MISN-0-106

DERIVATION OF ORBITS IN INVERSE SQUARE LAW FORCE FIELDS

DERIVATION OF ORBITS IN INVERSE SQUARE LAW FORCE FIELDS by Peter Signell 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. Derivation of Orbit Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3. Equation of the Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4. Elliptical Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Force Center (also the coordinate center)

Project PHYSNET Physics Bldg. Michigan State University East Lansing, MI

ID Sheet: MISN-0-106 THIS IS A DEVELOPMENTAL-STAGE PUBLICATION OF PROJECT PHYSNET The goal of our project is to assist a network of educators and scientists in transferring physics from one person to another. We support manuscript processing and distribution, along with communication and information systems. We also work with employers to identify basic scientic skills as well as physics topics that are needed in science and technology. A number of our publications are aimed at assisting users in acquiring such skills. Our publications are designed: (i) to be updated quickly in response to eld tests and new scientic developments; (ii) to be used in both classroom and professional settings; (iii) to show the prerequisite dependencies existing among the various chunks of physics knowledge and skill, as a guide both to mental organization and to use of the materials; and (iv) to be adapted quickly to specic user needs ranging from single-skill instruction to complete custom textbooks. New authors, reviewers and eld testers are welcome. PROJECT STAFF Andrew Schnepp Eugene Kales Peter Signell Webmaster Graphics Project Director

Title: Derivation of Orbits in Inverse Square Law Force Fields Author: P. Signell, Michigan State University Version: 2/1/2000 Length: 1 hr; 12 pages Input Skills: 1. State the law of Conservation of Energy for a body acted on by a conservative force (MISN-0-21). 2. State the law of Conservation of Angular Momentum for planar motion (MISN-0-41). 3. Derive the gravitational potential energy function starting from the Universal Law of Gravitation (MISN-0-107). Output Skills (Knowledge): K1. Derive Keplers rst law, starting from Conservation of Angular Momentum, Conservation of Energy, and the potential energy function corresponding to the Universal Law of Gravitation. Post-Options: 1. Orbits in an Inverse Square Law Force Field: A Computer Project (MISN-0-105). Evaluation: Stage 0

ADVISORY COMMITTEE D. Alan Bromley E. Leonard Jossem A. A. Strassenburg Yale University The Ohio State University S. U. N. Y., Stony Brook

Views expressed in a module are those of the module author(s) and are not necessarily those of other project participants. c 2001, Peter Signell for Project PHYSNET, Physics-Astronomy Bldg., Mich. State Univ., E. Lansing, MI 48824; (517) 355-3784. For our liberal use policies see: http://www.physnet.org/home/modules/license.html.

MISN-0-106

MISN-0-106

DERIVATION OF ORBITS IN INVERSE SQUARE LAW FORCE FIELDS by Peter Signell 1. Introduction
The derivation of the elliptical orbits of the planets constitutes one of the greatest triumphs of Newtonian Mechanics. Perhaps you can imagine Newtons excitement when he completed his derivation and realized that for the rst time in history the motions of the other planets and the earth would now be understood. In this unit the shape of orbits produced by the Law of Universal Gravitation is rigorously derived. Figure 2. A fragment of a page from Pierces Integrals (see text). where we have added radial and angular kinetic energies to the gravitational potential energy.1 We write the moment of inertia as I = mr 2 and collect the numerator factors of the gravitational potential energy into a single symbol: m mE . Solving for radial velocity, dr = dt yielding: dt = 2E L2 2 2 2+ , m m r mr dr (L2 /m2 r2 ) L dr mr2 (2E/m) (L2 /m2 r2 ) + (2/mr) + (2/mr) .

2. Derivation of Orbit Integral

(2E/m) Substituting this into Eq. (1), we have: d =

L dt. mr2

(1)

We can integrate, with one integration constant, to nd the connection between r and at various points on the orbit: 0 = L dr mr2 (2E/m) (L2 /m2 r2 ) + (2/mr) . (2)

y r q

Position of object

3. Equation of the Orbit

x Origin

0 =

L m

dr r (2E/m)(r 2 ) (L2 /m2 ) + (2/m)(r)

Derivation of the Constants of the Motion for Central Forces (MISN-0-58).

