for vertical or
horizontal links, consolidation of positions or any of the following:
- Gain a means of distribution in international market.

- Overcome legal or Regulatory barriers.
- Diversification.
- Avoiding competition.
- Focus on New Products and Restructuring.
In addition to the above, the various perceived gains which may motivate strategic
alliances include establishment of a business network, gaining cost and quality
competitiveness, defend business interests, updating technology, starting new project,
sharing of risks, increasing efficiency through economies of scale, specialization etc.
b) Need for financialrestructuring

When during the life time of a company, any of the following situations arise, the Board
of Directors of a company is compelled to think and decide on the company‟s
restructuring.
i. Necessity for injecting more working capital to meet the market demand for the
company‟s products or services;
ii. When the company is unable to meet its current commitments;
iii. When the company is unable to obtain further credit from supplier of raw
materials, consumable stores, bought out components etc. and from other parties
like those doing job work for the company.
iv. When the company is unable to utilize its full production capacity for lack of
liquid funds.
An under-capitalized company may consider restructuring its capital by taking one or

more of the following corrective steps:
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a. Injecting more capital whenever required either by resorting to rights issue or

additional public issue.
b. Resorting to additional borrowings from financial institutions, banks, other
companies, etc.
c. Issuing debentures, bounds, etc. or
d. Inviting and accepting fixed deposits from directors, their relatives, business
associates and public.
If a company is over capitalized, it can consider restructuring its capital by taking

followingcorrectivemeasures:
a. Buy- back of ownshares;

b. Paying back surplus share capital to shareholder;
c. Repaying loans to financial institutions, banks, etc.
d. Repaying fixed deposits to public; etc.
e. Redeeming its debentures, bounds, etc.
c) According to Sub-section (2) of Section 391 of the Companies Ordinance, 1984 if a
majority in numbers representing three-fourth in value of the creditors or class of
creditors, or members or class of members, as the case may be, present and voting, agree
to any compromise or arrangement, the compromise or arrangement shall, if sanctioned
by the Court, be binding on all the creditors, or class of creditors, all the members, or
class of members, as the case may be and also to the company.
The majority of the three-fourth value must be of persons who are present and who took
part in the voting. Mere presence would not be enough. Any member who though
present at the meeting, does not vote for or against, bur remains neutral, is to be
reckoned out of valid votes.
It has also been held that the creditors or members, who are present at the meeting but
remain neutral or abstain from voting, will not be counted in ascertaining the majority in
number of value. Those who are neutral cannot be taken to be supporter.
Question No 21: Explain the terms „amalgamation‟, merger‟, demerger‟ and „reverse merger‟ as
are understood under the Companies Ordinance, 1984. Bring out the relevance of each term
as toll of restructuring.
Answer:-
Amalgamation:- Halsbury‟s Laws of England describe amalgamation as a blending of two or

more existing undertakings into one undertaking, the shareholders of each blending company
substantially the shareholders in the company which is to carry on the blended undertaking.
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In amalgamation, two or more existing companies merge together or form a new company
keeping in view their long term business interest. The transferor companies lose their existence
and their shareholders become the shareholders of the new company. Thus, amalgamation is a
legal process by which two or more companies are joined together to form a new entity or one
or more companies are joined together to form a new entity or one or more companies are to be
absorbed or blended with another and as a consequence the amalgamating company loses its
existence and its shareholders become the shareholders of the new or amalgamated company.
Merger: A merger has been defined as „the fusion or absorption of one thing or right into
another‟. A merger has also been defined as an arrangement whereby the assets of two (or
more) companies become vested in, or under the control of one company (which may or may
not be one of the original two companies), which has as its shareholders, all or substantially all,
the shareholders of the two companies.
In merger, one of the two existing companies merges its identity into another existing company
or one or more existing company may form a new company and merger their identities into the
new company by transferring their business and undertakings including all other assets and
liabilities to the new company (hereinafter referred to as the merged company). The
shareholders of the company whose identity has been merged (i.e. merging company) get
substantial shareholding in the merged company. They are allotted shares in the merged
company in exchange for the shares held by them in the merging company according to the
shares exchange ratio incorporated in the scheme or merger as approved by all or prescribed
majority or the shareholders of the merging companies and the merged companies in their
separate general meetings and sanctioned by the Court as per the agreed exchange ratio.
Relevance of above terms as a tool of restructuring
For the purposes of Companies Ordinance, 1984, the terms „mergers‟ and „amalgamations‟ are
resorted as a tool of corporate restructuring with a view to achieve:
- Economies ofscale
- Market leadership
- Financial synergies
- Acquiring a new product or brand name
- Diversifying the portfolio etc.
Demerger: Demerger or split or divisions of a company are synonymous terms signifying a

movement in the company just opposite to combination in any of the forms defined above.
Demerger if often used to describe division or separation of different undertakings of a

business, functioning hitherto under a common corporate umbrella. A scheme of demerger is in
effect a corporate partition of a company into two undertakings, thereby retaining with it and
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by transferring the other undertaking to the resulting company. The resulting company issues
its shares at the agreed exchange ratio to the shareholders of the demerged company. Demerger
is relatively a new phenomenon in Indian corporate sector.
Demerger is often resorted to, as a tool of corporate restructuring with a view to down size the
company in certain circumstances such as:
- When a division of company is performing poorly.

- When the division or undertaking no longer fits into company‟s plans.
- To strengthen core competence.
- To undo a previous merger which proved unsuccessful?
Reverse Merger: Reverse Merger takes place when a healthy company merges into a financially
weak company. However, in the context of the Companies Ordinance, 1984, there is no
distinction between a merger and a reverse merger because in either case one company merges
with another company irrespective of the fact whether the merging or amalgamating company
is weaker or stronger. Reverse merger like an amalgamation or merger is carried out through
the High Court route under the provisions of Section 391 to 394 of the Companies Ordinance,
1984. However, if one of the companies in this exercise is a sick industrial company, its merger
or reverse merger has necessarily to be under SICA and must take place through BIFR. On the
reverse merger of a sick industrial company becoming effective, the name of the sick industrial
company may be changed to that of the healthy company and the transferee company becomes
entitled to the benefit of carry forward and set off of the accumulated losses and unabsorbed
depreciation of the transferor company. As such, in a reverse merger of a sick industrial
company, the compliance under Section 72A of the Income Tax Act, 1961 is not required.
Question No 22:- The chairman of your company has become concerned about the
accumulation of cash in hand and in the deposit accounts shown in the company‟s balance
sheet. The company is in the manufacturing sector, supplying aerospace components to the civil
aviation markets in the UK and Europe. For the last 20 years the company has grown
predominantly by acquisition and has not invested significantly in research and development
on its own account. The acquisitions have given the company the technology that it has
required and have all tended to be small, relative to the company‟s total market capitalisation.
The company has a healthy current asset ratio of 1.3, although its working capital cycle has an
average of 24 unfunded days.
The company has not systematically embraced new manufacturing technologies nor has it
sought to reduce costs as a way of rebuilding profitability. Managerial and structural problems
within divisions have led to a number of substantial projects overrunning and losses being
incurred as a result. It has also proven difficult to ensure the accountability of managers
promoting projects – many of which have not subsequently earned the cash flows originally
promised. At the corporate level, much of the company‟s accounting is on a contracts basis and
over the years it has tended to be cautious in its revenue recognition practices. This has meant
that earnings growth has lagged behind cash flow.
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Over the last 12 months the company has come under strong competitive pressure on the
dominant defence side of its business which, coupled with the slow-down in spending in this
area across the major western economies, has slowed the rate of growth of its earnings. The
company‟s gearing ratio is very low at 12% of total market capitalisation and borrowing has
invariably been obtained in the European fixed interest market and used to support capital
investment in its European production facility. In the current year, investment plans are at the
lowest they have been in real terms since the company was founded in the 1930s.
In discussion, the chairman comments upon the poor nature of the company‟s buildings and its
poor levels of pay which could, in his view, are improved to reflect standards across the
industry. Directors‟ pay, he reminds you, is some 15% below industry benchmarks and there is
very little equity participation by the board of directors. He also points out that the company‟s
environmental performance has not been good. Last year the company was fined for an
untreated discharge into a local river. There are, he says, many useful things the company could
do with the money to help improve the long-term health of the business. However, he does
admit some pessimism that business opportunities will ever again be the same as in previous
years and he would like a free and frank discussion at the next board meeting about the options
for the company. The company has a very open culture where ideas are encouraged and freely
debated.
The chairman asks if you, as the newly appointed chief financial officer, would lead the
discussion at the next board.
Required:
a) In preparation for a board paper entitled „Agenda for Change‟, write brief notes
which identify the strategic financial issues the company faces and the alternatives it
might pursue.
b) Identify and discuss any ethical issues you believe are in the above case and how the
various alternatives you have identified in (a) may lead to their resolution.
Answer:-
a) Agenda for change
Over recent years, the competitiveness of our business has been reduced by a number of
factors not least the significant reductions in defence spending in our constituent
markets. Over this time we have introduced new technologies through acquisition and
have not engaged in significant research and development on our own account. Our
current position is one of significant strength: we have substantial cash reserves and
cash flow generation is still strong. Our gearing at 12% of capital is very low and this
combined with our earnings history and liquidity gives us a high credit rating and hence
a relatively low cost of capital. Our weakness is our lack of investment in new projects
and our lack of R&D to support such investment. In this position we are exposed to the
risk of a hostile bid by one of the many companies which do have substantial R&D but
are chronically short of liquidity for future developments. I propose the following
alternatives for discussion. These alternatives are not mutually exclusive:
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Alternative 1:
Given that building a viable R&D ability would take many years of investment and
development that would not appear to be a route to follow. However, we do have the
financial resources to acquire a competitor who does have strong R&D in relevant
technologies. This would achieve two ends, it would reduce the risk of predatory attack
– there is substantial evidence that companies who acquire are less likely to be acquired
themselves – it would eliminate one part of the competition and it would give us the
capability for development that we do not currently have. The downside is if the
perceived benefits do not materialize and shareholder value is lost. We may also lose
shareholder value if we do not get the level of our bid right and in that regard much will
depend on our investigation of potential targets.
Alternative 2:
We work harder at our current strategy seeking key technology targets at the best price
and redoubling efforts to manage our own cost base. In our industry cost has become a
strategic tool and we have not invested in advanced manufacturing technology to the
extent of some of our competitors. In a contract build environment it is important to
achieve high levels of efficiency within our matrix structure and to minimize the
dysfunctional aspects of this type of operational management. To this end we should
consider making projects responsible for the labour they utilise at current market rates
and to establish a coherent project based budgeting and cost control system.
Alternative 3:
We recognise that our future cash generation is based upon a set of current projects of
finite life and that we are moving into a phase of the company‟s life where new positive
net present value projects are unlikely to be found. Our recent history suggests that we
do have agency problems in that there are lower level managers who have championed
projects which have not generated the promised returns and this is indicative of a
situation where the market opportunities are very limited and net present values have
been competed down to zero. In this situation one option is to return cash to
shareholders through enhanced dividends or share repurchase schemes. The latter has
the advantage that it does not tie us to payout commitments in the future.
Alternative 4:
We recognise that we have a shortage of managerial talent at different levels and that
this has been brought about by relatively low levels of remuneration compared with the
rest of the sector. Executive remuneration is not just about salary levels but we may wish
to consider a stock option scheme where managers are rewarded for the delivery of
positive net present value investments through the resulting increase in share price. This
may well have the desirable effect of reducing the agency loss through overselling the
merits of projects and overstating potential returns.
b) The key element of this case is that this company is no longer able to find positive net
present value projects and as a result its rate of growth is slowing and may, very soon,
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start to decline. The engine of growth would appear to be new technology and superior
management practice in the management and control of projects and their costs.
However, the company has no effective R&D expertise and its scope for technology led
acquisitions appears to be very limited.
The ethical issue here is that if a company is no longer able to use its owner‟s cash then it
should return money to its investors and not use it to enhance managerial rewards and
perks. There is only one justification for increasing levels of executive remuneration and
that is that those managers are better motivated to create the high levels of growth that
lead to increased shareholder value. There are some who would argue that maximising
shareholder value is a constrained objective and that the firm owes a duty to other
stakeholders such as employees, managers, suppliers and customers. However,
overriding this is the efficiency argument. By returning cash to shareholders, the
effective operation of the capital based system ensures that they have at their disposal
those cash resources and can make their own judgements about the most efficient use of
their resources – to the greater benefit of the stakeholders of those businesses in which
they choose to invest. The ethical arguments are therefore based upon both social policy
and property rights. Social policy is involved in that the efficient operation of market
economies and the maximization of social welfare and property rights in that the
surplus value within a company belongs to its investors both legally and morally.
Depending upon the situation options that increase shareholder return either through
the maximization of the firm‟s value, or by returning cash to them for new investment
elsewhere is to be preferred.
The case also raises a question mark concerning the firm‟s accounting practice and the
use of defensive accounting policies. If the ratio of EBITDA to operating cash flow is
consistently less than one for a growing firm this would suggest that the company is
deliberately hiding earnings. There are a number of reasons for this: it may be that the
firm is attempting to smooth its earnings figures in order to present more consistent
performance measures over the years or it is hiding earnings in order to suppress
pressure from various other stakeholders for higher wages or other forms of
compensation. It may be that the company is also trying to present a relatively low
earnings history as part of its pricing negotiations. However, this type of earnings
management strategy is self-correcting in the longer run and it is doubtful to what extent
the market is fooled. The ethical dimension arises if this represents an intention to
deceive rather than a function of the firm‟s type of business and the constraints of the
GAAP.
Finally, given the ethical requirement to act responsibly it is also important to consider
the environmental issues presented by the case. There is an argument that operational
economy and the efficient use of resources has an environmental dimension in as far as a
given level of growth can be achieved with a given level of inputs. However, the case
also reveals that the company has been fined for allowing untreated discharge into a
local river. As social concern about the environmental impact of industry increases, the
regulation of waste and the punishments for breaches of environmental security are
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likely to become more and more severe. If for no other reason than the protection of the
shareholders‟ interest the company should make the necessary investment to control its
effluent discharge. It should also seek to minimize energy consumption across all its
operations.
Question No 23:- Mr Moon is the CEO of Saturn Systems, a very large listed company in the
telecommunications business. The company is in a very strong financial position, having
developed rapidly in recent years through a strategy based upon growth by acquisition.
Currently, earnings and earnings growth are at all-time highs although the company‟s cash
reserves are at a low level following a number of strategic investments in the last financial year.
The previous evening Mr Moon gave a speech at a business dinner and during questions made
some remarks that Pluto Limited was an attractive company with „great assets‟ and that he
would be a „fool‟ if he did not consider the possibility „like everyone else‟ of acquiring the
company. Pluto is a long established supplier to Saturn Systems and if acquired would add
substantially to the market capitalisation of the business.
Mr Moon‟s comments were widely reported in the following morning‟s financial newspapers
and, by 10 am, the share price of Pluto had risen 15% in out-of-hours and early trading. The first
that you, Saturn‟s chief financial officer, heard about the issue was when you received an urgent
call from Mr Moon‟s office. You have just completed a background investigation of Pluto, along
with three other potential targets instigated at Saturn‟s last board meeting in May. Following
that investigation, you have now commenced a review of the steps required to raise the
necessary debt finance for a bid and the procedure you would need to follow in setting up a due
diligence investigation of each company.
On arriving at Mr Moon‟s office you are surprised to see the chairman of the board in
attendance. Mr Moon has just put down the telephone and is clearly very agitated. They tell you
about the remarks made by Mr Moon the previous evening and that the call just taken was from
the Office of the Regulator for Public Companies. The regulator had wanted to know if a bid
was to be made and what announcement the company intended to make. They had been very
neutral in their response pending your advice but had promised to get back to the regulator
within the hour. They knew that if they were forced to admit that a bid was imminent and then
withdrew that they would not be able to bid again for another six months. Looking at you they
ask as one: „what do we do now?‟ After a short discussion you returned to your office and
began to draft a memorandum with a recommendation about how to proceed.
Required:
a) Assess the regulatory, financial and ethical issues in this case.
b) Propose a course of action that the company should now pursue, including a draft of
any announcement that should be made, given that the board of Saturn Systems
wishes to hold open the option of making a bid in the near future.
Answer:- Saturn Systems

Note: regulatory regimes with respect to takeovers vary between different jurisdictions and in
answering this question the examiners will wish to see evidence that candidates are either (a)
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aware of the regulations or codes within their own countries or (b) are familiar with the UK‟s
City Code for Takeovers and Mergers.
Memorandum
To: John Moon
From: Conny Date
Potential Bid for Pluto Ltd
The remarks made at the dinner last night whilst general in nature and non-specific about this
firm‟s intentions could be construed as an intention to bid for Pluto Ltd. Below are the principal
regulatory, financial and ethical issues we currently face:
Regulatory issues
Most regulatory regimes around the world impose strict rules concerning the release of price
sensitive information such as an intention to bid. Furthermore, as directors of a publicly quoted
company we are obliged to take all reasonable care that any information we put into the public
domain does not mislead investors. Within the UK for example, the City Code stresses the vital
importance of absolute secrecy before any announcement is made. The Code places the burden
of secrecy upon anybody in possession of confidential information, particularly where the
information is price sensitive, and it stresses that they should conduct themselves so as to
minimize the risk of any accidental disclosure.
When a target company is a particular subject of rumours, speculation or untoward movement

in its share price, and where it is reasonable to assume that the source was the offer or, then the
Code stipulates that an announcement of intention should be made.
An announcement that we do not intend to bid, or are withdrawing a bid, normally means that
we are restricted from making another bid within a specified time period (normally six months)
unless:
- an offer to be made by us is recommended by the board of Pluto to its shareholders,

