Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Practical File

SUBJECT: COMPUTER NETWORKS LAB

[BTCS 507-18]

B.Tech – 5th Semester

[Batch 2019-23]

CGC College of Engineering

Landran, Mohali-140307

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Mr. Upinder Pal Harsh Jindal
Roll no: 1914282
Group – 5 ‘B’
 Index

S. No. Practical Name Pg. No.

1 To study the different types of Network cables and network 3

topologies.

2 Practically implement and test the cross-wired cableand straight 11

through cable using clamping tool and network lab cable tester.

3 Study and familiarization with various networkdevices. 21

4 Familiarization with Packet Tracer Simulationtool/any other 25

related tool.

5 Study and Implementation of IP AddressingSchemes. 29

6 Creation of Simple Networking topologies using hubsand switches. 32

7 Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer. 36

8 Study and implementation of various routerconfiguration 38

commands.

9 Creation of Networks using routers. 40

10 Configuring networks using the concept ofsubnetting. 45

11 Practical implementation of basic network commandand Network 51

configuration commands like ping, ipconfig, netstat, tracert etc. for
troubleshooting network related problems.

12 Configuration of networks using static and defaultroutes. 53

 EXPERIMENT - 1

OBJECTIVE:
To study the different types of Network cables and network topologies.

NETWORK CABLE TYPES AND SPECIFICATIONS:

To connect two or more computers or networking devices in a network, network cables are used.
There are three types of network cables; coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic.

Coaxial cable
This cable contains a conductor, insulator, braiding, and sheath. The sheath covers the braiding,
the braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation covers the conductor.

The following image shows these components.

Sheath
This is the outer layer of the coaxial cable. It protects the cable from physical damage.

Braided shield
This shield protects signals from external interference and noise. This shield is built from the
same metal that is used to build the core.

Insulation
Insulation protects the core. It also keeps the core separate from the braided shield. Since both
the core and the braided shield use the same metal, without this layer, they will touch each other
and create a short-circuit in the wire.

Conductor
The conductor carries electromagnetic signals. Based on the conductor a coaxial cable can be
categorized into two types; single-core coaxial cable and multi-core coaxial cable. A single-core
coaxial cable uses a single central metal (usually copper) conductor, while a multi-core coaxial
cable uses multiple thin strands of metal wires. The following image shows both types of cable.

Coaxial cables in computer networks

The coaxial cables were not primarily developed for the computer network. These cables were
developed for general purposes. They were in use even before computer networks came into
existence. They are still used even though their use in computer networks has been completely
discontinued.

At the beginning of computer networking, when there were no dedicated media cables available
for computer networks, network administrators began using coaxial cables to build computer
networks.

Because of its low cost and long durability, coaxial cables were used in computer networking for
nearly two decades (the 80s and 90s). Coaxial cables are no longer used to build any type of
computer network.

Specifications of coaxial cables

Coaxial cables have been in use for the last four decades. During these years, based on several
factors such as the thickness of the sheath, the metal of the conductor, and the material used in
insulation, hundreds of specifications have been created to specify the characteristics of coaxial
cables.

● Coaxial cable uses RG rating to measure the materials used in shielding and conducting
cores.
● RG stands for the Radio Guide. Coaxial cable mainly uses radio frequencies in
transmission.
● Impedance is the resistance that controls the signals. It is expressed in the ohms.
● AWG stands for American Wire Gauge. It is used to measure the size of the core. The
larger the AWG size, the smaller the diameter of the core wire.

Twisted-pair cables
The twisted-pair cable was primarily developed for computer networks. This cable is also known
as Ethernet cable. Almost all modern LAN computer networks use this cable.

This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires. Every two wires are twisted
around each other to form pair. Usually, there are four pairs. Each pair has one solid color and
one stripped color wire. Solid colors are blue, brown, green, and orange. In striped color, the
solid color is mixed with the white color.
Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath, there are two types of twisted-pair cable;
UTP and STP.
In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are wrapped in a single plastic sheath.
In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped with an additional metal shield,
then all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.

Similarities and differences between STP and UTP cables

● Both STP and UTP can transmit data at 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, and 10Gbps.
● Since the STP cable contains more materials, it is more expensive than the UTP cable.
● Both cables use the same RJ-45 (registered jack) modular connectors.
● The STP provides more noise and EMI resistance than the UTP cable.
● The maximum segment length for both cables is 100 meters or 328 feet.
● Both cables can accommodate a maximum of 1024 nodes in each segment.

The following image shows both types of twisted-pair cables.

Fiber optic cable

This cable consists of a core, cladding, buffer, and jacket. The core is made from thin strands of
glass or plastic that can carry data over a long distance. The core is wrapped in the cladding; the
cladding is wrapped in the buffer, and the buffer is wrapped in the jacket.

● Core carries the data signals in the form of light.

● Cladding reflects light back to the core.
● Buffer protects the light from leaking.
● The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.

Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This cable can transmit data over a long
distance at the highest speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at the speed of 100Gbps.

Fiber optic uses light to send data. It reflects light from one endpoint to another. Based on how
many beams of light are transmitted at a given time, there are two types of fiber optical cable;
SMF and MMF.
SMF (Single-mode fiber) optical cable
This cable carries only a single beam of light. This is more reliable and supports much higher
bandwidth and longer distances than the MMF cable. This cable uses a laser as the light source
and transmits 1300 or 1550 nano-meter wavelengths of light.

MMF (multi-mode fiber) optical cable

This cable carries multiple beams of light. Because of multiple beams, this cable carries much
more data than the SMF cable. This cable is used for shorter distances. This cable uses an LED
as the light source and transmits 850 or 1300 nano-meter wavelengths of light.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES:
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspects of the network.
Both logical and physical topologies could be the same or different in the same network.

Network Devices

Switch
A switch is a device in a computer network that connects other devices together. Multiple data
cables are plugged into a switch to enable communication between different networked devices.

Router
A wireless router connects directly to a modem by a cable. This allows it to receive information
from — and transmit information to — the internet. The router then creates and communicates
with your home Wi-Fi network using built-in antennas. As a result, all of the devices on your
home network have internet access.
Difference between a switch and a router?
The most basic explanation is that a switch is designed to connect computers within a network,
while a router is designed to connect multiple networks together.

Hub
Hub is commonly used to connect segments of a LAN (Local Area Network). A hub contains
multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all
segments of the LAN can see all packets. Hub acts as a common connection point for devices in
a network.

Topologies

Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contain exactly two hosts such as computers, switches or routers, servers
connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is
connected to the sending end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then they may have multiple intermediate
devices. But the end hosts are unaware of the underlying network and see each other as if they
are connected directly.

Bus Topology
In the case of Bus topology, all devices share a single communication line or cable. Bus topology
may have problems while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology
either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is
one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other
devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop
functioning.
Both ends of the shared channel have a line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and
as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.

Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-
to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub. The
hub device can be any of the following:
● Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
● Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
● Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in Bus topology, the hub acts as a single point of failure. If the hub fails, connectivity of all
hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts takes place through only the
hub. Star topology is not expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and
configuration is simple.

Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular
network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send a message to a host which is not
adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.
Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring is a
point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.

Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has hosts in
point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-
point connection to a few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-
point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:
● Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network.
Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable
network structure among all network topologies.
● Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrary fashion. This topology exists where we need to
provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use
presently. This topology imitates the extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus
topology.

This topology divides the network into multiple levels/layers of the network. Mainly in LANs, a
network is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is an access-layer
where computers are attached. The middle layer is known as the distribution layer, which works
as a mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as the core layer,
and is the central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.

