Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person ● Certainly this is one function of philosophy.

MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY In fact, nearly all philosophers have used

● The word philosophy is derived from the Greek words methods of analysis and have sought to
philia (love) and sophia (wisdom) and means “the clarify the meaning of terms and the use of
love of wisdom.” language. Some philosophers see this as the
● Pythagoras was said to have been the first man to main task of philosophy, and a few claim this
call himself a philosopher; in fact, the world is is the only legitimate function of philosophy.
indebted to him for the word philosopher. 5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that
● It is said that when Leon, the tyrant of Philius, asked interest people and for which philosophers
him of who he was, he said, “a Philosopher” and he always have sought answers.
likened the Philosopher to spectators at ancient ● Philosophy presses its inquiry into the
games. deepest problems of human existence.
● Before that time the wise men had called themselves Some of the philosophical questions raised
a sage, which was interpreted to mean those who in the past have been answered in a manner
know. Pythagoras was more modest. He coined the satisfactory to the majority of philosophers.
word philosopher, which he defined as one who is Many questions, however, have been
attempting to find out. According to him, men and answered only tentatively, and many
women of the world could be classified into 3 groups: problems remain unsolved. “What is ‘truth’?”
1. those that love pleasure 2. those that love “What is the distinction between right and
activity and 3. those that love wisdom. (Pleasure, wrong?” What is life and why am I here?
Activity, and Wisdom) Why is there anything at all?
● Philosophy is the study of general and
fundamental problems, such as those connected IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY
with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and 1. The study of Philosophy enables us to think carefully
language. and clearly about important issues.
● Philosophy is the rational attempt to formulate, 2. In studying Philosophy, we learn to take a step back
understand, and answer fundamental questions. from our everyday thinking and to explore the deeper,
NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY bigger question which underpins our thought.
1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life 3. The focus in the study of Philosophy is to learn not
and the universe, which are often held uncritically. what to believe, but how to think.
● We refer to this meaning as the informal 4. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities,
sense of philosophy or “having” a enabling you to identify and evaluate the strengths
philosophy. Usually when a person says “my and weaknesses in any position.
philosophy is,” he or she is referring to an 5. It hones your ability to construct and articulate cogent
informal personal attitude to whatever arguments of your own.
topic is being discussed. 6. It prompts you to work across disciplinary boundaries
2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and and to think flexibly and creatively about problems
criticizing our most deeply held conceptions and which do not present immediate solutions.
beliefs. 7. Because philosophy is an activity as much a body of
● These two senses of philosophy— “having” knowledge, it also develops your ability to think and
and “doing”— cannot be treated entirely work independently.
independent of each other, for if we did not
have a philosophy in the formal, personal BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
sense, then we could not do a philosophy in Historically, philosophical concerns have been treated under
the critical, reflective sense. these broad categories:
● Having a philosophy, however, is not 1. Logic
sufficient for doing philosophy. A genuine 2. Metaphysics
philosophical attitude is searching and 3. Epistemology
critical; it is open-minded and tolerant— 4. Value theory
willing to look at all sides of an issue A. LOGIC
without prejudice. To philosophize is not ● Logic is the systematic study of the rules for the
merely to read and know philosophy; there correct use of these supporting reasons, rules we
are skills of argumentation to be mastered, can use to distinguish good arguments from bad
techniques of analysis to be employed, and ones. Most of the great philosophers from Aristotle to
a body of material to be appropriated such the present have been convinced that logic
that we become able to think philosophically. permeates all other branches of philosophy. The
Philosophers are reflective and critical. ability to test arguments for logical consistency,
3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the understand the logical consequences of certain
world as a whole. assumptions, and distinguish the kind of
● Philosophy seeks to combine the evidence a philosopher is using are essential for
conclusions of the various sciences and “doing” philosophy.
human experience into some kind of
consistent worldview. Philosophers wish to
see life, not with the specialized slant of the
scientist or the businessperson or the artist,
but with the overall view of someone
cognizant of life as a totality. B. METAPHYSICS
4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and ● Another traditional branch of Philosophy traditionally
the clarification of the meaning of words and known as metaphysics. For Aristotle, the term
concepts. metaphysics meant “first philosophy,” discussion of
the most universal principles; later the term came to
 mean “comprehensive thinking about the nature normative judgments— of the moral ought, the
of things.” It means, usually, the study or theory of subject matter of ethics.
reality. The question of metaphysics is: what is ● Third, there is the area of critical or metaethics.
reality? What is real? Is reality some kind of “thing”. Is Here interest is centered on the analysis and
it one or is it many? If it is one, then how is it related meaning of the terms and language used in ethical
to many things around us? Can ultimate reality be discourse and the kind of reasoning used to justify
grasped by five senses, or is it supernatural or ethical statements. Metaethics does not propound any
transcendent? moral principle or goal (except by implication), but
● Metaphysics undoubtedly is the branch of philosophy rather consists entirely of philosophical analysis. What
that the modern student finds most difficult to grasp. is the meaning of “good?” and Can ethical judgments
Metaphysics attempts to offer a comprehensive view be justified? are typical problems for metaethics.
of all that exists. It is concerned with such problems AESTHETICS
as the relation of mind to matter, the nature of ● Concerns the theory of art and beauty. Questions of
change, the meaning of “freedom,” the existence of art and beauty are considered to be part of the realm
God, and the belief in personal immortality. of values because many philosophical problems in
C. EPISTEMOLOGY aesthetics involve critical judgments.
● The technical term for the theory of knowledge is ● There are wide differences of opinion as to what
epistemology, which comes from the Greek word objects call forth the aesthetic response, and what
episteme, meaning “knowledge.” In general, beauty really is. Our concepts of beauty may differ not
epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies because of the nature of beauty itself, but because of
the sources, nature, and validity of knowledge. varying degrees of preparation in discerning beauty.
There are three central questions in this field: (1) Therefore, if we cannot perceive beauty in objects
What are the sources of knowledge? Where does that others find beautiful, it may be wise to withhold
genuine knowledge come from or how do we know? judgment until we are capable of making a competent
This is the question of origins. (2) What is the analysis of the aesthetic experience.
nature of knowledge? Is there a real world outside the SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY
mind, and if so can we know it? This is the question Social and political philosophy investigates value
of appearance versus reality. (3) Is our knowledge judgments concerning society, the state, and the
valid? How do we distinguish truth from error? This is individual’s relation to these institutions.
the question of the tests of truth, of verification. The following questions reflect the concerns of social and
● Traditionally, most of those who have offered answers political philosophy:
to these questions can be placed in one of two Why should individuals live in society?
schools of thought—rationalism or empiricism. ● What social ideals of liberty, rights, justice, equality
● The rationalists hold that human reason alone can and responsibility are desirable?
discover the basic principles of the universe. ● Why should anyone obey any government?
● The empiricists claim that all knowledge is ultimately ● Why should some individuals or groups have political
derived from sense experience and, thus, that our power over others?
knowledge is limited to what can be experienced. ● What criteria are to be used in determining who
● It should be clear that there is a necessary relation should have political power?
between metaphysics and epistemology. Our ● What criteria are to be used in determining the scope
conception of reality depends on our of political power, and what rights or freedoms should
understanding of what can be known. Conversely, be immune from political or legal control?
our theory of knowledge depends on our ● To what positive goals should political power be
understanding of ourselves in relation to the directed, and what are the criteria for determining
whole of reality. this?
D. VALUE THEORY
● Value theory is the branch of philosophy that studies
values. It can be subdivided into ethics, aesthetics,
and social and political philosophy.
● In broad terms ethics concerns itself with the question
of morality. What is right and what is wrong in human
relations? Within morality and ethics there are three
major areas: descriptive ethics, normative ethics,
and metaethics. Descriptive ethics seeks to identify
moral experience in a descriptive way. We seek to
identify, within the range of human conduct, the
motives, desires, and intentions as well as overt acts
themselves.
Module 1: The Meaning and Method of Doing Philosophy
Most notable ancient Greek philosophers are:
● Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE)- A mathematician
ETHICS and scientist, he was credited with formulating the
● Descriptive ethics consider the conduct of Pythagorean theorem.
individuals, or personal morality; the conduct of ● Heraclitus (535 BCe to 475 BCE)- He proposed that
groups, or social morality; and the culture patterns of everything that exists is based on a higher order or
national and racial groups. plan which he called logos.
● A second level of inquiry is normative ethics (what ● Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE)- He devoted
ought to be). Here philosophers try to work out himself to the study of the causes of natural
acceptable judgments regarding what ought to be in phenomena.
choice and value. “We ought to keep our promises” ● Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE)- He was
and “you ought to be honorable” are examples of a known advocate of living a simple and virtuous life.
 ● Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE)- He believed that thinking which greatly influences a person’s view of
philosophy could enable man to live a life of life, challenges, and relationships
happiness. ● In doing philosophy, a holistic perspective on the
● Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE)- He was considered subject is always required. Failure to do so or only
the foremost philosophers of ancient times. He was using a partial point of view may lead to illogical or
credited with formulating the Socratic method- means incorrect conclusions.
of examining a topic by devising a series of questions ------------------------------------------------------------
that let the learner examine and analyze his ● Plato traced man’s need to philosophize to his sense
knowledge and views regarding the topic. of wonder. Whenever we are confronted with an
● Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE)- A student of Socrates, experience, we always wonder how it came about.
he wrote down his mentor’s teaching and ● French philosopher Rene Descartes traced the need
incorporated some of his own ideas into them. Plato’s to philosophize to doubt. In life, we will be faced with
most significant ideas included his Theory of Forms, several ideas and arguments which present
which proposes that everything that exists is based on themselves as “truths”. A critical and questioning
an idea or template that can only be perceived in the perspective is necessary to determine if indeed these
mind. Plato is also known for his dialectic- a method ideas or views are correct or true.
of inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed in ● Swiss-German philosopher Karl Jaspers saw the
an attempt to arrive at new knowledge. Plato’s lasting need to philosophize because of experience. These
contribution to learning was his founding of the experiences limit situations, philosophy provides us a
Academy, an institution of higher learning. means to understand adverse or challenging
● Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE)- He attended the conditions, and to rise above them and gain new
Academy, and was the prominent student of Plato. knowledge and perspective.
For him, all ideas and views are based on perception ● The need to philosophize is driven by the love for
and our reality is based on what we can sense and wisdom. To love wisdom is to have an insatiable
perceive. His studies in logic led to the formulation of desire for truth.
a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gives ● Philosophy itself is a distinct area of knowledge with
rise to deductive reasoning-the process by which its own goals, concerns, and ways of doing things.
specific statements are analyzed to reach a
conclusion or generalization.

Lesson 1.1: The Difference Between Holistic Perspective

from a Partial Point of View
● The term "holistic thinking" refers to a big picture
mentality in which a person recognizes the
interconnectedness of various elements that form
larger systems, patterns and objects. Thinking
holistically is the opposite of analyzing something,
which involves breaking down a larger system into its
details.
● Holistic medicine is a prominent example of holistic
thinking. A medical professional who believes in
holistic care considers the relationship between the ● Aesthetics is the branch of Philosophy which deals
mind, body and spirit. For example, holistic doctors with beauty and what makes things “beautiful”.
don't just provide patients with medications. Instead, ● Logic is a branch of philosophy which deals with
they look at ways to improve life balance and correct reasoning.
eradicate health problems from their root source, such ● Epistemology discusses the nature of knowledge
as high stress or bad nutrition. and knowing.
● In philosophy, point of view describes the perception ● Ethics is the branch which deals with moral questions
of an event or phenomenon and how exactly it is and dilemmas.
viewed. Point of view often is shaped by an ● Political Philosophy studies governments and deals
individual's beliefs or experiences.Though partial with questions of justice, power and the rights and
thinking is useful, philosophy utilizes holistic thinking obligations of citizens.
in making sense of problems and issues related to the ● Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which deals
human experience. with questions regarding reality and existence.
● People tend to apply an analytical perspective when ● Philosophy of the Human Person-is an area in
looking at problems or situations. A holistic view gives philosophy that understands the human person from a
rise to a more appreciative perspective about life, as philosophical perspective.
we are able to look at life in its totality.
Lesson 1.2: The Value of Doing Philosophy in Obtaining a Lesson 1.3: Doing a Philosophical Reflection on a
Broad Perspective on Life Situation from Holistic Perspective
● Why do we philosophize? We all have the potential to ● Reflection is vital in ensuring that our actions and
philosophize since we have the decisions are well thought out and are done with due
tendency to wonder and doubt. regard for their implications and consequences on
● A philosopher is a good communicator who can ourselves, others, and our surroundings.
clearly and adequately present his or her ideas. ● When we reflect, we can judge whether our actions or
● Doing philosophy can be applied in day-to-day decisions are reasonable or not.
activities and life perspectives. Because it involves an ● Doing Philosophy enables a person to engage in
evaluative process, doing philosophy allows a person critical analysis and interpretation of concepts,
to make better decisions and act accordingly to definitions, arguments, and problems.
situations with the help of various philosophical skills. ● Doing Philosophy also improves problem-solving and
On life perspectives, philosophy enables reflective decision making. The ability to analyze a problem or
 dilemma, identify the significant aspects, and come up ● Therefore, truthful statements can be considered as
with alternative solutions is an important skill learned based on facts.
through philosophy. ● There are several views regarding truth. Philosophers
● In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have emphasize the importance of belief as a basis for
a holistic point of view-the perception of looking at all determining truth. But as a philosopher, we do not
aspects of a situation first before making a assume that every statement is true. Remember the
conclusion. famous French philosopher, Rene Descartes traced
● Wisdom as it refers to a person’s ability to apply the need to philosophize to doubt.
knowledge to daily life particularly in making sound ● In philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to help
choices and judgment is the intended product of determine the truth. This means that every statement,
philosophizing. claim, evidence, and experience is scrutinized and
● Finally, knowledge of Philosophy can contribute to analyzed.
self-development. ● Philosophers always engaged with the concept of
truth. Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality
or value. Knowledge is the clear awareness and
understanding of something, since it is true knowing
that we are able to determine what is true.
● Doubt has a very important purpose in philosophy as
it drives our desire to discover the truth. In philosophy,
systematic doubt is employed to help determine the
truth.
● A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through
the use of one’s senses. Another basis for
determining truth is a belief or statement is true if it is
based on facts.
● Getting consensus or having people agree on a
common belief is another way of determining what is
true. Although this approach has certain limitations.
Getting everyone to agree on something may not
make that belief true.
● Philosophers also believe that claims and belief
should also be subjected to a test to determine truth.
In determining truth requires also that a person can
prove a statement through an action
Distinguish Opinion from Truth
● Fact is something concrete that can be proven. You
can find facts in legal records, scientific findings,
encyclopedias, atlases, etc. In other words, facts are
the truth and are accepted as such
● Opinion is less concrete. It's a viewformed in the mind
of a person about a particular issue. In other words it
is what someone believes or thinks, and is not
necessarily the truth. Also, note in the examples
below how facts are the same for everybody, but
opinions can differ quite widely
❖ Opinions are statements that go beyond providing
facts.
❖ A conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts.
❖ Beliefs are statements that express convictions that
are not easily and clearly explained by facts.
❖ Explanations are statements that assume the claim to
be true and provide reasons why the statement is
Module 2: Method of Philosophizing
true.
● Truth in metaphysics and the philosophy of language
❖ Arguments are a series of statements that provide
is the property of sentences, assertions, beliefs,
reasons to convince the reader or listener that a claim
thoughts, or propositions that are said, in ordinary
or opinion is truthful.
discourse, to agree with the facts or to state what the
❖ Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning.
case is. It is most often used to mean being in accord
❖ Bias is disproportionate weight in favor of or against
with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard.
an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-
Truth is also sometimes defined in modern contexts
minded, prejudicial, or unfair
as an idea of "truth to self", or authenticity.
● The facts that form the bases of a conclusion may not
● Propositions is a statement about the world or reality.
be disputed but the conclusion itself could still be
Propositions may or may not carry truth.
contested or questioned. To judge the truthfulness of
● Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding
belief, we must also consider things such as a
of something. It is the product of questions that allow
person's experiences and views.
for clear answers provided by facts.
● Facts are statements that are observed to be real or
● Facts are propositions or statements which are
truthful. Claims are statements that require further
observed to be real or truthful.
examination to determine their truthfulness. Some
● Claim is a statement that is not evidently or
arguments may contain fallacies. We must be aware
immediately known to be true. This means that any
of the various kinds of fallacies as these affect the
claim can be proven by verification and
validity of arguments. Opinions are often influenced
experimentation.
 by bias. We must be aware of bias so that we can ● A critical mind aided by philosophy can help us from
objectively and critically examine points of view our own personal point of view that can guide us in
making decisions and actions when we are faced with
a problem.
● Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are
truthful and acceptable, which we can use to form our
● Opinion is something intermediary between own views regarding certain matters
knowledge and ignorance. While Public opinion is the For Maboloc and Pascua (2008) critical thinking is a lifelong
intermediate faculty which seizes the things that float process of self- assessment that further consists of:
between the two extremes (Plato) 1. Defining, analyzing and devising solutions,
● Opinion applies to what, being true or false, may be 2. Arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions
other than it is: in fact, opinion is the apprehension of 3. Applying understanding and knowledge to new and
an immediate and unnecessary premise (Aristotle) different problems.
● Opinion, founded in the probable, perhaps also the 4. Willingness to say “I don’t know.”
name of knowledge (Leibniz) The attributes of a critical thinker include;
● Opinion is a belief that is conscious of being 1. Looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs
insufficient both subjectively and objectively (Kant) 2. Adjusts opinion
● An opinion gives for truth something that has been 3. Looks for proof
said, although sometimes they are absurd words, 4. Examines the problem
which mean nothing, impossible to understand 5. Rejects irrelevant and innocent
(Hobbes)
● Public opinion is the convergence of the opinions of Evaluate Truth from Opinion In Different Situations Using
the greatest number of people in a community, so that the Methods of Philosophy
they form a common and dominant feeling, exerting ● A method of philosophizing is a process of
diffuse pressure (Freund) determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a
statement using various philosophical methods, such
as: Socratic, dialectic, scientific, and historical
● Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a
basis for determining truth. It is said that there are
instances when we have to unlearn something so that
we may learn anew. Philosophers questioned what
they knew and even analyzed their methods of
knowing inorder to understand themselves and the
world much better.
● Both the Socratic and dialectic method are based on
a discussion between two or more people who may
carry differing views but wish to pursue the truth by
seeking an agreement with one another. Meanwhile,
the scientific method is a process of determining truth
or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and
deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.
● The scientific method, also called empirical method, is
a process of determining truth or knowledge through
experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning,
and hypothesis or theory testing
● Logic is the truth based on reasoning and critical
thinking. It includes analysis and construction of
arguments. It serves as a path to freedom from half-
truths and deception.

