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46 viewsFunctions 1
Uploaded by
nathanmunene254Copyright
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/ 14
NB: The results above could not necessarily hold if Ax B = 0.
For instance, let A = D = ® and let B = {x} and C = {y}
Thea Ax B=andC xD
Ax B=CxD
However, B ¢ D
FUNCTIONS:
Def Let A and B be nonempty set sets. A function f from A to Bis a
rule that assigns to cach clement of A exactly one element of B. We write f(a)
b if bisa unique clement of B assigned by the funetion f to the element a of
A. If fis a function from A to B, we write
fiA+BorA+B
In this case we call A the domain off, denoted dom f, and B the codomain
of f, denoted cod f. IF fla) =, we say that b is the image of a and a is the
reimage of b. The range, or image of fis the subset of B containing all the
images of the elements of A. It is denoted f(A) or range for imf.
In other words, f( {b€ B) 3a A, b= f(a)
Remark: Functions are also called mappings or transformations. We usu-
ally use lower case letters to denote fimetions
If fA» B, we say that f maps A to B,
Example:
T. Consider the following relations:
MISSING DIAGRAMS
In this case fis a function with domain A = a,b, cand codomain B = 1,2,3,4.
Also, f(a) = 3. f(0) = 4, fe) = 4, and f(A) = imf =3
However, gis not a finction since the element a in Ais assigned two distinct
elements of B. Similarly, h is not a function since 6 € A is not assigned any
clement of B by hy
2, Let A= 1,2,3,4,5 and B= a.bod with f(1) = 5, f(2) = a f(8) =
4, §(1) =a, and f(5) =a. Then f is a function from A to B and im f = a,b,d
3. Let f: 2» Z where f(e) = 22. Then
dom = Set of all integers %
codf = Set of all integers Z
rangef = the set ofall integers that are perfect squares i. {0,1,4,9, 16...)
4. If f(w) = “3, then dom f =R|{0}.
Defn: A function is called a real-valued if its codomain is the set of real
numbers, and is called integer-valued if its codomain is the set of integers.
Defin: Let fi and fo be functions from A to R. ‘Then fi + fo and fifa are
also functions from A to B defined v2 CA by:
(f+ fala) = fale) + fale)
ila) fala)
Tet fi and fy be functions from R to R such that (2)
=a”. Then
(ht h)G@) = Ale) + hala)
2+ (e 22) )= ae 24)
‘Types of Functions
Gne-to-one Functions (Injections)
A function J is said to be one-to-one (1 - 1), or injection, if and only if
J(0) = f(b) implies that a = b for all 2 and y in the domain of f ic. if and
only if distinet images in the codomain. A funetion is called injective i itis
ono-to-one.
NB: A function f is one-to-one if and only if f(a) # f(b) whenever a # b.
Example:
T. Determine whether the function f from {a, b, ¢, d) to (1,2, 8, 4, 5} with
S(a) =4, f(b) =5, flo) = Land f(d) #3 is one-to-one.
Solutios
Representing the function using an arrow diagrams:
MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM
Distinct elements in dom have distinct images in codf. So, f is 11
2. Let f :Z > Z where f(x) = 2. In this case f(1) = f(-1) = 1. However,
1 #1. Therefore, the function is not 1
3. The function g : Z + Z, g(x) = 2°
4. The function h:Z > 2, h(a) = 241 is 1~ 1 also,
Given a function Jf, to check whether f is 1~1, we first asst
‘Then if we manage to'show that 2 = y, the function is 1 ~ 1.
Example:
T. Let FRR be defined by f(e) = 2r-+3, Determine whether f is 1—1
or not.
= Sly).
Solutio
Suppose J(21) = f(a), Thea
=a=tn
‘Thus, f is not 1 ~1.
However, g:R! -R, g(x) = 2? is 1-1.
tion. Then if |A| > |B, then f is mot 1 = 1
‘A function J = A — B is called onto, or a surjections, if and only if Vb © B
3a © A for which f(a) = i.e. if and only if every element in the co-domain has
fa pre-image, This in turn implies that f is onto if and only if imf = eodf = B.