All neighbouring hosts have a point-to-point connection between them. Similar to the Bus
topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even. Though it is not the single
point of failure. Every connection serves as a point of failure, failing of which divides the
network into an unreachable segment.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

OBJECTIVE:
Practically implement and test the cross-wired cable and straight through cable using clamping
tool and network lab cable tester

APPARATUS (COMPONENTS):
RJ-45 connector, Clamping Tool, Twisted pair Cable

DESCRIPTION:

What is transmission media?

Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to receiver. We use
different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through
electrical or electromagnetic signals.

An electrical signal is in the form of current. An electromagnetic signal is series of

electromagnetic energy pulses at various frequencies. These signals can be transmitted through
copper wires, optical fibers , atmosphere, water and vacuum Different Medias have different
properties like bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance. Transmission
media is also called Communication channel.

Types of Transmission Media

1. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media

2. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media

Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: Bound transmission media the cables
that are tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. Popular
bound transmission media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable.
Each of them has its own characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical
appearance, cost etc.

Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media: Unbound transmission media

are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These media are not bounded by
physical geography. This type of transmission is called Wireless communication. Nowadays
wireless communication is becoming popular. Wireless LANs are being installed in office and
college campuses. This transmission uses Microwave, Radio wave, Infrared are some of popular
unbound transmission media.
Fig2.1 .Type of Media

Guided Transmission Media

Types of Twisted Pair

The two types of twisted pairs are:

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

It consists of colour-coded copper wires, but does not include any foil or braiding as insulator to
protect against interference.

Wire pairs within each cable have varied amounts of twists per foot to produce cancellation.
There are different categories of UTP.

The following table shows the UTP categories, the no. of pairs in each, and the grade of cable
each uses and how they are implemented.

Table 2.1 Category table of UTP

2.. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

STP is made up of pairs of copper wires that are twisted together.

The pairs are covered in a foil or braided mesh, as well as outer PVC jacket.

This foil or mesh prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise and eliminate cross talk.

This shielding must be grounded to prevent the foil or braided mesh from becoming a magnet for
electricity.

Fig 2.2 UTP and STP

Advantage of STP over UTP

STP is less susceptible to noise as compared to UTP and therefore reduces the cross talk and
interference.

Disadvantages of STP
1. It must be properly grounded.

2. It is more expensive than UTP.

3. It is difficult to terminate.

Advantages of Twisted pair cable

1. It can be used to carry both analog and digital data.

2. It is the least expensive media of transmission for short distances.

Disadvantages of Twisted pair cable

1. It offers poor noise immunity as a result signal distortion is more?

2. Attenuation is very high.

3. It supports lower bandwidth as compared to other Medias. It supports 10 mbps upto a

distance of 100 meters on a 10BASE-T.

4. It offers very poor security and is relatively easy to tap.

5. Being thin in size, they are likely to break easily.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in center and is made of solid conductor.
Core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. Over the sheath the second wire is wrapped

around and that too in turn encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic cover.

Fig2.3 Coaxial Cable

Because of its structure coax cables are capable of carrying high frequency signals than that of
twisted pair cables. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and cross talk.
Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450 mbps.
There are three categories of Coax cables namely, RG-59 (Cable TV), RG-58 (Thin Ethernet)
and RG-11 (Thick Ethernet. RG stands for Radio Government.

Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate the
wire at the far ends.

Fiber-Optics Cable

A cable with central glass tube covered with protective shield which transmit data using
photons is fiber optics cable. These cables transmit data via concentrated bursts of laser beams
which are carried through bundles of hair thin glass fibers.

They have advantages over electronic cables technology has revolutionized tele
communication Fiber optics cables as free from electro-magnetic transmission speed and
volume .This applications which used electronic. cables. interference as well as wire tapping

Fig 2.4 Fibre Optic Cables

Unguided Transmission Media:-

Unguided transmission media extend beyond the limiting confines of cabling. They provide
anexcellent Communication Networks alternative for WANS. The lack of physical restrictions
provides larger bandwidth as well as wide area capabilities. Unbound media typically operate at
very high frequencies. The three types of unbound transmission media are:

Radio wave.

Micro wave.

Infrared.
Radiowaves TransmissionAlthough Radio waves are prevalent and wellunderstood, we are just
beginning to realize their enormous potential as a networking medium. Radio waves can operate
on a single or multiple frequency bands

Fig 2.5 Radio Waves

Radio waves are omni directional i.e. they travel in all the directions from the source. Because of
this property, transmitter and receiver need not to be aligned. Radio waves can penetrate
buildings easily, so they are widely use for communication both indoors outdoors.

At high frequencies, radio waves tends to travel in straight line and bounce off the obstacles.
They are also absorbed by rain. Radio waves is widely used for AM and FM radio, television,
cordless telephone, cellular phones, paging and wireless LAN.

Microwave Transmission

Microwaves have been used in data communications for a long time. They have a higher
frequency than radio waves and therefore can handle larger amounts of data.

Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible
contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on
the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to the
horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the
country. microwave circuits are considered a broad band communication channel.
Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry
large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth

List the Advantages of microwaves.

a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.

b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.

c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.

d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.

Disadvantages of Microwaves

a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.

b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.

c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects.

d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.

InfraRed.

Infrared offers a great unbound photonic solution. Like fiber-optic cabling, infrared
communications use light, so they are not bound by the limitations of electricity.

Crimping tool

A crimping tool is a tool designed to crimp or connect a connector to the end of a cable. For
example, network cables and phone cables are created using a crimping tool to connect the RJ-45
and RJ-11 connectors to the end of the cable. In the example below picture, this crimper is
capable of crimping a RJ-11 (6-Pin) and RJ-45 (8-Pin) connectors and also includes a wire cutter
near the handles that can be used to cut phone or CAT5 cable.
Fig 2.6 Crimping Tool

RJ-45 Connecter

The RJ-45 connector is a form of telephone connector. It sees its most frequent use as a
local-area network connector , and is frequently referred to simply as an Ethernet connector.

Fig 2.7 RJ45 Connector

BNC Connecter

This connector is commonly used on a Token Ring network. BNC is also short for Bayonet
NutConnector or British Naval/Navy Connector although more appropriately known as
theBayonet Neill Concelman. In the picture to the right, is an example of a BNC connector on
the end of a coaxial cable.
 Fig 2.8 BNC Connector

Procedure: To do these practical following steps should be done:

1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very
careful at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter
the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render it useless. Check the wires, one more time
for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over.
2. Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand.
You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category 5 cable must
only have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be 'out of spec'. At this
point, you obviously have ALOT more than 1/2 of an inch of un-twisted wire.
3. You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a premade
cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install - the crossed over end.
Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable
end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below. ¬
Diagram shows you how to prepare straight through wired connection

Ethernet Cable Tips:

∙ A straight-thru cable has identical ends.
∙ A crossover cable has different ends.
∙ A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections.
∙ A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for connecting two hubs. ∙
A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with the Green set.
∙ Odd numbered pins are always striped; even numbered pins are always solid coloured.
∙ Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is always on the right, and pin
1 is on the left.
∙ No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it will be susceptible to
crosstalk.
∙ Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel with power
cables, and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components.
Result: Cable Crimping, Standard Cabling and Cross Cabling, IO connector crimping and testing
the crimped cable using a cable tester are done successfully

OUTCOME:
Student will be able to understand the hardware components such as crimping tool and role of
RJ-45 connector in networking. They will also know the different transmission medium such as
co-axial cable, optical cable and twisted pair cable and how these cables are used with different
speeds in different networks.

OUTPUT:
Studied transmission media and Tools: Co-axial cable, UTP Cable, Crimping Tool, Connectors
etc.

RESULT: Understood the different transmission medium such as co-axial cable, optical cable
and twisted pair cable.

APPLICATION: Usage of transmission tools with different speeds in different networks.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

OBJECTIVE:
Study and familiarization with various network devices.