- another offer is made by a third party,
- a whitewash proposal is made by the board of Pluto or,
- there is a significant change of circumstances such as the regulator is disposed to waive
the requirement.
The underpinning requirement here is that in our public announcements we have a duty to be
as clear as possible, not to be seen as creating a false market in the shares of Pluto Ltd and
providing all shareholders (both our own and those of Pluto) with equal access to information
about ourintentions.
Financial issues
The comments made by you might not have been interpreted as significant by the market under
different circumstances. However, the 15% price movement strongly suggests that the market
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now views Pluto as a target and Saturn as one of a number of potential predators. Evidence
accumulated on the reaction of the market to information entering the public domain – the so
called reaction studies of the semi-strong form of the Efficient Markets Hypothesis – confirms
that the market has a powerful ability to anticipate announcements and it is no surprise that the
market recognises the potential of the situation with respect to Pluto. The sudden price increase
strongly suggests that we are now seen as potential bidders. The problems that we face are
three fold: first, we are not yet in a position to announce a formal bid in that we have
undertaken neither a due diligence study of Pluto nor have we undertaken a valuation of the
company, second the price range over which we can negotiate has now been raised and third, if
we withdraw we cannot make a further bid within six months.
The valuation of Pluto will not be straightforward. Our preliminary view is that although the
company is part of our supply chain it may not carry our exposure to business risk. We have
entered into preliminary discussions with our investment bankers about raising the necessary
debt finance. The size of the acquisition means that it is most likely that we will alter both our
exposure to business and financial risk. This means that the value of Pluto to us cannot be
determined independently of a revaluation of our existing business on the presumption that the
acquisition proceeds. The increase in the valuation of Saturn would determine the maximum
that we should be willing to pay without impacting adversely upon our own shareholder value.
Ethicalissues
One possibility is to deny that we are considering a bid for Pluto. The distinction we need to
note here is whether our current investigations could be classed as „strategic scanning‟ or we are
actively considering this company as a bid target. The major difficulty we have is that Pluto is
one of four companies discussed at the May board meeting as a potential target and although
that discussion was very speculative investors will be aware that we have consistently sought
growth through acquisition rather than organically. Given these circumstances and the
commitment of this company to adopt the highest standards of ethical conduct with respect to
transparency and the treatment of investors I recommend that we clarify our position.
Recommendation
I therefore recommend that following consultation with the regulator we make an
announcement as follows:
Following recent speculation, the Board of Saturn Ltd confirms that it is considering a possible
combination with Pluto Ltd. However, the Board has decided not to make an offer at this time.
The Board reserves its right to make an offer or take any other action which might otherwise be
restricted under the six month rule in the event of (a) an agreement from the Board of Pluto,
(b) an announcement by any other party of a possible or actual offer, (c) a whitewash proposal
from the board of Pluto Ltd or (d) significant change in circumstances.
Given this announcement we will still have the opportunity to develop a bid proposal and to
enter into substantive negotiations with the board of Pluto. However, we will not be able to
make a hostile bid in the absence of another company making a bid for Pluto.
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Question No 24:- Slow Fashions Ltd is considering the following series of investments for the
current financial year 2009:
Project bid proposals (Rs‟000) for immediate investment with the first cash return assumed to
follow in 12 months and at annual intervals thereafter.
Project Now 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 NPV IRR
P0801 –620 280 400 120 55 16%
P0802 –640 80 120 200 210 420 –30 69 13%
P0803 –240 120 120 60 10 20 15%
P0804 –1000 300 500 250 290 72 13%
P0805 –120 25 55 75 21 19 17%
P0806 –400 245 250 29 15%
There is no real option to delay any of these projects. All except project P0801 can be scaled
down but not scaled up. P0801 is a potential fixed three-year contract to supply a supermarket
chain and cannot be varied. The company has a limited capital budget of Rs1.2 million and is
concerned about the best way to allocate its capital to the projects listed. The company has a
current cost of finance of 10% but it would take a year to establish further funding at that rate.
Further funding for a short period could be arranged at a higher rate.
Required:
a) Draft a capital investment plan with full supporting calculations justifying those projects
which should be adopted giving:
i. The priorities for investment,
ii. The net present value and internal rate of return of the plan; and
iii. The net present value per dollar invested on the plan.
b) Estimate and advice upon the maximum interest rate which the company should be
prepared to pay to finance investment in all of the remaining projects available to it.
Answer:-
a) Net present value is not a sufficient criterion for choosing between projects when capital
is in short supply. On the assumption that the priority of the firm is to maximise net
present value overall then the optimal ranking of projects is achieved through the
profitability index as measured by the net present value per Rs of invested capital at
year zero. The ranking of the projects using the net present value index is as follows:
Investment NPV IRR PI CumInv

P0805 –120 19 17% 0.1573 120
P0802 –640 69 13% 0.1085 760
P0801 –620 55 16% 0.0892 1,380
P0803 –240 20 15% 0.0841 1,620
P0806 –400 29 15% 0.0733 2,020
P0804 –1,000 72 13% 0.0719 3,020
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The first project, PO801 is now the marginal project given the available capital of Rs
1,200,000. However, this ordering of projects is not viable as PO801 cannot be varied and
is either promoted in the ranking or is not produced as the plan as it stands requires an
investment of Rs 1,380 million to satisfy the supermarket contract. The investment
structure can be specified in one of two ways therefore:
Acceptance of PO801 ahead of PO802 (which can be scaled):

Investment NPV IRR PI CumInv proportion NPV
P0805 –120 19 17% 0.1573 120 1 19
P0801 –620 55 16% 0.0892 740 1 55
P0802 –640 69 13% 0.1085 1,380 0·71875 50
P0803 –240 20 15% 0.0841 1,620
P0806 –400 29 15% 0.0733 2,020
P0804 –1,000 72 13% 0.0719 3,020
Plan NPV 124
Removal of PO801 from the plan:
Investment NPV IRR PI CumInv proportion NPV

P0805 –120 19 17% 0.1573 120 1 19
P0802 –640 69 13% 0.1085 760 1 69
P0803 –240 20 15% 0.0841 1,000 1 20
P0806 –400 29 15% 0.0733 1,400 0.5 15
P0804 –1,000 72 13% 0.0719 2,400
P0801 –620 55 16% 0.0892 740
Plan NPV 123
i. The revised plan should be to produce all of PO805, PO801 and a reduced scale
of production on PO802 as shown in the revised schedule.
ii. The net present value of the plan is Rs 124 million
The internal rate of return cannot be calculated using the proportions of projects
invested because of scale effects but must be calculated for the overall plan.
Using the interpolation method and calculating the net present value of the
optimum plan at 14% and 18% the IRR can be estimated by interpolation:
Discount NPV
14% 12
18% –85
12
IRR 14%  4% 14.5%
1285
iii. The profitability index for the plan = 124/1200 = Rs 0·1033 per dollar invested.
b) When calculating the rate for short-term financing the maximum rate which should be
offered is that which generates a zero net present value on those projects which do not
qualify for the current plan. The internal rate of return is not appropriate as that is the
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rate that would be the maximum rate for investment over the life of the projects
concerned. This is however, a short-term capital rationing problem. The profitability
index gives the net present value of each pound invested.
Project Now 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

PO802 (balance of the marginal project) –180 23 34 56 59 118 –8
P0803 –240 120 120 60 10
P0806 –400 245 250
P0804 –1,000 300 500 250 290
Cash flows of rejected projects –1,820 688 904 366 359 118 –8
Discount at 10% –1,820 625 747 275 245 73 –5
Net present value of rejected projects 141
Profitability index 0.07742
Therefore these projects could support a maximum additional finance charge of the
following:
Additional finance = Rs 1,820,000 * 0.0774 = Rs 141,000
Given that 10% is the rate assuming no short-term market failure for finance for this
company, the maximum rate for the one year over which capital rationing is expected to
hold is 17.74%.
Question No 25:
a) Prepare working capital forecast and projected profit and loss account and balance sheet
from the following information:
Rs
Issued equity share capita 50, 00,000
Preference share capital 15, 00,000
Fixed assets 30, 66,667
Production during the previous year was 10, 00,000 units which is expected to be
maintained during the current year. The expected ratios of cost to selling price are?
Raw material 40%

Direct wages 20%
Overheads 20%
Raw material ordinarily remains in stock for 3 months before production. Every unit of
production remains in process for 2 months. Finished goods remain in stock for 3
months. Creditors allow 3 months for payment and debtors are allowed 4 months credit.
Estimated minimum cash to be held will be Rs. 2, 00,000. Lag in payment of wages and
overheads are expected to be half a month. The selling price will be Rs. 8 per unit. The
production is in continuous process and sales are in regular cycle.
b) How does „outsourcing‟ benefit the company?
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Answer:
a)
Total Production 10, 00,000units
Sales Rate Rs. 8/unit
Cost per unit of:
Raw Material = 8×40% =3.20

Wages = 8×20% =1.60
Overheads = 8×20% =1.60
Current Assets (Rs)

Cash 2, 00,000
Raw Material 10, 00,000 × 3.20 × 3m/12 = 8, 00,000
Work-in-Progress 10, 00,000 × [3.20 RM]
[0.80 Wages]
[0.80 o/h]
× 2/12 = 8, 00,000
Finished Goods 10, 00,000 × 6.40 × 3/12 = 16, 00,000
Debtors 10, 00,000 × 8 × 4/12 = 26, 66,667
Total: 60, 66,667
Current Liabilities
Creditors 10, 00,000 × 3.20 × 3/12 = 8, 00,000
Wages 10, 00,000 × 8 × 1/24 = 66,667
Overheads 10, 00,000 × 1.60/1/24 = 66,667 9, 33,334
Working capital required 51, 33,333
Profit Statement (Rs)

Sales 80, 00,000
Less:
Raw Material 32, 00,000
Wages 16, 00,000
Overhears 16, 00,000 64, 00,000
Profit 16, 00,000
Balance Sheet as on…………

Liabilities (RS) Assets (Rs)
Capital 50,00,000 Fixed 30,66,667
Pref. Share Capital 15,00,000 Raw Material 8,00,000
Profit: Previous Years (Balancing figure) 1,00,000
Current Year 16,00,000 Finished Goods 16,00,000
Creditors 8,00,000 Debtors 26,66,667
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Wages Payable 66,667 Cash 2,00,000

Overhead Payable 66,667
91,33,334 91,33,334
b) Outsourcing is the practice of using outside firms to handle work normally performed
within a company. Small companies routinely outsource their payroll processing,
accounting, distribution and many other important functions often because they
have no other choice. Many large companies turn to outsourcing to cut costs. In
response, entire industries have evolved to serve companies outsourcing.
Outsourcing, if adopted wisely, can provide a number of long-term benefits:
a. Control capital costs. Cost-cutting may not be the only reason to outsource, but
it is certainly a major factor. Outsourcing converts fixed costs into variable costs,
releases capital for investment elsewhere in your business, and allows company
to avoid large expenditure in the early stages of business. Outsourcing can also
make your firm more attractive to investors, since company is able to pump
more capital directly into revenue-producing activities.
b. Increase efficiency. Companies that do everything themselves have much higher
research, development, marketing and distribution expenses, all of which must
be passed on the customers. An outside provider‟s cost structure and economy of
scale can give the firm an important competitive advantage.
c. Reduce labor costs. Hiring and training staff for short-term or peripheral
projects can be very expensive and temporary employees don‟t always live up to
the expectations. Outsourcing lets the company to focus its human resources
where one needs them most.
d. Start new projects quickly. A good outsourcing firm has to resources to start a
project right away. Handling the same project in house might involve taking
weeks or months to hire the right people, train them and provide the support
they need. And if a project requires major capital investments (such as building a
series of distribution centers), the startup process can be even more difficult.
e. Enables to Focus on core business. Every business has limited resources, and
every manager has limited time and attention. Outsourcing can help the business
to shift its focus from peripheral activities toward work that serves the customer,
and it can help managers set their priorities more clearly.
f. Level the playing field. Most small firms simply can‟t afford to match the in-
house support services that larges companies maintain. Outsourcing can help
small firms act “big” by giving them access to the same economies of scale,
efficiency and expertise that large companies enjoy.
g. Reduce risk. Every business investment carries a certain amount of risk.
Markets, competition, government regulations, financial conditions and
technologies all change very quickly. Outsourcing providers assume and manage
this risk for the company and they generally are much better at deciding how to
avoid risk in their areas of expertise.
Question No 26: Samsung, a listed company which manufactures electronic components, is

interested in acquiring Fodder Co, an unlisted company involved in the development of
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sophisticated but high risk electronic products. The owners of Fodder Co are a consortium of
private equity investors who have been looking for a suitable buyer for their company for some
time. Samsung estimates that a payment of the equity value plus a 25% premium would be
sufficient to secure the purchase of Fodder Co. Samsung would also pay off any outstanding
debt that Fodder Co owed. Samsung wishes to acquire Fodder Co using a combination of debt
finance and its cash reserves of Rs 20 million, such that the capital structure of the combined
company remains at Samsung‟s current capital structure level.
Information on Samsung and Fodder Co
Samsung
Samsung has a market debt to equity ratio of 50:50 and an equity beta of 1.18. Currently
Samsung has a total firm value (market value of debt and equity combined) of Rs 140 million.
Fodder Co, Income Statement Extracts
Year Ended 31 May 2011 31 May 2010 31 May 2009 31 May 2008
All amounts are in Rs‟000
Sales revenue 16,146 15,229 14,491 13,559
Operating profit (after operating
Costs and tax allowable depreciation) 5,169 5,074 4,243 4,530
Net interest costs 489 473 462 458
Profit before tax 4,680 4,601 3,781 4,072
Taxation (28%) 1,310 1,288 1,059 1,140
After tax profit 3,370 3,313 2,722 2,932
Dividends 123 115 108 101
Retained earnings 3,247 3,198 2,614 2,831
Fodder Co has a market debt to equity ratio of 10:90 and an estimated equity beta of 1.53. It can
be assumed that its tax allowable depreciation is equivalent to the amount of investment
needed to maintain current operational levels. However, Fodder Co will require an additional
investment in assets of 22c per Rs 1 increase in sales revenue, for the next four years. It is
anticipated that Fodder Co will pay interest at 9% on its future borrowings.
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For the next four years, Fodder Co‟s sales revenue will grow at the same average rate as the
previous years. After the forecasted four-year period, the growth rate of its free cash flows will
be half the initial forecast sales revenue growth rate for the foreseeable future.
Information about the combined company
Following the acquisition, it is expected that the combined company‟s sales revenue will be Rs
51, 952,000 in the first year, and its profit margin on sales will be 30% for the foreseeable future.
After the first year the growth rate in sales revenue will be 58% per year for the following three
years. Following the acquisition, it is expected that the combined company will pay annual
interest at 6.4% on future borrowings.
The combined company will require additional investment in assets of Rs 513, 000 in the first
year and then 18c per Rs 1 increase in sales revenue for the next three years. It is anticipated that
after the forecasted four-year period, its free cash flow growth rate will be half the sales revenue
growth rate.
It can be assumed that the asset beta of the combined company is the weighted average of the
individual companies‟ asset betas, weighted in proportion of the individual companies‟ market
value.
Other information
The current annual government base rate is 4.5% and the market risk premium is estimated at
6% per year. The relevant annual tax rate applicable to all the companies is 28%.
SGFCo‟sinterestin Samsung
There have been rumours of a potential bid by SGF Co to acquire Samsung. Some financial
press reports have suggested that this is because Samsung‟s share price has fallen recently. SGF
Co is in a similar line of business as Samsung and until a couple of years ago; SGF Co was the
smaller company. However, a successful performance has resulted in its share price rising, and
SGF Co is now the larger company.
The rumours of SGF Co‟s interest have raised doubts about Samsung‟s ability to acquire Fodder
Co. Although SGF Co has made no formal bid yet, Samsung‟s board is keen to reduce the
possibility of such a bid. The Chief Financial Officer has suggested that the most effective way
to reduce the possibility of a takeover would be to distribute the Rs20 million in its cash
reserves to its shareholders in the form of a special dividend. Fodder Co would then be
purchased using debt finance. He conceded that this would increase Samsung‟s gearing level
but suggested it may increase the company‟s share price and make Samsung less appealing to
SGF Co.
Required:
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Prepare a report to the Board of Directors of Samsung that
(i) Evaluates whether the acquisition of Fodder Co would be beneficial to Samsung and its
shareholders. The free cash flow to firm method should be used to estimate the values of
Fodder Co and the combined company assuming that the combined company‟s capital
structure stays the same as that of Samsung‟s current capital structure. Include all relevan t
calculations;
(ii) Discusses the limitations of the estimated valuations in part (i) above;
(iii) Estimates the amount of debt finance needed, in addition to the cash reserves, to acquire
Fodder Co and conclude whether Samsung‟s current capital structure can be maintained;
(iv) Explains the implications of a change in the capital structure of the combined company,
to the valuation method used in part (i) and how the issue can be resolved;
(v) Assesses whether the Chief Financial Officer‟s recommendation would provide a suitable
defence against a bid from SGF Co and would be a viable option for Samsung.
Answer:-
(i) The calculations and estimations for part (i) are given in the appendix. To assess whether or
not the acquisition would be beneficial to Pursuit‟s shareholders, the additional synergy
benefits after the acquisition has been paid for need to be ascertained.
The estimated synergy benefit from the acquisition is approximately Rs 9,074,000 (see
appendix), which is the post-acquisition value of the combined company less the values of the
individual companies. However, once Fodder Co‟s debt obligations and the equity shareholders
have been paid, the benefit to Pursuit Co‟s shareholders reduces to approximately Rs 52,000 (see
appendix), which is minimal. Even a small change in the variables and assumptions could
negate it. It is therefore doubtful that the shareholders would view the acquisition as beneficial
to themselves or the company.
(ii) The limitations of the estimates stem from the fact that although the model used is
theoretically sound, it is difficult to apply it in practice for the following reasons.
The calculations in part (i) are based on a number of assumptions such as the growth rate in the
next four years, the perpetual growth rate after the four years, additional investment in assets,
stable tax rates, discount rates and profit margins, assumption that debt is risk free when
computing the asset beta. All these assumptions would be subject to varying margins of error.
It may be difficult for Pursuit Co to assess the variables of the combined company to any degree
of accuracy, and therefore the synergy benefits may be hard to predict.
No information is provided about the pre-acquisition and post-acquisition costs.
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Although it may be possible to estimate the equity beta of Pursuit Co, being a listed company,
to a high level of accuracy, estimating Fodder Co‟s equity beta may be more problematic,
because it is a private company.
Given the above, it is probably more accurate to present a range of possible values for the
combined company depending on different scenarios and the likelihood of their occurrence,
before a decision is made.
(iii) The current value of Pursuit Co is Rs 140,000,000, of which the market value of equity and
debt are Rs 70,000,000 each. The value of the combined company before paying Fodder Co
shareholders is approximately Rs 189,169,000, and if the capital structure is maintained, the
market values of debt and equity will be approximately Rs 94,584,500 each. This is an increase
of approximately Rs 24,584,500 in the debt capacity.
The amount payable for Fodder Co‟s debt obligations and to the shareholders including the
premium isapproximately Rs 49,116,500 [4,009 + 36,086 x 1.25]. If Rs 24,584,500 is paid using the
extra debt capacity and Rs 20,000,000 using cash reserves, an additional amount of
approximately Rs 4,532,000 will need to be raised. Hence, if only debt finance and cash reserves
are used, the capital structure cannot be maintained.
(iv) If Pursuit Co aims to acquire Fodder Co using debt finance and cash reserves, then the
capital structure of the combined company will change. It will also change if they adopt the
Chief Financial Officer‟s recommendation and acquire Fodder Co using only debt finance.
Both these options will cause the cost of capital of the combined company to change. This in
turn will cause the value of the company to change. This will cause the proportion of market
value of equity to market value of debt to change, and thus change the cost of capital. Therefore
the changes in the market value of the company and the cost of capital are interrelated.
To resolve this problem, an iterative procedure needs to be adopted where the beta and the cost
of capital are recalculated to take account of the changes in the capital structure, and then the
company is re-valued. This procedure is repeated until the assumed capital structure is closely
aligned to the capital structure that has been re-calculated. This process is normally done using
a spreadsheet package such as Excel. This method is used when both the business risk and the
financial risk of the acquiring company change as a result of an acquisition (referred to as a type
III acquisition).
Alternatively an adjusted present value approach may be undertaken.
(v) The Chief Financial Officer‟s suggestion appears to be a disposal of „crown jewels‟. Without
the cash reserves, Pursuit Co may become less valuable to SGF Co. Also, the reason for the
depressed share price may be because Pursuit Co‟s shareholders do not agree with the policy to
retain large cash reserves. Therefore returning the cash reserves to the shareholders may lead to
an increase in the share price and make a bid from SGF Co more unlikely. This would not
initially contravene the regulatory framework as no formal bid has been made. However,
Pursuit Co must investigate further whether the reason for a possible bid from SGF Co might be
to gain access to the large amount of cash or it might have other reasons. Pursuit Co should also
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try to establish whether remitting the cash to the shareholders would be viewed positively by
them.
Whether this is a viable option for Pursuit Co depends on the bid for Fodder Co. In part (iii) it
was established that more than the expected debt finance would be needed even if the cash
reserves are used to pay for some of the acquisition cost. If the cash is remitted, a further Rs
20,000,000 would be needed, and if this was all raised by debt finance then a significant
proportion of the value of the combined company would be debt financed. The increased
gearing may have significant implications on Pursuit Co‟s future investment plans and may
result in increased restrictive covenants. Ultimately gearing might have to increase to such a
level that this method of financing might not be possible. Pursuit Co should investigate the full
implications further and assess whether the acquisition is worthwhile given the marginal value
it provides for the shareholders (see part (i)).
APPENDIX TOQUESTION
Part (i)
Interest is ignored as its impact is included in the companies‟ discount rates
Fodder cost ofcapital