1. Deductive Reasoning
Methods of Philosophy Lead to Wisdom and Truth ● In this type of reasoning, conclusion comes first,
● An understanding of opinions and facts and the followed by main points, and the last will be the
means to distinguish one from the other can further supporting data, facts, examples, and evidence.
improve our understanding and appreciation of varied General idea comes first before the specific or
views and ideas. particular idea.
● The ability to determine truth goes hand in hand with 2. Inductive Reasoning
the holistic perspective and enables us to make wiser ● In this type of reasoning, supporting data, facts,
decisions, especially in choosing ideas and views examples, and evidence come first followed by the
which we find acceptable.
 main points and conclusion will be the last part. This
is the vice versa of the deductive reasoning because
particular idea comes first before the general

● Self-awareness refers to the person having a clear

perception of oneself, including his thoughts,
emotions, identity and actions.
Let’s examine
Little Jose is playing in the living room while his mom is in the
kitchen. He accidentally bumps into a table, causing a vase to
fall. Upon hearing, his mom went to the living room and saw
him, standing near the broken vase. She asked, “Did you
break the vase?” What do you think Jose‘s answer will be?
● Self-determination refers to the capability of persons
to make choices and decisions based on their own
preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and
be goal-oriental and self-directed.
● Consequence is the result or effect of an action or
condition. Philosophers believe that a person acts
freely and with due regard for the consequences of
his actions.
● Externality refers to the capability of a person to
reach out and interact with others and the world.
● Dignity refers to the innate right to be valued and
respected. Philosophers consider all humans as
having an inherent worth or value. “You’re worthless!”
is an insult since it attacks the very notion of a person
having value or worth.
Limitations of the Human Person
● Human persons are naturally deficient beings. This
means that we are not prepared with the best physical
aspects among all the beings
● Human persons do not have the natural ability to fly.
● Human persons cannot breathe underwater without
the aid of breathing devices.

LIMITATIONS CAN LEAD TO POSSIBILITIES

Module 3: The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit ● Transcendence is the ability to change, be dynamic,
The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit and continually redefine oneself which works with our
HUMAN COMPOSITION OF MAN facticity to create change.
MAN (from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) The How do limitations lead to transcendence?
English term “man” is derived from a Proto-Indo European root ● Facticity refers to the things in our life that are
*man - (see Sanskrit/Avestan Manu-, Slavic mǫž "man, male"). already given. EXAMPLE: LIFE We are free to define
It is the general term commonly used to refer to the entire who we are and who we are to be.
human race. Other related terms, humanity, mankind, and Spatial-temporal being. As temporal beings, our most
humankind. obvious limitation is our finitude - our finite quality or state. For
HUMAN refers to man as species – HOMO SAPIENS example, Walang forever, pero meron talaga.
or MODERN HUMAN BEINGS. The term human being is also ● As spatial beings, we are limited by our bodies to be
used to differentiate man from other animals. present in two or more places at the same time. We
PERSON is the personality of a human being so are limited by space (spatial) and time (temporal). Our
called “SELF”. Refers to a human being granted recognition of spatial-temporal situation sets our preconditions of
certain rights, protection, responsibilities and dignity above all. understanding.
Philosopher refers to the human person as the totality of an The Body as Intermediary
individual, possessing awareness, self-determination and ● Intermediary means acting as a mediator (Merriam-
capacity to interact with others and with himself/herself. Webster). Having a body may prevent us from
Personhood refers to the state of being a person. revealing what we really want to express.
HUMAN NATURE defines the nature of humans, ● How do we communicate with each other? WORDS
especially the fundamental characters and traits of humans. It ● Transcendence or a state of “existence above and
refers to the characteristics that distinguish humans from all beyond the limits of material experience.”
other creatures. These traits are expected to arise independent ● Transcendence originated from the words Trans,
of the influence of culture and society. EXAMPLES: meaning “go beyond”, and scandare, meaning
THINKING, FEELING AND ACTING. “climb”.
● Fulfilling a dream requires transcendence because it
What is the human person? opens a state of thinking and feeling that there is
something more in life than just physical and material
things. Much like Abraham Maslow’s self-actualization
 concepts, transcendence is a state of being ● While transcendence may not occur for everyone, all
intrinsically satisfied with life regardless of physical people have the capacity to
and tangible factors ● experience it regardless of any sociodemographic,
● LIMITATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES FOR biological, or personal factors.
TRANSCENDENCE The Human Person in their Environment
Here are some limitations and possibilities for transcendence: ● What signs of disorder in the environment do you
- may not occur to everyone see?
- does not come at a specified period ● What is the world made of?
- varies across all people ● How did the world come into being?
- may coincide with physical limitations of the body ● How can we explain the process of change?
- developing a positive outlook in life ● How did the song regard the environment?
- working towards reaching a goal ● How did the song see the human person in the
- learning from experience environment?
● POSSIBILITIES FOR TRANSCENDENCE ● What is the tone of the song?
It is also important to know that transcendence may ● Which lyrics serve as most meaningful? Why?
be applied to present worries by living in the present. This Environmental philosophy is the discipline that studies the
means that life is lived from moment to moment in a carefree moral relationships of human beings with the environment and
and cheerful manner where concerns for stress are reserved its non-human contents. Philosophers believe that the human
for the future, and regrets or guilt feelings are kept in the past. person has the ability to change the environment to suit his
● THE HUMAN BODY IN IMPOSING LIMITS AND purposes. It will enable them to become aware of their
POSSIBILITIES relationship and its related issues in our society and their
From a biological and physical standpoint, it can be impact on the lives of human persons.
recognized that the human body, although it can perform many ● “What is the world made of?” “How did the world
functions, also has limitations. Limits in the environment, come into being?” and “How can we explain the
demographics, and society may also hinder a person from process of change?” were philosophical questions
reaching transcendence. already brought up approximately 600 B.C.E. (before
Here are some examples: the common era) in the Western lonian seaport town
BODILY LIMITATIONS of Miletus across the Aegean Sea from Athens,
- mental and emotional disorders (e.g. anxiety, intellectual Greece.
disability) ● The speculation of the pre-Socratic philosophers
- disabilities (e.g. amputated leg, deafness) represents a paradigm shift- a change from mythical
- disease and illnesses (e.g. hypertension, cough) explanation of the origins of the cosmos to a more
- failures and experiences (e.g. failing a subject) rational explanation.
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL LIMITATIONS
- socioeconomic status
- location of neighborhood (e.g. armed, disorganized, or violent
neighborhood)
- abusive relationships (e.g. emotional abuse)
negative influences (e.g. drug use) ● Eastern sages probed nature’s depths intuitively
through the eyes of spiritual sages which Greek
● OVERCOMING LIMITATIONS thinkers viewed nature through cognitive and scientific
Bodily limits can be tested by trying on new eyes (Price 2000). These thinkers were looking for
experiences and working on challenges with increasing levels the underlying laws of nature. They wanted to
of difficulty. The human body, if given enough exposure to any understand the processes of nature by studying
situation, can attain a goal with efficiency. nature itself, not by listening to the stories about the
Social and environmental limitations are more difficult gods.
to overcome than bodily limitations because they involve the According to Payne (2010) there are two frameworks
influence of other people and the external world. However, with where humans can be related.
a proper mindset, clearly defined goals, and motivation to rise 1. Anthropocentric Model. Based on the
above challenges, one may successfully overcome his or her anthropocentric model, humans are superior and
limitations. central to the universe, thus, it is human centered.
● RECOGNIZE AND EVALUATE OWN LIMITATIONS
AND POSSIBILITIES FOR TRANSCENDENCE
Even though you are still young, you are not
prevented from further understanding yourself. Transcendence
is even more possible when you begin to understand that you
can go beyond your limitations if you set your mind on your
goals.
SOME POINT TO REMEMBER WHEN GOING BEYOND
YOUR LIMITS
- you are connected to the external or eternal world
- challenges are learning opportunities
- your goal is more important than your fears
- think outside the box 2. Ecocentric Model.
- recognize that everyone has fears ● It is the ecological or relational integrity of the humans
TIPS that provides meaning of our morals and values and it
● The terms “transcendent” and transcendental” should is nature centered.
not be used interchangeably. ● Devoted to preserving the totality of Earth’s
● According to Immanuel Kant, “transcendent” is a biodiversity and the functioning of its life –supporting
term used to refer to God, while “transcendental” system
refers to all other matter.
Ecocentric Model
● Ecocentric model, the ecological or relational integrity
of the humans provides meaning of our morals and
values and it is nature centered.
● Devoted to preserving the totality of Earth’s
biodiversity and the functioning of its life supporting ● Prudence is defined as the ability to have good
system. judgment that allows avoidance of dangers and risks.
A. Ancient Thinkers Meanwhile, frugality is the act of using money or other
Anaximander, a pre-Socratic philosopher and resources wisely and practically.
scientist, said about the creation-Destruction.
According to him, the sketch of the genesis of the
world (cosmology), the evolution of the world begins
with the generation of opposites in certain regions of
Nature. Nature is indeterminate-boundless in the
sense that no boundaries between the warm and or
the moist and dry regions are originally present within.
● Arising from the discussions, Fromm (2013)
suggested a new society that should inspire the
development of a new human being that will nurture
prudence and fairness or frugality towards the
environment. These are some of the functions of
Fromm’s envisioned society:
1. The enthusiasm to offer up all forms of having, in
order to fully be.
2. Being fully present where one is.
3. Trying to lessen greed, hate and illusions as much as
one is adept.
4. Making the full growth of oneself and of one’s fellow
beings the utmost goal of living.
B. Modern Thinker 5. Not deceiving others, but also not being deceived by
● Herbert Marcuse talked about the power of humans others, one may be called acquitted, but not naïve.
over nature, while George Herbert Mead tackled our 6. Freedom that is not uncertainty but the possibility to
duties and responsibilities. be oneself, not as a bundle of greedy desires, but as
a carefully balanced structure that at any moment is
threatened with the alternatives of growth or decay,
life or death
7. Happiness in the manner of ever-growing aliveness,
whatever the extreme point is the destiny permits one
to reach, for living as full as one can be so agreeable
that the concern for what one might not attain has
8. little chance to develop.
9. Joy that comes from giving and sharing, not from
hoarding and manipulating.
10. Developing one’s capacity for love, together with
one’s capacity for critical, unsentimental thought.
11. Shedding one’s narcissism and accepting that
catastrophic boundaries inherent in human survival.

Module 1 Lesson 5: Freedom of the Human Person

(https://drive.google.com/file/d/1EDBU0CEH_fBUM1DpSn3lTNlmjF
TkEhsW/view?usp=share_link)
Freedom gives us the choice to undertake
one of these possible actions. It also enables us to
come up with new choices.
With us humans, our inherent freedom makes
us very dynamic creatures and our actions do not
necessarily follow a set pattern.
1. Physical Freedom
This is the first type of freedom that comes into mind
when talking about freedom. It refers to the absence
of any physical restraint and the freedom of mobility to
 act and go whatever, whenever and wherever he or
she pleases.
2. Psychological Freedom
It is also called the freedom of choice. The person is
free to perform actions that he or she considers right
and wise. A person is also free to act or not to act.
Psychological freedom is innate and cannot be
denied a person. No outside force or influence
can compel a person to take action against his or her
will.
3. Moral Freedom
This refers to using freedom in a manner that upholds
human dignity and goodness. Freedom is not an
object that a person may use in whatever way he
or she pleases. A person becomes freer when he or
she uses freedom well but becomes less free when
he or she uses it in a bad way. Humans have a
natural inclination for what is true and good and when
a person uses his or her freedom to do acts
that violate human dignity and goodness, he or
she dehumanizes himself or herself and
effectively negates human freedom.
● Voluntariness refers to the ability of a person to act
out of his or her own free will and self-
determination. This means that a person may decide
to act or not to act, and these decisions are made of
his or her own free will. Voluntariness also means that
a person may act even if he or she is not required or
called to act. Voluntary acts are free acts which can Module 2 Lesson 6: Intersubjectivity
be assigned a corresponding moral value. ● Our human nature not only enables us to recognize
● The second element of freedom, responsibility, the self that defines our individuality; it also enables
refers to the person being accountable for his or us to recognize that other human beings also possess
her actions and their consequences. a self.
● Taking responsibility can either mean a person will ● This notion of recognizing the self in the other is how
voluntarily take responsibility for his or her own philosophers define interpersonal relations.
actions or be held responsible by other people. Intersubjectivity
Whenever you know you committed a bad action, you - is a philosophical concept that explores the mutual
can either voluntarily confess to it or other people recognition of each other as persons.
will point it out and hold you responsible. - It cannot be denied that we interact with other beings
Responsibility can also have a positive or negative in the world, but some of these beings that we interact
meaning, and it goes hand in hand with voluntariness with are persons and must be recognized as such.
in determining the morality of an action. - also carries the meaning of unique relationship
● The realization of voluntariness and responsibility between distinct subjects.
in the exercise of our freedom give our actions - refers to the characteristics of the human person to
and experiences a whole new meaning. We can engage in a very intimate and personal relationship
now reflect on our actions to better understand them with others who are different from him or her but who
and guide us towards making the best possible are also like him or her.
decision. Another reality that we must face as we - This is possible because the person has an inner life
exercise our freedom is the fact that freedom is or interiority. Having an inner life allows the person to
experienced through the path of making choices. give himself or herself to others.
Although human freedom gives us the ability to think - also allows the individual to receive others in his or
of countless decisions and possible actions, we her life and relate with them.
only get to choose one of these possible actions - also allows a person to become closer to others in
or decisions. Having the ability to choose and to many ways. In everyday social interactions, persons
enact a course of action does not automatically could agree and cooperate with each other.
mean that we should act every time. It is also possible - There is also the experience of shared or “common”
that the choice not to take action may be an knowledge and shared emotions such as grief, joy,
acceptable and moral choice in a given situation. and love.
● When we make the choice to do a particular action, ● A deeper level of interaction between the self and the
we can never go back and redo our actions and make other, on the other hand, is the awareness of the
another choice. Real life is not a movie where we can self as being seen by others. Imagine, for instance,
stop and get a second take on the situation. that one of the people you are watching suddenly
Therefore, it is very important that when stops and looks straight at you. You are immediately
confronted with choices, we exercise caution and aware of this person’s action as another, which is the
prudence and reflect on our possible courses of stranger looking in your direction. This self-
action. consciousness is considered by philosophers as a
defining characteristic of the self-other relationship.
● This unique phenomenon of the human gaze is
considered a defining characteristic which sets apart
human interaction from the interaction of other
species.
 ● The awareness of the “self in the other” is an
important element in all other aspects of interpersonal
interactions. The way we act with other people is
often influenced by our ideas of how these people
see us.
● These actions are referred to as “seeming”, where
an individual presents himself or herself in a certain
way when dealing with others.
● Person's take on roles or app out characters when
dealing with certain people or when in certain
situations. This is considered as an unconscious,
natural app on the part of humans.