APPARATUS:
Hubs, Switches, Routers.

DESCRIPTION:

LAN Adapter:-

An expansion board that is used to connect a computer or computing device to a network.

LAN adapter is the most common and generic alternate name for a Network Interface Card
(NIC). However, many similar products, such as a Wireless USB LAN Adapter is also called a
LAN adapter.

Fig 3.1 LAN Adapter

Wireless USB LAN adapter:-

A high-speed wireless network card that is used to access a network through a USB port on a
computer or laptop. Most wireless USB LAN adapters look like small USB flash drives and
usually are based on the 802.11g standard which provides a data rate up to 54-Mbps in a
wireless LAN environment. Some wireless USB LAN adapters may also support the 802.11b
standard.

Fig 3.2 Wireless USB LAN Adapter

Network Hub:-

Definition: In computer networking, a hub is a small, simple, inexpensive device that

joinsmultiple computers together. Many network hubs available today support the Ethernet
standard. Other types including USB hubs also exist, but Ethernet is the type traditionally used
in home networking.

Technically speaking, two different types of hubs exist:

passive
active

Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical signal of incoming packets before broadcasting
themout to the network. Active hubs, on the other hand, do perform this amplification, as does
a different type of dedicated network device called a repeater. Some people use the terms
concentrator when referring to a passive hub and multiport repeater when referring to
anactive hub.

Fig 3.3 HUB

Network switch:-

A network switch (sometimes known as a switching hub) is a computer networking device that
is used to connect devices together on a computer network. A switch is considered more
advanced than a hub because a switch will only send a message to the device that needs or
requests it, rather than broadcasting the same message out of each of its ports.[1]

A switch is a multi-port network bridge that processes and forwards data at the data link layer
(layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches have additional features, including the ability to
route packets. These switches are commonly known as layer-3 or multilayer switches.
Router:-

Router: Routers are devices (computers) containing software that help in determining the
bestpath out of the available paths, for a particular transmission. They consist of a combination
of hardware and software. The hardware includes the physical interfaces to the various networks
in the internet work. The two main pieces of software in a router are the operating system and
the routing protocol.

Routers use logical and physical addressing to connect two or more logically separate networks.
They accomplish this connection by organizing the large network into logical network segments
or sub-networks. Each of these sub networks is given a logical address. This allows the networks
to be separate but still access each other and exchange data when necessary. Data is grouped into
packets, or blocks of data. Each packet, in addition to having a physical device address, has a
logical network address.

Routers are frequently used to interconnect identical networks as well as to interconnect

networks with different types of hardware.

How Routers Works

Routers are interconnectivity devices that are used to transfer the datum packets along networks
by visualizing the networks path. Routers visualizing the networks path to many networks such
as Electronic networks, Transport networks and phone networks. Two ways are exist for routers
operation using either control plane or forwarding plane. In control plane the router sends the
precise data packets to their specific location. On the other hand in forwarding plane router does
not remember the sending or receiving information about the packets.
Advantages of Routers
Routers route the data in an organized way. Routers generate a reliable connection between
hosts. Routers is used for alternatively incase the main is fail to transfer data.
OUTPUT:
Studied Networking Components and devices

OUTCOME:
Student will be able to understand all the network components and devices used in the
networking.

RESULT:
Understood various technological devices and its working

APPLICATION:
● Lan connection can be implemented with the help of these technologies.
● Selection of network devices and implementations in LAN connection.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

OBJECTIVE:
Familiarization with Packet Tracer Simulation tool/any other related tool.

APPARATUS:
Computer, cross-platform visual simulation tool

DESCRIPTION:
Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual simulation tool designed by Cisco Systems that allows
users to create network topologies and imitate modern computer networks. The software allows
users to simulate the configuration of Cisco routers and switches using a simulated command
line interface. Packet Tracer makes use of a drag and drop user interface, allowing users to add
and remove simulated network devices as they see fit. The software is mainly focused towards
Certified Cisco Network Associate Academy students as an educational tool for helping them
learn fundamental CCNA concepts. Previously students enrolled in a CCNA Academy program
could freely download and use the tool free of charge for educational use.
 Fig 4.1 Packet Tracker

We will just create a computer lab with the help of the cisco packet tracer and the ‘n’ no of
computers are connected with the help of switches and according to the no of computer required
the no of switches are being used

In the given example we are using the 26 computers to make the local area network in the lab.
Here we are using two switches because a switch can have 24 ports to be connected .

The lab looks like this after the connection of the computers to the switch
 Fig 4.2

Now we are having the work of assigning the I p address to all the computers connected to the
switch . we can assign the I p address by just clicking on the pc and the manual will come just
click on the I p configuration then assign the I p address to the pc .
We will assign the ip address in the static form. after assigning the I p address to the computer it
will automatically generate the subnet mask of the computer itself .

The screen looks like this while assigning the Ip address

Fig 4.3
OUTPUT:
Studied Networking Components and devices

OUTCOME:
Students will be able to familiarize with the Packet Tracer Simulation tool/any other related tool.

RESULT: Understood Packet Tracer Simulation and its working

APPLICATION:
● Lan connection can be implemented with the help of these technologies.
● Selection of network devices
● Wireless connection
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

OBJECTIVE:
Study and Implementation of IP Addressing Schemes

APPARATUS:
Computers, Class Addressing Knowledge.

DESCRIPTION:

IP Address Classes:-

● IP addressing supports C,five D and E. Only different classes A, B and address C are
available for commercial use.

Class A addresses

Class A addresses are designed for large organizations with a large number of hosts or routers.
1. In this the first octet of the address identifies the network and the next three octets are used
to identify the host.
2. The first bit of the first octet is always 0 and the remaining 7 bits are used to identify the
network address.
3. The next three octets i.e. 24 bits are used to identify the host.
4. The class supports addresses from 0.0.0.0 to 0.255.255.255.
5. The first block of network addresses starts with 1.0.0.0 and the last block of network
address starts with 127.0.0.0.
6. As there are 7 bits in the network address, 27 = 128 blocks of network address are possible.
Out of these two network blocks are reserved. Hence total 126 address blocks are used.
7. Each network block can have 224--- 2 hosts i.e. 16,777,214 host addresses. Two addresses
are less as one address is reserved for the broadcast address and one address is reserved for
the network.
8. A block in class A is too large for almost any organization. This means most of the
addresses in class A are wasted and are not used.

Class B address

1. The class B addresses are designed for medium sized organizations with tens of thousands
of attached hosts or routers.
2. In this, the first two octets of the address identify the network and the next two octets
identify the host within the network.
3. The first two bits (high order bits) of the first octet are always 1, 0. Thus the remaining 14
bits identify the network.
4. The third and fourth octet i.e. 6 bits are used to identify the hosts.
5. The first network block of this class covers the addresses from 128.0.0.0 to 128.0.255.255
(net id 128.0). The last network block of this class covers addresses from 191.255.255.255.
 6. The maximum number of network blocks in class B is 214 = 16384.
7. Each network block in class B can have 216--- 2 = 65,534 hosts.
8. A block in class B is also very large and most of the address in class B is also wasted.

Class C address
1. The class C addresses is designed for small organizations with a small number of attached
hosts or routers.
2. In class C, the first three octets of address are used for network and the last octet is used to
identify the host.
3. The first three bits of first octet are always set to 1, 1,0.
4. The remaining 24 – 3 = 21 bits are used for network identification and only 8 bits are used
for host.
5. In class C, 221 = 2,097,152 network blocks are possible.
6. Thus, each block in class C address can have 28– 2 = 254 hosts.
7. The first block of network covers addresses from 192.0.0.0 to 192.0.0.255.
8. The class C addresses are too less for many organizations as it supports only 254 hosts in a
network.