Ke = 4.5% + 1.53 x 6% = 13.68%
Cost of capital = 13.68% x 0.9 + 9% x (1 – 0.28) x 0.1 = 12.96% assume 13%
Fodder
Sales revenue growth rate = (16,146/13,559)^(1/3) – 1 x 100% = 5.99% assume 6%
Operating profit margin = approx. 32% of sales revenue
Fodder Co cash flow and value computation (Rs 000)

Year 1 2 3 4
Sales revenue 17,115 18,142 19,231 20,385
Operating profit 5,477 5,805 6,154 6,523
Less tax(28%) (1,534) (1,625) (1,723) (1,826)
Less additional investment (22c/Rs 1 of sales revenue increase) (213) (226) (240) (254)
Free cashflows 3,730 3,954 4,191 4,443
PV (13%) 3,301 3,097 2,905 2,725
Rs (000)
PV (first 4 years) 12,028
PV (after 4 years) [4,443 x 1.03/(0.13 – 0.03)] x 1.13^(-4) 28,067
Firm value 40,095
Combined Company: Cost of capital calculation

Asset beta (Pursuit Co) = 1.18 x 0.5/(0.5 + 0.5 x 0.72) = 0.686
Asset beta (Fodder Co) = 1.53 x 0.9/(0.9 + 0.1 x 0.72) = 1.417
Asset beta of combined co. = (0.686 x 140,000 + 1.417 x 40,095)/(140,000 + 40,095) = 0.849
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Equity beta of combined company = 0.849 x (0.5 + 0.5 x 0.72)/0.5 = 1.46
Ke = 4.5% + 1.46 x 6% = 13.26%

Cost of capital = 13.26% x 0.5 + 6.4% x 0.5 x 0.72 = 8.93%, assume 9%
Combined Co cash flow and value computation (Rs 000)

Sales revenue growth rate = 5.8%, operating profit margin = 30% of sales revenue
Year 1 2 3 4
Sales revenue 51,952 54,965 58,153 61,526
Operating profit 15,586 16,490 17,446 18,458
Less tax(28%) (4,364) (4,617) (4,885) (5,168)
Less additional investment (18c/Rs 1 of sales revenue increase(513) (542) (574) (607)
Free cashflows 10,709 11,331 11,987 12,683
PV (9%) 9,825 9,537 9,256 8,985
Rs (000)
PV (first 4 years) 37,603
PV (after 4 years) [12,683 x 1.029/ (0.09 – 0.029)] x 1.09 ^(-4)
151,566
Firm value 189,169
Synergy benefits = 189,169,000 – (140,000,000 + 40,095,000) = Rs 9,074,000
Estimated premium required to acquire Fodder Co = 0.25 x 36,086,000 = Rs 9,022,000
Net benefit to Pursuit Co shareholders = Rs 52,000
Question No 27:-
Fubuki Co, an unlisted company based in Megaera, has been manufacturing electrical parts
used in mobility vehicles for people with disabilities and the elderly, for many years. These
parts are exported to various manufacturers worldwide but at present there are no local
manufacturers of mobility vehicles in Megaera. Retailers in Megaera normally import mobility
vehicles and sell them at an average price of Rs 4, 000 each. Fubuki Co wants to manufacture
mobility vehicles locally and believes that it can sell vehicles of equivalent quality locally at a
discount of 37.5% to the current average retail price.
Although this is a completely new venture for Fubuki Co, it will be in addition to the
company‟s core business. Fubuki Co‟s directors expect to develop the project for a period of
four years and then sell it for Rs. 16 million to a private equity firm. Megaera‟s government has
been positive about the venture and has offered Fubuki Co a subsidized loan of up to 80% of the
investment funds required, at a rate of 200 basis points below Fubuki Co‟s borrowing rate.
Currently Fubuki Co can borrow at 300 basis points above the five-year government debt yield
rate.
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A feasibility study commissioned by the directors, at a cost of Rs 250, 000, has produced the
following information.
1. Initial cost of acquiring suitable premises will be Rs. 11 million, and plant and
machinery used in the manufacture will cost Rs 3 million. Acquiring the premises and
installing the machinery is a quick process and manufacturing can commence almost
immediately.
2. It is expected that in the first year 1,300 units will be manufactured and sold. Unit sales
will grow by 40% in each of the next two years before falling to an annual growth rate
of 5% for the final year. After the first year the selling price per unit is expected to
increase by 3% per year.
3. In the first year, it is estimated that the total direct material, labour and variable
overheads costs will be Rs.1, 200 per unit produced. After the first year, the direct costs
are expected to increase by an annual inflation rate of 8%.
4. Annual fixed overhead costs would be Rs 2.5 million of which 60% are centrally
allocated overheads. The fixed overhead costs will increase by 5% per year after the first
year.
5. Fubuki Co will need to make working capital available of 15% of the anticipated sales
revenue for the year, at the beginning of each year. The working capital is expected to
be released at the end of the fourth year when the project is sold.
Fubuki Co‟s tax rate is 25% per year on taxable profits. Tax is payable in the same year as when
the profits are earned. Tax allowable depreciation is available on the plant and machinery on a
straight-line basis. It is anticipated that the value attributable to the plant and machinery after
four years is Rs 400, 000 of the price at which the project is sold. No tax allowable depreciation
is available on the premises.
Fubuki Co uses 8% as its discount rate for new projects but feels that this rate may not be
appropriate for this new type of investment. It intends to raise the full amount of funds through
debt finance and take advantage of the government‟s offer of a subsidized loan. Issue costs are
4% of the gross finance required. It can be assumed that the debt capacity available to the
company is equivalent to the actual amount of debt finance raised for the project.
Although no other companies produce mobility vehicles in Megaera, Haizum Co, a listed
company, produces electrical-powered vehicles using similar technology to that required for the
mobility vehicles. Haizum Co‟s cost of equity is estimated to be 14% and it pays tax at 28%.
Haizum Co has 15 million shares in issue trading at Rs 2.53 each and Rs 40 million bonds
trading at Rs 94.88 per Rs 100. The five-year government debt yield is currently estimated at
4.5% and the market risk premium at 4%.
Required:
(a) Evaluate, on financial grounds, whether Fubuki Co should proceed with the project.
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(b) Discuss the appropriateness of the evaluation method used and explain any assumptions
made in part (a) above.
Answer
(a) Base Case Net Present Value
Fubuki Co: Project Evaluation
Base Case
Units Produced and sold 2,548 2,675
Rs ‟000
Unit Price/cost Inflation Now Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Sales revenue 2.5 3% 3,250 4,687 6,758 7,308
Direct costs 1.2 8% 1,560 2,359 3,566 4,044
Attributable fixed costs 1,000 5% 1,000 1,050 1,103 1,158
Profits 690 1,278 2,089 2,106
Working capital 15% (488) (215) (311) (82) 1,096
Taxation (w1) (10) (157) (360) (364)
Incremental cashflows
Investment/sale (14,000) 16,000
Net cash flows (14,488) 465 810 1,647 18,838
Present Value (10%) (w2) (14,488) 422 670 1,237 12,867
Base case NPV 708
Working (w1)
Profits 690 1,278 2,089 2,106
Less:allowances 650 650 650 650
Taxable profits 40 628 1,439 1,456
Tax 10 157 360 364
Note: Full credit will be given where the assumption is made that allowances are 750 in the first
three years and 350 in the final year.
Working (w2)
Discount rate (Haizum‟s ungeared Ke)
ke(g) = ke(u) + (1– t)(ke(u) – kd)Vd/Ve
Ve = 2.53 x 15 = 37.95
Vd= 40 x 0.9488 = 37.952
Assume Vd/Ve = 1
14 = ke(u) + 0.72 x (ke(u) – 4.5) x 1
14 = 1.72ke (u) – 3.24
ke(u) = 10.02 assume 10%
Note: The discount rate can be estimated by calculating the asset beta and then using that to
estimate the cost of equity.
The base case net present value is calculated as approximately Rs 708,000. This is positive but
marginal.
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The following financing side effects apply

Rs‟000‟
Issue costs 4/96 x Rs 14,488 (604)
Tax Shield
Annual tax relief = (14,488 x 80% x 0.055 x 25%)
+ (14,488 x 20% x 0.075 x 25%)
= 159.4 + 54.3 =213.7
213.7 x 3.588 766
Subsidy benefit
14,488 x 80% x 0.02 x 75% x 3.588 624
Total benefit of financing side effects 786
Adjusted present value (708 + 786) 1,494
Note: Full credit will be given if the issue costs are included in the funds borrowed.
The addition of the financing side effects gives an increased present value and probably the
project would not be considered marginal. Once these are taken into account Fubuki Co would
probably undertake the project.
Note: In calculating the present values of the tax shield and subsidy benefits, the annuity factor
used is based on 4.5% debt yield rate for four years. It could be argued that 7•5% may also be
used as this reflects the normal borrowing/default risk of the company.
Credit will be given where this assumption is made to estimate the annuity factor.
(b) The adjusted present value can be used where the impact of using debt financing is
significant. Here the impact of each of the financing side effects from debt is shown separately
rather than being imputed into the weighted average cost of capital. The project is initially
evaluated by only taking into account the business risk element of the new venture. This shows
that although the project results in a positive net present value, it is fairly marginal and
volatility in the input factors could turn the project. Sensitivity analysis can be used to examine
the sensitivity of the factors. The financing side effects show that almost 110% value is added
when the positive impact of the tax shields and subsidy benefits are taken into account even
after the issue costs.
Assumptions (Credit given for alternative, valid assumptions)

1. Haizum Co‟s ungeared cost of equity is used because it is assumed that this represents the
business risk attributable to the new line of business.
2. The ungeared cost of equity is calculated on the assumption that Modigliani and Miller‟s
(MM) proposition 2 applies.
3. It is assumed that initial working capital requirement will form part of the funds borrowed
but the subsequent requirements will be available from the funds generated from the project.
4. The feasibility study is ignored as a past cost.
5. It is assumed that the five-year debt yield is equivalent to the risk-free rate.
6. It is assumed that the annual reinvestment needed on plant and machinery is equivalent to
the tax allowable depreciation.
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7. It is assumed that all cash flows occur at the end of the year unless specified otherwise.
8. All amounts are given in Rs ‟000‟ to the nearest Rs. ‟000‟. When calculating the units
produced and sold, the nearest approximation for each year is taken.
Assumptions 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 are standard assumptions made for a question of this nature.
Assumptions 1, 2 and 3 warrant further discussion. Taking assumption 3 first, it is reasonable to
assume that before the project starts, the company would need to borrow the initial working
capital as it may not have access to the working capital needed. In subsequent years, the cash
flows generated from the operation of the project may be sufficient to fund the extra working
capital required. In the case of Fubuki Co, because of an expected rapid growth in sales in years
2 and 3, the working capital requirement remains high and the management need to assess how
to make sufficient funds available.
Considering assumptions 1 and 2, the adjusted present values methodology assumes that MM
proposition 2 applies and the equivalent ungeared cost of equity does not take into account the
cost of financial distress. This may be an unreasonable assumption. The ungeared cost of equity
is based on another company which is in a similar line of business to the new project, but it is
not exactly the same. It can be difficult to determine an accurate ungeared cost of equity in
practice. However, generally the discount rate (cost of funds) tends to be the least sensitive
factor in investment appraisal and therefore some latitude can be allowed.
Question No 28:-
GNT Co is considering an investment in one of two corporate bonds. Both bonds have a par
value of Rs 1, 000 and pay coupon interest on an annual basis. The market price of the first bond
is Rs 1, 079.68. Its coupon rate is 6% and it is due to be redeemed at par in five years. The second
bond is about to be issued with a coupon rate of 4% and will also be redeemable at par in five
years. Both bonds are expected to have the same gross redemption yields (yields to maturity).
GNT Co considers duration of the bond to be a key factor when making decisions on which
bond to invest.
Required:
(a) Estimate the Macaulay duration of the two bonds GNT Co is considering for investment.
(b) Discuss how useful duration is as a measure of the sensitivity of a bond price to changes
ininterestrates.
Answer:-
(a) In order to calculate the duration of the two bonds, the present value of the annual cash
flows and the price or value at which the bonds are trading at need to be determined. To
determine the present value of the annual cash flows, they need to be discounted by the gross
redemption yield(i).
Gross Redemption Yield

Try 5%
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60 x 1.05 ^(-1)+ 60 x 1.05 ^(-2)+ 60 x 1.05 ^(-3)+ 60 x 1.05 ^(-4)+ 1,060 x 1.05
^(-5) =
60 x 4.3295 + 1,000 x 0.7835 = 1,043.27
Try 4%
60 x 4.4518 + 1,000 x 0.8219 = 1,089.01
i = 4 + [(1,089.01 – 1,079.68)/(1,089.01 – 1,043.27)] = 4.2%
Bond 1 (PV of cashflows)

60 x 1.042 ^(-1)+ 60 x 1.042 ^(-2) + 60 x 1.042 ^(-3)+ 60 x 1.042 ^(-4) + 1,060 x
1.042 ^(-5)
PV of cash flows (years 1 to 5) = 57.58 + 55.26 + 53.03 + 50.90 + 862.91 =1,079.68
Market price =Rs 1,079.68
Duration = [57.58 x 1 + 55.26 x 2 + 53.03 x 3 + 50.90 x 4 + 862.91 x 5]/1,079.68 = 4.49 years
Bond 2 (PV of Coupons and Bond Price)

Price = 40 x 1.042 ^(-2)+ 40 x 1.042 ^(-2)+ 40 x 1.042 ^(-3)+ 40 x 1.042 ^(-4)+ 1,040
x 1.042 ^(-5)
PV of cash flows (years 1 to 5) = 38.39 + 36.84 + 35.36 + 33.93 + 846.63 =991.15
Market Price = Rs 991.15
Duration = [38.39 x 1 + 36.84 x 2 + 35.36 x 3 + 33.93 x 4 + 846.63 x 5]/991.15 = 4.63 years
(b) The sensitivity of bond prices to changes in interest rates is dependent on their redemption
dates. Bonds which are due to be redeemed at a later date are more price-sensitive to interest
rate changes, and therefore are riskier.
Duration measures the average time it takes for a bond to pay its coupons and principal and
therefore measures the redemption period of a bond. It recognizes that bonds which pay higher
coupons effectively mature „sooner‟ compared to bonds which pay lower coupons, even if the
redemption dates of the bonds are the same. This is because a higher proportion of the higher
coupon bonds‟ income is received sooner. Therefore these bonds are less sensitive to interest
rate changes and will have a lower duration.
Duration can be used to assess the change in the value of a bond when interest rates change
using the following formula:
ΔP = [–D x Δi x P]/[1 + i], where P is the price of the bond, D is the duration and i is the
redemption yield.
However, duration is only useful in assessing small changes in interest rates because of
convexity. As interest rates increase, the price of a bond decreases and vice versa, but this
decrease is not proportional for coupon paying bonds, the relationship is non-linear. In fact, the
relationship between the changes in bond value to changes in interest rates is in the shape of a
convex curve to origin, see below.
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Actual relationship
Bound Value
Relationship predicted by duration
Interest Rates
Duration, on the other hand, assumes that the relationship between changes in interest rates
and the resultant bond is linear. Therefore duration will predict a lower price than the actual
price and for large changes in interest rates this difference can be significant.
Duration can only be applied to measure the approximate change in a bond price due to interest
changes, only if changes in interest rates do not lead to a change in the shape of the yield curve.
This is because it is an average measure based on the gross redemption yield (yield to maturity).
However, if the shape of the yield curves changes, duration can no longer be used to assess the
change in bond value due to interest rate changes.
(Note: Credit will be given for alternative benefits/limitations of duration)
Question No 29:-
MesmerMagic Co (MMC) is considering whether to undertake the development of a new
computer game based on an adventure film due to be released in 22 months. It is expected that
the game will be available to buy two months after the film‟s release, by which time it will be
possible to judge the popularity of the film with a high degree of certainty. However, at present,
there is considerable uncertainty about whether the film, and therefore the game, is likely to be
successful. Although MMC would pay for the exclusive rights to develop and sell the game
now, the directors are of the opinion that they should delay the decision to produce and market
the game until the film has been released and the game is available for sale.
MMC has forecast the following end of year cash flows for the four-year sales period of the
game.
Year 1 2 3 4
Cash flows (Rs million) 25 18 10 5
MMC will spend Rs 7 million at the start of each of the next two years to develop the game, the
gaming platform, and to pay for the exclusive rights to develop and sell the game. Following
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this, the company will require Rs 35 million for production, distribution and marketing costs at
the start of the four-year sales period of the game.
It can be assumed that all the costs and revenues include inflation. The relevant cost of capital
for this project is 11% and the risk free rate is 3.5%. MMC has estimated the likely volatility of
the cash flows at a standard deviation of 30%.
Required:
(a) Estimate the financial impact of the directors‟ decision to delay the production and
marketing of the game.
The Black-Scholes Option Pricing model may be used, where appropriate. All relevant
calculations should be shown.
(b) Briefly discuss the implications of the answer obtained in part (a) above.
Answer:-
(a) Net Present Value without the option to delay the decision
Year Current 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cash flows (Rs) –7m –7m –35m 25m 18m 10m 5m
PV (11%) (Rs) –7m –6.31m –28.42m 18.28m 11.86m 5.93m 2.68m
Net Present Value = Rs (2.98 million)

On this basis the project would be rejected.
Value of option to delay the decision until the film is released and its popularity established.
Black-Scholes Option Pricing model is used to value the call option.
Present value of project‟s positive cash flows discounted to current day:
Rs 18.28m + Rs 11.86m + Rs 5.93m + Rs 2.68m = Rs 38.75m
Variables:
Current price ("P" _"a" ) = Rs 380.75m
Exercise price (("P" _"e" ) = Rs 35m
Exercise date = 2 years
Risk free rate = 3.5%
Volatility =30%
"d" _"1" = [ln(38.75/35) + (0.035 + 0.5 x 0.30 ^2) x 2]/(0.30 x 2^(1/2)) = 0.6170
"d" _"2" = 0.6170 – (0.30 x 2^(1/2)) = 0.1927
Using the Normal Distribution Table provided