A function f is called surjective if it is onto,
Example:
T. Consider the function f and g with arrow diagrams as below
MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM
‘Then f is not onto since the element 3 in codf has no pre-image i.e. notexists
dom{ for which f(z) = 3. However, f is 1 ~
a ‘On the other hand g is onto since Wy € cod g 5 C dom g such that g() = y.
However, g is not 1 1 since g(b) = g(e) =2 yet 6 #e
2. The function f: RR, f(x) = 2 is not onto since R~ (negative real
numbers) do not have pre-images. However, 9: R* > R*, g(x) = 2? is onto.
8. The function f : RR, f(z) > 2° is onto,
4. The function f:ZZ*, f(z) =|aj= * t20
2 if r<0
one-to-one.
5. Show that the function f: 2+ %, f(e) =2-+1 is onto
Solutio:
Vy CZ, ae € 2, f(x) = y. Thisis 90 because f(x) = yif and only if +1
Which is the ease if and only if = y ~ 1
NB: lf f: A Bisa fimetion and |A| <|B\, then f is not onto.
Bijections:
‘A fanetion J : A+ B is called a bijection, or a one-to-one correspondence,
i itis both 11 and onto. In this ease we say that f is bijective
Example:
T. Let fbe the function from {a,b,¢,d} to {1,2,3,4) with f(a) = 4, #(2) =
2, fle) =i, and f(a)
MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM
The function f is both 1 — 1 and onto. Hence, fis a bijective.
2, The function f : RR, f(r) = 2° is a bijection since itis both 1-1 and
onto. However, 9: R with g(x) = x is not a bijection since it is not 1-1
or onto,
3. The function f :Z > 2, f(z) = # +1 is a bijective.
im: If f : A» B is a bijection, then |A| = |B.
is onto but not
Due to one-to-oneness || = |f(4)] and due to ontoness |f(A)|
fore |A| = |B]
Identity Function:
For norempty set A, there exists a trivial mapping that maps every element
of A to itself, This is called the identity funetion, denoted by i. Soi: A> A
such that a(a) =a Va € A. The identity function is one-to-one and onto, s0 it
3s a bijection.
Example:
Tet A= (,2,3,4). Then i: A> A, i(a) =a Yae A, ie i(1) = 1, 12) =
(8) = 8 and a(4) = 4. From an arrow diagram point of view.
MISSING AN ARROW DIAGRAM
Constant Funetion
Let f: A> B be a function. Then / is called a constant fanetion if there
is a Bxed clements b ¢ B such that f(a) =b Vac A
Example:
Let A={1, 2, 8, 4} and B = {a, b, c}. Deine f : A + B such that
J() = F2) = f(3) = f(4) = 4. Then, f is constant function.
MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM
Inverse Functions
Bl. There-
2 Suppose { : A > B is a bijection. Since f is onto, then every element bc B
Js the image of some element a C A. Also, since J is 1-1, then for every 6 < B
there is a unique a € A such that b= f(a). Consequently, we can define a new
function from B to A. This function is called the inverse function of f, denoted
by f-1.If f(a) =0, then f-4(6) =a
NB:
1. A function f is invertible (i.e. has an inverse f-2) if and only if it is
bijective
2. The inverse function J is not the same as the function $
Exampl
T. Find the inverse function of f : R + R where f(z)
1x ~ 3. Making 2 the subject we have
My)
Now, replace 2 with y~
pies
So that f-'(x) = =
2, Find the inverse function of f sR + R f(x
Solution:
Tet
y= f(z) = 3H
> day + Ty
Je) and y and 2 gives
aa=5e
soap =F)
Replacing 3 with (x) and y with a we have
f@)=Ee
3. Let f be a function from {a, b, c} to {1, 2, 3} such that f(a) = 2,
J(8) = 3 and f(c) = 1. Then f is invertible since itis a bijection. Furthermore,
£72) =a, $43) = b and f-*(1) =e.