Lesson 2.2: Elements of Interpersonal Relationships Module 3 Society: What Drives Human Person To
● This deeper and more genuine interaction is called a Establish It
dialogue, and this is made possible when the self (https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/holy-trinity-college-of-
realizes that the other is a genuine and unique general-santos-city/purposive-communication/intro-philo-q2-
individual. mod3-society-what-drives-human-person-to-establish-it-version-
2/17904218)
● A dialogue is an interaction between two persons that
Culture indicates the flow of relationship between
happens through speech or the use of words,
society and human individuals. It is one of human nature to
expressions, and body language.
desire and to act according to some goal which is commonly
● Dialogue is not confined to words. Actions,
the goal of survival. When one person meets another person
gestures, and other expressions may be used to
with the same goal, then it can be considered that they desire
convey a person's inner life; it occurs when two
for the common good.
persons “open up” to each other and give and receive
Common good may include peace within the
one another in their encounter; when each individual
community, clean and safe environment, efficient public
enters into a dialogue with this mindset, then it is truly
service, etc. With these common goods, humans are required
a dialogue between equals.
to work together and to establish relationships with each
● The human person is considered as a “being with
other,which results in establishing forms of society.
others,” which means that his or her identity and
Family is the basic unit of society. Through this,
destiny are shaped by relating with others.
infants first relate with their parents or guardians as the source
● Human existence is a continual dialogue with the
of basic needs for survival. As they grow, they expand their
other, and that the self becomes whole through
connections and start relating and forming bonds with people
interaction with other people and his or her
outside their family. Friendships are established starting from
surroundings.
childhood up to adulthood. They also learn how to deal and to
Lesson 2.3: Empathy and Society
interact with other superiors aside from their
Empathy
parents/guardians.
- The ability to share emotions is an important aspect of
Different Forms of Society
intersubjectivity.
1. Hunting and gathering society: is the earliest and
- This emotion is driven by a person's awareness that
simplest form of society and is generally recognized
the other is a person with thoughts and feelings.
by its small size, since it consists mainly of families.
Human persons are actively aware of the emotional
They spend most of their time searching for food,
states of other people and they use this information to
thus, they are considered as nomadic; no permanent
determine their own actions and behavior.
territory. Its members are treated equally and
- enables us to experience another person's emotions
decisions are usually derived through consensus. As
such as happiness, anger, and sadness.
a result, the roles of its members and the distribution
- Another characteristic of a meaningful and genuine
of labor is not clearly defined.
human relationship is availability, or the willingness
2. Pastoral society: is characterized by the
of a person to be present and be at the disposal of
domestication of animals served as a source for food
another.
supply. Compared to hunting and gathering society,
- We must accept that people will have different views
this form of society has a larger population and
and beliefs. What unites us all is our shared
remains in one place. They also produce surplus food
humanity and dignity.
and resources which they trade with other societies
- Society must be founded on relationships and bonds
forming meaningful bonds. This relative prosperity
established through mutual respect and recognition of
enables the people to engage in other activities apart
human dignity.
from those necessary for survival, such as handicrafts
 which eventually leads to the emergence of ● Social institutions – certain groups that perform vital
specialized tasks in the community. functions in society which include the family, school,
3. Horticultural society: engages in the small-scale government, and religion
cultivation of plants, fruits, and vegetables and the ● Social values – actions or ideals that are considered
domestication of animals. Semi-nomadic, which vital in maintaining an orderly society (e.g.
means that they travel to another place when there is cooperation, obedience to the law, concern for others,
shortage of the resources in one area. respect for diversity, etc.)
4. Agrarian/agricultural society: involves in a large-
scale and long-term cultivation of crops and THE HUMAN PERSON AND SOCIETY REVIEW
domestication of animals. Characterized by improved ● The relationship between individuals and society is
technology and usage of tools to aid in farming which very close. Essentially, “society” is the regularities,
results in increased production giving rise to a customs and ground rules of human behavior. Its
growing population in agricultural societies. Large ultimate goal is to promote an adequate life for its
population leads to a more structured social system individuals. It creates conditions and opportunities for
that helps manage resources and its members. the all round development of its inhabitants, despite
5. Feudal society: is based on the ownership of land. the occasional conflicts. If a community helps the
Its members are organized based on status which individuals in numerous ways, great men also
consists of higher class/rulers (people who own a contribute to the people by their wisdom and
land), vassals/followers(granted a right to manage a experience. Thus, individuals are bound by an
land), and peasants (workers who cultivate the land intimate and harmonious bond and the conflicts they
and tend the animals in exchange for military have are apparent and momentary. In a well-ordered
protection). This society is mindful of the hierarchy society, there would be lasting harmony between the
system. It arose during Medieval times in Western two in all describable aspects.
part of Europe.
6. Industrial society: is based on the use of specialized Types of Relationships in Society:
machinery in the production of goods and services. According to Jurgen Habermas, a German
The emergence of new production and industrial philosopher, society has two main types of relationships which
methods along with innovations in transportation and are Personal and Transactional. These two categories are
communication are results from the advances of umbrella terms for the interactions that happen in a community.
science and technology in the late 18th century. In ● PERSONAL – This type of relationship is observed
this era, improved trade and commerce, public through a communicative action, where people who
education and better life conditions are evident for share the same interest acknowledge and commend
many people. However, an important factor in social each other, regardless of their position. One Of its
relations within this form of society is in the workplace evident characteristics is valuing cooperation over
where people interact with individuals who do not competition, serving as a mutual connection between
come from the same family,clan, or community, thus, each individual relationship.
cultural diversity and bureaucratic forms of ● TRANSACTIONAL – This type of relationship is
organization arise. observed through an instrumental or strategic action,
7. Post-industrial society: emerged by the where people act upon an assigned objective rather
establishment of societies based on knowledge, than a mutual connection. Unlike a personal
information, and the sale of services. Virtual society relationship, it values competition over cooperation.
arises where people organize themselves through Using teamwork based on the goal to succeed rather
communication technology and the Internet. This than to help one another out of sympathy.
society is composed of members with higher Different Forms of Society:
educational attainment, better training, and To help understand how modern society developed,
specialized roles. sociologists find it useful to distinguish societies according to
Interrelationship between Human Person and Society their type of economy and technology. This amounts to 6 major
One important way wherein society influences us, as a person classifications.
is, its ability to define the relationships and interactions among 1. Tribal Society - the term “tribe” denotes a group of
its members. There are various ways that society influences peoples living in a primitive setting under a leader or
our development and interactions but one way is through the chief. The term ‘tribal society’ associates it with other
establishment of the following: meanings such as “primitive society” or “preliterate
● Norms – a set of traits and behavior that society society.” The word ‘tribe’ has become an important
considers acceptable, thus, to be encouraged to technical term which pertains to a political unit in a
pass unto other members (e.g. pagmamano: Filipinos certain territory. Tribal societies are small in scale;
unique gesture to greet and show respect to elders) bound to their spatial and temporal range of relations
● Laws – more formal and stringent norms that in terms of society, law, and politics; and possess a
establish and define acceptable behavior of citizens moral code, cult, and wide range of belief systems.
(e.g. using of pedestrian lanes when crossing streets) The language systems of tribes are unwritten which
● Folkways – less formal norms that arise from provides a narrow extent of communication. They are
tradition and do not result in punishment when also nomadic, having only a small number of people
violated (e.g. concept of appropriate within the community.
swimwear,others might wear T-shirt and shorts, 2. Feudal Society - Feudalism refers to the economic,
others might wear bikini) political, and social system that prevailed inEurope
● Social system – organized or patterned set of from about the ninth to the fifteenth century. Due to
relationships among individuals and groups that the lack of effective centralized government during
compose a society this period, kings and lords granted land and provided
● Social role – actions and behaviors expected of a protection to lesser nobles known as vassals.
certain individual Peasants known as serfs were bound to the land and
● Social groups/ Social classes – individuals who share were subject to the will of their lords. Peasants were a
similar backgrounds or perform similar roles social class that was not realized in Europe over the
 whole period.The medieval world was known for its of obligations and duties such as work, taxation and obedience
traditional land economy and military service. These of laws. On the other hand, citizens also have their privileges.
led to a feudal social-class system where commerce It includes civil rights such as freedom of speech and
was based on capital. expression, to stand for what they believe in, and the liberty of
3. Industrial Society –Industrial societies feature a private life
factories and machines. Industrialization brought
about technological advances that improved people’s The Disembodied Subject (Interactions on the Virtual
health and expanded their life spans. As noted earlier, Society):
there is also a greater emphasis on individualism, and The virtual society and the technological devices
people in these societies typically enjoy greater today are starting to reshape the human person and human
political freedom than those in older societies interactions and relationships. More and more interactions are
4. Post-Industrial Society – Also known as the “virtual done in the virtual world than in the actual world.
society”, this is characterized by the establishment of However, people seem to start manipulating
communities based on knowledge, information, and personalities as they exhibit different behaviors online. People
service. This society has a higher educational fall in love in virtual worlds. Someone breaks up with a partner
attainment and focuses on the rise of communication. through a text message. Human relations seem to start losing
The “Internet” is a prime example of this society’s an important element in living–commitment. Virtual worlds and
advancements as it significantly improves the transfer disembodied relations lack commitment.
of information to each individual using it. Daniel Bell, Virtual realities remove risks; and because we do not
an American sociologist, first coined the term ‘post- want to risk, we patronize the virtual world. Commitment is
industrial’ in 1973 in his book “The Coming of Post- hard, and to commit is to risk. In the virtual world, one’s
Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting,” obscurity completely removes risks. When we are confronted
which describes several features of this kind of with real social problems like war and famine, discrimination
society. Post-industrial societies are characterized by harassment and corruption; we let the world know that we
- A shift from the production of goods to the production of condemn these evils and express participation in the abolition
services. of these problems but we never physically engage in the
- The replacement of manual laborers with technical and abolition itself. This renders the people in the modern
professional workers (shown in computer engineers, doctors, technological society ultimately unable to make any real
and bankers) commitments
- The replacement of practical knowledge with theoretical
knowledge.
- Focus on the theoretical and ethical implications of new
technologies, which help society avoid the disadvantages of
introducing new technologies
- The development of recent scientific disciplines that involve
new forms of information technology, cybernetics, or artificial
intelligence.
- An emphasis on the university and polytechnic institutes
which produce graduates who innovate and lead the new
technologies.
- The changing values and norms which reflect the influences
on the society

DIGITAL SOCIETY AND THE INFORMATION AGE:

Digital technologies have wildly affected our
interactions and activity in the 21st century. They have
significantly changed our way of learning, working and
socializing. In this modern world we rely on the use of modern
technology which has led to considering the possible outcome
for the society, concerning how we would take part in
interaction, and how we can use these digital tools and
communication channels.
These informative societies have paved many
opportunities reaching bigger audiences like never before. With
a wider scale of the world’s demography, primarily Westerners,
have access to sources and technologies which enables them
to connect with enough activities whether economic, social,
political, or educational. We can manipulate the process of
learning or businesses without a large sum of money used as a
capital and we can share our ideas and perspectives to the
international audiences as we connect beyond.
DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP:
A digital citizen is a person who is knowledgeable
and responsible enough to effectively use different social
platforms on the internet. They often engage in useful topics
and issues that will help build a better society, politics and
government.
A citizen is defined as an individual character viewed
as a member of a society while citizenship considers an
individual’s behavior in terms of rights, obligations and
functions of said citizen. Being a citizen of a state requires tons
 3. Pleasurable good is good so long as it provides some form
of pleasure, though it does not have to be physical.
Whatever the source of our happiness right now, let
us see to it that it is real and meaningful.

Why do we suffer?
Suffering
- generally viewed as a state of feeling discomfort or pain.
- come in the form of physical suffering when one experiences
bodily pain, example, injury or it may be a mental suffering
when it involves our minds and emotions, such as depression
or loneliness.
● Humans as we are, we normally experience pain and
we often view it as necessary to help us grow and
Module 4: Human Persons as Oriented Towards Their become a strong person and find the deepest
Impending Death meaning of our lives.
(https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/tagum-city-national-high-
school/philosophy/introduction-to-the-philosophy-of-the-human- WHAT HAVE I LEARNED?
person-quarter-2-module-8-human-persons-as-oriented-towards- ● Humans are temporary. Nothing is forever.
their-impending-death/24739720)
● We have to exercise our freedom in a positive way.
● We should always remember to do good rather than
Significance of Death in the Existence of the Person
bad.
● Nothing lasts forever . The cycle of being born,
● Real happiness can be found in more lasting and
growing up and growing old and dying is a reality
important things.
Death
● Suffering takes place when we feel pain. It can be
- commonly understood as the end of bodily functions.
experienced physically or mentally. It is generally
- also refers to the separation of body and spirit.
viewed as an undesirable condition, and that we
● The acceptance of being a temporary individual in
naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain. Humans
this world gives us a clearer vision on how to live life
as we are, we normally experience pain and we
to the fullest and understand the meaning of our
often view it as necessary to help us grow and
existence.
become a strong person and find the deepest
● We have the freedom to choose a well-lived life;
meaning of our lives.
doing good and doing what is right.
● We experience both happiness and suffering. These
● The reality about our human condition: “we are
two are not really meant to be extreme opposites, for
temporal beings or beings oriented towards
they can also enrich one another.
death”
● As intersubjective beings who have a tendency to
form bonds with others, it is only natural that the
How should a life be lived before it finally ends?
meaning of life can be found when we open ourselves
● While there is no freedom in the inevitability of death
to others. This means that although we will eventually
(given), a person can still exercise freedom in
die, we have an opportunity to enrich our lives as well
choosing how to face the reality of death in their lives.
as the lives of others.
● Accepting the fact that we have limited time in this
world allows us to determine the course of our life –
to paint a picture of how our life will progress and
how we envision it to end. The key idea is that we
all have a vocation to live a life in the best
HUMAN PERSONS ARE ORIENTED TOWARDS THEIR
possible way that we can – by being excellent
IMPENDING DEATH REVIEW
persons
Socrates
− Has two different ways of teaching:
What is the end of life?
× Expository method - answers the student’s direct or implied
The term end can be understood in two ways according to
questions
some philosophers:
× Socratic method - can be done by means of dialog or a
1. End as Terminus – “full stop” or “end of a line”. Life
conversation
ends and nothing follows.
2. End as Telos – “goal, purpose, or fulfillment”. Although
Expository Method
we are oriented towards our death, death is not the goal of life
✓ Ironic process
but to live a meaningful life, to be virtuous, and achieve
✓ Serves the learner to seek for knowledge by ridding the mind of
excellence.
prejudices and then humbly accepting his ignorance
● With this in mind, we can look at two experiences
✓ Fills the void of ignorance with information, proceeds by analogy
which make us reflect the meaning of life : happiness
and illustration, or clears the ground for exposition by demonstrating
and suffering.
that some of the beliefs hitherto held by the student are irreconcilable
with other beliefs or assumptions.
What makes us happy?
● Happiness is a state of being (overall physical
Socratic Method
condition of a person), not just only an emotion or a
✓ Maieutic process
decision.
✓ To assess by questions the character of the student and to set him
Kinds of Good
problems, exhort him to reduce each problem to its constituent
1. Noble good is one which is pursued for its own sake,
elements, and criticize the solution he offers
example is love and friendship.
✓ Draws the truth out of the learner’s mind
2. Useful goods are found only from what it can provide, for
example, money is good as it can buy you something.
✓ Considers, examines, compares and studies the similarities and
dissimilarities of the idea being discussed so that the clear and precise
notion of the idea is achieved.

Happiness
✓ Happiness is impossible without moral virtue
✓ Unethical actions harm the person who performs them more than
the people they victimize
✓ An unethical person is weak, even psychologically unhealthy

Plato
- The mind is communion with the universal and eternal ideas

Plato’s Theory of Immortality

- The body is the source of endless troubles by reason of the
mere requirement of food, and is liable to diseases which
overtake and impede us in the search after true being: it fills us STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
full of love, lusts and fears, and fancies of all kinds and endless Module 1 - Quarter 3
foolishness.
- The body causes us turmoil and confusion in our inquiries. To Random Variables and Probability Distributions
see the truth, we must quit the body -the soul in itself must Lesson 1: The Concept of Random Variables
behold things in themselves. - Knowledge can be
accomplished after death: for while in the company of the A random variable is a variable whose value is
body, the soul cannot have pure knowledge. unknown or a function that assigns values to each of an
experiment's outcomes.
Aristotle
- Calls upon actuality and potential Random variables are often designated by letters and
can be classified as discrete, which are variables that have
specific values, or continuous, which are variables that can
Realizing Your Potential have any values within a continuous range.
- Everything in nature seeks to realize itself - to develop its
potentialities and finally realize its actualities. Random variables are often used in econometric or
- All things have strived towards their “end.” A child strives to regression analysis to determine statistical relationships
be an adult; a seed strives to be a tree. This process is called among one another.
entelechy.