Following are the classes of IP:-

CLASS
ES Range

1.0.0.0to
Class A 127.255.255.255
128.0.0.0 to
Class B 191.255.255.255
192.0.0.0 to
Class C 223.255.255.255

224.0.0.0 to
Class D 239.255.255.255

Class E 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

Class D address

1. Class D addresses are used for multicast groups (multicasting)

2. The concept of division of octets into network id and host id does not apply to class D.

3. The first four bits of the first octet in class D are always set to 1,1,1,0.

4. The address range is 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

Class E address

1. The Class E address is reserved for future use and is experimental.

2. The concept of network id and host id does not apply on class E also.

3. The first four bits of first octet are always set to 1,1,1,1.

4. The address range for class E is 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

Fig 5.1 Class Ranges

OUTCOME:
Student will be able to understand how to design a network with various class ranges.
Class A,B and C IP addresses can be used to implement the network whereas class D is used for
multicasting with broadcasting while class E is reserved for the researchers.

APPLICATION:
Suppose you want to design a network for an organization then you must be aware of IP
addresses range. Most important question is what is the size of the organization? If it is very
much big in size then class A IP addresses are used; if it is medium in size then class B IP
addresses can be used on the other hand if it is small in size then class C IP addresses can be
used.

RESULT:
Designed and implemented Class A, B, and C Networks

OUTPUT:
Explored the knowledge of computer networks by designing different class networks with
different IP ranges.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

OBJECTIVE:
Creation of Simple Networking topologies using hubs and switches

APPARATUS:
Computer, hub, switch

PRINCIPLE:
1. Repeater:Functioning at Physical Layer.A repeater is an electronic device that receives
a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of
an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances. Repeater have two ports ,so
cannot be use to connect for more than two devices.

2. Hub: An Ethernet hub, active hub, network hub, repeater hub, hub or concentrator is a
device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and
making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1)
of the OSI model. The device is a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also
participate in collision detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a
collision.

3. Switch:A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that

connects network segments.The term commonly refers to a network bridge that processes
and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that
additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3 and above) are often referred to as
Layer 3 switches or multilayer switches.

4. Bridge: A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer
(Layer 2) of the OSI model. In Ethernet networks, the term bridge formally means a
device that behaves according to the IEEE 802.1D standard. A bridge and switch are very
much alike; a switch being a bridge with numerous ports. Switch or Layer 2 switch is
often used interchangeably with bridge.Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to
determine if the bridge is able to send the given packet to another segment of the
network.
5. Router: A router is an electronic device that interconnects two or more computer
networks, and lectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet
contains address information that a router can use to determine if the source and
destination are on the same network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one
network to another. Where multiple routers are used in a large collection of
interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about target system addresses,
so that each router can build up a table showing the preferred paths between any two
systems on the interconnected networks.
6. Gate Way: In a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing
with another network that uses different protocols. • A gateway may contain devices such
as protocol translators, impedance matching devices, rate converters, fault isolators, or
signal translators as necessary to provide system interoperability. It also requires the
establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures between both networks.
Step 1: Connect the switch to the LAN. a. Using the proper cable, connect the
FastEthernet0/0 on Customer Router to the FastEthernet0/1 on Customer Switch. b.
Using the proper cable, connect the Customer PC to the Customer Switch on port
FastEthernet0/2. c. Using the proper cable, connect the Local Server to the Customer
Switch on port FastEthernet0/3.

Step 2: Verify the switch configuration. a. From the Customer PC, use the terminal
emulation software to connect to the console of the customer Cisco Catalyst 2960 switch.
b. Use the console connection and terminal utility on the Customer PC to verify the
configurations.
Use cisco as the console password. c. Enter privileged EXEC mode and use the show
running-config command to verify the following configurations.
The password is cisco123.
a. VLAN1 IP address = 192.168.1.5
b. Subnet mask = 255.255.255.0
c. Password required for console access
d. Password required for vty access
e. Password enabled for privileged EXEC mode f. Secret enabled for privileged EXEC
mode
f. Verify IP connectivity between the Cisco Catalyst 2960 switch and the Cisco 1841
router by initiating a ping to 192.168.1.1 from the switch CLI.
g. Click the Check Results button at the bottom of this instruction window to check your
work.
 Fig 6.1 Creation of network

OUTCOME:
Student will be able to understand how an own private network can be implemented and
how it works.

RESULT:
Studied various LAN topologies and their creation using network devices, cables and
computers

OUTPUT:
Understanding how an own private network can be implemented and how it works.

APPLICATION:

● Creation of private network

● Developing various networks using various topologies.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

OBJECTIVE:
Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer

APPARATUS:
Computers, Packet Tracer

DESCRIPTION:
Part 1: Examine HTTP Web Traffic In Part 1 of this activity, you will use Packet Tracer
(PT) Simulation mode to generate web traffic and examine HTTP. Switch from
Realtime to Simulation mode. In the lower right corner of the Packet Tracer interface
are tabs to toggle between Realtime and Simulation mode. PT always starts in Realtime
mode, in which networking protocols operate with realistic timings. However, a
powerful feature of Packet Tracer allows the user to “stop time” by switching to
Simulation mode. In Simulation mode, packets are displayed as animated envelopes,
time is event driven, and the user can step through networking events.
a. Click the Simulation mode icon to switch from Realtime mode to Simulation mode.
b. Select HTTP from the Event List Filters.
1) HTTP may already be the only visible event. Click Edit Filters to display the
available visible events. Toggle the Show All/None checkbox and notice how the check
boxes switch from unchecked to checked or checked to unchecked, depending on the
current state.
2) Click the Show All/None checkbox until all boxes are cleared and then select HTTP.
Click anywhere outside of the Edit Filters box to hide it. The Visible Events should now
only display HTTP. Generate web (HTTP) traffic. Currently the Simulation Panel is
empty. There are six columns listed across the top of the Event List within the
Simulation Panel. As traffic is generated and stepped through, events appear in the list.
The Info column is used to inspect the contents of a particular event. Note: The Web
Server and Web Client are displayed in the left pane. The panels can be adjusted in size
by hovering next to the scroll bar and dragging left or right when the double-headed
arrow appears.
a. Click Web Client in the far left pane.
b. Click the Desktop tab and click the Web Browser icon to open it.
c. In the URL field, enter www.osi.local and click Go. Because time in Simulation
mode is event-driven, you must use the Capture/Forward button to display network
events.
d. Click Capture/Forward four times. There should be four events in the Event List.
Look at the Web Client web browser page. Did anything change?
 Fig 7.1 web traffic in Packet Tracer

OUTCOME:
Student will be able to understand traffic / collision control in tracer.