MISSING DIAGRAM ARROW
4. ‘The function f : Z-> Z such that f(2) = +1 is invertible with
Jy) =y—Lwhile the function g: +R where g(z) = x? is not invertible
Since g is not 1 - 1 oF onto,
‘Composition of Functions
Suppose two functions are such that the codomain of the fxs is equal to the
domain of the second. Then we can define a function from the domain of the
first to the codomain of the second comprising of the two functions following
each other.
For instance, let [A> B and g : BC be functions. We can define a
fanction from A'to C which would be f followed by g, denoted by gof and read
as “g composition £". Such a function is called a composite function.
43 MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM
Clearly, (gof)(a) = a f(a).
NB: In the case above fog is not defined since cod g # dom £
a,b, ch, BH{L, 2, 3), Cmfz,y,2} and let fA > B with
F(a) =2, f(6) =3, fle) = L and g: B+ © with o(1) = 2, 9(2) =, 9(8) =y
‘Then gof is defined since cod J dom g. In this ease
(oof la
(90H)
Gof)lo
Note that fog is not defined since cod g¥ dom f
MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM
2. Let f: R > Rand g: R + R be defined by f(a) = 2? +1 and
g(a) = 22 ~5 respectively. Then
Tn general, fog # gof. In other words, composition of functions is not
commutative
‘A composition of two bijections is another bijection
3, Let fig: ZZ be deained by f(x) = 22-+3 and g(x) = 3¢ +2, Find
Jog and gof
NB:
For any three functions j, 9 and hy (fog)oh = folgoh). Tis is clear since
[Foa)ohlx = [Foath(z) = Ftothte)i}
And
[fo(goh)]x = F{lgoh](z)} = F{a{h(2)]}
Example:
et fig,
Then
[fog)oh|x = [fo(goh)](x)
ZZ where fz) = 30+2, glx) = 2? ~ 8 and h(x) = 2x 41 Salh(o)]}
= Hoax +1}
= {22+ 1)? 3}
= F{4x? +42 — 2}
(4x? + 4 — 2) +2
= 122? + 122-4
‘Theorem: If f : A> B is a bijection then fof-! = frtof =i
Proof
Recall that if f(a) = b, then J-4(0) =a for a bijection J:
Now
(Fof")(0) = FLO)
(a)
> foft=i
Also
Flofla) = F(a}
=F)
> flop =i
Therefore, fof"! = fo}
Exercise:
at if both f: A> Band g: B+ C are surjectives then gof is also
how
surjective
Functions that Involve Cartesian Produets of sets
Since in the definition of a function we require the domain and the codomain
to be non-empty, either of the two or even both may be a cartesian product of
sets,
Example:
T. The function f : 2» %, fle
first integer in the pair. ‘The fiction is onto but not 11. Eg. f(0,
J(0,2)=0
2. Similarly, the function g : Z x Z + Z, f(a,b) = 2a ~ bis onto but not
1-1, Eg, 9(1,1) = 9(0,-1)
METHODS OF PROOF
= 2 assigns to each pair of integers the
+ Theorem.
fa statement that can be shown to be true. Less important
theorems are called propositions, Theorems can also be reffered to as
facts or
* Proof - a valid argument that establishes the truth of a theorem, ie. a
demonstration that a theorem is true.
‘+ Axioms / Postulates - statements that are used in the proof of another
theorem,
‘+ Lomma - a simple theorem that is used in the proof of another theorer,
45 ‘+ Corollary - a theorem that can be established directly from the theorem
that has been proved, ie. a consequence of a theorer.
‘+ Conjecture - a statement that is being proposed to be true but that has
ot been proved i.e, its truth value is unknown, When the proof of a
conjecture is found, the conjecture becomes a theorem.
1. Direet Proof
This is a proof p > q is true that proceeds by showing that q is true when
pis true. One begins with the premise p and comes up with some intermediate
propositions p2, po; ; Pus and end with the conclusion q, Le. p> pi -* pe >
Pn 4.
Sometimes when coming up with the intermediate propositions one urgues
from both propositions p and q. This is called forward - backward reasoning.