N("d" _"1" ) = 0.5 + 0.2291 + 0.7 x (0.2324 – 0.2291) = 0.7314
N("d" _"2" ) = 0.5 + 0.0753 + 0.3 x (0.0793 – 0.0753) = 0.5765
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Value of option to delay the decision = 38.75 x 0.7314 – 35 x 0.5765 x e^(-0.035×2)= 28.34 – 18.81
= Rs 9.53m
Overall value of the project = Rs 9.53m – Rs 2.98m = Rs 6.55m
Since the project yields a positive net present value it would be accepted.
Hence by taking into account the option to delay the decision, the project should be accepted for
investment.
(b) The option to delay the decision has given MMC‟s managers the opportunity to monitor and
respond to changing circumstances before committing to the project, such as a rise in popularity
of this type of genre of films in the next two years or increased competition from similar new
releases or a sustained marketing campaign launched by the film‟s producers before its launch.
Although the project looks unattractive at present, it may not be the case if the film on which it
is based is successful. The option pricing formula requires numerous assumptions to be made
about the variables, the primary one being the assumption of volatility. It therefore does not
provide a correct value but an indication of the value of the option to delay the decision. Hence
it indicates that the management should consider the project further and not dismiss it, even
though current conventional net present value is negative.
The option to delay the decision may not be the only option within the project. For example, the
gaming platform that the company needs to develop for this game may have general programs
which may be used in future projects and MMC should take account of these. Or if the film is
successful, it may lead to follow-on projects involving games based on film sequels.
(Note: credit will be given for alternative relevant comments)
Question No 30:-
Mezza Co is a large food manufacturing and wholesale company. It imports fruit and
vegetables from countries in South America, Africa and Asia, and packages them in steel cans,
plastic tubs and as frozen foods, for sale to supermarkets around Europe. Its suppliers range
from individual farmers to Government run cooperatives, and farms run by its own subsidiary
companies. In the past, Mezza Co has been very successful in its activities, and has an excellent
corporate image with its customers, suppliers and employees. Indeed Mezza Co prides itself on
how it has supported local farming communities around the world and has consistently
highlighted these activities in its annual reports.
However, in spite of buoyant stock markets over the last couple of years, Mezza Co‟s share
price has remained static. It is thought that this is because there is little scope for future growth
in its products. As a result the company‟s directors are considering diversifying into new areas.
One possibility is to commercialize a product developed by a recently acquired subsidiary
company. The subsidiary company is engaged in researching solutions to carbon emissionsand
global warming, and has developed a high carbon absorbing variety of plant that can be grown
in warm, shallow sea water. The plant would then be harvested into carbon-neutral bio-fuel.
This fuel, if widely used, is expected to lower carbon production levels.
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Currently there is a lot of interest among the world‟s governments in finding solutions to
climate change. Mezza Co‟s directors feel that this venture could enhance its reputation and
result in a rise in its share price. They believe that the company‟s expertise would be ideally
suited to commercializing the product. On a personal level, they feel that the venture‟s success
would enhance their generous remuneration package which includes share options. It is hoped
that the resulting increase in the share price would enable the options to be exercised in the
future.
Mezza Co has identified the coast of Maienar, a small country in Asia, as an ideal location, as it
has a large area of warm, shallow waters. Mezza Co has been operating in Maienar for many
years and as a result, has a well-developed infrastructure to enable it to plant, monitor and
harvest the crop. Mezza Co‟s directors have strong ties with senior government officials in
Maienar and the country‟s politicians are keen to develop new industries, especially ones with a
long-term future.
The area identified by Mezza Co is a rich fishing ground for local fishermen, who have been
fishing there for many generations. However, the fishermen are poor and have little political
influence. The general perception is that the fishermen contribute little to Maienar‟s economic
development. The coastal area, although naturally beautiful, has not been well developed for
tourism. It is thought that the high carbon absorbing plant, if grown on a commercial scale, may
have a negative impact on fish stocks and other wildlife in the area. The resulting decline in fish
stocks may make it impossible for the fishermen to continue with their traditional way of life.
Required:
Discuss the key issues that the directors of Mezza Co should consider when making the
decision about whether or not to commercialize the new product, and suggest how these
issues may be mitigated or resolved.
Answer:-
The directors‟ overarching aim should be to maximize Mezza Co‟s long-term value and thereby
maximize the value to its shareholders. Hence any decision should be made with this aim as the
primary objective. However, the directors should also try to minimize the negative
consequences resulting from the implementation of the project, taking into account the
company‟s responsibility to its stakeholders.
The first key issue to consider is whether the new project would add value to the company.
Initially it would appear that the investment into the new venture may be beneficial to the
company. The product would be meeting market needs for a substantial period of time, as a
tool in tackling climate change. It would possibly enhance the company‟s corporate reputation
in helping to tackle the negative impact of climate change. Furthermore, it may enable the
research subsidiary company to undertake future research and development projects in similar
products.
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However, whether the positive factors described above lead to an increase in the value of the
company warrants further discussion and investigation. The company needs to assess the likely
income the investment will generate and take account of the inherent risk of the venture.
Presumably this is a new product and therefore it is likely that the uncertainty and risk to
income flows will be significant. The directors should also take account of the fact that their
remuneration package contains share options and these may induce them to act in an overly
risky manner, where they would benefit from increasing share prices but not lose if the share
price falls. This may not be beneficial to the shareholders or other stakeholders who do not hold
such options.
Due diligence procedures for the project need to be undertaken before the decision is made. The
company‟s directors need to undertake a full assessment of how realistic the estimates of
revenues and income are likely to be. They would also need to assess the likelihood of
competitors and alternative products which may affect the future sales of the product. A full
investigation of the uncertainties and risks needs to be undertaken, possibly using techniques
such as sensitivity, probability and project duration analysis. Risks need to be accounted for in
the assessment of the likely value added. This would be of particular importance if the directors
are to convince the shareholders and other stakeholders that they are not taking unacceptable
levels of risk. Realistic time scales need to be determined of how long it would take to
commercialize the product, perhaps by considering how other companies undertook similar
projects. The adequacy of the expertise and infrastructure required by the company needs to be
assessed.
The second key issue for the directors to consider is the location of the plant product. There are
a number of factors which would make the location ideal for Mezza Co. The location provides
the ideal conditions for the plant to grow in the quantity required for commercialization. The
relationship with the government is strong and the government wants to develop new
industries, hence the project is likely to be seen in a positive light. It is possible therefore that
many legal and administrative barriers would be reduced to enable production to commence
quickly. Finally, Mezza Co has the infrastructure it needs in place and therefore set-up costs are
likely to be significantly lower. These factors would provide financial benefits for Mezza Co and
may make the investmentviable.
However, there are ethical and environmental concerns in using this area for the project. It may
be perceived that the relationship with the government is too close and this will prevent proper
scrutiny by the government. The livelihood of the affected fishermen needs to be considered, as
well as the impact on the wildlife and the environment. Going ahead with the project may result
in a significant negative impact on Mezza Co‟s reputation and possibly contradicts with the
company‟s (and the directors‟) values. Therefore, the dilemma that the directors face is that the
project would be perceived as helping the global environment but damaging the local
environment.
Question No 32:
ST – 1 DEBT Ratio K. Billingsworth & Co. had earnings per share of $4 last year, and it paid a
$2 dividend. Total retained earnings increased by $12 million during the year, while book value
per share at year end was $40. Billingsworth has no preferred stock, and no new common stock
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was issued during the year. If Billingsworth‟s year – end debt (which equals its total liabilities)
was $120 million, what was the company‟s year – end debt/assets ratio?
ST – 2 Ratio Analysis The following data apply to A.L. Kaiser & Company (millions of dollars):
Cash and marketable securities $100.00
Fixed assets $283.50
Sales $1,000.00
Net Income $50.00
Quick ratio 2.0x
=Current ratio 3.0x
DSO 40days
ROE 12%
Kaisar has no preferred stock – only common equity, current liabilities, and long – term debt.
a) Find Kaiser‟s (1) accounts receivable, (2) current liabilities, (3) current assets, (4) total
assets, (5) ROA, (6) common equity, and (7) long – term debt.
b) In part a, you should have found Kaiser‟s accounts receivable = $111.1 million. If Kaiser
could reduce its DSO from 40 days to 30 days while holding other things constant, how
much cash would it generate? If this cash were used to buy back common stock (at book
value) and thus reduced the amount of common equity, how would this affect (1) the
ROE, (2) the ROA, and (3) the total debt/total assets ratio?
Answer:-
ST – 1: Billingsworth paid $2 in dividends and retained $2 per share. Since total retained
earnings rose by $12 million, there must be 6 million shares outstanding. With a book value of
$40 per share, total common equity must be $40 (6 million) = $240 million. Billingsworth has
$120 million of debt; its debt ratio must be 33.3 percent:
Debt Debt $120Million

 
Assets Debt  Equity $120Million$240Million
= 0.333 =33.3%
ST – 2
a) In answering questions such as this, always being by writing down the relevant
definitional equations, then start filling in numbers. Note that the extra zero indicating
millions have been deleted in the calculations below.
Accountsreceivable
DSO 

1) 
 Sales / 360
40  A /R
$1,000 / 360
A/R= 40($2.778) =$111.1 million.
2) QuickRatio  Currentassets  Inventories  2.0

CurrentLiabilities
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Note: we could have found equity as follows:

ROE = Net Income/Equity
12%=$50/Equity
Equity =$50/0.12
= $416.67 million (rounding difference)
Then we could have gone on to find current liabilities and long-term debt.
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b) Kaiser‟s average sale per day were $1,000/360 = $2.8 million. Its DSO was 40, so A/R =
40 ($2.8) = $111.1 million. Its new DSO of 30 would cause A/R = 30($208) = $83.3
million. The reduction in receivables would be $111.1 - $83.3 = $27.8 million, which
would equal the amount of cash generated.
1) New equity = Old Equity = Stock bought back
= $416.5 -$27.8
=$388.7 million.
Thus,
New ROE = Net Income/New equity

= $50/$388.7
= 12.86% (versus old ROE of 12.0%)
2) New ROE = Net Income/Total assets – Reduction in A/R
New ROE=$50/$600-$27.8
New ROE = 8.74% (versus old ROA of 8.33%)
3) The old debt is the same as the new debt:

Debt = Total Claims – Equity
= $600 - $416.5 = $183.5 million
Old total assets = $ 600 million.
New total assets = Old total assets – Reduction in A/R
=$600 - $27.8 =$572.2 million
Therefore,
Debt/old total assets =$183.5/$600 = 30.6%
While,
New debt/New total assets = $183.5/$572.2 = 32.1%
Question No 33:-
ST – 1: Inflation Rates. Assume that it is now January 1, 1997, and the rate of inflation is
expected to be 6 percent throughout 1997. However, increased government deficits and
renewed vigor in the economy are then expected to push inflation rates higher. Investors expect
the inflation rate to be 7 percent in 1998, 8 percent in 1999, and 9 percent in 2000. The real risk –
free rate, k*, is currently 3 percent. Assume that no maturity risk premiums are required on
bonds with 5 year or less to maturity. The current interest rate on 5 – year T- bonds is 11
percent.
a. What is the average expected inflation rate over the next 4 years?
b. What should be the prevailing interest rate on 4 – year T – bonds?
c. What is the implied expected inflation rate in 2001, or year 5, given that bonds which
mature in that year yield 11 percent?
ST – 2: Effect of Form of Organization on Taxes John Thompson is planning to start a new

business, JT Enterprises, and he must decide whether to incorporate or to do business as a sole
proprietorship. Under either form, Thompson will initially own 100 percent of the firm, and tax
considerations are important to him. He plans to finance the firm‟s expected growth by drawing
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a salary just sufficient for his family living expenses, which he estimates will be about $40,000,
and by retaining all other income tax exemptions of 3 × $2,500 = $7,500, and he estimates that
his itemized deductions for each of the three years will be $8,750. He expects JT Enterprises to
grow and to earn income of $60,000 in 1997, $90,000 in 1998, and $110,000 in 1999. Which form
of business organization will allow Thompson to pay the lowest taxes (and retain the most
income) during the period from 1997 to 1999? Assume that the tax rates given in the chapter are
applicable for all future years. (Social Security taxes would also have to be paid, but ignore
them.)
Answer:-
ST – 1
a. Average = (6% + 7% + 8% + 9%)/4 = 30%/4 = 7.5%
b. = k* + IP = 3.0% + 7.5% = 10.5%
c. If the 5 – year T-bond rate is 11 percent, the inflation rate is expected to average
approximately 11% - 3% = 8% during the next 5 year. Thus, the implied Year 5 inflation
rate is10percent:
8% = (6% + 7% + 8% + 9%+ )/5
40% = 30% +
= 10%
ST – 2 1997 1998 1999

THOMPSON‟S TAXES AS A CORPORATION
Income before salary and taxes $60,000 $90,000 $110,000
Less: Salary (40,000) (40,000) (40,000)
Taxable income, corporate $20,000 $50,000 $70,000
Total corporate tax $ 30002 $7,500 $12,500
Salary $40,000 $40,000 $40,000
Less exemptions and deductions (16,250) (16,250) (16,250)
Taxable personal income $26,750 $23,750 $23,750
Total personal tax $3, 562b $3,562 $3,562
Combined corporate and personal tax: $6,562 $11,062 $16,062
Thompson‟s Taxes as a Proprietorship
Total income $60,000 $90,000 $110,000
Less: exemptions and deductions ($16,250) ($16,250) ($16,250)
Taxable personal income $43,750 $73,750 $93,750
Tax liability of proprietorship $7,180c $15,580 $21,180
Advantage of being a corporation: $ 618 $4,518 $5,118
a
Corporate Tax in 1997 = (0.15)($20,000) = $3,000.
b
Personal Tax (if Thompson incorporates) in 1997 = (0.15) ($23,750) = $3,562.
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c
Proprietorship Tax in 1997= $5,850 + (0.28) ($43,750 - $39,000)
= $5,850 + 0.28($43,750)
= $5,850 + $1,330 = $7,180.
The corporate form of organization allows Thompson to pay the lowest taxes in each
year; therefore, on the basis of taxes during the 3-year period, Thompson should
incorporate his business. However, note that to get money but out of the corporation so
he can spend it, Thompson will have to have the corporation pay dividends, which will
be taxed to Thompson, and thus he will, sometimes in the future, have to pay additional
taxes.
Question No 34:
ST – 1: Realized rates of return Stocks A and B have the following historical returns:
Year Stock A‟s Return. k A Stock B‟s Returns, kg
1992 (10.00% (3.00%)
1993 18.50 21.29
1994 38.6 44.25
1995 14.33 3.67
1996 33.00 28.30
a. Calculate the average rate of return for each stock during the period 1992 through 1996.
Assume that someone held a portfolio consisting of 50 percent of stock A and 50 percent
of stock B. What would have been the realized rate of return on the portfolio in each
year from 1992 through 1996? What would have been the average return on the portfolio
during this period?
b. Now calculate the standard deviation of returns for each stock and for the portfolio.
c. Looking at the annual returns data on the two stocks, would you guess that the
correlation coefficient between returns on the two stocks is closer to 0.9 or to -0.9?
d. If you added more stocks at random to the portfolio, which of the following is the most
accurate statement of what would happen to OP ?
1) OP would remainconstant.
2) OP would decline to somewhere in the vicinity of 18 percent.
3) OP would decline to zero if enough stocks were included.
Answer:-
ST – 1
a. The average rate of return for each stock is calculated simply by averaging the returns
over the 5 – year period. The average return for each stock is 18.90 percent, calculated for
stock A as follows:
kAVg = (-10.00 % + 18.50% + 38.67% + 14.33% + 33.00%)/5
=18.90%
The realized rate of return on a portfolio made up of Stock A and Stock B would be
calculated by finding the average return in each year as k A (% of Stock A) + kB (% of
Stock B) and then averaging these yearly returns.
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Year Portfolio AB‟s Returns, kAB

1992 (6.5%)
1993 19.90
1994 41.46
1995 9.00
1996 30.65
kAvg =18.90%
b. The standard deviation of returns is estimated, using Equation 4 – 3 a, as follows.
(k
n k )2
t Avg
Estimated   s  t 1
n 1
For stock A, the estimated  is 19.0 percent:
(10.0018.9)2 (18.5018.9)2 ...(33.0018.9)2
 
51

1, 445.92
  19.0%
4
The standard deviations of returns for Stock B and for the portfolio are similarly
determined, and they are as follows:
Stock A Stock B Portfolio AB
Standard deviation 19.0 19.0 18.6
c. Since the risk reduction from diversification is small (  AB falls only from 19.0 to 18.6
percent), the most likely value of the correlation coefficient is 0.9. if the correlation
coefficient were -0.9, the risk reduction would be much larger. In fact, the correlation
coefficient between Stock A and B is 0.92.
d. If more randomly selected stocks were added to the portfolio,  P would decline to
somewhere in the vicinity of 18 percent; see Figure 4-8.  P would remain constant only
if the correlation coefficient were +1.0, which is most unlikely.  P would decline to zero
only if the correlation coefficient, r, were equal to zero and a large number of stocks
were added to the portfolio, or if the correct proportions were held in a two – stock
portfolio with r = - 1.0.
Question No 35:-
ST – 1: Risk and Return you are planning to invest $200,000. Two securities, A and B, are
available and you can invest in either of them or in a portfolio with some of each. You estimate
that the following probability distributions or returns are applicable for A and B:
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SECURITY A SECURITY B
PA KA PB KB
0.1 -10% 0.1 -30%
0.2 5 0.2 0
0.4 15 0.4 20
0.2 25 0.2 40
0.1 40 0.1 70
 
k A
=? k B
=20.0%
 A =?  B =25.7%
 
a. The expected return for Security B is B = 20%, and  B =25.7%. Find A and  A .
k k
b. Use the equation in Footnote 3 to find the value of WA that produces the minimum risk
portfolio. Assume rAB =-0.5 for parts b and c.

c. Construct a table giving k P and

 P for portfolios with WA = 1.00, 0.75, 0.50, 0.25, 0.0, and

the minimum risk value of WA . (Hint: For WA
= 0.75, k P =16.25%
and  P =8.5%; for WA
 
=0.5. P =17.5% and  P =11.1%; for WA =0.25, P =18.75% and P =17.9%.)

k k
d. Graph the feasible set of portfolios and identify the efficient frontier of the feasible set.
e. Suppose your risk/return trade-off function, or indifference curve, is tangent to the

efficient set at the point where
P =18%.
Use this information, plus the graph
k
constructed in Part d. to locate (approximately) your optimal portfolio. Draw in a
reasonable indifference curve, indicate the percentage of your funds invested in each
 
security; and determine the optimal portfolio‟s  P and (Hint: Estimate  P and
k P. k P

graphically, and then use the equation for P to determine WA .)