Entelechy
✓ Greek word which means “to become its essence”
✓ Nothing happens by chance
✓ Nature has different levels of being

Two Main Categories

- Non-living Things
✓ Rock , water and earth
✓ No potentiality for change and can change only by some external
influence

- Living Things There are two varieties of random variables that are numerical
✓ Have the potentiality for change in nature:

Unmoved Mover
- Pure actuality without any potentiality
- Eternal, immaterial, with pure actuality or perfect on and with
no potentiality
- Has no physical body nor emotional desires
- Main activity consists of pure thoughts
- Mind that is perfect and its object of thought is itself

Note: A sample spaces is the set of all possible outcomes in a

random experiment.
Lesson 2: Probability Distribution of Discrete Random
Variables

Understanding Probability distribution

A probability distribution is a statistical function that
describes all the possible and likelihoods that a random What is a histogram?
variable can take within a given range. This range will be Is like a bar graph but has no spaces in between the
bounded between the minimum and maximum possible values bars.
but precisely where the possible value is likely to be plotted on
the probability distribution depends on a number of factors.
This factors include the distribution’s mean (average),
standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis.
Lesson 3: Solving for the Mean, Variance, and Standard
Probability distributions describe the dispersion of the Deviation of Discrete Probability Distributions
values of a random variable. Consequently, the kind of variable
determines the type of probability distribution. The probability distribution of a discrete random
variable is the same with the frequency distribution of a sample
in a given population that needs to be summarized using a
central value for it will give the general behavior of the random
variable under observation. Any discrete probability distribution
has a mean, a variance, and a standard deviation.
The mean is the average of all possible outcomes. It
is otherwise referred to as the “expected value” of a probability
distribution. When we say expected value, it means that if we
repeat any given experiment infinite times, the theoretical
mean would be the :expected value”.

The variance and standard deviation are measures of speed or

variability.

As a point reference, if the values of all the outcomes

in an experiment are all the same, the variance and standard
deviation are both 0. but of curse, this rarely happens in real
life application.

There is a total of 8 possible outcomes with 4 distinct

possible values of X. we now assign the probability values of
each.

The table shown on the previous page is what we call

the probability distribution or probability mass function of the
random variable. We can graph the distribution in the form of a
histogram as presented below.
 Module 2 - Quarter 3

SUMMARY Normal Distribution

Lesson 1: Normal Distribution
 A random variable is a function that links a specific
numerical value to each element in the sample space of The normal distribution is the most important
any given experiment or situation. distributions in statistics. Many researchers from different field
use its idea in order to test their research hypotheses that will
 A discrete random variable is a random variable whose generate new knowledge and transform this knowledge into
set of possible outcomes is finite. Values of each sample new applications that improve the quality of people’s lives
are separated with a finite gap or space. Values of this (Albay 2019, p. 82).
variable may be obtained through counting.
Six Properties
 A continuous random variable is a random variable
whose set of possible outcomes is infinite. This type of
variable may take on a continuous stream of values. Its
values can only be obtained through measurement.

 A discrete probability distribution, otherwise known as

a probability mass function, is made up of the values that
a random variable can take with their corresponding
probabilities. A valid probability distribution must have a
sum of exactly equal to 1, no more no less.

 Formulas for Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation.

Steps in Finding the Mean:

1. Multiply the random variable by its probability.
2. Use equation 1 to find the mean by adding all products
obtained in step 1.

Steps in Finding the Variance:
3. Subtract the computed mean from each value of the
random variable:
4. Square the value obtained in step 3:
5. Multiply the value obtained in step 4 by the corresponding
probability:
6. Use equation 2 to find the variance by adding all products
obtained in step 5.

Steps in Finding the Standard Deviation:
7. Use equation 3 to find the standard deviation by getting
the square root of the value obtained in step 6.

Lesson 2: Areas Under the Normal Curve

Finding the shaded area of the polygon is different

from finding the area of the shaded region in the normal
distribution. For polygons, we use formulas and simple
calculations to find the shaded region however, in the normal The following are the most common probability
distribution, we use the ztable to locate the z-value. notations used in studying concepts on the normal curve.

A specific proportion of the area of the region under P(a < z < b) this notation represents the idea stating the
the curve can be calculated manually using the formula probability that the z-value is between a and b

P(z> a) this notation represents the idea stating the probability

that the z-value is above a

where P(z< a)this notation represents the idea stating the probability
Y represents the height of the curve at aparticular value of X that the z-value is below a where a and b are z-score values.
X represents any score in the distribution
σ represents the standard deviation of the population P(z = a) = 0 this notation represents the idea stating the
μ represents the population mean probability that the z-value is equal to a is 0. This notation
π = 3.1416 indicates that a z-value is equal to exactly one point on the
= 2.7183 curve. With that single point, a line can be drawn signifying the
However, this formula is now rarely used because of the probability can be below or above it. That is why, for a z-value
readily available z-Table which displays all the area of the to be exactly equal to a value its probability is equal to 0.
region under the curve given a z-value

Steps in finding the area under the normal curve given a z-

value
1) Express the given z-value into a three-digit number.
2) Using the z-Table, find the first 2 digits on the first
column.
3) Find the third digit on the first row on the right.
4) Read the area for probability at the intersection of the row
(first 2 digit number) and column (third digit number). The
value observed at the intersection indicates the area of
the given z-value.

Lesson 4: Understanding the Z-Scores

Let us begin understanding the z-scores by

acknowledging that for a given distribution, it is more preferred
to have a larger set of data in order to make good
generalizations. However, at times in a given distribution, raw
scores may be composed of large values and large values
cannot be accommodated at the baseline of the normal curve.
Thus, the raw scores have to be transformed into z-scores in
order to get meaningful decisions relative to the concepts of
finding the equivalent percentage and probability of the given
measure of value from the mean.

For any population, the mean and the standard

deviation are fixed. This gives the way to understand that for
every raw score X, there corresponds an exactly one z-score
value, and vice versa. Therefore, if we wish to find the
percentage associated with X, we must find its matched z
value using the z formula.

The z formula is given by:

Lesson 3: Shaded Region Under the Normal Curve

Probability notations are commonly used to express

a lengthy idea into symbols concerning the normal curve.
 The area of the region under the normal curve
represents the probability or percentage or proportion of a
given measurement value. It is computed by subtracting the
measurement X to the sample Ẍ or population mean, then
dividing the result by the standard deviation. The resulting
value gives the z-score. The z-score indicates the distance
between a given measurement X and the mean expressed in
standard deviations. It locates either within a sample or within
a population. But for now, a readily available z-Table is made
to obtain the corresponding area given a z-score.

Steps in finding the z-score given the mean SUMMARY

(µ) ,standard deviation ( σ ) and the measurement (X)
 A standard normal curve is a normal probability
distribution that has mean equal to 0 and standard
deviation equal to 1.
 The normal probability distribution has the following
properties:

1. The curve of the distribution is a bell-shaped.

2. The curve is symmetrical about the mean.

3. The mean, median and mode are of equal values and

when sketched, they coincide at the center of the graph.

4. The width of the curve is determined by the standard

deviation of the distribution.

5. The curve extends indefinitely approaching the x-axis but

never touching it. Thus, the curve is asymptotic to the
line.

6. The area of the region under the curve is 1. It represents

the probability or percentage or proportion associated
with the specific sets of measurement values.

* Formula for computing the z-value.

Lesson 5: Percentiles Under the Normal Curve

A percentile is a measure used in statistics indicating

the value below which a given percentage of observations in a
group of observations fall. It is a measure of relative standing
as it measures the relationship of a measurement of the rest of
the data.
Module 3 - Quarter 3

Random Sampling and Sampling Distribution

Lesson 1: Random Sampling

Wrong conclusion maybe drawn from samples in

letters a and b. These samples will not represent the common Now that you know how to determine the sample size
brand of cellphone of Mila’s classmates and the SHS student’s of a certain population, you are now ready to learn how to
most admired young actors and actresses. The samples in compute the sample mean which serves as an estimator for
letter c is the best representation of the described population. the population mean.

Now that you know the idea of representativeness of Illustrative example:

a sample for a population, the next activity will lead you to the The heights in meters of 5 students chosen at random
process of getting a sample which are good representatives of are 1.5 , 1.23,1.6, 1.4, and 1.3.
a population. This process is called random sampling
The mean height of these 5 students is computed as,

Types of Random Sampling Techniques Mean = 1.5+1.23+1.6+1.4+1.3

 Simple Random/Lottery Sampling – a sampling 5
technique by which every member of the population has
an equal chance to be chosen as sample (drawn by lot) Mean = 1.41 meters

 Systematic Sampling – a sampling technique by which Lesson 2: Parameter and Statistic

every member of the population is selected with a random
start. Statistic describes a sample as an estimate for the
whole population. The fact is about a very large population in
 Stratified Random sampling – a sampling technique which you can’t imagine the time and money to be spent to
that is used when the population can be classified into survey the entire population.
groups or strata based on some characteristics such as
age, gender or socioeconomic status. Parameter describes the entire population. The fact is
about the whole population that is easy to figure out because
 Cluster sampling – a sampling technique by which the the groups are small enough to measure.
sample is taken from different levels generally from higher
levels to lower levels Lesson 3: Sampling Distribution of the Sample Means from a
Finite Population
 Multi-Stage Sampling – a sampling technique that is
done using the combination of different sampling A sampling distribution of sample means is a
techniques. probability distribution where all possible random samples of a
specific size were taken from a population.
Illustrative example:
Supposing that your school has a population of 5,000 A finite population is a population that has a fixed
students and you want to know the average height of the number of elements or observations
students, it would be impractical to interview or to get the
height of all students. All you need to do is to determine the
sample size that will estimate the whole population. To do this,
we will use the Slovin’s Formula in getting the sample size.

Lesson 4: Mean and Variance of the Sampling Distribution of

Sample Means
Lesson 5: Sampling Distribution of the Sample Means from an
Infinite Population

SUMMARY

The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of

the sample means is also called standard error of the mean. It
tells how accurate is the sample mean to estimate the
population mean. If the value of the standard deviation is small
or very close to zero, then the sample mean is a good estimate
for the population mean. If the value of the standard deviation
is large, the mean is a poor estimate for the population mean.

A good estimate for the population mean can be

obtained if the random sample size n is sufficiently large. This
is stated as a theorem which is called The Central Limit
Theorem.

Lesson 6: The Central Limit Theorem

 SUMMARY

Lesson 7: Defining the Sampling Distribution of the Sample

 Random Sampling- a method of getting a sample by
Mean using the Central Limit Theorem
which every member of a population has an equal chance
to be included.

 Lottery Sampling- a sampling technique by which every

member of the population has an equal chance to be
chosen as sample (Drawn by lot)

 Systematic Sampling- a sampling technique by which

every member of the population is selected with a random
start.

 Stratified Random sampling – a sampling technique that

is used when the population can be classified into groups
or strata based on some characteristics such as age,
gender or socioeconomic status.

 Cluster sampling – a sampling technique by which the

sample is taken from different levels generally from higher
levels to lower levels

 Multi-Stage Sampling – a sampling technique that is done

using the combination of different sampling techniques.
Lesson 8: Problems Involving Sampling Distribution of the
Sample Mean  Mean is the sum of all observations divided by the total
number of observations

 Statistic describes a sample as an estimate for the whole

population. The fact is about a very large population in
which you can’t imagine the time and money to be spent
to survey the entire population.

 Parameter describes the entire population. The fact is

about the whole population that is easy to figure out
because the groups are small enough to measure

 A finite population is a population that has a fixed number

of elements or observations

 A sampling distribution of sample means is a probability

distribution where all possible random samples of a
specific size were taken from a population.

 These are the properties of the sampling distribution of

the sample means:

a. The mean (μ X̅ ) of the sampling distribution of the sample

means is equal to the mean ( μ ) of the population where
the samples are taken. That is; μx̅ = μ
 Module 4 - Quarter 3

 The standard deviation is also called standard error of the Estimation of Parameters
mean. It tells how accurate is the sample mean to Lesson 1: The t-Distribution
estimate the population mean. If the value of the standard
deviation is small or very close to zero, then the sample The t - distribution – is the probability distribution
mean is a good estimate for the population mean. If the that estimates the population parameters when the sample
value of the standard deviation is large, the mean is a size is small and the population standard deviation is unknown.
poor estimate for the population mean.
 The central limit theorem states that if random samples of Degree(s) of freedom – refers to the number of
size n are drawn from a population with mean μ and independent observations on the set of data, or the number of
variance δ2, the sampling distribution of the mean variables that are free to vary. The formula for the degree of
approaches normal distribution with mean μ and variance freedom is df = n -1 where n is the number of observations.
δ2/n as n, the sample size, gets larger regardless of the
shape of the original population distribution. Confidence level – usually expressed in percent, it
 The Central Limit Theorem justifies the use of the formula sets a portion of the sample to be included within a known
when computing the probability that distribution of x ̅ will range of the true population. It also quantifies the probability in
take on a value within a given range in the sampling x̅ which, a member of the sample would fall within a known
interval of the true population. If a (alpha) is the allowable
sampling error, the confidence level, is equal to 1 – a .

Confidence interval – also called interval estimate, is

a range of values that is used to estimate a parameter. This
estimate may or may not contain the true parameter value.

Here are several properties of the t – distribution:

1. The mean, median, and mode of the t-distribution are
equal to 0.
2. The t-distribution is bell-shaped and symmetric about the
mean.
3. The total area under the t-distribution curve is equal to 1.
4. The tails in the t-distribution are “thicker” than those in the
standard normal distribution.
5. The standard deviation of the t-distribution varies with the
sample size, but it is greater than 1.
6. The t-distribution is a family of curves, each determined
by a parameter called the degrees of freedom. The
degrees of freedom (sometimes abbreviated as df) are
the number of free choices left after a sample statistic
such as x is calculated. When you use a t-distribution to
estimate a population mean, the degrees of freedom are
equal to one less than the sample size. df = n – 1
7. As the degrees of freedom increase, the t-distribution
approaches the standard normal distribution, as shown in
the figure. After df=30, the t-distribution is close to the
standard normal distribution.
 Module 1A - Quarter 1

Properties of Matter and Intermolecular Forces of

Attraction
Lesson 1: Properties of Matter and Intermolecular Forces of
Attraction

Phase
A homogeneous part of a system in interacting with
other parts of the system but separated from these other parts
by well-defined boundaries.

Condensed phases
Liquids and solids

Intramolecular forces and intermolecular forces

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between
molecules. Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in a
molecule.

A. Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids

The experimental findings about the behavior of
Finding Areas and Percentiles
gases can be explained with a simple theoretical model known
The process of solving problems in areas and
as the kinetic molecular theory. This theory is based on the
percentiles in the t distribution is similar to the z distribution.
following assumptions:
We just refer to the t table to find the critical values.
1) All matter is made of tiny particles.
Example 4
2) These particles are in constant motion.
a. What is the 95th percentile of a one-tailed t-distribution when
3) The speed of particles is proportional to temperature.
df=10?
Increased temperature means greater speed.
4) Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between
Solution:
particles, in the freedom of motion of particles, and in the
Looking at the t table when df= 10, it shows that when , one-
extent to which the particles interact.
tailed, the t value is 1.812. Thus, the 95th percentile is 1.812
Liquids and solids differ from gases in that their
b. What is the 90th percentile of a two-tailed t distribution when
particles are much closer together. They are collectively called
df=25?
as condensed phases because their particles are in virtual
contact. To fully understand their properties, examine their
Answer: t value is 1.708
kinetic molecular models as shown in Figure 1 below.

To find the area under the t-distribution for a certain

range of t-values, first identify whether a two-tailed or one-
tailed t-test was done. The area always corresponds to 1- a.

The Condensed State: Liquids and Solids

• In liquids, the molecules are so close together that there is
very little empty space between them. Liquids are much more
difficult to compress and they are much denser at normal
conditions.

• Molecules in a liquid are held together by one or more types

of attractive forces. However, the molecules can move past
one another freely. Liquids can flow, can be poured and
assumes the shape of its container.

• In a solid, molecules are held tightly in position with virtually

no freedom of motion. There is even less empty space in a
solid than in a liquid.

• Solids are almost incompressible and possess definite shape

and volume.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY II B. Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

 Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that act the difference of the electronegativities of the atoms. The
between molecules or particles in the liquid or solid states. partial positive side of one molecule is attracted to the partial
These attractive forces are generally much weaker than negative side of another molecule. Dipoledipole forces are
bonding forces. stronger than the dispersion forces because polar molecules
The strength of intermolecular forces operating in have a permanent unequal spread of electrons. The nature of
solids and liquids can be indicated by their melting and boiling attraction is electrostatic and can be explained in terms of
points. Particles move away from each other when a solid Coulomb’s law: the larger the dipole moment, the stronger the
melts, or a liquid boils. As particles move away, intermolecular attraction.
forces of attraction are broken. Larger amount of energy is
needed when the intermolecular forces to be broken are
stronger, hence, the higher the melting and boiling points.

The different types of intermolecular forces are the

following:

1. Dispersion forces- when temporary dipole 3. Ion-Dipole Forces attract an ion (either a cation or
moment is induced in ordinarily nonpolar molecule, dispersion an anion) and a polar molecule to each other (Figure 4). These
forces result. These forces are present among all types of types of forces can also be explained by Coulomb’s law. The
molecules because of the movement of electrons. An uneven charge and size of the ion, the magnitude of the dipole moment
distribution causes momentary charge separations as and size of the molecule greatly influence the strength of this
electrons move around the nucleus. Slightly negative sides of a interaction. A cation interacts more strongly with dipoles than
molecule are attracted to the slightly positive sides of the does an anion having a charge of the same
adjacent molecule magnitude because the charges on cations are generally more
concentrated, for the reason that cations are usually smaller
than anions.

