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NB: The results above could not necessarily hold if Ax B = 0. For instance, let A = D = ® and let B = {x} and C = {y} Thea Ax B=andC xD Ax B=CxD However, B ¢ D FUNCTIONS: Def Let A and B be nonempty set sets. A function f from A to Bis a rule that assigns to cach clement of A exactly one element of B. We write f(a) b if bisa unique clement of B assigned by the funetion f to the element a of A. If fis a function from A to B, we write fiA+BorA+B In this case we call A the domain off, denoted dom f, and B the codomain of f, denoted cod f. IF fla) =, we say that b is the image of a and a is the reimage of b. The range, or image of fis the subset of B containing all the images of the elements of A. It is denoted f(A) or range for imf. In other words, f( {b€ B) 3a A, b= f(a) Remark: Functions are also called mappings or transformations. We usu- ally use lower case letters to denote fimetions If fA» B, we say that f maps A to B, Example: T. Consider the following relations: MISSING DIAGRAMS In this case fis a function with domain A = a,b, cand codomain B = 1,2,3,4. Also, f(a) = 3. f(0) = 4, fe) = 4, and f(A) = imf =3 However, gis not a finction since the element a in Ais assigned two distinct elements of B. Similarly, h is not a function since 6 € A is not assigned any clement of B by hy 2, Let A= 1,2,3,4,5 and B= a.bod with f(1) = 5, f(2) = a f(8) = 4, §(1) =a, and f(5) =a. Then f is a function from A to B and im f = a,b,d 3. Let f: 2» Z where f(e) = 22. Then dom = Set of all integers % codf = Set of all integers Z rangef = the set ofall integers that are perfect squares i. {0,1,4,9, 16...) 4. If f(w) = “3, then dom f =R|{0}. Defn: A function is called a real-valued if its codomain is the set of real numbers, and is called integer-valued if its codomain is the set of integers. Defin: Let fi and fo be functions from A to R. ‘Then fi + fo and fifa are also functions from A to B defined v2 CA by: (f+ fala) = fale) + fale) ila) fala) Tet fi and fy be functions from R to R such that (2) =a”. Then (ht h)G@) = Ale) + hala) 2+ (e 22))= ae 24) ‘Types of Functions Gne-to-one Functions (Injections) A function J is said to be one-to-one (1 - 1), or injection, if and only if J(0) = f(b) implies that a = b for all 2 and y in the domain of f ic. if and only if distinet images in the codomain. A funetion is called injective i itis ono-to-one. NB: A function f is one-to-one if and only if f(a) # f(b) whenever a # b. Example: T. Determine whether the function f from {a, b, ¢, d) to (1,2, 8, 4, 5} with S(a) =4, f(b) =5, flo) = Land f(d) #3 is one-to-one. Solutios Representing the function using an arrow diagrams: MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM Distinct elements in dom have distinct images in codf. So, f is 11 2. Let f :Z > Z where f(x) = 2. In this case f(1) = f(-1) = 1. However, 1 #1. Therefore, the function is not 1 3. The function g : Z + Z, g(x) = 2° 4. The function h:Z > 2, h(a) = 241 is 1~ 1 also, Given a function Jf, to check whether f is 1~1, we first asst ‘Then if we manage to'show that 2 = y, the function is 1 ~ 1. Example: T. Let FRR be defined by f(e) = 2r-+3, Determine whether f is 1—1 or not. = Sly). Solutio Suppose J(21) = f(a), Thea =a=tn ‘Thus, f is not 1 ~1. However, g:R! -R, g(x) = 2? is 1-1. tion. Then if |A| > |B, then f is mot 1 = 1 ‘A function J = A — B is called onto, or a surjections, if and only if Vb © B 3a © A for which f(a) = i.e. if and only if every element in the co-domain has fa pre-image, This in turn implies that f is onto if and only if imf = eodf = B. A function f is called surjective if it is onto, Example: T. Consider the function f and g with arrow diagrams as below MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM ‘Then f is not onto since the element 3 in codf has no pre-image i.e. notexists