k
f. Now suppose a riskless asset with a return KRF =10% becomes available. How would
this change the investment opportunity set? Explain why the efficient frontier becomes
linear.
g. Given the indifference curve in part e, would you change your portfolio? If so, how?
(Hint: Assume the indifference curves are parallel.)
h. What are the beta coefficient of Stocks A and B? [Hints: (1) Recognize that K1 = KRF + b1 (
KM - KRF ) and solve for b1 and (2) assume that your preferences match those of most
other investors.]
Answer:-
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Question No 36:-
ST – 1: Future Value Assume that it is now January 1, 1997. On January 1, 1998, you will deposit
$1,000 into a savings account that pays 8 percent.
a) If the bank compounds interest annually, how much will you have in your account
on January 1, 2001?
b) What would your January 1, 2001, balance be if the bank used quarterly
compounding rather than annual compounding?
c) Suppose you deposited the $1,000 in 4 payments of $250 each on January 1 of 1998,
1999, 2000, and 2001. How much would you have in your account on January 1,
2001, based on 8 percent annual compounding?
d) Suppose you deposited 4 equal payments in your account on January 1 of 1998,
1999, 2000, and 2001. Assuming an 8 percent interest rate, how large would each of
your payments have to be for you to obtain the same ending balance as you
calculated in part a?
ST – 2: Time Value of Money Assume that it is now January 1, 1997 and you will need $1,000
on January 1, 2001. Your bank compounds interest at an 8 percent annual rate.
a) How much must you deposit on January 1, 1998, to have a balance of $1,000 on January
1, 2001?
b) If you want to make equal payments on each January 1 from 1998 through 2001 to
accumulate the $1,000 how large must each of the 4 payments be?
c) If your father were to offer either to make the payments calculated in part b ($221.92) or
t give you a lump sum of $750 on January 1, 1998, which would you choose?
d) If you have only $750 on January 1, 1998, what interest rate, compounded annually,
would you have to earn to have the necessary $1,000 on January 1, 2001?
e) Suppose you can deposit only $186.29 each January 1 from 1998 through 2001, but you
still need $1,000 on January 1, 2001. What interest rate, with annual compounding, must
you seek out to achieve your goal?
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f) To help you reach your $1,000 goal, your father offers to give you $400 on January 1,
1998. You will get a part – time job and make 6 additional payments of equal amounts
each 6 months thereafter. If all of this money is deposited in a bank which pays 8
percent, compounded semiannually, how large mush each of the 6 payments be?
g) What is the effective annual rate being paid by the bank in part f?
h) Reinvestment rate risk was defined in Chapter 3 as being the risk that maturing
securities (and coupon payments on bonds) will have to be reinvested at a lower rate of
interest than they were previously earning. Is there a reinvestment rate risk involved in
the preceding analysis? If so, how might this risk be eliminated?
ST – 3: Effective Annual Rates Bank A pays 8 percent interest, compounded quarterly, on its
money market account. The managers of Bank B want its money market account to equal Banks
A‟s effective annual rate, but interest is to be compounded on a monthly basis. What nominal,
or quoted, rate must Bank B set?
Answer:-
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Question No 37:-
ST – 1: Stock Growth Rates and Valuation You are considering buying the stocks of two
companies that operate in the same industry; they have very similar characteristics expect for
their dividend payout policies. Both companies are expected to earn $6 per share this year.
However, Company D (for “dividend”) is expected to pay out all of its earnings as dividend,
while Company G (for “growth”) is expected to pay out only one – third of its earnings, or $2
per share. D‟s stock price is $40. G and D are equally risky. Which of the following is most likely
to betrue?
a. Company G will have a faster growth rate than company D. Therefore, G‟s stock price
should be greater than $40.
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b. Although G‟s growth rate should exceed D‟s, D‟s current dividend exceeds that of G,
and this should cause D‟s price to exceed G‟s.
c. An investor in stock D will get his or her money back faster because D pays out more of
its earnings as dividends. Thus, in a sense, D is like a short – term bond, and G is like a
long – term bond. Therefore, if economic shifts cause kd and ks to increase, and if the
expected streams of dividends from D and G remain constant, Stocks D and G will both
decline, but D‟s price should decline further.

d. D‟s expected and required rate of return is = ks =15%. G‟s expected return will be
k s
higher because of its higher expected growth rate.
e. On the basis of the available information, the best estimate of G‟s growth rate is 10
percent.
ST – 2: Bond Valuation The Pennington Corporation issued a new series of bonds on January 1,
1971. The bonds were sold at per ($1,000), have a 12 percent coupon, and mature in 30 years, on
December 31, 2000. Coupon payments are made semiannually (on June 30 and December 31).
a. What was the YTM of Pennington‟s bond on January 1, 1971?

b. What was the price of the bond on January 1, 1976, 5 years later, assuming that the level
of interest rates had fallen to 10 percent?
c. Find the current yield and capital gains yield on the bond on January 1, 1976, given the
price as determined in part b.
d. On July 1, 1994, Pennington‟s bonds sold for $196.42. What was the YTM as that date?
e. What were the current yield and capital gain yield on July 1, 1994?
f. Now assume that you purchased an outstanding Pennington bond on March 1, 1994,
when the going rate of interest was 15.5 percent. How large a check must you have
written to complete the transaction?
S – T 3: Constant Growth Stock Valuation Ewald Company‟s current stock price is $36, and its
last dividend was $2.40. In view of Ewald‟s strong financial position and its consequent low
risk, its required rate of return is only 12 percent. If dividends are expected to grow at a
constant rate, g, in the future, and if ks is expected to remain at 12 percent, what is Ewald‟s
expected stock price 5 year from now?
S – T 4: Supernormal Growth Stock Valuation Snyder Computer Chips Inc. is experiencing a

period of rapid growth. Earnings and dividends are expected to grow at a rate of 15 percent
during the next 2 years, at 13 percent in the third year, and at a constant rate of 6 percent
thereafter. Synder‟s last dividend was $1.15, and the required rate of return on the stock is 12
percent.
a. Calculate the value of the stock today.
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 
b. Calculate P .
P and1
2
c. Calculate the dividend yield and capital gains yield for Years 1,2, and 3.
Answer:-
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Question No 38:-
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Answer:-
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Quess
Question 39:
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Answer:-
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Question No 40:-
ST – 1: New Project Analysis you have been asked by the president of the Farr Construction
Company to evaluate the proposed acquisition of a new earth mover. The mover‟s basic price is
$50,000, and it would cost another $10,000 to modify it for special use. Assume that the mover
fails into the MACRS 3 – year class, it would be sold after 3 years for $20,000, and it would
require an increase in net working capital (share parts inventory) of $2,000. The earth mover
would have no effect on revenues, but it is expected to save the firm $20,000 per year in before –
tax operating costs, mainly labor. The firm‟s marginal federal – plus – state tax rate is 40
percent.
a. What is the net cost of the earth mover? (That is, what are the Year 0 cash flows?)
b. What are the operating cash flows in Years 1, 2 and 3?
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c. What are the additional (non-operating) cash flows in year 3?

d. If the project‟s cost of capital is 10 percent, should the earth mover be purchased?
ST – 2: Replacement Project Analysis The Erickson Toy Corporation currently uses an injection
molding machine that was purchased 2 years ago. This machine is being depreciated on a
straights line basis toward a $550 salvage value, and it has 6 years or remaining life. Its current
book value is $2,600, and it can be sold for $3,000 at this time. Assume, for case of calculation,
that the annual depreciation expense is $350 per year.
The firm is offered a replacement machine which has a cost of $8,000, an estimated useful life of
6 years, and an estimated salvage value of $800. This machine falls into the MACRS 5 – year
class. The replacement machine would permit an output expansion, so sales would rise by
$1,000 per year; even so, the new machine‟s much greater efficiency would still cause operating
expenses to decline by $1,500 per year. The new machine would require that inventories be
increased by $2,000, but accounts payable would simultaneously increase by $500.
The firm‟s marginal federal – plus – state tax is 40 percent. And its cost of capital is 15 percent.
Should it replace the old machine?
Answer:
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Question No 41:-
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Answer:-
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Question No 42:-
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Answer:
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Question:
Dawlance Co has undertaken market research at a cost of Rs.200,000 in order to forecast the
future cash flows of an investmentprojectwithanexpectedlifeoffouryears,asfollows:
Year 1 2 3 4
Sales revenue (Rs.000) 1,250 2,570 6,890 4,530
Costs (Rs.000) 500 1,000 2,500 1,750
These forecast cash flows are before taking account of general inflation of 4·7% per year.
The capital cost of the investment project, payable at the start of the first year, will be
Rs.2,000,000. The investment project will have zero scrap value at the end ofthe fourth year.
The level of working capital investment at the start of each year is expected to be 10% of the
sales revenue in that year.
Capital allowances would be available on the capital cost of the investment project on a 25%
reducing balance basis. Dawlance Co pays tax on profits at an annual rate of 30% per year,
with tax being paid one year in arrears. Dawlance Co has a nominal (money terms) after-
tax costofcapital of 12% per year.
Required:
a) Calculate the net present value of the investment project in nominal terms and comment
on its financial acceptability.
b) Write down limitations of internal rate of return (IRR) and net present value (NPV).
Answer:
1 (a) Calculating the net present value of the investment project using a nominal terms approach
requires the discounting of nominal (money terms) cash flows using anominal discount rate,
which is givenas 12%.
Year 1 2 3 4 5
Rs.000 Rs.000 Rs.000 Rs.000 Rs.000
Sales revenue 1,308·75 2,817·26 7,907·87 5,443·58
Costs (523·50) (1,096·21) (2,869·33) (2,102·93)

–––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– –––––––––
Net revenue 785·25 1,721·05 5,038·54 3,340·65
Tax payable (235·58) (516·32) (1,511·56) (1,002·20)
CA tax benefits 150·00 112·50 84·38 253·13

–––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– –––––––––
After-tax cash flow 785·25 1,635·47 4,634·72 1,913·47 (749·07)
Working capital (150·86) (509·06) 246·43 544·36
–––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– –––––––––
Project cash flow 634·39 1,126·41 4,881·15 2,457·83 (749·07)
Discount at 12% 0·893 0·797 0·712 0·636 0·567
–––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– –––––––––
Present values 566·51 897·75 3,475·38 1,563·18 (424·72)
–––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– ––––––––– –––––––––
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Rs.000
PV of future cash flows 6,078·10
Initial investment (2,000·00)
Working capital (130·88)
–––––––––
NPV 3,947·22
–––––––––
Thenetpresentvalue is Rs.3,947,220 and sothe investment project is financially acceptable.
Workings
Year 1 2 3 4
Sales revenue(Rs.000) 1,250 2,570 6,890 4,530
Inflated sales revenue (Rs.000) 1,308·75 2,817·26 7,907·87 5,443·58
Year 1 2 3 4
Costs (Rs.000) 500 1,000 2,500 1,750
Inflated costs (Rs.000) 523·50 1,096·21 2,869·33 2,102·93
Year 1 2 3 4
Inflated sales revenue (Rs.000) 1,308·75 2,817·26 7,907·87 5,443·58
Workingcapital(Rs.000) 130·88 281·73 790·79 544·36
Incremental (Rs.000) (130·88) (150·86) (509·06) 246·43
Year 1 2 3 4
Capital allowance (Rs.000) 500·00 375·00 281·25 843·75
Taxbenefit(Rs.000) 150·00 112·50 84·38 253·13
b) :
Limitations of the Internal Rate of Return (IRR):
One problem with the IRR is that it ignores the initial investment amount. If you’re
comparing two alternative investments and your only decision criteria is the IRR, then
which is better – a 50% return on $1,000 investment, or a 10% return on a $50,000
investment? If IRR was your only decision criteria, then you’d choose the first option,
ignoring the size of your initial investment, and therefore the actual cash you’re able
receive as a result of your investment.
Another limitation of the IRR is that it doesn’t always equal the return on your initial
investment over the holding period. When periodic cash flows exist in an investment that
results in capital recovery, the IRR makes no assumptions about what you do with these
interim cash flows. For example, you might put that cash flow into a bank account with a
much lower yield than the IRR, which can be problematic when evaluating the true return
for an investment.
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Limitations of the Net Present Value (NPV):
One limitation of the NPV is that it doesn’t take into account the timing or variability of
cash flows. For example, which is better, a project that returns one lump sum in 10 years,
or instead a project with even cash flows every year for ten years? These are two different
investments and, depending on your needs, you might prefer one over the other, even if
the NPV for both projects is the same.
Another limitation of the NPV is that it’s often difficult to accurately estimate the discount
rate. Because of this, it might also be difficult to accurately account for the riskiness of
projected cash flows. For example, if you’re evaluating a building with short term leases,
then you might consider bumping up your discount rate to account for this rollover risk.
But exactly how much higher should your discount rate be? This is often a subjective
decision that an objective measure, like the NPV, can’t easily account for.
QUESTION :
Bata Co sells both Product P and Product Q, with sales of both products occurring
evenly throughout the year.
Product P
The annual demand for Product P is 300,000 units and an order for new inventory is placed
each month. Each order costs Rs.267 to place. The cost of holding Product P in inventory is
10 Paisas per unit per year. Buffer inventory equal to 40% of one month’s sales is
maintained.
Product Q
The annual demand for Product Q is 456,000 units per year and Bata Co buys in this
product at Rs.1 per unit on 60 dayscredit.The supplier has offered an early settlement
discount of 1% for settlement of invoices within 30 days.
Other information
Bata Co finances working capital with short-term finance costing 5% per year.Assume
that there are 365 days in each year.
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Required:
(a) Calculate the following values for Product P:
(i) The total cost of the current ordering policy;
(ii) The total cost of an ordering policy using the economic order quantity;
(iii) The net cost or saving of introducing an ordering policy using the economic order
quantity.
(b) Calculate the net value in Rs. (000) to Bata Co of accepting the early settlement
discount for Product Q.
(c) Discuss how invoice discounting and factoring can aid the management of trade
receivables.
Answers:
(a) (i) Cost of current ordering policy

Ordering cost = 12 x 267 = Rs.3,204 per year
Monthly order = monthly demand = 300,000/12 = 25,000 units
Buffer inventory = 25,000 x 0·4 = 10,000 units
Average inventory excluding buffer inventory = 25,000/2 = 12,500 units

Average inventory including buffer inventory = 12,500 + 10,000 = 22,500 units
Holding cost = 22,500 x 0·1 = Rs.2,250 per year
Total cost = 3,204 + 2,250 = Rs.5,454 per year
(ii) Cost of ordering policy using economic order quantity (EOQ)

EOQ = ((2 x 267 x 300,000)/0·10)0·5 = 40,025 or 40,000 units per order
Number of orders per year = 300,000/40,000 = 7·5 orders per year
Order cost = 7·5 x 267 = Rs.2,003

Average inventory excluding buffer inventory = 40,000/2 = 20,000 units
Average inventory including buffer inventory = 20,000 + 10,000 = 30,000 units
Holding cost = 30,000 x 0·1 = Rs.3,000 per year

Total cost = Rs.2,003 + Rs.3,000 = Rs.5,003 per year
(iii) Saving from introducing EOQ ordering policy = 5,454 – 5,003 = Rs.451 per year
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(b) Product Q trade payables at end of year = 456,000 x 1 x 60/365 = Rs.74,959

Product Q trade payables after discount = 456,000 x 1 x 0·99 x 30/365 = Rs.37,105
Decrease in Product Q trade payables = 74,959 – 37,105 = Rs.37,854
Increase in financing cost = 37,854 x 0·05 = Rs.1,893
Value of discount = 456,000 x 0·01 = Rs.4,560
Net value of offer of discount = 4,560 – 1,893 = Rs.2,667
(c) Invoice discounting refers to the purchase of selected invoices by a financial

company at a discount to their face value. Invoice discounting can provide
immediate cash to a company rather than waiting for the invoices to be settled. It
tends to be used as an occasional source of short-term finance, rather than a regular
source of cash. Invoice discounting can therefore aid in the management of trade
receivables by accelerating cash inflow from trade receivables when short-termcash
flowproblems arise.
Factoring refers to a commercial arrangement whereby a financial company takes over
the management of a company’s trade receivables. This will include invoicing
customers, accounting for sales and collections of amounts owed. Factors will
advance cash to a company against the amounts outstanding. If the client requires,
insurance against bad debts may also be provided (non-recourse factoring).
Factoring can assist in the management oftrade receivables through the expertise offered by
the factoring company. This may lead to a reduction in bad debts, a decrease in the level of
trade receivables, a decrease in the amount of managerial time devoted to chasing slow
payers, and taking advantage of early settlement discounts from trade suppliers due to the
availability of cash from trade receivables.
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Question No 43:-
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Answer:-
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Answer:-
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Answer:-
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Question No 46:-
Answer:-
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Answer:-
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Answer:-
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Question 48:-
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Answer:-
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Problems
1 -1:- If you deposit $100 in the bank today and it earns interest at a rate of 8% compounded
annually, how much will be in the account 50 years from today?
Answer: - $4,690.10
1 – 2:- A loaf of bread costs $0.79 today. If its price increases by 6% per year, how much will an
equivalent loaf cost in 20 years?
Answer: - $2.53
1 – 3:- How much money must you deposit in a savings account today to have $20,000 in 20
years if the interest rate is 8% compounded annually?
Answer: - $4,290.96
1 – 4:- Your sister borrows $1,000 and promises to repay $2,000. If you want at least a 5% return
on your loan, within how many years must she pay you back?
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Answer: - 14.2 Years = 14 Years
1 – 5:- Which would you prefer: $3,000 now, $2,000 that was placed in a savings account 5 years
ago or $1,000 that was placed in a savings account 10 years ago if
a. Your time value of money is 12%

b. Your time value of money is 16%
c. Your time value of money is 8%
Answer:-
a. $2,000 from five years ago

b. $1,000 from 10 years ago
c. $3,000 now
1 – 6:- Using a discount rate of 12%, find the future value as of the end of year 4 of $100 received
at the end of each of the next four years
a. Using only the FVF table.

b. Using only the FVFA table
Answer:-
a. $477.93
b. $477.93
1 – 7:- How much must you save at the end of each of the next 10 years to have $100,000 at the
end of the 10th year if the interest rate is 10%?
Answer:-$6,274.55
1 – 8:- If the discount rate is 14%, what is FV10 of $300 received at the end of each of the next 10
years except for the fourth year?
Answer: - $5,142.69
1 – 9:- What is FV12 of a 10 – year $500 annuity for which the first $500 payment is made at the
end of the 3rd year (and the 10th payment at the end of the 15th year) if the discount rate is 16%?
Answer: - $10,660.69
1 – 10:- What FV10 of a 10 – year annuity due with payments of $1,000 if the discount rate is
10%?
Answer: - $17,530.70
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1 – 11:- You are buying a $100,000 home with a 30 – year mortgage requiring payments to be
made at the end of each year. The interest rate is 10% for the first 15 years of the mortgage but
then increases to 15% for the last 15 years. How much will your annual payments be?
Answer:-$11,103.75
1 – 12:- A device is for sale that will save you 10% of your utility bill every year. Your time value
of money is 12% and your utility bill is $500 per year. Assuming that your utility bill remains
constant and that you (and your heirs) will be around to enjoy the benefits of the device forever,
how much should you be willing to pay for it?
Answer: - $416.67
1 – 13:- You are trying to decide whether to buy a $2,500 motorcycle on credit or to save money
to buy it in 30 months. If you buy on credit, you will make 30 equal and – of – the month
payments at a finance charge of 2% per month. If you save money to buy it in 30 months, you
will earn 1% per month on your savings. However, the semiannual inflation rate is 5%, so the
motorcycle will cost more in 2.5 years. (Suppose that you don‟t care when you take possession
of the motorcycle; that is, you will make your decision solely on the basis of which plan has
lower monthly requirements.)
a. What will your monthly payments be if you buy on credit?