What attractive interaction occurs in nonpolar

substances? As being shown in Figure 2, if we place charged Figure 4 shows the ion-dipole interaction between the
(ion) or a polar molecule near an atom (or a nonpolar sodium and magnesium ions with a watermolecule,which has a
molecule), the electron distribution of the atom (or molecule) is large dipole moment. Because the Mg2+ ion has smaller ionic
distorted by the force exerted by the ion or polar molecule, radius (78 pm) and a higher charge than that of the Na+ ion
resulting to a kind of dipole. (98 pm), it interacts more strongly with water molecules. (In
The dipole in the atom (or nonpolar molecule) is said reality, each ion is enclosed by a number of water molecules in
to be an induced dipole because the separation of positive solution.) Similar differences exist for anions of different
and negative charges in the atom (or nonpolar molecule) is charges and sizes.
due to the proximity of an ion or a polar molecule. The
attractive interaction between a polar molecule and the 4. Hydrogen bond is a generally strong force of
induced dipole is called dipole-induced dipole interaction and attraction. It is a special type of dipoledipole interaction
the attractive interaction between an ion and the induced between the hydrogen atom in a polar bond, such as N‒H, O‒
dipole is called ion-induced dipole interaction. H, or F‒H, and an electronegative O, N, or F atom. Hydrogen
The ease with the electron distribution in the atom (or bonds between water molecules are particularly strong.
molecule) can be distorted or polarizability of an atom can
also influence dipole moments. Generally, the more diffused The interaction is written as:
the electron cloud in the atom or molecule and the larger the A ‒ H ••• B or A ‒ H ••• A
number of electrons, the greater is its polarizability. Diffuse
cloud is an electron cloud that is spread over an appreciable A and B represent O, N, or F; A ‒ H is one molecule or part of
volume, so that the electrons are not held tightly by the a molecule and A or B is a part of another molecule; the dotted
nucleus. line represents the hydrogen bond. Examples of hydrogen
Dispersion forces may be the weakest of bonding are demonstrated in the molecules of water (H2O),
intermolecular forces that can exist between two molecules, ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen fluoride (HF):
but the larger the atoms present, the stronger are the
dispersion forces. For example, F2, the lightest halogen, is a
gas, Br2 is a liquid, and the heavier I2, is a solid at room
conditions. Further, the more atoms that make up the
molecules, the stronger are the dispersion forces. Methane,
CH4, is gaseous, but larger hydrocarbons like butane, C4H10
is liquid, and those with larger number of carbon atoms, like
the waxes, are solids at room temperature.

A molecule will be nonpolar if:

2. Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between
 All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are the same
polar molecules (molecules that possess dipole moments). In
 All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are symmetrically
polar molecules, the electrons are unequally distributed due to
designated around the central atom
 The terminal atoms (or groups) have equal or the same A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a solid or liquid at
charges normal temperature.
• Example: CO2
Vaporization
The change of phase from liquid to gas/vapor.
A molecule will be polar if:
 One or more terminal atoms differ from each other. Vapor pressure of a liquid
 At least one polar bond is present. The pressure exerted by the vapor above the surface of the
 The terminal atoms are not symmetrically arranged liquid in a closed container. It is the equilibrium pressure of a
 The molecule has one slightly positive end and one vapor above its liquid.
slightly negative end.
• Example: H2O Boiling point
The temperature at which a liquid boils. Normal boiling point is
boiling point of a liquid when the external pressure is 1 atm.

Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap)

Summary: The amount of energy (usually in kilojoules) required to
All substances exist in one of three states: gas, liquid, vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a specific temperature.
or solid. The major difference between the condensed state
and the gaseous state is the distance separating their Intermolecular forces give rise to several structural
molecules. Substances that are gases or liquids at room features and properties of liquids. In this section we will look at
temperature are usually composed of molecules. In gases the five such phenomena associated with liquids in general:
intermolecular attractive forces are negligible compared to the surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, ang
kinetic energies of the molecules; thus, the molecules are molar heat of vaporization. The properties of liquids that were
widely separated and undergo constant, chaotic motion. In observed are consequences of the interactions of particles that
liquids the intermolecular forces are strong enough to keep the make up the liquid.
molecules in close proximity; nevertheless, the molecules are
free to move with respect to one another. In solids the 1. Surface Tension
intermolecular attractive forces are strong enough to restrain Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by
molecular motion and to force the particles to occupy specific intermolecular forces. There is no tendency for them to be
locations in a three-dimensional arrangement. pulled in any one way. However, molecules at the surface are
pulled sideways and downward by other molecules, but not
Intermolecular forces act between molecules or upward away from the surface (Figure 1).
between molecules and ions. Generally, these attractive forces
are much weaker than bonding forces. Dipole-dipole forces
and ion-dipole forces attract molecules with dipole moments to
other polar molecules or ions. Dispersion forces are the result
of temporary dipole moments induced in ordinarily nonpolar
molecules. The extent to which a dipole moment can be
induced in a molecule is called its polarizability. The term “van
der Waals forces” refers to dipole-dipole, dipole-induced
These intermolecular attractions appear to draw the
dipole, and dispersion forces. Hydrogen bonding is a relatively
molecules into the liquid and like an elastic film, cause the
strong dipole-dipole interaction between a polar bond
surface to tighten. A drop of water assumes the form of a small
containing a hydrogen atom and an electronegative O, N, or F
round bead. There is little to no attraction between polar water
atom. Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are
molecules and the nonpolar molecules since a sphere
particularly strong.
minimizes the surface area of a liquid. This effect is also
created by a wet apple's waxy surface (Figure 2).

Module 1B - Quarter 1

Properties of Liquids
Lesson 1: Properties of Liquids

Fluid
A liquid or gas; a substance that flows. Surface tension is a measure of the elastic force on
a liquid's surface. It is the amount of energy needed by a unit
Surface tension area to stretch or increase the surface of a fluid (for example,
It is the elastic force in the surface of a liquid. It is theamount of by 1 cm2 ). There are also high surface tensions in liquids that
energy required to increase or stretch the surface of a liquid by have solid intermolecular forces. Thus, water has a much
a unit area. greater surface tension than most other liquids because of
hydrogen bonding.
Capillary action
It is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or to be
drawn into small openings.

Viscosity
Capillary action is another example of surface
A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
tension. Figure 4(a) reveals a capillary tube, water rises
spontaneously. A thin water film adheres to the wall of a tube
Vapor
of glass. This film is caused to contract by the surface tension (CH3CH2OH), as in (Figure 6). Quickly, the ethanol starts
of water as it pulls the water up the tube. evaporating. The pressure exerted by the vapor in the space
above the liquid increases consequently. The pressure of the
Capillary action is brought on by two types of forces: vapor reaches a constant value after a short period, which we
cohesion and adhesion. Cohesion is the intermolecular call vapor pressure.
attraction between similar molecules (water molecules, in this
case). Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules,
such as those in water and in the sides of a glass tube. If
adhesion is stronger than cohesion, as it is in Figure 4(a), the
contents of the tube will be pushed upward. This process
continues until the adhesive force is balanced by the weight of
the water in the tube. This action is by no means universal
among liquids, as Figure 4(b) shows. In mercury, cohesion is
greater than the adhesion between mercury and glass, so that
when a capillary tube is dipped in mercury, the result is a
depression at the mercury level— that is, the height of the
liquid in the capillary tube is below the surface of the mercury.

Any of the ethanol molecules on the liquid surface

have ample kinetic energy at any moment to overcome their
neighbors' attractive forces and thus, escape into the gas
phase. The passage of molecules from the liquid phase to the
gas phase continuously goes on at every given temperature.
However, as the number of gasphase molecules increases, the
likelihood increases that a molecule will reach the liquid
surface in the gas phase and be recaptured by the liquid, as
shown in Figure 6 in the flask on the right. The rate at which
molecules return to the liquid is, finally, equal to the rate at
which they escape. In the gas phase, the number of molecules
2. Viscosity then reaches a stable value and the pressure exerted by the
The term "slow as January molasses" owes its reality vapor becomes constant.
to another physical property of liquids called viscosity.
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow. The The situation in which two opposing processes occur
greater the viscosity, the more the liquid flows steadily. As at equal rates simultaneously is called dynamic equilibrium
temperature increases, the viscosity of a liquid normally (or simply equilibrium). Chemical balance, in which chemical
decreases; hot molasses thus flow much faster than cold reactions are the opposite mechanisms, is a type of dynamic
molasses. equilibrium. When evaporation and condensation occur at
similar rates, a liquid and its vapor are in dynamic equilibrium.
Liquids with strong intermolecular forces are higher in It might appear that since there is no
viscosity than those with weak intermolecular forces (Table 1). net shift in the system, nothing happens in equilibrium. In fact,
Owing to its ability to form hydrogen bonds, water has a higher however, as molecules constantly move from liquid state to
viscosity than many other liquids. It is noteworthy that gas state and from gas state to liquid state, a great deal
glycerol's viscosity is significantly higher than all of those other happens. The vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure
liquids mentioned in Table 1. Glycerol has the structure like exerted by its vapor when the liquid and vapor are in dynamic
water. It can form hydrogen bonds. Each glycerol molecule has equilibrium.
three-OH groups that can participate in hydrogen bonding with
other glycerol molecules. 4. Boiling Point
A liquid's boiling point is the temperature at which its
vapor pressure, acting on the liquid surface, equals the
external pressure. The thermal energy of the molecules at this
temperature is high enough for the molecules within the liquid
to break free from their neighbors and enter the gas phase. As
a consequence, bubbles of vapor form inside the liquid. If the
external pressure rises, the boiling point increases. The boiling
point of a liquid at 1 atm (760 torr) pressure is called its normal
boiling point. From Figure 7, we see that the normal boiling
point of water is 100°C.

The time required for food to be cooked in boiling

water depends on the water. The temperature is 100 °C in an
open container, but it is possible to boil at higher temperatures.
Pressure cookers operate by only allowing steam to escape
when it exceeds a predetermined pressure; therefore, the
pressure above the water can rise above atmospheric
pressure. The higher pressure allows the water to boil at a
higher temperature, making it easier for the food to get hotter
and cook quicker.
3. Vapor Pressure
By evaporation, molecules may escape from the The influence of pressure on the boiling point also
surface of a liquid into the gas phase. Suppose we place in an explains why cooking food at high elevations takes longer than
evacuated, closed container a quantity of ethanol it does at sea level. At higher altitudes, the air pressure is
lower, so water boils at a temperature lower than 100 °C, and
food typically takes longer to cook.

5. Molar Heat of Vaporization

A measure of the strength of intermolecular forces in
a liquid is the molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap), defined as
the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of Figure 9
a liquid. The molar heat of vaporization has a direct
relationship to the strength of intermolecular forces that exist in While intermolecular hydrogen bonds can be formed
the liquid. by many compounds, the difference is that each oxygen atom
will form two hydrogen bonds between H2O and other polar
molecules, such as NH3 and HF, the same as the number of
lone electron pairs on the oxygen atom. Thus, in an extensive
three-dimensional network in which each oxygen atom is
roughly tetrahedrally bound to four hydrogen atoms, by two
covalent bonds and by two hydrogen bonds, water molecules
are joined together. This equality in the number of hydrogen
atoms and lone pairs does not define NH3 or HF, or any other
molecule capable of forming hydrogen, for that matter.
B. The Structure and Properties of Water Consequently, rings or chains, but not three-dimensional
On Earth, water is so prevalent a material that we structures, may be formed by these other molecules.
often forget its special existence. All processes of life include
water. For several ionic compounds, as well as other Figure 10. The three-
substances capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water, dimensional structure of ice.
water is an excellent solvent. Each O atom is bonded to
four H atoms. The covalent
bonds are shown by short
solid lines and the weaker
hydrogen bonds by long
dotted lines between O and
H. The empty space in the
structure accounts for the low
density of ice.

The highly ordered three dimensional ice structure

As Table 3 shows, water has a high specific heat. The (Figure 10) makes it difficult for the molecules to get too close
explanation is that to boost water temperature (that is, to raise to each other. But remember what happens with the melting of
the average kinetic energy of the water molecules), we must ice. A number of water molecules have enough kinetic energy
break the several hydrogen intermolecular bonds first. Water at the melting point to break free from the intermolecular bonds
can also consume a large quantity of heat while its of hydrogen. In the cavities of the three-dimensional structure,
temperature increases just slightly. The reverse is also true: which is broken down into smaller clusters, these molecules
with just a small reduction in its temperature, water will give off become stuck. As a consequence, in liquid water, more
a lot of heat. For this reason, by absorbing heat in the summer molecules per unit volume are present than in ice. Thus
and giving off heat in the winter, with just minor changes in the because of mass/volume density, the water density is higher
temperature of the body of water, the vast amounts of water than that of
that are present in our lakes and oceans will effectively ice. More water molecules are released from intermolecular
moderate the climate of neighboring land areas. Water's most hydrogen bonding with further heating, so that the water
striking property is that its solid form is less dense than its density continues to rise only above the melting point with the
liquid form on the surface of liquid water, that is why ice floats increasing temperature. Water expands as it is heated at the
(Figure 9). The density of almost all other substances is same time of course, so that its density is decreased. These
greater in the solid state than in the liquid state. two processes work in opposite directions: the trapping of free
water molecules in cavities and thermal expansion. Trapping
We have to analyze the electronic structure of the prevails from 0 °C to 4 °C and water becomes increasingly
H2O molecule to understand why water is different. There are denser. However, thermal expansion predominates above 4 °C
two pairs of nonbonding electrons, or two lone pairs, on the and water density decreases with rising temperatures (Figure
oxygen atom: 11).

Summary:
 Liquids tend to assume a geometry that minimizes A. Crystal Structure
surface area. Surface tension is the energy needed to  Solids can be divided into two categories: crystalline and
expand a liquid surface area; strong intermolecular forces amorphous.
lead to greater surface tension.  Ice is a crystalline solid, which possesses rigid and long-
range order; its atoms, molecules, or ions occupy specific
 Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to positions. In a crystalline solid, the arrangement of such
flow;it decreases with increasing temperature. particles is such that the net attractive inter molecular
forces are at their limit.
 Vapor - A gaseous substance that exists naturally as a  Ionic forces, covalent bonds, van der Waals forces,
liquid or solid at normal temperature. hydrogen bonds, or a combination of these forces may be
the forces responsible for a crystal's stability.
 Vaporization - The change of phase from liquid to vapor  Amorphous solids such as glass lack a well-defined
(gaseous phase). arrangement and long-range molecular order.
 A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a
 A liquid in a closed vessel eventually establishes a crystalline solid.
dynamic equilibrium between evaporation and  An atom, ion, or molecule is defined by each sphere and
condensation. The vapor pressure over the liquid under is called a lattice point.
these conditions is the equilibrium vapor pressure, which  The lattice point in many crystals does not necessarily
is often referred to simply as “vapor pressure”. contain such a particle. Instead, around each lattice point,
there might be multiple atoms, ions, or molecules
 Boiling point - The temperature at which a liquid boils. identically arranged. However, for convenience, we can
The boiling point of a liquid when the external pressure is assume that an atom occupies each lattice point.
1 atm is called the normal boiling point.  For certain metals, this is the case. In terms of one of the
seven types of unit cells, any crystalline solid can be
 Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) - The energy (usually represented. Since all sides and all angles are equal, the
in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a geometry of the cubic unit cell is especially clear. Each of
given temperature. the unit cells forms the lattice structure typical of a
crystalline solid when replicated in space in all three
 Water molecules in the solid state form a three- dimensions.
dimensional network in which each oxygen atom is
covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms and is
hydrogenbonded to two hydrogen atoms. This unique
structure accounts for the fact that ice is less dense than
liquid water, a property that enables life to survive under
the ice in ponds and lakes in cold climates.

 Water is also ideally suited for its ecological role by its

high specific heat, another property imparted by its strong
hydrogen bonding. Large bodies of water are able to
moderate Earth’s climate by giving off and absorbing
substantial amounts of heat with only small changes in
the water temperature.

 By considering the various forms of packing of a number

of similar spheres (PingPong balls, for example) to form
an ordered three-dimensional structure, we can
understand the general geometric requirements for
crystal formation. The kind of unit cell we have is defined
by the way the spheres are organized in layers.
 A layer of spheres can be arranged in the simplest case,
as seen in Figure 3 (a). By placing a layer above and
below this layer, the three-dimensional structure can be
created in such a way that spheres in one layer are
directly over the spheres in the layer below it. As in the
case of a crystal, this method can be expanded to
produce several many layers. Focusing on a 'x' sphere,
we see that it is in contact with four spheres on its own
layer, one sphere on the top layer, and one sphere on the
bottom layer. A coordination number of 6 is said to have
each sphere in this arrangement since it has six
immediate neighbors.
Quarter 1 - Module 1C  The coordination number is defined as the number of
atoms (or ions) surrounding an atom (or ion) in a crystal
Nature of Crystals
lattice. Its value gives us a measure of how closely the
 spheres are packed together the greater the number of
coordination, the closer each other is to the spheres.
 A simple cubic cell (scc), is called the fundamental,
repeating unit in the array of spheres.