Examples:
T. Use direct proof to proof that if a is odd and b is even, then ab is even,
Proof:
Tras odd, then a= 22 + 1 for some x € Zand
if bis even, then 5 = 2y for some y © Z
Now:
ab = (20+ 1)2y
= dey + 2y
(2ry + y) where 2ry ty eZ
Thus, ab is even
2. Proof that the produet of two odd numbers is odd.
Proof,
Suppose both a and 6 are odd, Then a = 2m +1 and b= 2n+1 where
m,n©Z. Now,
(2m + 1)(2n +1)
ymin + 2m-+2n +1
(2mn m+n) 1
Which is odd
4, Proof that the product of any two rational numbers is rational
Pro!
Tet a,b € Q. Then a= 2 and
ab=E xt
=!
Wilere pr, gs © % and gs #0. Hence ab is rational.
4. Proof that if m and n are perfect squares, then mn is also a perfect
square.
Pro!
Suppose m
= where p,q.n.s € Zand q,840, Now,
and n= y? where 2,y € Z. Then
fay)? where 2.y € Z
Therefore, mn is a perfect square
5. Give a direct proof for the statement that “if gis even, then 4 divides q?" Proof:
Suppose q is even. Then 3 ¢.¢ Z such that q = 2
Now,
So, 4 divides q?.
6. Proof that if n is an odd integer, then n? is also odd.
Proot
Suppose n = 2p-+ 1, p 2 ‘Phen
n?= p+ 1)2p-+1)
ip? + 4p +1
(2p +2p) +1
Which is odd
2. Proof by Contraposition:
‘This method makes use of the fact that the conditional statements p> @
is equivalent to its contrapositive ~ q —r~ p. So, the conditional p ~» q can be
proved by showing that its contrapositive, ~ g ->~ p, is true
‘This method is used when we cannot easily find a direct proof. Such a proof
is called an indirect proof
Example:
1. Prove that ifn is an integer and Sn +2 is od, then n is odd
Proof
The corresponding contrapositive is fn is even, then 3n +2 is even’
Suppose n is even, Then n = 2k, k € 2.
(2k) +2 = 2(3-+1) where Bk+1¢Z
So, n +2 is even,
2. Show that 2 is odd if 2? is odd,
ugh to show that if x is even, then 2 is even also.
Suppose z is even. Then x = 2p, p eZ
= 2(2p) where 2p ¢ Z
So, 2? is even.
3. Prove that if'n = ab for some positive integers @ and b, then a < VF or
be yi.
Proo!
The contrapositive of the given statement is “if a > yi and b> yi then
n fab"
Suppose a> Yi and b> YR. Then ab > Vy =
So, ng ab
3. Proof by Contradiction:
Suppose p is a proposition. We can prove that p is true by showing that
~ pis false; this can be done by showing that ~ p— (qA ~ q) is true for some
ie. n 0 then
p(n) is true for every n € N.
Examples:
1, Show that the suin of the fist m natural numbers is
V npn) is true where pn) is
Proof
Wo show that 12) 342. ¢ = Sb
"There are two stops involved
(@) Base step: Prove for n=
1-2-1
(b) Inductive step : Assume true for n = and prove for n = k+1
For n =k, then 142434 ...¢4 = High
Form =k 41
THES 4 REA)
= MD 4)
So true for n= KF
Since true for n= 1 and true for n= k-+ 1 whenever true for m= h, then it
is true for every n > 1
2. Prove that the sum of the first even m even natural mamber is n(n + 1)
Prool
2416+. }2n=n(n+1)
Cheek if itis true for n= 1
2=10)
Hence true for n = 1
‘Assume true for n =k, then
2HAt GH... 42k = W(k+1)
Forn=k+1
2A G6 on | Db+AWk+ 1) +2k + 1)= (K+ IVE +2)
Since true for n=1 and true form = k +1, whenever true for n =k, it is
true for every n > 1
3, Prove that the sum of the first n odd natural numbers is n?.
49 Prooft
Te 3454. }Qn4 1 ant
Check for n = 1,
1=1°, hence true for n = 1
Assume true for n =k, then
12345=... + (2k-1)=?
Forn=k+1
T4454 ob Qk ~1)+(2k41
Since true for n = 1 and true for n
true for all values of n> 1.