RESULT:
Studied various Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer

OUTPUT:
Understanding how an own private network can be implemented in web traffic in Packet Tracer

APPLICATION:
Traffic control in networking
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

OBJECTIVE:
Study and implementation of various router configuration commands

DESCRIPTION:
Step 1: Configure the router host name.
a. On Customer PC, use the terminal emulation software to connect to the console of the
customer Cisco 1841 ISR. Set the hostname on the router to Customer Router by using
these commands.
Router>enable
Router #configure terminal
Router(config)#hostname Customer Router
Step 2: Configure the privileged mode and secret passwords.
a. In global configuration mode, set the password to cisco.
b. Customer Router(config)#enable password cisco
c. Set an encrypted privileged password to cisco123 using the secret command. Customer
Router(config)#enable secret cisco123
Step 3: Configure the console password.
a. In global configuration mode, switch to line configuration mode to specify the console
line. Customer Router(config)#line console 0
Set the password to cisco123, require that the password be entered at login, and
then exit line configuration mode.
Customer Router(config-line) #password cisco123
Customer Router(config-line) #login
CustomerRouter(config-line) #exit
Customer Router(config)#
Step 4: Configure the vty password to allow Telnet access to the router. In global
configuration mode, switch to line configuration mode to specify the vty lines. Customer
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Set the password to cisco123, require that the password be entered at login, exit line
configuration mode, and then exit the configuration session.
Customer Router(config-line)#password cisco123
Customer Router(config-line)#login
Customer Router(config-line)#exit
Customer Router(config)#
Step 5: Configure password encryption, a MOTD banner, and turn off domain server
lookup.
Currently, the line passwords and the enable password are shown in clear text when you
show the running configuration. Verify this now by entering the show running-config
command. To avoid the security risk of someone looking over your shoulder and reading
the passwords, encrypt all clear text passwords.
Customer Router(config)#service password-encryption
Use the show running-config command again to verify that the passwords are encrypted.
To provide a warning when someone attempts to log in to the router, configure a MOTD
banner.
Customer Router(config)# $Authorized Access Only!$ Test the banner and passwords.
Log out of the router by typing the exit command twice. The banner displays before
the prompt for a password. Enter the password to log back into the router.
You may have noticed that when you enter a command incorrectly at the user or
privileged EXEC prompt, the router pauses while trying to locate an IP address
for the mistyped word you entered. For example, this output shows what happens
when the enable command is mistyped.
Customer Router>enable Translating "enable"...domain server (255.255.255.255)
To prevent this from happening, use the following command to stop all DNS lookups
from the router CLI.
CustomerRouter(config)#no ip domain-lookup
Save the running configuration to the startup configuration.
CustomerRouter(config)#end
CustomerRouter#copy run start
Step 6: Verify the configuration.
a. Log out of your terminal session with the Cisco 1841 customer router.
b. Log in to the Cisco 1841 Customer Router. Enter the console password when
prompted.
c. Navigate to privileged EXEC mode. Enter the privileged EXEC password when
prompted.
d. Click the Check Results button at the bottom of this instruction window to check your
work.

OUTCOME:
Student will be able to understand router configuration commands

RESULT:
Studied implemented of various router configuration commands

OUTPUT:
Configured Router with username and password.

APPLICATION:
● Router configuration
● Router authorization
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

OBJECTIVE:
Creation of Networks using routers

DESCRIPTION:
At any rate, you can set up a tightly managed, secure home network. All you have to do
is follow these five steps.

1. Connect your router

The router is the gateway between the Internet and your home network. It is also the
means by which all the devices on your network communicate with one another. If
you haven’t already purchased one, our guide to buying the best wireless router can
give you the lowdown on how to choose the right router for your home's particular
needs. You can go with either an 802.11n router, or one of the newer 802.11ac models.
For a discussion of whether 802.11ac will be the right choice for you, see:

You will also want to ensure that any device that will connect to the router also has an
appropriate network adapter. These devices are your network "clients." New
laptops will have 802.11n adapters (some will support 802.11ac, even). For
older laptops or desktops you can purchase compatible adapters. Once
you've got the right router, you have to set it up, and the first step is to physically
connect your router to a modem provided by your ISP with an Ethernet cable.
● First, unplug or turn off the cable or DSL modem.
● Power up your wireless router and connect the network cable that most likely comes with it
into the port on the router that is labelled "Internet" or "WAN."
● Connect the other end to the cable or DSL modem and power up the modem.
● Don't attempt to connect any devices such as laptops or tablets until you have a good strong
signal indicating a WAN connection on both the router and modem.

2. Access the router's interface and lock it down

The next step involves getting into the router's interface (some companies call this the
management console). This is done by connecting a laptop to the router and then
accessing the interface via a browser. How do you go about this? Routers ship with a
default IP address, administrator account and password. For example, most
Cisco/Linksys routers have the default IP address of 192.168.1.1, and the default
administrator account is "admin," and the password is also "admin." What you want to do
is change your laptop's IP settings to match those of the router's to connect to it for
configuration. This allows the laptop to communicate with the router, so you can access
your router's software for setup via the laptop.

Connect an Ethernet cable to one of the LAN ports on the router and the other end to the
Ethernet port of your laptop. On a Windows 7 machine that's connected to the router by
Ethernet, for example, you would go into the Control Panel and click to open "Network
and Internet" and then "Network and Sharing Centre."
● From the left-hand window, click "Change adapter settings."
● Right click on "Local Area Connection" (not the Wireless Network Connection) and select
"Properties."
● Highlight “Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IP v4)” and once again, click "Properties."
● Set the first radio button to "Use the following IP address:" and enter the information as
shown in the image above.
● Once you've applied the changes, open up a browser and go the web address of (in our
example) the Cisco/Linksys interface by typing http://192.168.1.1 and using the account
name "admin" and password "admin." Then you are all set to configure security and other
settings.
Most router companies use the same default IP address, admin account, and passwords
on all their routers. Your router's documentation will tell you the specific IP address and
account login information.

3. Configure security and IP addressing

After you've accessed the router, the next order of business is getting the security, SSID
and IP addressing settings right. Getting security right is a must, unless you want a
neighbour stealing your bandwidth and possibly your data. IP addressing is important
because these addresses are used for devices on your network to communicate
with the router. You make all of these changes within the router's management interface.
These settings are typically under the "Basic" settings of the interface. They may also be
under "Security" or "Wireless Settings." Router interfaces vary, so if you can't find the
settings to configure within the router’s interface pages when following the below steps,
check with the router manufacturer. Okay, on with the steps:

● Change the default administrator password. Some networking equipment forces you to do so
once you've accessed the web-based interface, but many consumer routers don't. The settings
for the admin password are usually under the "System" tab or page of the interface. You can
just enter in a new password in the new password field.Change the router's default SSID. The
SSID is the broadcasted name of your wireless network.That's the name that shows up as the
network's name when you scan for available networks. Use a unique name that your
neighbours aren't using for their routers to avoid confusion.
● Assign security. Newer routers may be set by default to automatically configure security by
using WPS (Wi-Fi Protected Setup). Since the goal here is to have full control of your
network, switch from "WPS" to "Manual." Once in manual mode, go into the router's
wireless security page. There is no excuse, except in very limited circumstances when
dealing with legacy technology, to not use WPA/WPA2. WPA security requires clients
connecting to it to use a key or passphrase, which you create within the router's
interface on the same page you set up security. Some routers allow you to enter a string of 64
hexadecimal digits which provides strong security, but most have you create an 8 to
63 letter passphrase. If you are creating a passphrase (or password) be sure to create a strong
password that would be hard to guess. For further advice on generating stronger passwords,
check out our article on making sure your passwords are up to scratch.
● Set up IP addressing. For most networks, the router can be kept at its default DHCP setting.
This means the router will dole out IP addresses to clients that connect to the network,
leaving you without any IP addressing management to do. For extra security, it's not a bad
idea to change the router's default IP, making it more resistant to snooping. Remember,
 hackers know what the default IP addresses of the most common routers are (even though it's
really tough for them to get to, due to the fact that your IP addresses on your network are
private). For instance, I would change my Cisco/Linksys router's network from 192.168.1.1
to something like 192.168.1.3.
● Disconnect the laptop and reboot it. When the laptop comes back from reboot you should see
the SSID name of your wireless network and be able to connect to it with the passphrase you
created. Congratulations – you're connected wirelessly. But you're not done with your setup
yet!
Advanced steps: DHCP reservation
For those who anticipate connecting servers, NAS devices or any device that you may
access from outside your network, best practice is to configure DHCP Reservation. That
may be a scary sounding term for newbies, but all it means is that you are telling the
router that a specific device always uses a specific IP address, which is set aside or
"reserved" for it.
For example, my router IP is 192.168.1.1. I can give my email server an IP address of
192.168.1.2. I can give a third device, say my NAS server for instance, an IP address of
192.168.1.3, and so on. You don't want to change the first three sets of numbers though,
for most basic home networks. IP addressing has specific rules about formatting, so you
want to retain the first three sets of numbers, called "octets."
You’ll also want to put in the device's MAC address that you are reserving. The MAC
address is usually printed on a sticker affixed to a device. Again, reserving the IP
addresses means those addresses will never be distributed to clients via DHCP and
are "held" for the devices you specify. Reserving IP addresses is good practice for
devices you want to access remotely, because otherwise when the IP address leases
expire and you won't be able to perform remote access.
Don't forget to assign the reserved IPs as static addresses on the devices for which you
made reservations. There are various ways to do this – on Windows servers and
machines you can assign an IP address though the Network settings Control Panel. Other
devices, such as NASes, have areas in their management console where you can assign
an IP address. It really depends on what device you want to set a static address for, so
check with the vendor if you aren't sure.
If you are using the router as an access point, bridge or to extend the signal of an existing
router on a network, you will want to turn off DHCP completely. Having two routers
performing DHCP on the same network can result in a myriad of connection issues.
However, for most home networks , having the router set to use DHCP will suffice.