 There are two ways that the second layer can be filled by
a third-layer sphere to achieve the nearest packing. The
 A body-centered cubic arrangement differs from a spheres should fit into the depressions so that each
simple cube in that the second layer of spheres fits into sphere of the third layer is directly over the sphere of the
the depressions of the First layer and the third layer into first layer.
the depressions of the second layer. The coordination  We often name the third layer layer A, since there is no
number of each sphere in this structure is 8 (each sphere distinction between the arrangement of the first and third
is in contact with four spheres in the layer above and four layers.
spheres in the layer below). In the facecentered cubic  Alternatively, the spheres of the third layer can fit into the
cell, there are spheres at the center of each of the six depressions that lie directly in the first layer over the
faces of the cube, in addition to the eight corner spheres. depressions
 Since each unit cell is adjacent to other unit cells in a  We name the third layer layer C in this case. The
crystalline solid, most of the atoms of a cell are 'exploded opinions' and the systems arising from these
exchanged by adjacent cells. For instance, in all cubic two arrangements.
types, every corner atom belongs to eight cells of one  The ABA arrangement is known as the hexagonal close-
unit; an edge atom is shared by four unit cells, and a packed (hcp) structure, and the ABC arrangement is the
face-centered atom is shared by two unit cells. cubic close-packed (ccp) structure, which corresponds to
 Each corner sphere is divided into eight unit cells the already described face-centered cube. Notice that in
because there would be the equivalent of just one full the hcp structure, spheres occupy the same vertical
sphere within a simple cubic unit cell, and there are eight position in every other layer (ABABAB. . .), while in the
corners in a cube. ccp structure, spheres occupy the same vertical position
 The equivalent of two complete spheres, one in the in every fourth
middle and eight mutual corner spheres, is included in a  layer (ABCABCA. . .). Every sphere has a coordination
bodycentered cubic cell. There are four complete spheres number of 12 in both structures
in a face-centered cubic cell: three out of the six face-  (each sphere is in contact with six spheres in its own
centered atoms and one out of the eight shared corner layer, three spheres in the layer above, and three spheres
spheres. in the layer below). The most effective way of packing
identical spheres in a unit cell is by using both the hcp
and ccp structures, and there is no way to increase the
amount of coordination to beyond 12.
 Many monatomic metals and noble gases form crystals
with structures of hcp or ccp. Magnesium, titanium, and
zinc, for example, crystallize with their atoms in a hcp
array, while aluminum, nickel, and silver crystallize in the
ccp structure. With the exception of helium, all solid noble
gases crystallize in the hcp structure.

Closest Packing
 The simple cubic and body-centered cubic cells obviously
have more free space than in a cubic cell face-centered.
Closest packing, the most efficient arrangement of
spheres, starts with the structure, which we call layer A.
 Focusing on the only sphere enclosed, we see that in that
layer it has six immediate neighbors. The spheres are
packed into the depressions between the spheres in the
second layer (which we call layer B) in the first layer, so
that all the spheres are as close together as possible.

 It is natural to ask why a series of related substances,

such as the transition metals or the noble gases, would
form different crystal structures. The answer lies in the
relative stability of a particular crystal structure, which is
governed by intermolecular forces. Thus, magnesium
 metal has the hcp structure because this arrangement of
Mg atoms results in the greatest stability of the solid.
summarizes the relationship between the atomic radius r DISASTER READINESS & RISK REDUCTION
and the edge length a of a simple cubic cell, a body- Module 1 - Quarter 1
centered cubic cell, and a face-centered cubic cell. This
relationship can be used to determine the atomic radius Disaster Readiness & Risk Reduction
of a sphere if the density of the crystal is known. Lesson 1: Basic Concept of Disaster and Disaster Risk

Disaster and the Risk Factors Underlying It

Philippines is also one of the countries that belongs to
what they call the Pacific Ring of Fire where two major
tectonic plates of the world meet, the Eurasian Plate and the
Pacific Plate.

According to the report of the United Nation University

Institute for Environmental & Human Security and the German
Alliance Development Works, the Philippines belongs to the
top ten countries facing the highest risk next to Vanuatu and
Amorphous Solids Tonga. Philippines ranks third on the list of most vulnerable
 In crystalline form, solids are most stable. However, if a countries to climate change with a 24.32 % disaster risk.
solid is quickly formed (If a liquid is rapidly cooled, for
example), the atoms or molecules do not have time to Aside from being situated in the Pacific Ring of Fire, it
align themselves in places other than those of a normal is also located along the Typhoon Belt on the Western North
crystal and may be locked. It is said that the resulting Pacific Basin where more or less 66 percent of tropical
solid is amorphous. cyclones enter or originate. It is visited with an average of 20
 Amorphous solids, such as glass, lack a regular three- events of Typhoons per year in which more or less six of these
dimensional arrangement of atoms. We will briefly typhoons can be rather destructive. Its eastern seaboard is
address the properties of glass in this segment. highly exposed to typhoons with winds speed greater than 150
 Glass is one of the most important and versatile products kilometers in every hour.
in civilization. It is also one of the oldest articles of glass,
dating back to 1000 b.c. Glass commonly refers to an A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that
optically transparent fusion product of inorganic materials seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or society
that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing. We and causes human, material, and economic or environmental
mean that the glass is formed by mixing molten silicon losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability to cope
dioxide (SiO2), its main ingredient, with compounds such using its own resources. Though often caused by nature,
as sodium oxide (Na2O), boron oxide (B2O3), and color disasters can have human origins. Accordingly, “disasters are
and other properties of certain transition metal oxides. the final exam for a community when they have not taken the
Glass behaves more like a liquid than a solid in certain course”. The best way to get prepared is to be proactive.
ways. Studies of X-ray diffraction show that long-range
periodic order is missing in glass. Today, there are Disaster preparedness refers to the measures taken
around 800 distinct glass forms in general use. Two to prepare for and reduce the effects of disasters. That is, to
dimensional schematic representations of crystalline predict and, where possible, prevent disasters, mitigate their
quartz and amorphous quartz glass. The structure and impact on vulnerable populations, and respond to and
properties of quartz, Pyrex, and soda lime glass. effectively cope with their consequences (IFRC). That is why a
 The glass color is primarily due to the presence of metal new law or the Republic Act No. 10121 or the Philippines
ions (as oxides). Green glass, Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010
 for example, contains oxide of iron(III), Fe2O3, or oxide of (DRRM) transforms the Philippines’ disaster management
copper(II), CuO; yellow glass system towards Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). One of its
 contains uranium(IV) oxide, UO2; cobalt(II) and copper purposes is to reduce the risk brought about by any calamities
are present in blue glass; (II)Oxides, CoO and CuO; and or hazards which put ones’ lives in danger and loss of many
small pieces of gold and copper include red glass. Note properties.
that most of the ions mentioned here are derived from
metals in transition. Lesson 2: Hazard, Exposure, Vulnerability, Capacity

A hazard may or may not result to a disaster.

Suppose there is a very strong typhoon. When it hits a
particular area and leave no damages, then there is no
disaster happened but if it leaves great damages to lives and
properties, then that is what we call a “disaster” Look at the
figure below suppose you are along the hillside. On top, there
is a very big rock that is likely to fall and by the time it happens,
it will hit you. In this case, the rock on top is a hazard and you
are vulnerable of it. When we say “vulnerable” that the rock
falls down and hit you causing you damage or injury then that
is what we call disaster.
In symbol Lessson 3: Factors Underlying Disasters
This means that disaster risk would be greater if the
1. Severity of exposure
factors (hazard, exposure and vulnerability) are higher even
Risk of future mental problems is highly related to the
though capacity is also higher, however, disaster risk can be
amount of exposure to the disaster. Those that go through the
reduced or lessen if we will decrease the hazard, exposure and
disaster themselves are in at the highest risk. At the next level
vulnerability with an increase of capacity.
are those in close contact with victims while those who only
had indirect exposure, such as news of the severe damage are
This means that we can reduce the risk brought about
at the lowest risk of lasting impact. Accordingly, the survivors
by any event or disaster by reducing the hazard, exposure and
or the victims having suffered from distress or mental health
vulnerability of the people or properties while increasing the
problems that need clinical care.
CAPACITY of the community (answers may vary).
2. Gender and family
People differ in their exposure to risk as a result of
According to the study, women or girls mostly suffer
their social group, gender, ethnic or other identity, age and
more negative effects than do men or boys. When the children
other factors. Vulnerability may also vary in its forms: poverty,
are in the home, disaster recovery is more stressful. Women
for example, may mean that housing is unable to withstand an
with spouses also experience more distress during recovery
earthquake or a very strong typhoon.
than those who are single. Having a family member in the
home who is extremely distressed is related to more stress for
Capacity on the other hand, can be described as the
everyone. After a disaster, marital stress has been found to
resources available to individuals, households and
communities to cope with a threat or to resist the impact of a increase. Conflicts between family members or lack of support
particular hazard. within the family make it harder to recover from disasters.

Disasters often follow natural hazards such as 3. Age

typhoon, earthquake flash flood and the like. Its severity Adults who are in the age range of 40-60 are likely to
depends on how much impact a hazard has caused on society be more distressed after disasters because if you are in that
and the environment. age range, you have more demands from job and family.
Research on how children react to natural disasters is limited.
In general, more severe distress after disasters is seen in the
children than adults. The worse recovery in children is related
to higher stress in the parents.

4. Other factors specific to the survivor

There are several factors related to a survivor's
background and resources which are important for recovery
from disaster. Recovery is worse if the survivors:

 were not prepared before the disaster;

 first time to experience a disaster or no experience at all
in dealing with disasters;
 after the disaster, they are dealing with other stressors.
 have low or poor self-esteem;
 think that nobody cares for them or feeling left alone;
 think that they have little control over what happens to
them; and
 less capacity to manage the stress by themselves.

Other factors have also been found to predict worse outcomes:

 bereavement (death of someone close);

 panic, horror, or feelings like that during the disaster;
 broken family or being separated from family (especially
among youth); and
 being forced to leave home or displaced.

5. Developing countries
If the disaster occurs in developing countries, risk
factors can be made worse. People living in these countries
have more severe mental health impact than those who are
living in developed countries.

6. Low or negative social support

The help and support extended by others can be both
a risk and a resilience factor. After a disaster, social support
may become weak. It may be due to the need for members of
the support network to get on with their own lives or due to
stress. Sometimes others responses for support are negative.
For example, even though you are a survivor and yet someone
may play down your problems, needs, or pain, or expect you to
recover more quickly than is realistic.
7. Communicable Diseases Associated with Natural
Disasters
Natural disaster is usually followed by several
communicable diseases and most of the affected individuals
are those who are displaced. The risk for communicable
disease transmission after disasters is associated primarily
with the size and characteristics of the displaced population,
specifically the proximity of safe water and functioning latrines,
the nutritional status of the displaced population, the level of
immunity to vaccine-preventable diseases such as measles,
and the access to healthcare services.

The following are some of the communicable

diseases associated with natural disasters:

A. Water-related Communicable Diseases - Natural

disaster can jeopardize in accessing safe water.

 Diarrhea. An outbreak of diarrheal disease can occur

after drinking water that has been contaminated with flood
water caused by flooding.

 Hepatitis A and E. Accordingly, hepatitis A and E are

also transmitted by the fecal-oral route, in association
with lack of access to safe water and sanitation. Hepatitis
A is endemic in most developing countries, and most
children are exposed and develop immunity at an early
age. In hepatitis endemic areas, outbreaks frequently
follow heavy rains and floods; the illness is generally mild
and self-limited, but in pregnant women case-fatality rates
can reach 25%

 Leptospirosis is an epidemic-prone zoonotic bacterial

disease that can be transmitted by direct contact with
contaminated water. Rodents or mice shed large amounts
of leptospires in their urine, and transmission occurs
through contact of the skin and mucous membranes with
water, damp soil or vegetation (such as sugar cane), or
mud contaminated with rodent urine.

B. Crowding
It cannot be denied that crowding is common in
populations displaced by natural disasters and this can
facilitate hasten the transmission of many communicable
diseases

 Measles. According to an article on Emerging Infectious

Diseases in 2007, measles and the risk for transmission
after a natural disaster are dependent on baseline
immunization coverage among the affected population,
and in particular among children below 15 years of age.
Living in a very crowded area facilitates the transmission
of measles and necessitate even higher immunization
coverage levels to have outbreak prevention.

After a traumatic event, social conflicts, even those

that have been resolved, may again be seen. Divisions may
occur from social race, religion, and ethnicity. These divisions
may recur because the people of each group try to gain access
to much-needed resources. Conflicts may arise in families as
well. These happen when each member went through different
things in the disaster and sets up different courses of recovery
causing some members in the family not well understood
among family members and may also serve as distressing
reminders to each other of the disaster.
 and health of the following potentially vulnerable groups
are at risk:
 young children, pregnant and nursing women,
unaccompanied children, widows, elderly people
without family support, disabled persons;
 the poor or marginalized people;
 migrants or individuals who leave or flee their
habitual residence to go to new places, usually
abroad to seek better and safer living;
 the displaced populations who leave their habitual
residence in groups, usually due to a sudden impact
disaster, like an earthquake, volcanic eruption or a
flood, threat or community conflict, as a coping
mechanism and with the intent to return; and 5. the
former migrants or displaced people returning to
their homes (returnees).

Household and community structures, community

facilities, livelihood and economic activities, and the
environment are also at risk in times of disaster.
Disaster risk depends on the choices made by
individuals, households, communities and governments. It
might be increased or decreased depending on their
preparedness level, prevention and mitigation.
Generally speaking, when we look into the social
status of certain individuals, family responsibilities or
reproductive role, women may be affected differently from men
but they are not necessarily vulnerable. They are also
resourceful and resilient in times of crisis and play a vital role in
recovery.

D. Emotional Aftershocks
 Natural disasters can be traumatic especially for young
children. Many of them develop post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD), a serious psychological condition
resulting from extreme trauma during a disaster. They are
Disaster Readiness & Risk Reduction (DRRR) confronted with scene of destruction and death of their
Quarter 1/Module 2/Week 1-2 love ones. If these children (with PTSD) are not treated,
they will be prone to lifetime psychological damage and
Lesson 1: Effects of Disaster on One’s Life emotional distress.
A. Displacement  According to Substance Abuse and Mental Health
 Population displacement is one of the most immediate Services Administration (SAMHSA), before and after a
effects of natural disasters. When a certain country is disaster or crisis, it is common for the children, adults,
ravaged by earthquakes and other powerful forces of and first responders to feel emotional distress. Natural
nature, many people have to leave/evacuate their homes and human-caused disasters can have a devastating
and seek shelter in other place. A big influx of refugees impact on people’s lives damage to property, or the loss
can disrupt everything from accessibility of health care of a home or place of employment. Anyone who sees or
and education to food supplies and basic hygiene. Bigger experiences this can be affected in some way. Most
evacuation centers are common for all natural disasters, stress symptoms are temporary and will resolve on their
and only those who are fortunate enough will survive and own in a fairly short amount of time. However, for some
face a range of Challenges following disaster’s people, particularly children and teens, these symptoms
widespread. may last for weeks or even months and may influence
their relationships with families and friends. Common
B. Health Risks warning signs of emotional distress include:
 The secondary effects can be just as damaging as the For adults
obvious danger that natural disaster brings. Typhoons,  Eating or sleeping too much or too little
storm surge and tsunamis often cause severe flooding  Feeling guilty, helpless, or hopeless
that becomes the cause in the spread of waterborne  Avoiding family and friends
bacteria and malaria and as a result, health complications  Crying spells or bursts of anger
will be prevalent among victims or survivors of natural  Losing interest in daily activities
disasters, who need the help of emergency relief not only  Pulling away from people and things
from national level but also from international aid  Having low or no energy
organizations, and even if the immediate danger has  Having unexplained aches and pains, such as constant
passed, death tolls may rise. stomachaches or headaches
 Feeling helpless or hopeless
C. Food Scarcity  Excessive smoking, drinking, or using drugs, including
 After natural disasters, scarcity of food follows. As a result prescription medications
of loss possessions, destroyed crops and a loss of  Worrying a lot of the time; feeling guilty but not sure why
agricultural supplies, thousands of people around the  Thinking of hurting or killing yourself or someone else
world go hungry. Hunger can be tremendous. The lives  Having difficulty readjusting to home or work life
For children (6-11 years old)
 Withdrawing from playgroups and friends
 Competing more for the attention of parents and teachers
 Being unwilling to leave home
 Being less interested in schoolwork
 Becoming aggressive
 Having added conflict with peers or parents
 Having difficulty concentrating
 Become withdrawn
 Resist authority
 Become disruptive or aggressive at home or in the
classroom
 Experiment with high-risk behaviors such as underage
drinking or prescription drug misuse and abuse

For teens
 For teens, the impact of disasters varies depending on
how much of a disruption the disaster causes their family
or community. Teens ages 12 to 18 are likely to have
physical complaints when under stress or be less
interested in schoolwork, chores, or other responsibilities.
 Although some teens may compete vigorously for
attention from parents and teachers after a disaster, they
also may:
 Become withdrawn
 Resist authority
 Become disruptive or aggressive at home or in the
classroom
 Experiment with high-risk behaviors such as
underage drinking or prescription drug misuse and
abuse
 For those who have lived through a natural or human-
caused disaster, the anniversary of the event may renew
feelings of fear, anxiety, and sadness. Certain sounds,
such as sirens, can also trigger emotional distress. These
and other environmental sensations can take people right
back to the disaster, or cause them to fear that it’s about
to trigger happen events” can again happen.
These(SAMHSA)at “any.