b. What must your monthly deposits be if you choose to save money and buy it in 30
months?
c. What should you do?
Answer:-
a. $111.62
b. $91.73
c. Buy in 30 months
1 – 14:- Consider an investment that pays $80 in interest every year plus $1,000 when it matures
in 12 years. You can buy the investment today for $753. What is the IRR of this investment? (Use
a financial calculator for this problem.)
Answer: - 11.98%
1 – 15:- A certificate of deposit (CD) offered by a new bank will pay $10,000 in three years. Your
current bank offers a 9% rate on three – year CDs. What is the most you should be willing to
pay for the new bank‟s CD?
Answer: - $7,722.00
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1 – 16:- After spending $300 on advertising, Van Harlow has found a buyer for his twin – engine
plane. Van can sell the plane for $20,000, but he must then pay $500 to transport the plane to the
buyer. Alternatively, he can keep the machine for use in a new project that came up after he
placed the ads to sell. What is the appropriate cost (in dollars) of keeping the plane for the
project?
Answer: - $19,500
1 – 17:- Five years ago, you withdrew $2,000 from a money market fund paying 10% to place it
in a mutual fund. Today your investment in the mutual fund is worth $3,000.
a. What is your accounting profit from the investment in the mutual fund?
b. What was the opportunity cost of your $2,000 investment? What was your economic
profit from the mutual fund?
Answer:-
a. $1,000
b. Leave the money in the money market mutual fund.
1 – 18:- You have done some research on a new project and found that it has a required initial
outlay of $1,000 and an NPV of $10 given the opportunity cost of 10% for new projects. A co –
worker argues that it is not worth going through the trouble of adopting the project for only
$10. How do you respond?
Answer: - The project should still be accepted.
1 – 9:- You have narrowed down your housing search to two apartments to lease for your last 12
months of school. The Cloisters will lease an apartment for $500 per month, with two month‟s
rent required as a deposit. The Woodward Street Apartments will lease an apartment for $510
per month, with a one – month deposit. In either case, payments are made at the beginning of
each month and the deposit is returned at the end of 12 months. The Cloisters will not give you
any interest on your deposit; the Woodward Street Apartments will give you 1% interest per
month. You have determined that your opportunity cost is 1% per month. What should you do?
Answer: - Choose The Cloisters
1 – 10:- Your brother has decided what model of car he wants to buy and is trying to choose
between two dealers. Dempsey Motors will sell the car for $10,000 ($1,000) down, with the rest
payable on a four – year note with a monthly interest rate of 1.2%). Your brother‟s opportunity
cost is 1% per month. What should he do? (Note: You cannot use the tables for this problem.
PVFA.01,48 = 37.97, PVFA.012,48 =36.33.)
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Answer: - Purchase from Tunney
1 – 11:- Atilla Industries is a publicly held company that has 1,500,000 shares outstanding with a
market value of $23.2 million. The records show that the company has 6,805 shareholders, 4,200
of who own 100 or more shares. Atilla‟s net tangible assets are worth $24 million. If Atilla had
pretax earnings of $1.6 million this year, what other requirements must Atilla meet before it can
consider being listed on the NYSE?
Answer: - 8.75%
1 – 12:- One year ago, you purchased 100 shares of Pacific Oil for $25 each. The annual dividend
per share was $1, and the share price today is $27. On the same day you purchased your shares,
your brother purchased 100 shares of Georiga Edison for $15 per share. The annual dividend
per share was $2.30, and the share price today is $14.50. Who earned a greater rate of return,
you or yourbrother?
Answer: - $17.50
1 – 13:- Sergeat Motors Common shares are trading for $30 each. You expect annual dividends
(paid at the end of the year) to be constant at $1 for the next four years. If you expect 15% return
on your investment, what must you expect the share price to be in four years?
Answer: - 15%
1 – 14:- The Midwest Grain Company pays an annual dividend of $1.80 and is expected to do so
permanently. If you require a 15% return on your investment, how much will you be willing to
pay for a share?
Answer: - $15.00
1 – 15:- Telstar, Inc., just paid a $1.60 dividend. They paid a dividend of $0.89 12 years ago.
What has been the annual growth rate in dividends during this time? If the growth rate remains
the same, how much will you be willing to pay for a share if you require a return of 12%?
Answer: - $38.00
1 – 16:- Sam Malone, vice – president of AMI, Inc., wishes to find the YTM on his company‟s 10
year, 10% bond selling for 106.38% of the par value of $1,000. Calculate the YTM, using
a. A financial calculator.
b. The trial – and – error method.
c. The approximation formula.
Answer:-
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a. 9.0%
b. 9.0%
c. 9.1%
1 – 17:- A 20 – year, 10% coupon – interest – rate bond has a $1,000 par value. The market rate of
interest is 8%. Compute the market price of this bond if it has 5 years to maturity. Assume that
interest is paid annually.
Answer: - $1,196.36
1 – 18:- A bond with six years left to maturity has a coupon rate of 9% and a par value of $1,000.
How much will you be willing to pay for the bond if you require an annual rate of return of
12%?
Answer: - $876.66
1 – 19:- A bond pays interest annually and sells for $835. It has six year left to maturity and a par
value of $1,000. What is its coupon if it‟s promised YTM is 12%?
Answer: - 7.99%
1 – 20:- Four years ago, your firm purchased a printing press for $12,000. The press is being
depreciated straight line to a salvage value of zero in six more years.
a. What is the annual depreciation of the press?

b. What is the book value of this asset today?
Answer:-
a. $1,000
b. $7,200
1 – 21:- The long – term liabilities and stockholders‟ equity portion of BT&T‟s balance sheet on
December 31, 1987, is shown. During 1988, BT&T issued $5,000,000 of long – term debt, issued
$10,000,000 or equity, earned $3,000,000, and paid $1,000,000 in dividends. Construct a new
balance sheet for December 31, 1988, that reflects these changes.
Long – term debt $60,000,000

Preferred stock 20,000,000
Common stock 60,000,000
Retained earnings 40,000,000
Total long – term liabilities
And stockholder‟s equity $180,000,000
Answer: - Dec. 31, 1987 Dec. 31, 1988
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Long – term debt $60 $65

Preferred stock 20 20
Common stock 60 70
Retained earnings 40 42
Total long $180 $197
1 – 22:- Following are parts of an income statement and two balance sheets of the O‟Conner
Broadcasting Company. Sheila O‟Conner, station manager, has asked you to produce a
statement or retained earnings. Do it.
1986 Balance Sheet 1987 Balance Sheet

Long – term debt $500,000 Long – term debt $550,000
Common stock 600,000 Common stock 700,000
Retained earnings 750,000 Retained earnings 775,000
Total long-term liabilities $1,850,000 Total long-term liabilities $2,025,000
and stock holder‟s equity and stock holder‟s equity
1987 Income Statement

Net operating income $80,000
Less: Interest expense 25,000
Plus: Non-operating income 15,000
Net profit before taxes $70,000
Less: Taxes 32,000
Net income $38,000
Answer: - Retained Earnings = $25
1 – 23:- During 1988, Magee Auto Supply Outlets has gross sales of $900,000, cost of goods sold
of $300,000, and general and selling expenses of $400,000. They also had outstanding $200,000 of
10% notes and $400,000 of 12% coupon bonds. Non-operating income was zero, depreciation
was $100,000, and dividendsof $80,000 were paid.
a. What was NOI?

b. What was NPBT?
c. What was NI if the average tax rate was 40%?
d. If retained earnings were $240,000 on December 31, 1987, what are they on December 31,
1988?
Answer:-
a. $100
b. $32
c. $19.2
d. $179.2
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1 – 24:- Wilfong Brothers, Inc., reported a net cash flow from operations of $63,000 during the
fourth quarter of 1988. In addition, Wilfong has a net financial cash inflow of $12,000 and a net
investmentcashoutflow of$52,000.
a. What was Wilfong‟s net cash flow for the fourth quarter of 1988?
b. If Wilfong‟s level of cash was $55,000 on December 31, 1988, what was it on September
31, 1988?
Answer:-
a. $23,000
b. $78,000
1 – 25:- The Harris Corporation has a taxable income of $128,000.
a. What is its total tax liability?

b. What is Harris‟ average tax rate?
c. What is Harris‟ Marginal tax rate?
Answer:-
a. $33,170
b. 0.2591
c. 0.39
1 – 26:- Your firm must raise $150,000 in new capital. This capital may be raised by issuing new
stock, which requires dividend payments of 9%, or by issuing new debt, which requires interest
payments of 10%. The firm‟s tax rate is 25%.
a. What is the after – tax cost of acquiring the capital by issuing equity?
b. What is the after – tax cost of acquiring the capital by issuing debt in terms of dollars? In
terms of the interest rate?
c. Based on the costs, which plan would you prefer?
Answer:-
a. $13,500
b. $11,250, 0.075
c. Issue Debt
1 – 27:- Clifton Industries has just purchased a metal press for $120,000 and will depreciate the
press using straight – line depreciation over 10 years to a $5,000 salvage value.
a. How much is the annual depreciation claimed on the press?

b. What is the accumulated depreciation on the press after 4 years?
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Answer:-
a. $11,500
b. $46,000
1 – 28:- Three years ago your firm purchased a forklift for $10,000. The forklift is being
depreciated straight – line to a salvage value of zero in two more years. If your firm sells the
forklift today for $5,000, it will receive only $4,750 after taxes.
a. What is annual depreciation on the machine?

b. What is the current book value of the machine?
c. What is your firm‟s marginal tax rate?
Answer:-
a. $2,000
b. $4,000
c. 25%
1 – 29:- The December 31, 1984, balance sheet and income statement for May – berry Cafeterias,
Inc. are given.
a. Compute the specified ratios, and compare them to the industry average (better or
worse).
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Answer:-
a. Current = 3.13; B: Quick = 1.67; W: Debt/Equity = 0.76; W: Times Interest Earned =

8.25; W: Average Collection Period = 1.02; B: Inventory Turnover = 57.56; W: Fixed
Asset Turnover = 15.54; W: Operating Profit Margin = 0.031; Net Profit Margin = 0.016;
W: ROA = 0.167; W: ROE = 0.25; W
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b. The ratios that are most out of line with the industry average are the current, quick,
debt – equity, times interest earned, and inventory turnover.
1 – 30:- At the same time, Genco applies to a bank for a three – year loan. The bank had loaned
money earlier to Barzini and, based on past experience, has decided not to lend money to any
firm riskier than Barzini. However, the bank uses different ratios for making the decision – the
debt – equity ratio and the time interest ratio. If these two ratios for Barzini are 1.32 and 2.56,
respectively, would the bank loan money to Genco?
Answer: - Do not lend the money.
1 – 31:- David Willis is considering opening up a new copy center store near a large university.
If he does, he will rent six machines for $1,200 per month for each machine. Rent, utilities, and
wages will total $2,000 per month. David‟s cost of paper and ink is $0.01 per copy, and he plans
to charge $0.05 per copy.
a. What is his break – even point?

b. Suppose that David thinks he can get by with only four machines. What will his break –
even point fall to?
c. Suppose that David rents four machines and sells 200,000 copies in one month. What is
his NOI for that month?
d. David is considering placing in the student newspaper a $200 ad with a coupon for $0.04
per copy for orders of 50 copies or more. He estimates that if he places the ad, he will sell
250,000 copies and that about 50% of his customers will use the coupon. If he places the
ad, what will his break – even point and his NOI be?
Answer:-
a. 230,000 Copies per Month

b. 170,000 Copies per Month
c. $1,200 = NOI
d. 200,000 Copies per Month, $1,750 = NOI
1 – 32:- The C&D TV store currently has fixed costs of $6,000 per month and $400 per TV set.
Their sales price of the TV sets is $700 each, and their current volume is 25 sets per month.
a. Find C&D‟s break – even point and their NOI and DOL at the current level of sales.
b. Find C&D‟s break – even point and their NOI and DOL if fixed costs decrease to $4,750
and at the time the cost of the TV sets rises to $450.
Answer:-
a. 20 Units per Month, 1,500 = NOI, 5.0 = DOL

b. 19 Units per Month, $1,500 = NOI, 4.1667 = DOL
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1 – 33:- The Newcastle Utility Company has fixed costs of $20,000 per month and sells electricity
for$0.015 per kilowatt-hour. Itcosts them $0.005 per kilowatt-hour to produce the electricity.
a. What is Newcastle‟s break – even point?

b. What is Newcastle‟s DOL at a sales level of 2,750,000 kilowatt-hours?
Answer:-
a. 2,000,000 Units per Month

b. 3.6667 =DOL
1 – 34:- The Magee Publishing Company last year had sales of $800,000, an NOI of $20,000, and
a DOL of 6. What will its NOI be if sales increase to $900,000?
Answer:-
a. NI for all equity = $270,000, NI for the 50%-50% plan = $126,000

EPS for all equity = $0.450, EPS for the 50%-50% plan = $0.252
DLF for all equity = 1.00, DLF for the 50%-50% plan = 2.14
b. 98,286
1 – 35:- Nater, Inc., expects sales of $4,000 in March, $6,000 in April, $5,000 in May, $4,000 in
June, $5,500 in July. On average, they collect 35% of their monthly sales in cash, 45% in one
month, and 19% in two months (the remaining 1% is bad – debt expense and is never collected).
Find Nater‟s expected cash inflows during the months of May, June and July.
Answer: - Expected Cash Inflows: May = $5,210; June = $4,790; July = $4,675
1 – 36:- Koufand‟s Jewler‟s has expected cash inflows, variable cash outflows (outflows that
depend on sales), and fixed cash outflows asfollows:
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.

Inflows $600,000 $700,000 $620,000 $500,000
Variable outflows 290,000 330,000 270,000 235,000
Fixed outflows 320,000 320,000 320,000 320,000
Koufand‟s has a cash balance of $50,000 as of January 1 and a minimum desired balance of
$40,000. Find Koufand‟s expected net cash flow for each of the four months listed, and construct
a monthly cash budget for the four months.
Answer: - Cash Surplus (Deficit): Jan = $0; Feb = $50,000; Mar = $80,000; Apr = $25,000
1 – 37:- Five years ago, the Van de Graaf Electric Company purchased a generator for $180,000.
At that time, the generator was estimated to have a salvage value of $30,000 in 15 years (i.e., 10
Page | 224
years from today). Van de Graff has a marginal tax rate of 25% and uses straight – line
depreciation.
a. What is the book value of the generator today?

b. What will Van de Graaf‟s initial cash flows be if it sells the generator today for $100,000?
c. What will Van de Graaf‟s initial cash flows be if it sells the generator today for @150,000?
Answer:-
a. $130,000
b. $107,500
c. $145,000
1 – 38:- Gamma Rayco is planning to replace an old cathode ray tube (CRT) (book value:
$15,000) with a newer model, which costs $30,000. If it decides to replace the old CRT, it can be
sold for $10,000. Furthermore, the new CRT has installation costs of $1,000 and an anticipated
salvage value of $5,000 in 10 years. Gamma Rayco has a marginal tax rate of 25%. What will be
the net cash outflow associated with the purchase of the new CRT (and the sale of the old one)?
Answer: - $11,250 = CFAT, - $16,500 = Net Cash Flow from Replacement
1 – 39:- The Godfrey Vending Company plans to replace 10 of its vending machines with newer
models. The current machines were purchased three years ago for $8,000 each and are being
depreciated (straight – line) to a salvage value of $2,000 five years from now. The machines
collectively generate annual revenues of $30,000 and annual expenses of $12,000. New machines
can be purchased for $12,000 each and will be depreciated (straight – line) to a salvage value of
$7,000 five years from now. The new machine will generate annual sales of $40,000 because of
less down – time than the old machine and annual expenses of $8,000 (smaller repair bills than
the oldmachines).
a. If Godfrey‟s marginal tax rate is 25%, what will be the incremental change in its annual
cash flow if the old machines are replaced?
b. Use ACRS instead of straight – line depreciation to compute the annual incremental
changes in operating cash flows from replacing the old vending machines with new
ones. Assume that the vending machines are in the five – year ACRS class.
Answer:-
a. $11,125 = CFAT
b. CFAT1 = $11,125, CFAT2 = $12,625, CFAT3 = $11,025, CFAT4 = $10,065, CFAT5 =
$10,065, CFAT6 = - $1,155
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1 – 40:- Victoria Korchnoi is thinking of importing caviar to sell the restaurants and specialty
stores. She estimates that this venture will require an initial outlay of $300,000 to buy a
refrigerated storage unit, which can be depreciated (straight – line) to a salvage value of $50,000
in eight years. In addition, Ms. Korchnoi estimates that she will need $40,000 in working capital
during in eight years of the project. Annual sales are estimated to be $110,000 and annual
expenses $20,000. Ms. Korchnoi estimates that the marginal tax rate will be 25% during the
lifetime of the project.
a. What is the initial outlay associated with starting the business?

b. What is the annual cash flow from operations?
c. What will be the terminal cash flow in year 8?
d. Assuming that the refrigerated storage unit is in the five – year ACRS class, use ACRS
instead of straight – line depreciation to compute the annual cash flow from operations.
e. What is the payback period for this project?
f. What is the AROR of this project?
g. If Ms. Korchoni requires a 16% RRR to make this investment, what is the project‟s NPV?
What is its PI?
h. What is the project‟s IRR?
Answer:-
a. $340,000
b. $75,312.50
c. $90,000
d. CFAT1 = $80,000, CFAT2 = $87,500, CFAT3 = $79,500, CFAT4 = $74,700, CFAT5 =
$74,700, CFAT6 = $71,100, CFAT78 =$67,500
e. 4.51
f. 22.59%
g. -$49,470.62
h. 15.24%
1 – 41:- Joley‟s department store has recently received the results of a study that suggests that
potential sales are being lost because many customers dislike having to use the elevator in
Joley‟s and prefer to go across the street to Foske‟s department store, which has an escalator.
Consequently, Joley‟s is considering the department store, which has an escalator.
Consequently, Joley‟s is considering the replacement of the elevator with a new escalator. The
elevator was purchased 10 years ago for $140,000 and is being depreciated (straight – line) to a
salvage value of $40,000 10 years from now. It can be sold today for $80,000. The escalator can
be purchased for $300,000 and would be depreciated (straight – line) to a salvage value of
$100,000 in 10 years. In addition, Joley‟s anticipates that having an escalator rather than an
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elevator will increase sales by $20,000 annually and decrease operating expenses by $5,000
annually. Joley‟s has a marginal tax rate of 25%.
a. What is the present book value of the elevator?