4. Set up sharing and control

Now that you have a network set up, you can set up a way for everyone to access data on
the network. With Windows 7 clients, this is achieved by creating a HomeGroup, a user-
friendly way to create a workgroup. A HomeGroup is a group of computers on a home
network that can share files and printers.Using a HomeGroup makes sharing easier. You
can share pictures, music, videos, documents, and printers with other people in your
HomeGroup. Other people can't change the files that you share unless you give them
permission. You can help protect your HomeGroup with a password, which you can
change at any time. Computers must be running Windows 7 or Windows 8 (more about
the latter In a moment) to participate in a HomeGroup. HomeGroup is available in all
editions of Windows 7. In Windows 7 Starter and Windows 7 Home Basic, you can join a
HomeGroup, but you can't create one.

● When a Windows 7 laptop first connects to the network, the user will be prompted to set the
current network location. Ensure that the location is set to "Home network" (you can check it
in Network and Sharing Centre) because HomeGroup only works on networks set to the
Home location.
● Open up "HomeGroup" in the Control Panel, and then click "Create a HomeGroup." For
every Windows 7 client that you want to give access to the HomeGroup, open HomeGroup in
the Control Panel of those machines and then click "Join now" (those machines have to be
physically or wirelessly connected to the network).
● During the process of setting up or joining a HomeGroup, you can choose the libraries,
printers, or files and folders you want to share (see the next step for details).
● For Windows 8, you create a HomeGroup by moving the mouse to the top right corner of
screen, then click Settings, then Change PC Settings. Click on HomeGroup, then you can
click on Create. As above, you can then select the libraries and devices you want to share
with the HomeGroup.
● If you have a network with an older version of Windows running, then you are going to
create a standard Workgroup. Click Start, right click My Computer, and then click Properties.
In System Properties, click the Computer Name tab. Click "Change," select "Workgroup,"
and enter a workgroup name. Click OK to apply the change. Do the same thing for all
computers that you want sharing data on the network.

5. Set up user accounts

In most business networks, users access the network by logging in with their user account
and password. Corporate IT networks set up user accounts to keep tabs on who is
accessing the network and when they are accessing it. User accounts provide a
way to establish user access control. Perhaps there's some data on the network
some users should have access to and some shouldn't. Maybe some users should only be
able to read certain files, while others should be able to change files.
You can establish this same kind of access in your home network, should you wish,
especially once you have a HomeGroup or Workgroup defined. It's not something
most home network users will really need to do, but we’ll cover it briefly, as it is
quite easy to set up user accounts in Windows:

● In Windows 7's Control Panel, select the User Accounts icon. User accounts will let you
configure your account and its settings.
● To add and configure other users, from User Accounts, click on "Manage User Accounts,"
and then click on the "Advanced" tab.
● Under "Advanced User Management" click "Advanced" to open up Local Users and Groups.
● Right click on either "Users" or "Groups" to add either to your network.
● If you have a number of people accessing your network and you want to control access to the
data on it, you may also want to set up permissions for files and folders. Create a user
account for every family member and then right click on the folder, click "Properties"
and then the "Sharing" tab. You can add the family members that you want to give
access to any particular folder, and exclude the ones you don't. You can also right
 click on each Library to select the specific users you want to share with. Right click on
a printer to pull up the "Sharing" tab to set up shared access.

OUTCOME:
Student will be able to create networks using routers

RESULT:
Studied implemented usage of routers in networking

OUTPUT:
Configured Router with username and password.

APPLICATION:
● Cisco Interface
● SSID
● DHCP configuration
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

OBJECTIVE:
Configuring networks using the concept of subnetting

APPARATUS:
System, Router

DESCRIPTION:
Subnetworking becomes an important feature as your organization's networking needs
grow. Subnetworking lets you divide up your pool of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)
addresses so you can split those addresses across several physical networks within your
organization.
For administrative or technical reasons, many organizations choose to divide one network
into several subnets. Subnetworking enables several local networks to appear as a single
Internet network to off-site hosts. It divides the addresses for a single network to
accommodate the fact that the network consists of several physical networks. You should
consider using subnets in the following instances:
● When you want to hide the local network topology from the outside world. Using
subnets requires only a single route to external gateways.
● When you want the ability to administer IP addresses locally. For example, a company
may have an engineering subnet, a product marketing subnet, and a sales subnet, each
administered by a different administrator who has control of IP addresses in a given
range.
● When network bandwidth is limited due to cabling constraints. Setting up subnets, each
separated by a gateway host, limits local subnet packets to those that are either destined
for or sent from a local host. In this way, the overall network traffic seen by each host
on the subnet is reduced.
Setting up a subnet requires you to:
● determine the appropriate IP addresses for your subnets
● configure subnet hosts with the correct IP addresses and network masks
● configure gateway hosts between subnets
Subnets allow you more flexibility when assigning network addresses. For details on
network address assignment and network classes, see “Network address”.
Network masks
A network mask, or ``netmask'', is used to divide an IP address into a network address and
a host address. When you set up a network, the network mask must be common to all
network interfaces on that network. The default network masks are 255.0.0.0 for class A,
255.255.0.0 for class B, and 255.255.255.0 for class C networks, as illustrated here:
Subnets are created by extending the network ID portion of an address by taking some bits
from the host portion to create a subnet portion. The remaining bits can be used for host
addresses within the subnet. The number of subnets that can be created from an m-bits
long subnet address is 2^m. The number of host addresses per subnet that are available
from an n-bits long host address is (2^n)-2. Unlike the subnet portion of the network
address, the host portion cannot consist of all 0's or 1's. See RFC 1812 and RFC 1878 for
more information.
“Subnetting a class B network”' illustrates the effect on a class B address of extending a
network mask from 255.255.0.0 to 255.255.255.0:

Subnetting a class B network

This scheme creates 256 (2^8) possible subnet addresses (0 through 255) with 254 (2^8-
2) host addresses (1 through 254) per subnet. In this way, you can create subnets for class
A and B networks by converting the second and third octets, respectively, from host
addresses to subnet addresses. Notice how the netmask changes accorThe class A network
16 can now have up to 256 subnets (16.0 through 16.255). The class network 172.16 can
also have up to 256 subnets (172.16.0 through 172.16.255). While the netmask
masks the network portion of the address, the broadcast address exposes the network
address and hides the host portion. For example, the broadcast address for the subnet
172.16.246, with a netmask of 255.255.255.0, is 172.16.246.255.For more information on
setting netmask and broadcast addresses using the Network Configuration Manager,
see “Basic TCP/IP configuration parameters'” For example, if an organization has a class
B network, you could assign each physical network in that network a subnet number
within that network. The sixteen bits for the host ID could be allocated as eight for subnet
and eight for host, or nine for subnet and seven for host, and so on. Your decision would
be transparent to everyone outside that organization.
A common example of subnetworking is to apply a class C type subnet mask
(255.255.255.0) to a class B network. Applying this mask to a class B network provides
you with 256 possible subnets, each one of which can accommodate 254 possible hosts
(the host addresses 0 and 255 are not acceptable). If you know that none of your subnets
will ever have more than 126 hosts but you need more than 256 but less than 513 subnets,
you could decide to use nine bits for the subnet number, and seven bits for the host
addresses. The appropriate mask for this would be 255.255.255.128.
Given this scheme and a network address of, for example, 131.60, the addresses of the first
and last hosts on the first subnet (131.60.0.0) would be 131.60.0.1 and 131.60.0.126. The
broadcast address on this subnet would be 131.60.0.127.
Partitioning a class C address is a similar process as you must take a portion of the fourth
octet as the subnet address. For example, you might partition the first three (high order)
bits of the fourth octet to represent the subnet, with the last five bits representing the host:

This scheme allows for up to 8 subnets of 30 hosts each, for a total of 240 hosts. The
netmask for the hosts on these subnets is 255.255.255.224. The number 224 is a decimal
representation of the binary octet 11100000, which masks the subnet portion of the IP
address.
Possible subnets for the class C network 221.138.62.0, with associated broadcast
addresses, are:
Subnet Hosts Broadcast address
221.138.62.0 .1-.30 221.138.62.31
221.138.62.32 .33-.62 221.138.62.63
221.138.62.64 .65-.94 221.138.62.95
221.138.62.96 .97-.126 221.138.62.127
221.138.62.128 .129-.158 221.138.62.159
221.138.62.160 .161-.190 221.138.62.191
221.138.62.192 .193-.222 221.138.62.223
221.138.62.224 .225-.254 221.138.62.255
After you determine the new addresses for your hosts, you must use the
Network Configuration Manager to configure them. In addition, you must
configure routers between your subnets: these are hosts with multiple networking
interfaces and specialized routing hardware that can serve more than one network.
Subnetting and Classless Interdomain Routing
The number of class A and B addresses that are available for allocation to new networks
has been steadily diminishing over time and is now virtually exhausted. In the late 1980s
nearly all of the new networks assigned were class B, and in 1990 it became apparent that
class B networks would run out by 1994 if the trend continued. Class C addresses
(with a maximum of 254 hosts) were hardly being used because they were too small to be
useful for most organizations, while class B networks were too large to be densely
populated by any but the largest organizations.
The network number allocation policies of the InterNIC were changed in 1990, to avert the
class B address exhaustion. If you apply for a network number, you are likely to be
assigned a set of than a single class B address. Which of these you receive will depend on
the number of hosts that will exist on your network(s).
Where an organization has a range of class C network numbers, the range provided is
assigned as a bit-wise contiguous range of network numbers, and the number of networks
in the range is a power of 2. All IP addresses in the range have a common prefix, and
every address with that prefix is within the range. For example, an organization requiring
about 1000 IP addresses would be assigned four class C network numbers. A range of
addresses satisfying these rules would be 195.34.136 through 195.34.139, in which case
the range would consist of all the IP addresses with the 22-bit prefix 195.34.136. This is
represented by the notation 195.34.136/22 (with the trailing zeros removed). ``Subnetting
with CIDR'' illustrates this scheme.

Subnetting with CIDR

However, the problem with this situation is that each network has to be routed separately
as standard IP routing only understands class A, B and C network addresses. The result of
using a range of class C addresses is a routing table explosion problem: a class B network
of 3000 hosts requires one routing table entry, whereas the same network if it was
addressed as a range of class C networks would require 16 entries.
To overcome the routing table explosion problem, a scheme known as Classless
Interdomain Routing (CIDR or ``supernetting'') is used to implement address assignment.
CIDR does not route according to the class of the network number, but instead routes
according to the high order bits of the IP address (the ``IP prefix''). The process of
combining multiple networks into a single entry is called supernetting because routing is
based on network masks that are shorter than the natural network mask of an IP address.
The details of CIDR may be found in RFC 1518 and RFC 1519. As the main purpose of
CIDR is to reduce the size of the routing tables for the Internet, these documents will not
usually be of interest to you unless you are a service provider or you maintain Internet
routing tables on your system.
Variable length subnetting
There are two types of subnetting: static length and variable length. Static subnetting, in
which all the subnets in the subnetted network use the same subnet mask, has already been
described in “Subnetting and Classless Interdomain Routing”. Native IP and RIP version 1
routing only support static subnetting. Variable length subnetting allows the subnets that
make up the network to use different subnet masks. A small subnet with only a few hosts
needs a subnet mask that accommodates only these hosts. A subnet with many hosts may
need a different subnet mask to accommodate the hosts. Variable length subnetting allows
you to divide the network so that it is possible to define adequate hosts for each subnet by
changing the subnet mask for each network. RIP version 2 supports variable length
subnetting as well as static subnetting. RIP version 1 only supports standard class lengths.
For example, a company with the address 195.34.136.0 needs to split the address range
into five separate networks, as shown in “Variable length subnetting”. There need to be
254 hosts on 3 of the subnets and 126 hosts on 2 of the subnets. This cannot be achieved
using static subnetting as it can only divide the network into four subnets with 254 hosts
each or eight subnets with 126 hosts each. To divide the address into five subnets, you
should use multiple netmasks. The first four subnets use the mask 255.255.255.0 and have
254 hosts each. The first subnet can then be divided into two subnets with 126 hosts each
and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.128. There would be three subnets with 254 hosts each
and two subnets with 126 hosts each.

Creating subnet entries

Once you have defined a top-level address entry, you can add subnets to it, or you can
further divide a subnet into other subnets (known as variable length subnetting). See
“Variable length subnetting” for more details.
To add a subnet:
1. Select the top-level address or subnet.
2. Select Edit Add Subnets.
3. Choose a subnet mask length (in bits) from those listed in the Length column.
4. Select subnet ranges from those listed in the Subnet column.
The Subnet column displays the mask length of the subnet and also displays the
number of hosts and host ranges.
For a particular subnet mask length, you can select all the subnet ranges in the list
by clicking on Select All.
5. Click on Yes to automatically assign hosts to subnets.
You can also add hosts after you have assigned all the subnets.
See “Creating host entries”.

OUTCOMES:
Students will be able to understand how to divide a big network into smaller networks. When a
network is designed then a network has multiple devices and some of these devices need an IP
address for example Router, then what IP should be assigned to router is totally dependent on the
sub network. With this student will be able to divide a network into smaller networks.

APPLICATION:
It can be used in CIDR techniques.

OUTPUT:
Explored the knowledge of computer networks by designing different class
networks with different IP ranges.

RESULT:
Subnet planning and its implementation
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

OBJECTIVE:
Practical implementation of basic network command and Network configuration
commands like ping, ipconfig, netstat, tracert etc. for troubleshooting network related
problems.