Lesson 2: Areas /Locations Exposed to Hazards

1. Flood Plains or Flood-Prone Areas

 What happened when there is a heavy or continuous
rainfall exceeding the absorptive capacity of soil and the
flow capacity of rivers, streams, and coastal areas? Yes,
flooding happens. Flooding causes a watercourse to
overflow its banks onto lands adjacent to it. In general,
flood plains are lands most subject to recurring floods,
located beside or adjacent to rivers and streams. These
are the lands that are inundated by water. Flood plain is
the large area of flat land on either side of a river that is
sometimes covered with water when the river becomes
too full
 Owing to their continually changing nature, floodplains
and other flood-prone areas need to be examined in the
light of how they might affect or be affected by
development.

A landslide is also known as a landslip. It is a

geological phenomenon that includes a wide range of ground
movements. Rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow
debris flows were common. Landslides can occur in offshore,
coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of
gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur,  In Mindanao, The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope Seismology is sending scientists to North Cotabato to
stability. Typically, preconditional factors build up specific sub- study and document previously unidentified fault line that
surface conditions that make the area/slope prone to failure, goes through the provinces of North Cotabato and Sultan
whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before Kudarat.
being released.  Renato Solidum, Phivolcs chief, said it was this new fault
Landslides occur when the stability of the slope line that caused last earthquakes in September 2014 —
changes from a stable to an unstable condition. A change in about 400 have since been recorded, some too feeble to
the stability of a slope can be caused by a number of factors, be felt— in Makilala and Kidapawan City in North
acting together or alone. Natural causes of landslides include: Cotabato and Columbio in Sultan Kudarat. Accordingly,
 groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to there are 80 earthquakes with magnitudes of up to 5.2,
destabilize the slope struck the area and caused damage, from September 20
 Loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil to September 22 alone
nutrients, and soil structure (e.g. after a wildfire - a  There are active faults also near Cagayan de Oro. With
fire in forests lasting for 3–4 days) the recent Bohol Earthquake of magnitude 7.2 last
 erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean October 15, 2013, people in Cagayan de Oro and
waves Misamis Oriental are starting to be aware again about
 weakening of a slope through saturation by snow earthquake hazards. The said Bohol earthquake was felt
melt, glaciers melting, or heavy rains in Cagayan de Oro City (Intensity V).
 earthquakes adding loads to barely stable slope
 earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes
 volcanic eruptions
Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as:
 deforestation, cultivation and construction, which
destabilize the already fragile slopes
 vibrations from machinery or traffic oblasting
 earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, orwhich
imposes new loads on an existing slope
 in shallow soils, the removal of deep- rooted
vegetation that binds colluviums to bedrock
 Construction, agricultural or forestry activities
(logging) which change the amount of water which
infiltrates the soil.)

3. Area with Armed Conflicts

 The word “disaster” usually brings tsunamis to and mi
many other kinds’ of disasters. Accordingly, human
consequences, rather than the phenomenon that causes
it. The physical and psychological destruction of living
creatures is the main point of the word.
 Accordingly, disaster is an actual or threatened accidental
or uncomfortable events that are concentrated in time,
and space, in which society, or a relatively self-sufficient
subdivision of society undergoes severe danger, and
injuries such losses to its members and physical
appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and
the fulfillment of all or some of the essential functions.
 The society’s social basic structure purpose of any
terrorism disruption event. Disaster due to terrorism
always leaves messages to the societies causing social
disruption.

4. Fault line Areas

 A fault, in geography, is a discontinuity in a volume of
rock, across which there has been significant
displacement along the fractures as a result of earth
movement. The Philippine fault system runs from north to
south and east to west of the archipelago.
 In the Metro Manila, the biggest fault line system is the Lesson 3: Disaster from different perspective
Marikina Valley Fault Systemor commonly called the
Valley Fault System. The Marikina Valley Fault System  When a disaster like an earthquake strikes, many
 This active fault line system has the potential of structures are destroyed and properties as well. The
generating up to a 7.2-magnitude earthquake that can wide-ranging physical impacts also cause social and
devastate the capital and nearby provinces. PHILVOCS psychological disruption at community. Survivors are
Director, Renato Solidum Jr. said that a new survey traumatized, become psychologically-ill and others may
discovered new fault traces aside from those previously even have suicidal tendencies. They need guidance and
mapped and since there is no early warning when or immediate care. Others become so sensitive and irritated
where an earthquake occurs, PHILVOCS has bn calling that they will burst to anger even just in a small thing
for public preparedness through earthquake drills and  Biological system is also affected during disasters. Not
contingency plans and checking the structural integrity of only the place or area affected to but for the area where
homes and buildings. rehabilitation site is built.
 Karaniwang inilalagay ng mga manunulat ng tekstong
impormatibo ang mga aklat, kagamitan at iba pang
sanggunian.

MGA URI NG TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO

1. Paglalahad ng Totoong Pangyayari/Kasaysayan

Inilalahad ang mga totoong pangyayaring nagaganap sa
isang pangahon

2. Pag-uulat Pang-impormasyon
Kinakailangan ng masusing pananaliksik dahil naglalahad
ng katotohanan.

3. Pagpapaliwanag
Nagbibigay paliwanag kung paano o bakit nagaganap ang
isang bagay o pangyayari.

IBA’T IBANG URI NG TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO

1. Sanhi at Bunga
Nagpapakita ng direktang relasyon sa pagitan ng bakit
nangyayari (SANHI) At kung ano ang nagging resulta nito
(BUNGA)

2. Paghahambing
TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO Ito naman ay nagpapakita ng pagkakaiba o pagkakatulad
sa pagitan ng kahit anong bagay, konsepto at maging
Ang Tekstong Impormatibo ay isang uri ng babasahing di- pangyayari.
piksyon.
4. Pagbibigay ng depinisyon
Ito ay naglalayong magbigay ng impormasyon o Sa ganitong uri ipinapaliwanag ng manunulat ang
magpaliwanag nang malinaw at walang pagkiling tungkol sa kahulugan ng salita, terminolohiya o konsepto.
iba’t ibang paksa tulad ng sa mga hayop, isports, agham o
siyensiya, kasaysayan, Gawain, paglalakbay, heograpiya, 4. Paglilista ng Klasipikasyon
kalawakan, panahon at iba pa. Sa tekstong ito , ang malawak na paksa ay hinahati sa iba’t
ibang kategorya upang magkaroon ng Sistema ang talakayan.
ELEMENTO NG TEKSTONG IMPORMATIBO
1. LAYUNIN NG MAY-AKDA
Maaaring layunin niyang mapalawak pa ang kaalaman
ukol sa isang paksa.

2. PANGUNAHING IDEYA
Di tulad sa tekstong naratibo na hindi agad inihahayag
ng manunulat ang mga mangyayari upang mapaabot ang
interes ng mamababasa sa tekstong impormatibo naman ay
dagliang inilalahad ang mga pangunahing ideya ng
mambabasa.

3. PANTULONG NA KAISIPAN
Mahalaga rin ang paglalagay ng mga angkop na
pantulong na kaisipan o mga detalye upang makabuo sa isipan
ng mambabasa ang pangunahing ideyang nais niyang
matanim o maiiwan sa kanila.

ESTILO SA PAGSULAT
A. Paggamit ng mga nakalarawang presentasyon
Makakatulong ang paggamit ng:
a. Mga larawan
b. guhit dayagram
c. tsart
d. talahanayan
e. timeline at iba pa
B. Pagbibigay diin sa mahalagang salita sa teksto
nagagamit dito ang mga estilong tulad ng pagsulat nang
nakadiin, nakahilis, nakasalungguhit, o nalagyan ng panipi
upang higit na madaling makita o mapansin ang mga salitang
binibigyang diin sa babasahin.

C. Pagsulat ng mga talasanggunian

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND HEALTH 11 b. Intense Exercise lasting more than twenty seconds
Second Semester – Module 1 relies more on anaerobic glycolysis to produce much of the
Energy System needed ATP.
c. High- intensity events lasting longer than forty-five
1. Inter-action of Energy System seconds use a combination of ATP-PC system, glycolysis, and
Short Term High Intensity Activities the aerobic system to produce the needed ATP for muscular
Contribution of Anaerobic ATP production is contraction.
greater. d. The energy to perform prolonged exercise (ex. 10
Examples: minutes comes primarily from aerobic metabolism.
100- meter dash (Approximately 90%)
400-meter dash (70-75%) D. Factors Governing Fuel Selection
Contribution of Aerobic ATP production for a. Regulation of fuel selection during exercise is
the bulk of the needed energy is greater. dependent on several factors including diet and the intensity of
Examples: exercise.
Marathon (26.2-mile race) b. In general, carbohydrates are used as the major
Long distance swimming events fuel source during high intensity exercise
(400m, 1,500m) c. During prolonged exercise , there is a gradual shift
from carbohydrate metabolism towards fat metabolism
GENERALIZATION: d. Protein contributes less than 2% of the fuel used
The shorter the duration of all-out activity, the greater during exercise of less than hour duration. During prolonged
the contribution of anaerobic production; conversely, the exercise (example: 3-5 hours duration), the total contribution of
longer the duration, the greater the contribution of aerobic protein to the fuel supply may reach 5%-15% during the final
energy production. minutes of prolonged work.

2. Exercise Metabolism Second Semester – Module 2

Exercises pose a serious challenge to the Physical Activity Assessments in Managing One’s Stress
bioenergetics pathways in the working muscles
➢ During heavy exercise the body’s total energy So, when you are hooked by thoughts and feelings,
expenditure may increase 15-25 times at rest which may you are “disengaged” or “distracted”. And, you will be able to
increase energy utilization 200 times over utilization at rest do important things much better. Life as in sports, mental
➢ Skeletal muscles have a great capacity to produce toughness is a common skill among champions. An “emotional
and used large quantities of ATP during exercise storm” means that you experience painful, difficult thoughts
and feelings. They are so intense they are like storm signal #3,
A. Rest to Exercise and they can easily overpower you.
a. Within one step in treadmill (running at 6mph) the Examples are painful memories, fear of the future,
muscles must increase their rate of ATP production from that thoughts about being weak, stupid or bad, painful feelings,
required for standing. anger, fear, sadness, guilt, etc…
b. O2 Consumption increases rapidly and reaches a
steady state within one to four minutes. Step 1: NOTICE how you are feeling and what you
c. O2 Consumption does not increase are thinking. Again, check your thought and feelings.
instantaneously to a steady state value. Step 2: SLOW DOWN and CONNECT with your
i. Anaerobic energy sources contribute to the overall body. Slow your breathing. Empty your lungs completely. Then
production of ATP at the beginning of exercise. let them refill as slowly as possible. A. Slowly press your feet
ii. At the onset of exercise, the ATP-CPr System is on the floor. B. Slowly stretch your arms, or slowly press your
the first active bioenergetics pathway, followed by glycolysis, hands together.
finally, aerobic energy production. Step 3: REFOCUS on the world around you. Notice
where you are. What are five things you can see? A. Breathe
B. Recovery from exercises the air. What can you smell? B. What are three or four things
a. Metabolism remains elevated for several minutes you can hear? C. Notice where you are and what you are
immediately following exercise. doing. D. Touch your knees, or the surface beneath you, or
b. The magnitude and duration of this elevated any object you can reach. Notice what it feels like under your
metabolism Is influenced by the intensity of exercise. fingers.
c. The oxygen uptake is greater and remains elevated Step 4: Notice your breathing with CURIOSITY – as if
for a longer time period following high-intensity exercise when it is the first time you have ever encountered breathing.
compared to exercise of light-tomoderate intensity. Step 5: Now breathe out even more SLOWLY. And
after your lungs are empty, silently count to three before you
C. Metabolic Response to Exercise Influence of Duration breathe in again. Then let your lungs refill as SLOWLY AS
and Intensity POSSIBLE.
a. During high-intensity, short-term exercise (2-20 A. Notice the gentle movements of your shoulders.
seconds), the muscles' ATP production is dominated by the B. Notice the air as it flows in and out of your nostrils.
ATP-PC system. C. Notice your chest moving in and out.
D. Notice how your belly moves in and out.
Second Semester – Module 3 The game started with a serve. The server was
FITT Goals to Achieve and Maintain Health Related allowed three “outs” after which the opposite team was
Fitness permitted to serve. To constitute an out, the ball had to land
Lesson 1: Physical Fitness Test out of-bounds or hit the floor on a second bounce. The game
 Hexagon Agility Test - measures the ability of the body to was introduced as “Mintonette” but after watching the game, a
move in different directions quickly. faculty member of Springfield College, Dr. Alfred T. Halstead,
 Juggling - measure the coordination of the eyes and recommended that the name be changed to volleyball. Shortly
hands. after the game’s invention, Mr. Morgan drew up specifications
 Standing Long Jump - measure the explosive strength for a special ball.
and power of the leg muscles. By 1912, several rule changes had been made.
 Stork Balance Test Volleyball became very popular with schools, colleges,
 Zipper Test - measures upper arm and shoulder girdle playgrounds, and the armed forces. In 1928, the United States
joints Flexibility. - assess one’s ability to maintain Volleyball Association was formed.
equilibrium The FIVB-sponsored world volleyball championships
 40-meter sprint - measure running speed (for men only in 1949; for both men and women in 1952 and
• Due to the pandemic brought about by Covid-19, we succeeding years) led to acceptance of standardized playing
can’t execute this test at home. rules and officiating. The game volleyball was introduced in the
• This test needs open spaces and larger areas. Philippines by the YMCA in 1910. This sport became an
REMEMBER Olympic sport in1964 during the Tokyo Olympic.
In designing a Physical Activity Program The 2000 Olympics introduced significant rule
Are you ready to take your physical activities to the next level? changes to international competition. One change created the
Or do you simply want to begin incorporating exercise into libero, a player on each team who serves as a defensive
your daily routine? Then you should consider using the FITT specialist.
principle.
FITT stands for frequency, intensity, time, and Lesson 3:Fundamental Skills in Volleyball: Digging
type. These are the factors that may determine what kind of INTRODUCTION
impact physical activities will have on your body. Every sport has a set of basic skills associated with it.
• Frequency - the number of times you exercise per While each of these sports also has specialized positions,
week. Frequency should always be determined by the type of every player should know at least the basic set of skills for
activity you’re engaging in. their sport. Volleyball is no exception
• Intensity - degree of intensity is based on the Digging refers to passing but specifically when you’re
amount of work you have to put in. playing defense against your opponent’s attacks. This skill is
• Time - length of time you spend exercising. This has important when you’re trying to keep a rally going and your
directly impacted by the other three components of the FITT team needs to play defense really well. Libero, in modern
model. volleyball refers to the player who cannot play in front of the
• Type - type of physical activity you choose lies at attack line, has different color of jersey
the heart of the FITT principle. uniform and can be substituted even without the help of the
second referee.
Lesson 2: The Nature and Background of Volleyball
Here are the instructions on how to execute dig properly:
The Nature and Background of Volleyball 1. You need to stay low while playing defense. This
Volleyball is a team sport which is played in a court with a high means keeping your
net by two (2) teams with six (6) persons on each team court. knees bent and staying on your toes so you can move quickly
It may be played by all male, all females, or mixed teams with to the ball.
net height adjustments for boys, girls, or age-group 2. Also, keep your eyes on where the ball is going
differences; and using a variety of playing surfaces; wood, and what the ball is doing
rubberized materials, or grass. so you know who is attacking the ball and what kind of attack
is coming (hard driven ball, tip, roll shot, etc.).
The History of Volleyball 3. Once you’ve established the ball is coming toward
Volleyball was first developed by William G. Morgan. you and at what speed, you can adjust your platform
After graduation from Springfield College in Massachusetts in accordingly. If the ball is coming quickly, keep your platform
1895, William G. Morgan took a position as physical director of stable and absorb the ball a little bit by shrugging your
the Holyoke Young Men’s Christian Association. The main shoulders to avoid shaking it.
activity was basketball, a relatively strenuous sport for the 4. On the flip side, if the ball was tipped, you need to
businessmen who used the facilities of the gymnasium. Some add a little swing to your platform when you contact the ball to
older men did not like it because of the roughness of the make your pass higher and reachable for the setter.
game.
In 1896 at a YMCA Conference at Springfield Digging is a defensive maneuver in volleyball that can save
College, Mr. Morgan publicized a new game. A net 6 feet 6 your team from an offensive spike or attack. Doing squats and
inches was stretched across the gymnasium. The main object other exercises that mimic the motions made during digging
of this new game was to hit the ball back and forth over the net will help keep your muscles in shape.
with the hands. To properly execute a good dig, you must remember these
mechanics:
 • You need to stay low while playing defense. This 3. Bring the right arm which should be fully extended
means keeping your knees bent and staying on your toes so to approximately shoulder level and shift weight to the rear
you can move quickly to the ball. foot.
• Also, keep your eyes on where the ball is going and 4. Move the right arm forward to contact the ball with
what the ball is doing so you know who is attacking the ball either the heel of the hand or a closed fist.
and what kind of attack is coming (hard driven ball, tip, roll 5. Follow through in the direction in which the ball is
shot, etc.). to travel.
• Once you’ve established the ball is coming toward
you and at what speed, you can adjust your platform Set is a tactical skill in which a ball is directed to a
accordingly. If the ball is coming quickly, keep your platform point where a player can spike it in the opponent’s court.
stable and absorb the ball a little bit by shrugging your Following the passes, the set is the next touch on the ball if the
shoulders to avoid shanking it. pass allowed you (the setter) to get to the ball on time. You
• On the flip side, if the ball was tipped, you need to want to beat the ball so you can set your body before the ball
add a little swing to your platform when you contact the ball to gets to your hands. This requires you to anticipate where the
make your pass higher and reachable for the setter. pass is going and to move quickly once you pinpoint the
location of the ball.
Lesson 4 Fundamental Skills in Volleyball: Service Also, getting your body set quickly will allow you to
Serving is the method of putting the ball in play over contemplate where you want to set the ball. You normally will
the net by striking it with the hand. The most used service in always have at least 2 options – the outside hitter and the
Volleyball is underhand, overhand and side arm serve. middle hitter – and if you’re setting from the back row then
you’ll have a opposite hitter as well. However, don’t forget that
Proper Mechanics in doing the underhand serve: you have your back-row teammates as hitting options as well.
1. Stand facing the net with the left foot slightly How to Set
forward and the weight on the right foot. 1. Bring your hands together.
2. Hold the ball with the left hand with the left arm 2. Put your hands together with your fingertips
across and a little in front of the body and the ball resting on touching.
the pads of the left fingers. 3. Open up your hands, forming a triangle with your
3. Step left foot forward, transferring the weight to the index fingers and thumbs.
front foot and at the same time; bring the right arm back in a 4. Bring your fingers apart to a distance that would be
preparatory motion. perfect for placing a ball.
4. Swing the right hand forward and contact the ball, *Note: When setting volleyball, the ball should only be
just below the center. contacted by your fingers and never the palms of your hands.
5. The ball can be hit with an open hand or with the The points of contact on your fingers should be close
fist either facing forward or sideward. to the same contact points as when you formed the triangle.
6. Follow through with the arm to ensure a smooth The ball should contact your thumbs and first two fingers with
serve. an equal amount of force, while your last two fingers on both
hands contact the ball with much less force.
Proper Mechanics in doing the Overhand Serve:
1. Stand with the left foot in front and the left side of Lesson 5: Fundamental Skills in Volleyball: Spiking and
the body turned somewhat toward the net with the weight on Blocking
both feet. Hold the ball in the left hand directly in front of the INTRODUCTION
face. Volleyball is a sport that requires you to master a
2. Toss the ball straight up shifting the weight to the complex skill set. Because you rotate from playing front line
back foot. The height of the toss is a matter of choice, but positions to back line positions, you constantly are shifting
from 3 to 5 ft. is suggested. from setting up offensive plays to completing offensive plays.
3. Contact the ball with the open palm or with the fist You also must shift quickly from offense to defense. During
above the shoulder as the ball drops thus shifting the weight to any given sequence in volleyball, a player must be prepared to
the forward foot which can take a short step forward. execute a variety of skills.
* Note: An effective serve is one that has no spin-a floater. The Spiking is one of the most powerful moves in all of
directions are for a right –handed serve. For the left-handed volleyball. When timed correctly, it can overpower a team’s
serve, reverse the position and movements. defensive line and put points on the board in a heartbeat.
Learning how to spike correctly is essential to becoming an
Sidearm Serve - like the overhead serve, the sidearm serve is effective offensive volleyball player, but it takes time, practice,
powerful and difficult to receive. This serve goes over the net and a developed sense of timing.
into a downward trajectory. On the other hand, blocking is a defensive play
made close to the net. The object of a block is to deflect an
Proper Mechanics in doing the sidearm serve: offensive shot directly back toward your opponent. Block
1. Take a forward stride position behind the end line attempts can be made by individual players or pairs of players.
with the left side toward the net. Spiking is act of scoring the ball over the net into the
2. Hold the ball with the left hand in front of the body opposing court effectively and aggressively. It is a form of
and over or slightly ahead of the left foot. attacking and a very popular offensive move used in volleyball.
It is the act of jumping and hitting the ball down into the
opponent’s court, which hopefully results in a “kill”. There are
various types of hits- the outside, middle, and back hits based
on who the hitter is.
A spike is usually performed on the third contact after
the setter; the playmaker of your team has set up the ball. The
purpose of spike is to score a point for your team and finish the
ongoing rally - or at least to make other team's play making as
hard as possible. A spike could be also called a hit, a swing or
a shot.
How to spike:
1. Always keep your eyes on the ball to visualize
when it’s in the best position for a spike.
2. Adjust your body and shift your weight to where the
ball is in the air. If it’s drifting to your left, you’ll need to shift
your body weight to the left in order to be ready to move that
way.
3. Stand 5 or 6 feet back from the net. Run to the net
as the ball is approaching the top of its flight. Take a large step
forward with your left foot—if you spike with your right hand,
opposite if you spike left handed—to create a base for your
jump. Bring your right foot forward and bend your knees.
4. Jump off the ground and get as high in the air as
possible. Position your body so it’s to the left of the ball. Bring
your right arm back behind your body with your palm open.
5. Swing your arm forward as fast as you can so that
it meets the ball moving downward and away from any
blocking players. Hit the ball with the ball of your hand, down
near where the base of your thumb meets your wrist.
6. Follow through fully by bringing your hitting arm
down and across your body. Land on the ground and get back
in position to make another play.