4. Prove that the sum of the squates of the frst n natural numbers is
An(n+1)(2n +1)
Proof:
Tyo ast +n? = dnl + n+ 1)
Check for'n = 1
P= 22E
Assume true for n
P+ P43 +..+h
Forn=k+1
Pe 4 Fst +R +LP
AELR(2R +1) + 6k +1)
(2k? + 7h +6)
Bk +2)(0 +3)
HA U(k +1) + 12 +1) + 1)
So, true for n= k-+ 1 whenever true for n = k. Therefore, itis true for all
positive integers n > 1.
5.149 +5 ++ 2m — 1)? = Sndn? - 1)
Forn=1
12 = 2(1)[4(1) ~ 1) = 1, hence true for n =1
Assume true for n =k; then
14384 58 44 (2b 1)? = gh(AM 1)
Forn=k+1
P4945? 4.4 (2k 1)? + fe +1) -1P
u(ak? — 1) + (2-41) — 1?
wWosapiu — pisyKor yisdisy
wae taes — 94 4 1)(Qk +3)
a eae sess OS aR? 4 Bh 4 3)
i Be a(R? + 28 +1) — 1)
Bea? + 2k +1) ~ 1) = Se +1)? -1)
ace +121]
kaye
+ 1 whenever true for m=
ik is
1, hence true for n
, then
de(e-+ 1)(2k-+ 1)
Bak + 1)(2k +1) + (+1)? lever true for n= k. ‘Therefore, it is true for all
So, true for n= kh
positive integers.
6. Show that 8? — 1 is divisible by 7 for all positive integers n
Proof
(1) so true for n
Suppose true for n= k
124324574... 4 (2k 1)? + [atk +1) IP
(AR? ~ 1) + 204 1) = 1?
Haein a aki yae-1ys92469)
we seaphie _ akenwas ysa(esn]
© wee yo yaks] _ aey GE ss
ee +
eae Tiess — WEN, + 1)(2k-+3)
cesiaetaabasked — (442 + Bh +3)
= Geass Wg? + 2k +1) — 1]
Shae? + 2+ 1) — 1) = Bae + 7-1)
= SP e+e
So, true for n =k +1 whenever true for n =k. ‘Therefore itis true for all
positive integers n
7. Show that 8" ~ 1 is divisible by 7 forall postive integers.
Proo!
For n=1,7-8!
Suppose true for n
Bka1
For n = k +1 Check if 8**1 — 1 is divisible by 7.
git paar 147
ght] 18.1 +8.1-1=8(72) +7
(8 — 1) +7 = 7(82 +1)
=> T divides 8**! —1
So, true for n = k-+ 1 whenever true for n = k. Therefore, true for all
positive integers.
8. Show that 8 is a factor of 9" ~ 1 for every positive integer n.
Proo!
so true for n
k
8(1) so true for n=
Suppose true for n= k, k€ Z~
8(t), kez
ke
=o 949 —
‘True for n.
NUMBERS ‘+ The set of all natural numbers (positive integers) is
N= (1,2,3,4,...}(ltis also denoted by Z*)
+ The set of non-negative integers ig
zronnes — (0,1,2,8,4, ..} = Z* U {0}
‘+ The set of integers (whole number is)
Bay B-2,-1,0,1,2,34,..}
4 The set of rational numbers is
Q= (ele = $,0,b€ 2,54 0 and geda,2) = 1}
Numbers that are not rational are called irrational. ‘The set irrational
numbers is denoted Q*
‘« The set of all peal numbers is given by R= QUQE.
‘* A.complex number is one of the form a-+bi where a and bare real numbers
‘while ‘is the imaginary number defined as i = VT. The set ofall complex.
numbers is denoted by C.
NB:NCZcQcRe
‘* A positive integer p is called prime if it has exactly two positive divisors,
namely 1 and p itself. ‘The frst few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,
17, 19 and 23. The number 2 is the only even prime number.
* An integer n > 1 is called composite if it is not prime. In other words
1 is composite if there exists two integers a and b with 1