b. What is the initial cash outflow associated with the replacement of the elevator?
c. What will the incremental change in annual cash flow be if Joley‟s replaces the elevator?
d. What will the terminal cash flows be if Joley‟s replaces the elevator?
Answer:-
a. $90,000
b. $217,500
c. $21,000
d. $100,000
1 – 42:- Barbarian Pizza is analyzing the prospect of purchasing an additional firebrick oven.
The oven costs $200,000 and would be depreciated (straight – line) to a salvage value of
$120,000 in 10 years. The extra oven would increase annual revenues by $120,000 and annual
operating expenses by $90,000. Barbarian‟s marginal tax rate is 25%.
a. What would be the initial, operating, and terminal cash flows generated by the new
over?
b. What is the payback period for the additional oven?
c. What is the AROR for the additional oven?
d. Barbarian Pizza‟s RRR is 12%. What is the NPV of the additional oven?
e. What is the PI for the additional oven?
f. What is the IRR of the additional oven?
Answer:-
a. $200,000 = Initial CF, CFAT = $24,500, $120,000 = Terminal CF

b. 8.16
c. 10.31%
d. -$22,930
e. 0.7921
f. 7.81%
1 – 43:- Dinesh Vaswami of the Dutch League Importing Company is considering a project that
will require an initial outlay of $1,250,000 for a freighter plus $500,000 working capital. The
freighter will be depreciated (straight – line) to a salvage value of $250,000 in 10 years. This
project is expected to produce sales of $850,000 and require expenses of $425,000 annually for
the next 10 years. Dutch League Importing has a marginal tax rate of 25%.
Page | 227
a. Calculate the incremental cash flow from operations for this project.
b. Calculate the NPV of this project for the following discount rates: 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%,
14% and 16%. Drew a graph with the NPV on the vertical axis and the discount rate on
the horizontal axis. Where will the NPV curves cross the horizontal axis? Is there any
special significance to the point at which the graph crosses the horizontal axis?
Answer:-
a. $1,750,000 = Initial CF, $343,750 = Annual CF, $750,000 = Terminal CF

b. The curve crosses NPV = 0 at an interest rate of approximately 17% = IRR.
1 – 44:- Plot an NPV profile for Barbarian Pizza in Problem 1 – 42. Uses discount rates of 0%, 5%,
10%, 15%, 20% and 25% in drawing the graph. What is the approximate IRR for the additional
oven?
Answer: - The IRR is approximately 10%. (A calculator determined that the actual IRR equals
9.7%)
1 – 45:- An investment will have a return of 30% if economic conditions improve 20% if they
stay the same and -5% if they get worse. The probability that conditions will improve is 20%,
that they will stay the same is 40%, and that they will get worse 40%. What is the expected
return from this investment?
Answer: - 12% = E(R)
1 – 46:- The DJIA is a number that reflects the value of a portfolio of shares of the 30 DJIA
stocks. Suppose that the stocks in this portfolio have the same return as the market, and that his
return is expected to be 15%. The DIJA is currently 1,150, and you expect it to be 1,270 at the end
of the year. What dividend yield (dividends paid/initial value of the portfolio) do you expect
on this portfolio of 30 DIJA stocks?
Answer: - 4.57% = E(Dividend Yield)
1 – 47:- Given the following investment opportunities, only one of which you can select, which
ones (if any) can you exclude from consideration
a. If you are riskaverse?

b. If you are risk averse and use the CV rule?
Standard
Expected Deviation
Opportunity Return (%) of Returns
Build newrestaurant 30 20
Purchase existing restaurant 20 10
Build new convenience store 20 10
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Purchase existing convenience store 15 10

Build new adhesive – tape store 5 10
Answer:-
a. The decision is unclear.

b. Choose to buy the old restaurant.
1 – 48:- Two companies respond to the economy in the following manner:
Return on Return on
Valcan Tire Good
Recapping wealth Tire
Co. Shares Co. Shares
Event Probability (%) (%)
Economic upturn 0.3 12 24
No change in the economy 0.4 18 18
Economic 0.3 18 18
One of your friends argues that since both shares have the same expected return and the same
risk (as measured by the standard deviation of returns), investors will be indifferent to buying
shares of either company. Is this true?
Answer: - Vulcan would probably be preferred. Valcan‟s returns are negatively correlated
with the returns of the market and would serve to reduce portfolio risk relatively more than
inclusion of Good wealth.
1 – 49:- Given the following information on two stocks, A and B, answer the following
questions:
Return on Return on
Stock A Stock B Probability
10% 8% 0.3
11% 10% 0.4
12% 12% 0.3
a. What is the expected return on Stock A and B?

b. What are the variances of the rates of return on stock A and B?
c. What is the variance of the rates of return on a portfolio consisting of 20% invested in
stock A and 80% invested in stock B, given that the two stocks are perfectly positively
correlated?
Page | 229
Answer:-
a. 11% = E(RA ) , 10 = E(RB )

b.  2 A 0.6%2 , 2
B  2.4%2
c.  P2  0.864%2
1 – 50:- Being a sharp analyst, you have narrowed the possible outcomes for two potential
investments as follows (also included is your estimate of the returns on the market):
State of the Return (%)

Economy Probability Stock A Stock B Market
1 (great) 0.30 25 20 18
2 (good) 0.50 16 14 16
3 (mediocre) 0.20 8 12 14
a. Calculate the expected returns for stocks A and B and the market.
b. Calculate the standard deviation of returns for stocks A and B and the market.
c. Find the covariance between stock A and the market, and between stock B and the
market.
d. Find the correlation coefficients between stock A and the market and between stock B
and the market.
Answer:-
a. 17.1%  E(RA ),15.4%  E(RB ),16.2%  E(RM )

b.  A 5.99%, B 3.10%,  1.40%
2 2 2
M
c.  AM  8.38%2 , BM  4.12%2
d. PAM  1.00, PBM  0.95
1 – 51:- A stock has a beta of 1.5, and the risk – free rate is 10%. What is the expected return on
the stock if
a. The expected return on the market is 14%?

b. The expected return on the market is 16%?
c. The expected return on the market is 18%?
Answer:-
a. E(RM )  16%
b. E(RM )  19%
c. E(RM )  22%
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1 – 52:- A stock has a beta of 1.2 and an expected return of 15% when the market‟s expected
return is 14%. What must the risk – free rate be?
Answer:- Rf  9%
1 – 53:- Stock X has a beta of 0.5, stock Y has a beta of 1.0, and stock Z has a beta of 1.25. the risk
– free rate is 10%, and the expected market return is 18%.
a. Find the expected return on stock X.

b. Find the expected return on stock Y.
c. Find the expected return on stock Z.
d. Suppose that you construct a portfolio consisting of 40% X, 20 Y, and 40%Z. Using your
answers to parts (a), (b), (c), find the expected return on this portfolio.
e. What is the beta of the portfolio specified in part (d)?
f. Using the information in the body of the problem and your answer to part (e), find the
expected return on your portfolio.
Answer:-
a. E(RX )  14.0%
b. E(RY )  18.0%
c. E(RZ )  20.0%
d. E(RP )  17.2%
e. P  0.90
f. E(RP )  17.2%
1 – 54:- Suppose that the risk – free rate is 12% and the expected market return is 20%. The FM
Corporation has a beta of 0.75 and the Gord Corporation has a beta of 1.25.
a. Find the expected return on the FM Corporation.

b. Find the expected return on the Gord Corporation.
c. Suppose that because of a suddenly unanticipated increase in inflation, the risk – free
rate rises to 16% and the market risk premium remains at 8%. Find the expected return
on FM and Gord.
Answer:-
a. E(RM )  18%
b. E(RFGord )  22%
c. E(RFM )  22%
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d. E(RFGord )  26%
1 – 55:- The Baldwin – Mills Corporation has a beta of 1.25 and pays no dividends. The expected
market return in 20%, and the T – bill rate is expected to remain constant at 10%. You expect
Baldwin – Mills shares to be worth $50 in one year. Using the CAPM, find the value of a share
today.
Answer:- Po  $40.82
1 – 56:- You invested $10,000 in the Jaguar Vitamin Company (which has a beta of 1.5) and
$20,000 in the Laverty Game Corporation (which has a beta of 1.2). The risk – free rate is 10%
and the expected market return is 16%. What are the beta and the expected return of your
portfolio?
Answer:- P  1.4, E(RP )  18.4%
1 – 57:- You are considering the purchase of 100 shares of the Mead Beverage Company. The
shares pay an annual dividend of $1 (which you expect to remain constant for the next several
years) and have a beta of 1.25. Although you expect the T – bill rate to remain at 10% for the
next three years, you believe that the market return will be 16%, 14%, and 12%, respectively. If
you think that the share price will be $25 immediately after paying the dividend three years
from today, how much are you willing to pay for a share today?
Answer:- PO $18.69
1 – 58:- The Yorkshire Shrubbery Company uses the WACC approach for determining the RRR
for new projects. Yorkshire‟s financial manager, Steve Smith, has determined that the relevant
cost of equity is 18% and the relevant cost of debt is 12%. Further, he wishes to maintain
Yorkshire‟s currentmixof 70% equity, 30% debt.
a. What is Yorkshire‟s WACC for the coming year?

b. Suppose that next year Yorkshire‟s relevant cost of equity is 19% and their WACC is
17.5%. If Steve has maintained the same capital structure (70% equity, 30% debt), what
must the relevant cost of debt have been?
Answer:-
a. WACC = 16.2%
b. WACC = 14.0%
1 – 59:- The Blow Fast Company has determined that it‟s after – tax costs of equity and debt are
16% respectively. Its total capital is $2 million and the firm has $666,667 of equity.
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a. What is Blow Fast‟s WACC?

b. What would Blow Fast‟s WACC be if its capital structure contained $1million in equity?
Answer:-
a. WACC = 12%
b. WACC = 13%
1 – 60:- Consider the situation of Big Catch Fisheries in the previous problem. Big Catch
attempted to raise the full amount of capital needed to start its canning factory with equity. It
failed; Big Catch‟s managers have come up with a revised financing plan that would entail
raising $3 million in equity and $3 million in debt to finance the venture. Given this new
financing plan and the information from the previous problem, should Big Catch invest in the
canning industry?
Answer:- E(RPr oj )  17.6%, NVPV  $39,454,545
1 – 61:- The Fleener Corporation raised $90 million from a bond issue. The issue of $1,000 face
value, 9.5% bonds (semiannual interest payments) maturing in 25 years sold at par, with a 6%
flotation fee. Fleener is in the 25% marginal tax bracket. What is the YTM, adjusted for flotation
costs?
Answer:- kd  7.63%
1 – 62:- Fleener is retaining $10 million of earnings this year for reinvestment in the company.
This year‟s dividend is $2 per share, and it is estimated that investors expect a dividend growth
rate of 6% for the indefinite future. The stock is now selling for $25 per share. What is the cost of
capital for the retained earnings?
Answer:- ks 14.48%
1 – 63:- The Horizon Products Company raised $2 billion of new capital from the following
sources. Calculate the WACC for this increment of funding.
$800 million from bonds with an after – tax cost of capital of 6%.
$400 million from an issue of preferred stock, which costs 14%.
$500 million from retained earnings, which costs 19%.
$300 million from new common stock, which costs 20%.
Answer: - WACC = 12.95%
1 – 64:- The Dooley Company is in the 25% marginal tax bracket. The current market value of
the firm is $10 million. If there are no costs to bankruptcy:
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a. What will Dooley‟s annual tax savings from interest deductions are if it issues $2million
of five – year bonds at a 12% interest rate? What will be the value of the firm?
b. What will Dooley‟s annual tax savings from interest deductions are if it issues $2 million
of perpetual bonds at a 12% interest rate? What will be the value of the firm?
Answer: -
a. PV of Tax Shield = $216,288, V L  $10, 216, 288

b. PV of Perpetual Debt = $500,000, V L  $10,500, 00
1 – 65:- The Geraci Corporation issued $50 million in equity and invested the entire proceeds in
rental property. The Pollard Corporation, on the other hand, invested in similar property by
issuing $25 million in equity and $25 million in debt. The market value of the property ($25
million) is the same for both companies. Because the Pollard Corporation plans to continuously
refinance (roll over) the debt at maturity, its debt is effectively perpetual. If Pollard is in the 15%
tax bracket and its debt carries a coupon interest rate of 10%, by how much will the value of
Pollard exceed the value of Geraci?
Answer: - Pollard is $3.75 m more valuable than Geraci.
1 – 66:- Linguistics International has just issued perpetual bonds with a face value of $6 million,
paying 10% per year.
a. If Linguistics is in the 25% tax bracket, what are its annual tax savings on interest
payments?
b. What is the value of the tax saving on interest? (Assume that the bonds were sold at face
value.)
Answer:
a. Annual Tax Savings = $0.15m

b. Total Tax Savings = $1.5 m
1 – 67:- The Hamilton Federal Paper Company is planning to open a new mill near Madison,
Wisconsin. This project will require an initial outlay of $20 million during the coming year, and
Hamilton is trying to decide whether to raise the money with common stock or with bonds.
Hamilton currently has 6 million shares outstanding, and the shares and treading for $10 each.
Hamilton currently has no long – term debt in its capital structure, but if bonds are issued, they
can be sold at a 12% interest rate. The company has a marginal tax rate of 25%.
a. If Hamilton raises the money by selling new shares, how many new shares must be
issued?
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b. If Hamilton issues mew shares, what will EPS be if NOI is $8 million next year? If NOI is
$12 million next year?
c. If Hamilton issues bonds, what will its annual interest payments are?
d. If Hamilton issues bonds, what will EPS be if NOI is $8 million next year? If NOI is $12
million next year?
e. Your answers to parts (b) and (d) should be that the equity plan has higher EPS than the
debt plan if NOI is $8 million but that lower EPS will result if NOI is $12 million. Will it
always be true that issuing equity is more favorable (i.e., has a higher EPS than debt) if
NOI is low and debt is more favorable if NOI is high?
f. At what level of NOI will EPS be the same for either plan?
Answer:-
a. 2,000,000
b. EPS = $0.75, EPS = $1.13
c. Interest = $ 2,400,000
d. $0.70
e. It will always be true that debt is more attractive, as measured by EPS, than equity at
relatively low levels of NOI.
f. NOI =$9,600,000
1 – 68:- The McGovern Bakery Chain manufactures French breads and pastries and is
considering expansion into the West Coast area. Such a move would necessitate a capital
expenditure of $200 million. McGovern is considering raising this money through one of two
plans: (1) sell 20 million new shares of stock at $10 each of (2) sell 10 million new shares of stock
at $10 each and sell $100 million of 13.7% coupon bonds. McGovern currently has outstanding
100 million common shares and $500 million face value of 12% coupon bonds. McGovern‟s
marginal tax rate is 25%.
a. What will EPS be if McGovern adopts plan 2 and NOI is $200 million? If NOI is $250
million?
b. What will EPS be if McGovern adopts plan 1 and NOI is $200 million? If NOI is $250
million?
c. At what level of NOI will the two plans have the same EPS?
Answer:-
a. EPS = $0.86, EPS = $1.20

b. EPS = $0.88, EPS = $1.19
c. $224.5 m
1 – 69:- The Zapata Mexican Food Company needs $25 million to produce and market its new
frozen dinner, the “Zapata Supreme.” Zapata will raise the money either by selling 500,000 new
Page | 235
common shares at $50 each or by selling 625,000 shares of $5 dividend preferred stock at $40
each. Zapata currently has outstanding 4.5 million shares of common stock and no preferred
stock. Their marginal tax rate is 25%.
a. If Zapata issues preferred shares, what is the required annual dividend? What must NOI
be to cover this dividend?
b. What will EPS be under each of the two plans if NOI is $45 million? If NOI is $55
million?
c. At what level of NOI will EPS be the same under either plan?
Answer:-
a. Preferred Dividend = $3,125,000, NOI = $4,166,667

b. EPS for Plan 1 = $6.75, EPS for Plan 2 = $6.81
EPS for Plan 1 = $8.25, EPS for Plan 2 = $4.47
c. NOI = $41.67m
1 – 70:- Harris Services is analyzing a proposal to change its capital structure from 100% equity
to 80% equity/20% debt. The financial vice – president has presented you with the following
information and requests that you determine whether the proposal is viable. More specifically,
will Harris have a surplus or deficit of funds in each of the next four years if the plan is
adopted? What would your recommendation be in either case?
Year
1 2 3 4
Operating Revenues
Net funds from operations $25 $35 $60 $55
Change in Non – cash Working Capital Items
Funds from working capital ($2) ($1) ($3) ($1)
Non – Operating Expenses
Total non – operating expenses $20 $18 $15 $20
Disbursements to Providers of Capital
Total disbursement to providers of capital $20 $22 $19 $22
Beginning funds $3 $2 $2 $1
Answer: - If we have access to funds that will enable us to cover our short – term deficits,
then the financing plan is feasible.
1 – 71:- Prepare the list of the factors that mangers must take into account in making the
dividend payment decision.
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Answer:- Transaction costs, flotation costs, institutional restrictions, the firm‟s financial
resources, flexibility, access to equity capital, control of the firm, ability to borrow, past
dividend policy and inflation. This list is not exhaustive.
1 – 72:- Company A declares a dividend on May 10, 1986, to all stockholders on record on May
14. If Howard Smith buys the stock from Ralph Biggy on May 16, who is entitled to the
dividend?
Answer: - The dividend will be paid to Mr. Biggy.
1 – 73:- The Zetamax Corporation has expected earnings of $4.5 million. It plans a total
investment outlay of $3 million this year. Historically, Zetamax has had a dividend payout ratio
of 25%. Calculate the amount of dividends that the company will distribute.
Answer: - $375,000
1 – 74:- XYZ Company has issued 100,000 shares ($2 per value) at $15 per share. The company‟s
retained earnings amount to $5 million and its current stock price is $50 per share. If the
company declares a 15% stock dividend, show how the stockholders equity section of the
company‟s balance sheet will appear before and after the stock dividend.
Answer: - After the stock dividend, Com stock = $230,000; paid – in – capital = $2,020,000;
Rent Earn = $4,250,000; Total stockholders‟ equity = $6,500,000
1 – 75:- The Kaler Appliance Store is considering the acquisition of a personal computer and
associated software to improve the efficiency of its inventory and accounts receivable
management. Andrea Kaler estimates that the initial cash outflow for the computer and
software will be $15,000, and the associated net cash savings will be $3,000 annually.
a. If Kaler‟s discount rate for the cash flows associated with this project is 12% and the
$3,000 savings will occur for only 10 years (at which time the computer and software are
valueless), should she buy the computer?
b. What if the project lasts 10 years but the discount rate is 16%?
c. What if the project lasts forever and the discount rate is 12%?
d. What if the project lasts forever and the discount rate is 16%?
Answer:-
a. $1,951
b. -$500
c. $10,00
d. $3,750
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1 – 76:- Jimmy Hilliard, manager of the Hilliard Racquetball Club, is considering lowering the
usage fee for the courts. He estimates that this will result in an immediate (one – time) cash flow
of $18,000 from new membership fees. On the other hand, the annual net cash flow from usage
fees is expected to fall by $3,000 indefinitely (because of the lower fees).
a. Should Jimmy lower the usage fee if his discount rate for this project is 15%?
b. Should he lower the usage fee if his discount rate for this project is 20%?
c. At what discount rate would he be indifferent to lowering the usage fee?
Answer:-
a. -$2,000
b. $3,000
c. 16.7%
1 – 77:- The Crary Seafood Company has annual sales of $1,440,000. Its average levels of
accounts receivable, inventory, and accounts payable are as follows (these levels are expressed
in terms of sales dollars):
Accounts receivable $50,000