MISN-0-106

MISN-0-106 and it is obvious that we want 0 = /2. Then: r() = or: , 1 sin( + /2) . 1 cos

and look up this form in a table of integrals. For example, Fig. 2 contains a fragment of a page from Pierce.2 Another way of solving the integral, not recommended as a general practice unless you have plenty of time available, is to put the integrand into a trivially-integrable form. In the present case, this can be eected by dening: L m
2

and

1 + (2E/).

r() = This is the equation of the orbit.

(3)

Then one can easily show that Eq. (2) is algebraically equivalent to: 0 = r2 dr 1 1 r
2

4. Elliptical Orbits
To show that Eq. (3) corresponds to an ellipse requires that we show it can be put into the form: x xc a
2

Let x (1/ ) (/ r) so dx = (/ r 2 ) dr and the integral becomes: 0 = Finally, let x = sin y so: dx = cos y dy = and: dy = (dx)/ Then the nal form of the integral is: 0 = or: 1 x2 . 1 r , dx . 1 x2 1 x2 dy,

y yc b

= 1,

where xc and yc are the coordinates of the center of the ellipse, and a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes. These quantities are illustrated in Fig. 3. It is obvious that, in our case, yc = 0. The semi-major axis is easily calculated: r(0) + r() . (4) = a= 2 1 2 The semi-minor axis is the value of (y = r sin ) at the orbit point where (x = r cos ) is at the center of the ellipse. This is: xc = a r() = r(0) r() = 2 1
2

dy = y = sin1 x = sin1 1

. r In order to set 0 at a convenient value, we rst solve for r: sin ( 0 ) = r() = . 1 sin ( 0 )

y Force Center (also the coordinate center) r(p) (x c,0) b x

We will require that = 0 gives the largest value of radius, an arbitrary but aesthetically pleasing requirement. Then: r(0) = , 1 + sin 0

r (0)

2 B. O. Peirce, A Short Table of Integrals, Ginn and Company, Boston (1929), form #183.

Figure 3. An elliptical orbit about a force center.

MISN-0-106 Now xc is also given by: xc = rc cos c = cos c , 1 cos c ,

MISN-0-106

Acknowledgments
Preparation of this module was supported in part by the National Science Foundation, Division of Science Education Development and Research, through Grant #SED 74-20088 to Michigan State University.

so equating the two forms for xc we get:

and it is obvious by inspection that:

cos c = 1 cos c 1 cos c = .

Then the semi-minor axis is: b = rc sin c = 1 cos c x xc a where x = r cos = and: cos , 1 cos y = r sin = sin , 1 cos
2

1 cos2 c =

Thus to prove that r() forms an ellipse, we must show that: + y b

(5)

= 1,

; a= ; b= . 2 2 1 1 1 2 This demonstration of algebraic manipulation is left to the reader to complete.3 We should also note the alternative forms, xc = a= 1
2

= , 2E 2|E|

and

L = . 1 2 2m|E| Note that E is negative because the mass m is bound to the force center: it can not escape unless it achieves positive total energy.4 Also since E is negative, the eccentricity (= cos c ) is between 0 and 1: b= 1 + (2E)/ = 1 (2|E|)/ 1.

3 An elegant alternative derivation is given in Classical Mechanics, V. Barger and M. Olsson, McGraw-Hill, New York (1973), p. 124-126. 4 See Gravitational Potential Energy (MISN-0-107).

10

MISN-0-106

ME-1

MODEL EXAM
1. Derive Keplers rst law, starting from Conservation of Angular Momentum, Conservation of Energy, and the potential energy function corresponding to the Law of Universal Gravitation. Use: L2 /(m), 1 + (2E/), x (1/ ) (/ r). From B. O. Peirces A Short Table of Integrals, Ginn and Company (1929), with X = a + bx + cx2 and q = 4ac b2 : 1 b dx = log X +x c+ c 2 c X dx 1 = sinh1 c X 1 dx = sin1 c X dx 1 = sin1 a x X 1 dx = sinh1 a x X 2cx + b q 2cx + b q bx + 2a x q 2a + bx x q . .

dx 2 X = , if a = 0. bx x X b X dx = 2 X ax 2a x dx . x X

11

12