Blocking
Blocking is an action taken by players by standing or
jumping at the front of the net to stop or alter the opponent’s
attack. Blocking is not learned by all players since only the
front row utilizes it. However, it is the main defense against the
opponent's attacks and helps to slow down the speed of the
attacks to make it easier for the back row to pass. Blocking
can be done by one to three players. There are single, double,
and triple blocks in volleyball. The concept behind the three
blocks is all the same.
How to block:
1. Stand in stride position with the shoulders parallel
with the net, about 6 to 12 inches far with the knees slightly
flexed for quick movement.
2. Position the hands between the net and the body
at shoulder height with fingers spread and palms facing the
net.
3. Flex the knees to a near 100degree angle and
jump off from the floor and thrust the arms straight upward
parallel with the net.
4. As the hands clear net height, gently push them
across as far as possible, being careful not to touch the net.
Position the outside hand slightly toward the court to deflect
the ball inward.
5. Pike slightly at the waist for balance and power.
6. Withdraw hand gently upon descending and return
them in front of the body.
7. Bend the knees upon floor contact to absorb shock
and for balance. Pivot away from the net, following the
direction of the ball.
RANDOM VARIABLES & PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
STATISTICS (noun)- the science of collecting and analyzing
numerical data in large quantities, especially for the purpose
of inferring proportions in a whole from those in a
representative sample.
STATISTIC (singular) - A fact or piece of data from a study of
a large quantity of numerical data.
Example:
"the statistics (plural) show that the crime rate has increased"
PARAMETER- A parameter is a number describing a whole
population (e.g., population mean), while a statistic is a
number describing a sample (e.g., sample mean).

Random Variables
 A random variable is a variable whose value is unknown
or a function that assigns values to each of an
experiment's outcomes.
 Random variables are often designated by letters and
can be classified as discrete, which are variables that
have specific values, or continuous, which are variables
that can have any values within a continuous range.
 Random variables are often used in econometric or
regression analysis to determine statistical relationships
among one another.

Examples of random variables:

 Number of defective cell phones produced in a
manufacturing factory daily
 Amount of paint needed to repaint a room
 Amount of time needed to walk from home to school
 Gender of students taking up BS Criminology
 Height of applicants for the Miss Universe pageant
Probability Distribution
 A probability distribution is a statistical function that
describes all the possible and likelihoods that a random
variable can take within a given range. This range will be
bounded between the minimum and maximum possible
values but precisely where the possible value is likely to
be plotted on the probability distribution depends on a
number of factors. This factors include the distribution’s
mean (average), standard deviation, skewness, and
kurtosis.
 Probability distributions describe the dispersion of the
values of a random variable. Consequently, the kind of
variable determines the type of probability distribution.
 interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own
personal lens.

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Qualitative data analysis

Examples Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and
audio. For example, you might be working with interview
● Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from
non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to natural settings.
understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can
be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or
generate new ideas for research. Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five
● Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative steps:
research, which involves collecting and analyzing ● Prepare and organize your data. This may mean
numerical data for statistical analysis. transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
● Qualitative research is commonly used in the ● Review and explore your data. Examine the data for
humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, ● Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial
history, etc. ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to
categorize your data.
Qualitative research question examples ● Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative
1. How does social media shape body image in teenagers? survey analysis, this may mean going through each
2. How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the participant’s responses and tagging them with codes
UK? in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you
3. What factors influence employee retention in a large can create new codes to add to your system if
organization? necessary.
4. How is anxiety experienced around the world? ● Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into
5. How can teachers integrate social issues into science cohesive, overarching themes.
curriculums?
Content analysis
Approaches ● To describe and categorize common words, phrases,
Grounded theory and ideas in qualitative data.
● Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest ● A market researcher could perform content analysis
and develop theories inductively. to find out what kind of language is used in
Ethnography descriptions of therapeutic apps.
5. Researchers immerse themselves in groups or Thematic analysis
organizations to understand their cultures. ● To identify and interpret patterns and themes in
Action research qualitative data.
6. Researchers and participants collaboratively link ● A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel
theory to practice to drive social change. blogs to explore how tourism shapes self-identity.
Phenomenological research Textual analysis
● Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by ● To examine the content, structure, and design of
describing and interpreting participants’ lived texts.
experiences. ● A media researcher could use textual analysis to
Narrative research understand how news coverage of celebrities has
3. Researchers examine how stories are told to changed in the past decade.
understand how participants perceive and make Discourse analysis
sense of their experiences. ● To study communication and how language is used to
achieve effects in specific contexts.
Example ● A political scientist could use discourse analysis to
To research the culture of a large tech company, you decide to study how politicians generate trust in election
take an ethnographic approach. You work at the company for campaigns.
several months and use various methods to gather data:
● You take field notes with observations and reflect on Advantages of qualitative research
your own experiences of the company culture. Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and
● You distribute open-ended surveys to employees perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new
across all the company’s offices by email to find out if research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:
the culture varies across locations.
● You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in ● Flexibility
your office to learn about their experiences and The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as
perspectives in greater detail. new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided
beforehand.
Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ● Natural settings
“instruments” in research because all observations,
Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic studies where observers are aware of the research
ways. aims and hypotheses. Observer bias is also called
● Meaningful insights detection bias.
Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and Example: Subjective methods
perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving You perform an observational study to investigate how young
systems or products. children interact with a new toy. The children are paired up and
● Generation of new ideas given one new toy, and you and another researcher observe
Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover how often they share or take turns playing with it.
novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have You note down and interpret different types of interactions
thought of otherwise. between the children and conclude that they spent most of the
time sharing the toy and having positive interactions. Your
Disadvantages of qualitative research colleague, however, disagrees, finding that most of their
Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations exchanges seemed unfriendly.
in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research
suffers from: ● Recall bias refers to systematic differences in the
ability of participant groups to accurately recall
● Unreliability information. Observational studies that rely on self-
The real-world setting often makes qualitative research reporting of past behaviors or events are particularly
unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data. prone to this type of bias.
● Subjectivity Example: Recall bias
Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and Parents whose children have developed asthma are likely to
interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated. be quite concerned about what may have contributed to their
The researcher decides what is important and what is child’s condition.
irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data As a result, if asked by a researcher, these parents are more
can vary greatly. likely to recall relevant details, such as changes in their
children’s breathing when active or resting, than parents of
3. Limited generalizability children without any health issues.
Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about They’ve also already associated possible triggers, such as
specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is certain foods, environments, or other allergens, with their
difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data child’s asthma. This difference in the ability to recall
may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population. information results in recall bias.

● Labor-intensive ● Social desirability bias occurs when respondents

Although software can be used to manage and record large give answers to questions that they believe will make
amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or them look good to others, concealing their true
performed manually. opinions or experiences. It often affects studies that
focus on sensitive or personal topics, such as politics,
drug use, or sexual behavior.
Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research Social desirability bias is a type of response bias.
biases including the Hawthorne effect, observer bias, recall Here, study participants have a tendency to answer
bias, and social desirability bias. While not always totally questions in such a way as to present themselves in
avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and socially acceptable terms, or in an attempt to gain the
analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work approval of others.
too much. It is especially likely in self-report questionnaires, but
it can also affect the validity of any type of behavioral
● The Hawthorne effect refers to people’s tendency to research, particularly if the participants know they’re
behave differently when they become aware that they being observed. However, there are ways to detect
are being observed. As a result, what is observed and reduce research bias in your research design if
may not represent “normal” behavior, threatening the you know what to look for.
internal and external validity of your research. Example: Social desirability bias
Example: Hawthorne effect You are conducting a study about the relationship between
You are researching the smoking rates among bank gambling and drug use. You ask participants to fill out a survey
employees as part of a smoking cessation program. You where you ask about their habits regarding the use of cocaine
collect your data by watching the employees during their work and casino gambling. These types of questions require
breaks. participants to admit to attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors that may
If employees are aware that you are observing them, this can violate social norms.
affect your study’s results. For example, you may record Due to this, participants may downplay how often they visit
higher or lower smoking rates than are genuinely casinos or use cocaine. In other words, they may give answers
representative of the population under study. they consider to be socially desirable in order to project a
favorable image of themselves, or to avoid being perceived
● Observer bias happens when a researcher’s negatively.
expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what
they perceive or record in a study. It often affects
 2. Synonyms – words that mean the same as
Reading and Writing another word.
Paragraph by Definition Example:
Fe S. Pablico, SHS Teacher A student’s intelligence (or mental capacity) is
measured by using IQ test.
Paragraph by Definition
 It explains what a term means. 3. Denotation – exact meaning of the word, the
 When you want your readers to know exactly how you dictionary meaning.
are using a certain term or unfamiliar concept.
4. Connotation – an idea or meaning suggested by
Types of Definition or associated with a word or thing
1. Formal Definition – provided in dictionaries, which include
three terms: Definition paragraph – is a definition sentence which is
a. term – the word being defined extended into a paragraph by adding meanings, descriptions,
b. class – the big group to which the term belongs narrations and other kinds of paragraph development to make
c. differentiating features – a word or phrase that clear the term being defined.
makes it different with the others from the same class
The paragraph starts with a definition sentence which is used
Examples of Formal Definition as the topic sentence. Then, each group/class in the definition
1. Scientific writing is a form of writing that is based on is developed into supporting sentences and concluding
actual and relevant studies. statement.
term – Scientific writing
class – writing Example:
differentiating features – based on actual and Anger
relevant studies Anger is having a feeling of hatred toward someone or
Example: Science is the field of study which attempts to something. It is one of our basic emotions and can be most
describe and understand the nature of the universe in dangerous if it is not carefully controlled. A person can become
whole or part. Angry when he cannot fulfill some basic needs or desire that is
term is ________ important to him. For example, a child may become angry
class is ________ when he cannot play outside with his friends. An adult may
differentiating features ______ become angry when he does not receive a raise in pay that he
expected. Mentally, anger can interfere with our thoughts,
2. Informal Definition – there are three common informal making it difficult to think clearly. Physically, it may cause
definitions: violent reactions in our muscles and in the nervous system.
 Operational definition This causes an angry person to flush and tremble and to show
 Synonyms other signs of disturbance. A person can be dangerous if he is
 Denotation/Connotation in an angry mood because he can develop feelings of hostility
and hatredtoward another person, which can then often turn
Types of Informal Definition violent.
1. Operational definition - is a result of the process of
operationalization and is used to define something (e.g. a
variable, term, or object) in terms of a process. It defines
concept by the way they are measured.
Examples of Operational Definition
 *Temperature -how much a column or mercury or red
colored alcohol expands in a thin tube put in the thing
whose temperature you want to measure.
 *0 degrees– a temperature at which a concentrated
mixture of salt and water freezes.
 *100 degrees – is the temperature at which a liquid
begins to boil, equivalent to 212 degrees Fahrenheit or
100 degrees Celsius.