Inventory 14,000
Accounts payable 28,000
a. Assuming a 360 – day‟s year, what are average daily sales?
b. How many days of sales are represented by accounts receivable?
c. How many days of sales are represented by inventory?
d. How many days of sales are represented by accounts payable?
e. What is Crary‟s net cash conversion rate?
f. Suppose that sales and the current accounts shown are all to increase by 25%. What
would the new net cash conversion cycle be?
Answer:-
a. $4,000
b. 13.0
c. 3.5
d. 7.0
e. 9.5
f. 9.5
1 – 78:- The Corporeal Foods Company is considering certain changes that will result in
increased automation of food processing and canning. This change will require an additional
investment of $40,000 is fixed assets, but it will allow the level of current assets to decrease by
$40,000 because of an increase in operating efficiency. Corporeal currently has current assets of
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$160,000, fixed assets of $240,000, and current liabilities of $100,000. Further, Corporeal‟s board
of directors has estimated that investment in fixed assets yields 18% on average. Hence
Corporeal‟s return on total assets is now.
$160,000 (0.08)  $240,000 (0.18)  14%

$160, 000 $240, 000 $160,000 $240,000
a. Calculate Corporeal‟s present current ratio and level of working capital.

b. Calculate Corporeal‟s current ratio, level of working capital, and return on total assets if
the change to increased automation is made. Will the change increase or reduce the
liquidity risk? Will it increase or reduce profitability?
Answer:-
a. 1.60, $60 k
b. 1.20, $20 k, 15%
1 – 79:- Allen Motors last year has sales of $7,200,000 and current assets and liabilities as
follows:
Cash $20,000 Accounts payable $80,000

Market securities 10,000 Notes payable 120,000
Accounts receivable 60,000 $200,000
Inventory 450,000
$540,000
Assume that the levels of cash, accounts receivable, inventory, and accounts payable change in
the same proportion that sales do (e.g., if sales are 10% higher next year, you would also expect
each of these four accounts to be 10% higher).
a. What is the current ratio now?

b. If sales increase by 10%, what will the new current ratio be?
c. To what value must sales fall for the current ratio to fall to 2.0?
d. To what value must sales fall for the current ratio to fall to 1.0?
Answer:-
a. 2.7
b. 2.851
c. $4,475,520
d. $1,759,680
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1 – 80:- The Jameson Building Supplies Company has annual sales of $9 million (all credit). On
average, it takes five days for a customer‟s mailed check to be deposited. Mel Jameson believes
that he can reduce this float time by two days through the use of a lockbox. The bank will
charge a flat fee of $4,000 per year to perform this service.
a. What are average daily sales for January? (Assume a 360 – day‟s year.)
b. All of January‟s receipts from sales go into a money market mutual fund. By how much
will the average balance in this fund increase if Mel adopts the use of the lockbox?
c. Suppose that the money market fund earns 10% per year. Should Mel enter into the
lockbox agreement?
d. Should Mel enter into the lockbox agreement if the money market fund earns 10% but
the lockbox reduces float by only oneday?
Answer:-
a. $25m
b. $50k
c. Accept
d. Reject
1 – 81:- The Texron Oil Company is headquartered in Houston but has customers in Dallas, Fort
Worth, EI Paso, San Antonio, and Austin as well Mark Hannah, the collections manager, is
planning to open collection offices in these cities to speed up the collection manger, is planning
to open collection offices in these cities to speed up the collection process. The dollar volume of
collections, the annual cost of running the collections center and the reduction in float time for
each city are as follows:
Annual Annual Cost of Reduction in

City Collections Center Float Time(Days)
Dallas $300,000,000 $80,000 1
Fort Worth 160,000,000 76,000 2
El Paso 120,000,000 75,000 3
San Antonio 220,000,000 78,000 2
Austin 150,000,000 80,000 2
a. Using a 360 – day year, find the daily collections from each of the five cities.
b. What marginal increase in deposits (because of reduced float) will each city‟s collection
center contribute to Texron‟s deposits?
c. Suppose that the rate earned on these accounts is 8%. In which cities (if any) should Mr.
Hannah open up collection centers?
Answer:-
Page | 240
a. Dallas = $833,333; Fort Worth = $444,444; EI Paso = $333,333; San Antonio = $611,111;
Austin = $416,667
b. Dallas = $833,333; Fort Worth = $888,889; EI Paso = $1,000,000; San Antonio = $19,778;
Austin = $833,333
c. Dallas = -$13,333; No: Fort Worth = -$4,889; No: EI Paso = $5,000; Yes: San Antonio =
$19,778; Yes: Austin = -$13,333; No
1 – 82:- Andrew Senchack, financial manager of the Phoenix Renovation Service, has been
keeping the firm‟s funds in the Sparrow Fund, a money market fund that pays 8% on deposits
and has no charge for withdrawals. Andrew has found another fund, the Hawkeye Fund, which
pays 10.5% on deposits but has a $20 fee for a withdrawal of any size. Phoenix has annual cash
disbursements of $4 million. Andrew is considering establishing on account with Hawkeye,
transferring funds to Sparrow only occasionally, and using the Sparrow account to handle daily
transactions.
a. Using a 360 – day year, find the daily disbursement of funds.

b. When Andrew makes a transfer, what will the size of the transfer be?
c. How often will Andrew make transfers?
d. If Andrew does not change to the Hawkeye Fund, what is his average balance in the
Sparrow Fund (assuming the $4 million for disbursements is available at the beginning
of the year)? What annual interest does this account earn?
e. If Andrew establishes the Hawkeye account, what will be his average balance in
Sparrow? His annual interest from Sparrow?
f. What will be the average balance in Hawkeye? The annual interest from Hawkeye?
g. What is the marginal dollar value of establishing the Hawkeye account?
Answer:-
a. $11,111.11
b. $80,000
c. 7.2 days
d. $320,000
e. $40,000, $3,200
f. $1,960,000, $205,800
g. -$112,000
1 – 83:- The National Record Club (based in New York) has many mail – order customers in
California and is losing substantial revenue as a result of the average of seven days between the
time a customer, deposits his payment and the time the deposit is credited to National‟s account
in a New York bank. Accordingly, Socorro Quintero, collections manager for National, is trying
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to find a way to reduce this float time and has narrowed the solutions to (1) operating a
collection center in Los Angeles or (2) opening lockbox accounts in the major California cities.
Socorro estimates that a collection center in Los Angeles will require an annual expenditure of
$70,000. Lockbox expenditure and new float time for each city are shown in the following table.
Float Timefor Float Time for

Los Angeles Lockbox Lockbox Annual
City Collection Center (Days) Expenses (Days) Receipts
Los Angeles 1 $25,500 1 $18,000,000
San Francisco – Oakland 2 15,000 1 10,000,000
San Diego 2 18,000 1 12,000,000
Santa Barbara 2 14,000 1 8,000,000
Pasadena 3 9,000 1 6,000,000
Any receipts are placed in a money market fund yielding 10%
a. Find the net marginal benefit of opening the Los Angeles collection center.
b. Find the net marginal benefit of opening each lockbox.
c. What should Socorro do?
Answer:-
a. $8,333 = Net Benefit

b. Los Angeles = $4,500, San Francisco – Oakland = $1,667, San Diego = $0, Santa Barbara
= -$667, Pasadena = $1,000
c. Choose the L.A. collection center
1 – 84:- Steve Smith is credit manager for the southeast branch of the Earnest, Pearce, and Brown
Clothing Stores. The stores currently under Steve‟s responsibility have annual credit sales of $60
million. Operating costs total 90% of sales. The average collection period is 40 days and bad –
debt losses total 2% of sales. The Mueller Credit Corporation has guaranteed that it can reduce
the average collection period to 30 days and bad – debt loss to 0.5% of sales. However, Steve
estimates that the changes necessary to implement the Mueller proposal will reduce annual
credit sales to $50 million. Any reduction in current assets will allow Steve to reduce current
liabilities by the same amount. The estimated cost of short – term credit is 10%. Mueller Credit
will charge an annual fee of $75,000 for their service. Steve is determining the marginal benefits
and costs of hiring Muller before making a final decision. If Mueller is hired:
a. What is the marginal savings from the reduced bad – debt loss?
b. What is the marginal savings from the reduced investment in accounts receivable?
c. What is the marginal expense of lost sales?
d. What should Steve do?
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Answer:-
a. -$950,000
b. $250,000
c. -$1,000,000
d. $125,000
1 – 85:- Bobby Wolff, manager of Ace Groceries, has some extra space in one store and is trying
to decide between opening a pharmacy and a record and tape department. The relevant data
are asfollows:
Record and Tape

Pharmacy Department
Average age of inventory 30 days 90 days
Average collection period 30 days 60 days
Bad – debt loss 1% 2%
Annual sales $540,000 $450,000
Operating cost as percentage 0.60 0.50
Bobby estimates that any investment in current assets has an opportunity cost of 12%.
a. What is average level of inventory for each plan measured in sales dollars? Measured in
terms of the cost of goods sold dollars?
b. What is the average level of accounts receivable for each plan?
c. What is the cost of the required increase in current assets for each plan?
d. What is the bad – debt expense for each plan?
e. What is the gross profit (sales – cost of goods sold) for each plan?
f. What plan should Bobby choose?
g. What plan should Bobby choose if the opportunity cost of investing in current assets is
only6%?
Answer:-
a. Pharmacy: Sales = $45,000, CGS = $27,000

Record and Tape: Sales = $112,500, CGS = $56,250
b. Pharmacy: Average A/R = $45,000
Record and Tape: Average A/R = $75,000
c. Pharmacy: Change in Fixed Assets = $8,640
Record and Tape: Change in Fixed Assets = $15,750
d. Pharmacy: Bad Debt Expense = $9,000
Record and Tape: Bad Debt Expense = $9,000
e. Pharmacy: Gross Profit = $216,000
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Record and Tape: Gross Profit = $225,000

f. Accept the Pharmacy
g. Accept the Record and Tape Department
1 – 86:- Tom Buggington, the new inventory manager for Nordic Designs, a paint company, has
decided that the EOQ for the company is 200 ten gallon cans per order. He arrived at this
number taking into account the company‟s ordering cost of $200 per order and its annual
holding cost of $4 per can. How many cans does Nordic Designs sell? How many orders will
the company have to place to meet its requirements?
Answer:- Demand = 400, Order = 2
1 – 87:- Your credit card has an interest rate of 1.5% per month.
a. What is the approximate annual rate (or simple annual rate)?

b. What is the effective annual rate (compounded annual rate)?
Answer:-
a. 18%
b. 19.56%
1 – 88:- On August 1, you purchase some materials on terms of 1/10, n40.
a. What is the last day on which you can pay and still take a discount?
b. What is the amount of thediscount?
c. When is payment due if you do not take the discount?
d. What is the approximate annual rate of interest that you are paying by failing to take the
discount?
Answer:-
a. August 11
b. 1%
c. September 10
d. 12.12%
1 – 89:- The Traynm Distributing Company offers a 2% discount on cash purchases and a 1%
discount for payment within 20 days. If you take neither discount, payment must be made in 60
days.
a. What is the cost of forgoing the cash discount and paying in 60 days instead?
b. What is the cost of forgoing the 20 – days discount and paying in 60 days instead?
Page | 244
c. What is the cost of forgoing the cash discount and paying in 20 days instead?
d. If the interest rate on short – term notes is 18%, what should you do?
Answer:-
a. 12.24%
b. 9.09%
c. 18.18%
d. 9.09%
1 – 90:- What is the cost of foregoing a cash discount if the terms are
a. 1/10, n20?
b. 2/10, n30?
Answer:-
a. 36.36%
b. 36.37%
1 – 91:- Hoffman‟s Bait Shop needs to finance an increase in working capital in preparation for
the fishing season. Owner Rodney Hoffman is seeking a revolving credit agreement with the
Groos National Bank. He can establish a $200,000 line of credit with a commitment fee of 1½%
per year on the unused balance, or he can establish a $400,000 line of credit with a commitment
fee of only 1%. In either case, the cost of borrowed funds is 15% per year. Rodney will need to
borrow funds for only 90 days. The commitment fee is paid when the loan is taken out. Assume
a 360-day year. What is Rodney‟s effective annual interest rate if he secures the $200,000 lien of
credit and actually borrows $100,000?
Answer: - 15.06%
1 – 92:- The Milner – Barry Vending Company needs to raise $60 million for a period of 120
days. Irv Davidson, financial manager of Milner – Barry, is choosing between two plans for
issuing commercial paper. The first calls for 16% annual interest with a dealer‟s commission of
$150,000. Thesecond calls for 15.2% discounted interest with a dealer‟s commission of$300,000.
Which plan should Irv choose? What is the commission on the 15.2% commercial paper were
only$200,000?
Answer: - Choose plan A under either commission schedule.
1 – 93:-The Campbell Sporting Goods Store currently pays its employees on the 1st and the 15th
of every month and is considering paying wages monthly instead. (Assume that there are 30
days in every month.) Campbell has 340 employees, who are paid an average of $2,000 monthly.
Page | 245
If Campbell‟s other sources of short – term credit have a cost of 15%, how much will Campbell
save annually by making the switch to monthly wages?
Answer: - Savings = $20,400
1 – 94:- Anita Ewing‟s electricity bill is for $120 and is due May 5. There is a 5% discount if the
bill is paid by April 5. What is the implicit simple annual interest rate being paid by not taking
the discount? The implicit compound annual interest rate?
Answer: - Simple Interest = 63.16%, Compound Interest = 85.06%, Accept the Discount
1 – 95:- Warrants of the Escher Cheese Importing Company are trading for $4. The warrants
entitle the bearer to buy one share of stock for $50. Can you draw an inference concerning share
price?
Answer: - Less than $54
1 – 96:- Warrants of the Bournias Manufacturing Corporation have a subscription price of $60.
The share price is currently $67 and the warrant currently trades for $9.50.
a. What is the formula value (or minimum value) of the warrant?

b. What is the warrant‟s premium?
Answer: - WP =$2.50
1 – 97:- The Miller Insurance Company currently has a capital structure of $60 million in equity
and $40 million in debt, both expressed in book – value terms. Miller is about to issue $20
million of $1,000 face – value bonds, each with a warrant attached that entitles the bearer to buy
10 shares at $50 each.
a. What will the capital structure be immediately after Miller issues the bonds?
b. If all the warrants are exercised if five years and no new shares or bonds are sold
between now and then, what will the capital structure be in five years?
c. If Miller wishes to keep the subscription price at $50, how many shares must they allow
the bearer of one warrant to buy if they wish to have their current capital structure if all
the warrantsare exercised?
Answer:-
a. Prop of Equity = 50% and the Prop of Debt = 50%

b. Prop of Equity = 53.8% and the Prop of Debt = 46.2%
c. 30
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1 – 98:- A 10% coupon bond that is convertible to 40 shares of common stock was issued six year
ago. The bond has 14 years left to maturity. Today the share price is $29 and the yield to
maturity of nonconvertible but otherwise similar bonds is 9%.
a. What is the conversion ratio of the bond?

b. What is the conversion price of the bond?
c. What can you say about the price of the bond today?
d. What can you say about the price of the bond if the yield to maturity on nonconvertible
bonds with the same risk falls to 7% while stock price remains at 29?
e. What can you say about the price of the bond if the yield to maturity of nonconvertible
bonds with the same risk says at 9% but the price falls to %26?
Answer:-
a. 40
b. $25
c. The price must be greater than $1,160
d. Price = $1,262.36
e. The price will be greater than $1,077.86 but less than $1,160.
1 – 99:- The Kinetico Corporation is issuing 20 – year, 8% coupon convertible bonds at par. The
bonds have a conversion ratio of 25. The common shares just paid a dividend of $0.50.
Dividends are expected to grow at a 10% annual rate, and investors required return on the stock
is 15%.
a. Using the Gordon growth formula, find the value of a share today.
b. What do you expect the value of a share to be 10 years from now?
(Hint: Find D11 and use the Gordon growth formula to find P10.)
c. Will you convert the bond? Using the yield – to – maturity formula,
I  (Bn  Bo ) / n
YTM 
(Bn  Bo ) / 2
Where I is the coupon payment, n the number of years to maturity, and Bj the value of the
bond at time j, find the anticipated yield to maturity of this bond.
Answer:
a. $11.00
b. $28.60
c. The return will be 10%>8.6%
1 – 100:- John Polonchek is considering purchase of ETT‟s new issue of 20 – year, 7% coupon
bonds with a warrant. The warrant entitles the bearer to purchase 10 shares of ETT stock for $25
Page | 247
per share. John expects ETT shares to pay a $1 dividend at the end of the year of expects the
dividends to grow by 8% annually. Furthermore, John feels that investors will require a 16%
return on the shares.
a. Using the Gordon growth formula, find the value of a share today.
b. Find the value of a share in year 20. (Hint: Calculate D21 and use the Gordon growth
formula.)
c. Assume that John does not wish to sell or exercise warrants until the maturity date. Will
he exercise them at the end of the 20th year? Using the yield – to – maturity formula [see
Problem 1 – 99 (c)], find John‟s yield to maturity on the bond.
Answer:-
a. $12.50
b. $58.26
c. Exercise
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Glossary
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The End
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STUDY NOTES

2. Working Capital Management

8. Role and Responsibility towards Stakeholders

9. Advanced Investment Appraisal – Discounted Cash Flow

10. The Impact of Financing on Investment Decisions

11. Option Pricing Theory in Investment Decisions

12. Acquisition and Mergers versus Other Growth Strategies

13. Mergers & Acquisitions – Valuation

14. Corporate Reconstruction and Re-Organization

15. Financial Derivatives – Hedging Forex Risk

16. Financial Derivatives – Hedging Interest Rate Risk

17. Dividend policy and International Trade

18. Emerging Issuesin Financial Management

19. Question and Answers

The Nature and Purpose of Financial Management

Financial Objectives andthe Relationshipwith Corporate Strategy

Stakeholdersand Impacton Corporate Objectives

 Shareholders: As owners of the business, they rank supreme, as reflected in US/UK

Conflicting interests can exist between various stakeholder groups.

Influencing managerial behavior

Financial and Other Objectives in Non‐for‐Profit Organisations

Profit and Not-for-profit organisations

Profit-seeking organizations exist ultimately to create wealth for their owners.

Non-profit (or not-for-profit) organizations are created to accomplish a pre-defined mission,

Financial Management Environment

2. The nature and role of financial markets and institutions

Working Capital Management

1. The nature, elements and importance of working capital

This is a core function of management which has day-to-day implications.

Working capital definition: Current assets – Current liabilities

2. Management of inventories, accounts receivables, accounts payable and cash

1) Trade debtors (receivables)

3) Trade creditors (payables)

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)

To determine the total costs, the following data is required:

D = quantity of product demanded annually

P = purchase cost for oneunit

C = fixed cost per order (not incl. the purchase price)

H = cost of holding one unit for one year

Total cost = Purchase cost + Ordering cost + Holding cost

which can be expressed algebraically as follows:

It is this total cost function which must be minimized.

 PD does not vary;

Rearranging the above and solving for Q results in

 Weekly demand 500 units

Assume a 50 week year. What is the optimal order quantity?

Assessing the creditworthiness of customers

1) Character: Focuses on the reputation of the principals/decision makers at a company;

5) Conditions: This is a general review of the economic environment to appreciate to what

Cost of financing receivables for 3 months:

5,000,000 x 3/12 x 15% = 187,500

Cost of financing receivables for 1 month:

5,000,000 x 1/12 x 15% = 62,500

Savings in financing costs = 125,000

Cost of settlement discount:

A company must have in place a clear policy on the collection of debts.

Even if a good screening/assessment procedure is in place for accepting and reviewing

Another phenomenon which results in significant write-offs of receivable is the practice of

A company managing its receivables diligently will have the following:

Financial implications of different credit policies