DESCRIPTION:
All commands related to Network configuration which includes how to switch to privilege
mode and normal mode and how to configure router interface and how to save this
configuration to flash memory or permanent memory.
This commands includes
• Configuring the Router commands
• General Commands to configure network
• Privileged Mode commands of a router
• Router Processes & Statistics
• IP Commands
• Other IP Commands e.g. show ip route etc.
ping: ping(8) sends an ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packet to the specified host. If the host
responds, you get an ICMP packet back. Sounds strange? Well, you can “ping” an IP
address to see if a machine is alive. If there is no response, you know something is wrong.
Ipconfig: Displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings. Used
without parameters, ipconfig displays Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and IPv6
addresses, subnet mask, and default gateway for all adapters.
Netstat: The netstat command generates displays that show network status and protocol
statistics . You can display the status of TCP and UDP endpoints in table format, routing
table information, and interface information.
netstat displays various types of network data depending on the command line option
selected. These displays are the most useful for system administration. The syntax for this
form is:
netstat [-m] [-n] [-s] [-i | -r] [-f address_family]
The most frequently used options for determining network status are: s, r, and i. See the
netstat(1M) man page for a description of the options.

Traceroute: Tracert is a command which can show you the path a packet of information
takes from and is discarded. In addition to this, it will tell you how long each 'hop' from
router to router takes.
nslookup: Displays information from Domain Name System (DNS) name servers. NOTE
If you write the command as above it shows as default your pc's server name firstly.
pathping: A better version of tracert that gives you statistics about packet loss and latency.
In this activity, you will use the Cisco IOS CLI to apply an initial configuration to a router,
including host name, passwords, a message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner, and other basic
settings
OUTCOME:
Student will be able to understand how to configure commands like ping, ipconfig, netstat,
tracert

APPLICATION: It can be used in configuration of user commands.

OUTPUT:
Explored various commands and also how to switch to privilege mode and normal mode
and how to configure router interface and how to save this configuration to flash memory
or permanent memory.

RESULT: Troubleshooting network related problem

 EXPERIMENT NO. 12

OBJECTIVE:
Configuration of networks using static and default routes

APPARATUS:
Routers, system

DESCRIPTION:

Step 1: Test connectivity between the PCs and the default gateway.
To determine if there is connectivity from each PC to its configured gateway, first use a simple
ping test.
a. Click BOpc and go to Desktop > Command Prompt.
b. From the command prompt, type the ipconfig command. Note the IP address for BOpc
and the default gateway address. The default gateway address is the IP address for the
Fast Ethernet interface on Branch
c. Ping 192.168.1.1, the default gateway address for the BranchOffice LAN, from the
command prompt on BOpc. This ping should be successful.
d. Click PNpc and go to Desktop > Command Prompt
e. From the command prompt, type the ipconfig command. Note the IP address for PNpc
and the default gateway address. The default gateway address is the IP address for the
Fast Ethernet interface on Partne
f. Ping 192.168.3.1, the default gateway address for the PartnerNet LAN, from the
command prompt on Thiping should be successful
g. Repeat steps a, b, and c for MOpc and its respective default gateway, the Fast Ethernet
interface on MainOffice. Each of these ping tests should be successful.

Step 2: Ping between routers to test connectivity.

Use a console cable and terminal emulation software on BOpc to connect to
BranchOffice.
a. Test connectivity with MainOffice by pinging 10.10.10.1, the IP address of the directly
connected serial 3/0 interface. This ping should succeed.
b. Test connectivity with MainOffice by pinging 10.10.10.5, the IP address of the serial
2/0 interface. This ping should fail.
c. Issue the show ip route command from the terminal window of BOpc. Note that only
directly connected routes are shown in the BranchOffice routing table. The ping to
10.10.10.5 failed because the BranchOffice router has no routing table entry for
10.10.10.5.
d. Repeat steps a through d on the other two PCs. The pings to directly connected
networks will succeed. However, pings to remote networks will fail.
e. What steps must be taken to reach all the networks from any PC in the activity?

Step 3: Viewing the routing tables.

You can view routing tables in Packet Tracer using the Inspect tool. The Inspect tool is in
the Common Tools bar to the right of the topology. The Inspect tool is the icon that
appears as a magnifying glass.
a. In the Common Tools bar, click on the Inspect tool.
b. Click the MainOffice router and choose the Routing Table.
c. Click the BranchOffice router and choose the Routing Table.
d. Click the PartnerNet router and choose the Routing Table.
e. Move the routing table windows around so that you can see all three at once.
f. What networks do each of the routers already know about?
g. Does each router know how to route to all networks in the topology? After comparing
the routing tables, close the window for each routing table by clicking the x in the upper
right corner of each window.

Step 4: Configure default routes on the BranchOffice and PartnerNet routers.

To configure static routes for each router, first determine which routes need to be added
for each device. For the BranchOffice and the PartnerNet routers, a single default route
allows these devices to route traffic for all networks not directly connected. To configure
a default route, you must identify the IP address of the next hop router, which in this case
is the MainOffice router.
a. From the Common toolbar, click the Select tool.
b. Move the cursor over the red serial link between the BranchOffice router and the
MainOffice router. Notice that the interface of the next hop is S3/0.
c. Move the cursor over the MainOffice router and note that the IP address for Serial 3/0
is 10.10.10.1.
d. Move the cursor over the red serial link between the PartnerNet router and the
MainOffice router. Notice that the interface of the next hop is S2/0.
e. Move the cursor over the MainOffice router and note that the IP address for Serial 2/0
is 10.10.10.5.
f. Configure the static routes on both the BranchOffice and PartnerNet routers using the
CLI. Click the BranchOffice router, and click the CLI tab.
g. At the BranchOffice> prompt, type enable to enter privileged EXEC mode.
h. At the BranchOffice# prompt, type configure terminal.
i. The syntax for a default route is ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 next_hop_ip_address.
Type ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 10.10.10.1.
j. Type end to get back to the BranchOffice# prompt.
 k. Type copy run starts to save the configuration change.
l. Repeat steps f through k on the PartnerNet router, using 10.10.10.5 as the next hop IP
address.

Step 5: Configure static routes at the Main Office.

The configuration of static routes at the Main Office is a bit more complex because the
MainOffice router is responsible for routing traffic to and from the Branch Office and
PartnerNet LAN segments. The MainOffice router knows only about routes to the
10.10.10.0/30, 10.10.10.4/30, and 192.168.2.0/24 networks because they are directly
connected. Static routes to the 192.168.1.0/24 and 192.168.3.0/24 networks need to be
added so that the MainOffice router can route traffic between the networks behind the
BranchOffice and PartnerNet routers.
a. Click the MainOffice router, and then click the CLI tab.
b. At the MainOffice> prompt, type enable to enter privileged EXEC mode.
c. At the MainOffice# prompt, type configure terminal.
d. The syntax for a static route is ip route network subnet_mask next_hop_ip_address: ip
route 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 10.10.10.2 ip route 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0
10.10.10.6
e. Type end to return to the MainOffice# prompt.
f. Type copy run starts to save the configuration change.
g. Repeat steps through e from Step 3. View the routing tables and notice the difference
in the routing tables. The routing table for each router should have an “S” for each static
route.

Step 6: Test connectivity.

Now that each router in the topology has static routes configured, all hosts should have
connectivity to all other hosts. Use ping to verify connectivity.
a. Click BOpc and click the Desktop tab.
b. Choose the Command prompt option.
c. Type ping 192.168.3.2. The ping should be successful, verifying that the static routes
are configured properly.
d. Type ping 192.168.2.2. Notice that the result is successful even though you did not
specifically add the 192.168.2.0 network as a static route into any of the routers. Because
a default route was used on the BranchOffice and PartnerNet routers, a route for the
192.168.2.0 network was not needed. The default route sends all traffic destined off the
network to the MainOffice router. The 192.168.2.0 network is directly
connected to the MainOffice router; therefore, no additional routes needed to be added to
the routing table
e. Click the Check Results button at the bottom of this instruction window to check your
work

OUTCOME:
Student will be able to configure of networks using static and default routes

APPLICATION:
● It can be used in configuration of routers.
● connectivity between the PCs and the default gateway
OUTPUT:
Explored various configure of networks using static and default routes

RESULT:
Tested connectivity between network