dom{ for which f(z) = 3. However, f is 1 ~ a‘On the other hand g is onto since Wy € cod g 5 C dom g such that g() = y. However, g is not 1 1 since g(b) = g(e) =2 yet 6 #e 2. The function f: RR, f(x) = 2 is not onto since R~ (negative real numbers) do not have pre-images. However, 9: R* > R*, g(x) = 2? is onto. 8. The function f : RR, f(z) > 2° is onto, 4. The function f:ZZ*, f(z) =|aj= * t20 2 if r<0 one-to-one. 5. Show that the function f: 2+ %, f(e) =2-+1 is onto Solutio: Vy CZ, ae € 2, f(x) = y. Thisis 90 because f(x) = yif and only if +1 Which is the ease if and only if = y ~ 1 NB: lf f: A Bisa fimetion and |A| <|B\, then f is not onto. Bijections: ‘A fanetion J : A+ B is called a bijection, or a one-to-one correspondence, i itis both 11 and onto. In this ease we say that f is bijective Example: T. Let fbe the function from {a,b,¢,d} to {1,2,3,4) with f(a) = 4, #(2) = 2, fle) =i, and f(a) MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM The function f is both 1 — 1 and onto. Hence, fis a bijective. 2, The function f : RR, f(r) = 2° is a bijection since itis both 1-1 and onto. However, 9: R with g(x) = x is not a bijection since it is not 1-1 or onto, 3. The function f :Z > 2, f(z) = # +1 is a bijective. im: If f : A» B is a bijection, then |A| = |B. is onto but not Due to one-to-oneness || = |f(4)] and due to ontoness |f(A)| fore |A| = |B] Identity Function: For norempty set A, there exists a trivial mapping that maps every element of A to itself, This is called the identity funetion, denoted by i. Soi: A> A such that a(a) =a Va € A. The identity function is one-to-one and onto, s0 it 3s a bijection. Example: Tet A= (,2,3,4). Then i: A> A, i(a) =a Yae A, ie i(1) = 1, 12) = (8) = 8 and a(4) = 4. From an arrow diagram point of view. MISSING AN ARROW DIAGRAM Constant Funetion Let f: A> B be a function. Then / is called a constant fanetion if there is a Bxed clements b ¢ B such that f(a) =b Vac A Example: Let A={1, 2, 8, 4} and B = {a, b, c}. Deine f : A + B such that J() = F2) = f(3) = f(4) = 4. Then, f is constant function. MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM Inverse Functions Bl. There- 2Suppose { : A > B is a bijection. Since f is onto, then every element bc B Js the image of some element a C A. Also, since J is 1-1, then for every 6 < B there is a unique a € A such that b= f(a). Consequently, we can define a new function from B to A. This function is called the inverse function of f, denoted by f-1.If f(a) =0, then f-4(6) =a NB: 1. A function f is invertible (i.e. has an inverse f-2) if and only if it is bijective 2. The inverse function J is not the same as the function $ Exampl T. Find the inverse function of f : R + R where f(z) 1x ~ 3. Making 2 the subject we have My) Now, replace 2 with y~ pies So that f-'(x) = = 2, Find the inverse function of f sR + R f(x Solution: Tet y= f(z) = 3H > day + Ty Je) and y and 2 gives aa=5e soap =F) Replacing 3 with (x) and y with a we have f@)=Ee 3. Let f be a function from {a, b, c} to {1, 2, 3} such that f(a) = 2, J(8) = 3 and f(c) = 1. Then f is invertible since itis a bijection. Furthermore, £72) =a, $43) = b and f-*(1) =e. MISSING DIAGRAM ARROW 4. ‘The function f : Z-> Z such that f(2) = +1 is invertible with Jy) =y—Lwhile the function g: +R where g(z) = x? is not invertible Since g is not 1 - 1 oF onto, ‘Composition of Functions Suppose two functions are such that the codomain of the fxs is equal to the domain of the second. Then we can define a function from the domain of the first to the codomain of the second comprising of the two functions following each other. For instance, let [A> B and g : BC be functions. We can define a fanction from A'to C which would be f followed by g, denoted by gof and read as “g composition £". Such a function is called a composite function. 43MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM Clearly, (gof)(a) = a f(a). NB: In the case above fog is not defined since cod g # dom £ a,b, ch, BH{L, 2, 3), Cmfz,y,2} and let fA > B with F(a) =2, f(6) =3, fle) = L and g: B+ © with o(1) = 2, 9(2) =, 9(8) =y ‘Then gof is defined since cod J dom g. In this ease (oof la (90H) Gof)lo Note that fog is not defined since cod g¥ dom f MISSING ARROW DIAGRAM 2. Let f: R > Rand g: R + R be defined by f(a) = 2? +1 and g(a) = 22 ~5 respectively. Then Tn general, fog # gof. In other words, composition of functions is not commutative ‘A composition of two bijections is another bijection 3, Let fig: ZZ be deained by f(x) = 22-+3 and g(x) = 3¢ +2, Find Jog and gof NB: For any three functions j, 9 and hy (fog)oh = folgoh). Tis is clear since [Foa)ohlx = [Foath(z) = Ftothte)i} And [fo(goh)]x = F{lgoh](z)} = F{a{h(2)]} Example: et fig, Then [fog)oh|x = [fo(goh)](x) ZZ where fz) = 30+2, glx) = 2? ~ 8 and h(x) = 2x 41Salh(o)]} = Hoax +1} = {22+ 1)? 3} = F{4x? +42 — 2} (4x? + 4 — 2) +2 = 122? + 122-4 ‘Theorem: If f : A> B is a bijection then fof-! = frtof =i Proof Recall that if f(a) = b, then J-4(0) =a for a bijection J: Now (Fof")(0) = FLO) (a) > foft=i Also Flofla) = F(a} =F) > flop =i Therefore, fof"! = fo} Exercise: at if both f: A> Band g: B+ C are surjectives then gof is also how surjective Functions that Involve Cartesian Produets of sets Since in the definition of a function we require the domain and the codomain to be non-empty, either of the two or even both may be a cartesian product of sets, Example: T. The function f : 2» %, fle first integer in the pair. ‘The fiction is onto but not 11. Eg. f(0, J(0,2)=0 2. Similarly, the function g : Z x Z + Z, f(a,b) = 2a ~ bis onto but not 1-1, Eg, 9(1,1) = 9(0,-1) METHODS OF PROOF = 2 assigns to each pair of integers the + Theorem. fa statement that can be shown to be true. Less important theorems are called propositions, Theorems can also be reffered to as facts or * Proof - a valid argument that establishes the truth of a theorem, ie. a demonstration that a theorem is true. ‘+ Axioms / Postulates - statements that are used in the proof of another theorem, ‘+ Lomma - a simple theorem that is used in the proof of another theorer, 45‘+ Corollary - a theorem that can be established directly from the theorem that has been proved, ie. a consequence of a theorer. ‘+ Conjecture - a statement that is being proposed to be true but that has ot been proved i.e, its truth value is unknown, When the proof of a conjecture is found, the conjecture becomes a theorem. 1. Direet Proof This is a proof p > q is true that proceeds by showing that q is true when pis true. One begins with the premise p and comes up with some intermediate propositions p2, po; ; Pus and end with the conclusion q, Le. p> pi -* pe > Pn 4. Sometimes when coming up with the intermediate propositions one urgues from both propositions p and q. This is called forward - backward reasoning. Examples: T. Use direct proof to proof that if a is odd and b is even, then ab is even, Proof: Tras odd, then a= 22 + 1 for some x € Zand if bis even, then 5 = 2y for some y © Z Now: ab = (20+ 1)2y = dey + 2y (2ry + y) where 2ry ty eZ Thus, ab is even 2. Proof that the produet of two odd numbers is odd. Proof, Suppose both a and 6 are odd, Then a = 2m +1 and b= 2n+1 where m,n©Z. Now, (2m + 1)(2n +1) ymin + 2m-+2n +1 (2mn m+n) 1 Which is odd 4, Proof that the product of any two rational numbers is rational Pro! Tet a,b € Q. Then a= 2 and ab=E xt =! Wilere pr, gs © % and gs #0. Hence ab is rational. 4. Proof that if m and n are perfect squares, then mn is also a perfect square. Pro! Suppose m = where p,q.n.s € Zand q,840, Now, and n= y? where 2,y € Z. Then fay)? where 2.y € Z Therefore, mn is a perfect square 5. Give a direct proof for the statement that “if gis even, then 4 divides q?"Proof: Suppose q is even. Then 3 ¢.¢ Z such that q = 2 Now, So, 4 divides q?. 6. Proof that if n is an odd integer, then n? is also odd. Proot Suppose n = 2p-+ 1, p 2 ‘Phen n?= p+ 1)2p-+1) ip? + 4p +1 (2p +2p) +1 Which is odd 2. Proof by Contraposition: ‘This method makes use of the fact that the conditional statements p> @ is equivalent to its contrapositive ~ q —r~ p. So, the conditional p ~» q can be proved by showing that its contrapositive, ~ g ->~ p, is true ‘This method is used when we cannot easily find a direct proof. Such a proof is called an indirect proof Example: 1. Prove that ifn is an integer and Sn +2 is od, then n is odd Proof The corresponding contrapositive is fn is even, then 3n +2 is even’ Suppose n is even, Then n = 2k, k € 2. (2k) +2 = 2(3-+1) where Bk+1¢Z So, n +2 is even, 2. Show that 2 is odd if 2? is odd, ugh to show that if x is even, then 2 is even also. Suppose z is even. Then x = 2p, p eZ = 2(2p) where 2p ¢ Z So, 2? is even. 3. Prove that if'n = ab for some positive integers @ and b, then a < VF or be yi. Proo! The contrapositive of the given statement is “if a > yi and b> yi then n fab" Suppose a> Yi and b> YR. Then ab > Vy = So, ng ab 3. Proof by Contradiction: Suppose p is a proposition. We can prove that p is true by showing that ~ pis false; this can be done by showing that ~ p— (qA ~ q) is true for some ie. n
0 then p(n) is true for every n € N. Examples: 1, Show that the suin of the fist m natural numbers is V npn) is true where pn) is Proof Wo show that 12) 342. ¢ = Sb "There are two stops involved (@) Base step: Prove for n= 1-2-1 (b) Inductive step : Assume true for n = and prove for n = k+1 For n =k, then 142434 ...¢4 = High Form =k 41 THES 4 REA) = MD 4) So true for n= KF Since true for n= 1 and true for n= k-+ 1 whenever true for m= h, then it is true for every n > 1 2. Prove that the sum of the first even m even natural mamber is n(n + 1) Prool 2416+. }2n=n(n+1) Cheek if itis true for n= 1 2=10) Hence true for n = 1 ‘Assume true for n =k, then 2HAt GH... 42k = W(k+1) Forn=k+1 2A G6 on | Db+AWk+ 1) +2k + 1)= (K+ IVE +2) Since true for n=1 and true form = k +1, whenever true for n =k, it is true for every n > 1 3, Prove that the sum of the first n odd natural numbers is n?. 49Prooft Te 3454. }Qn4 1 ant Check for n = 1, 1=1°, hence true for n = 1 Assume true for n =k, then 12345=... + (2k-1)=? Forn=k+1 T4454 ob Qk ~1)+(2k41 Since true for n = 1 and true for n true for all values of n> 1. 4. Prove that the sum of the squates of the frst n natural numbers is An(n+1)(2n +1) Proof: Tyo ast +n? = dnl + n+ 1) Check for'n = 1 P= 22E Assume true for n P+ P43 +..+h Forn=k+1 Pe 4 Fst +R +LP AELR(2R +1) + 6k +1) (2k? + 7h +6) Bk +2)(0 +3) HA U(k +1) + 12 +1) + 1) So, true for n= k-+ 1 whenever true for n = k. Therefore, itis true for all positive integers n > 1. 5.149 +5 ++ 2m — 1)? = Sndn? - 1) Forn=1 12 = 2(1)[4(1) ~ 1) = 1, hence true for n =1 Assume true for n =k; then 14384 58 44 (2b 1)? = gh(AM 1) Forn=k+1 P4945? 4.4 (2k 1)? + fe +1) -1P u(ak? — 1) + (2-41) — 1? wWosapiu — pisyKor yisdisy wae taes — 94 4 1)(Qk +3) a eae sess OS aR? 4 Bh 4 3) i Be a(R? + 28 +1) — 1) Bea? + 2k +1) ~ 1) = Se +1)? -1) ace +121] kaye + 1 whenever true for m= ik is 1, hence true for n , then de(e-+ 1)(2k-+ 1) Bak + 1)(2k +1) + (+1)?lever true for n= k. ‘Therefore, it is true for all So, true for n= kh positive integers. 6. Show that 8? — 1 is divisible by 7 for all positive integers n Proof (1) so true for n Suppose true for n= k 124324574... 4 (2k 1)? + [atk +1) IP (AR? ~ 1) + 204 1) = 1? Haein a aki yae-1ys92469) we seaphie _ akenwas ysa(esn] © wee yo yaks] _ aey GE ss ee + eae Tiess — WEN, + 1)(2k-+3) cesiaetaabasked — (442 + Bh +3) = Geass Wg? + 2k +1) — 1] Shae? + 2+ 1) — 1) = Bae + 7-1) = SP e+e So, true for n =k +1 whenever true for n =k. ‘Therefore itis true for all positive integers n 7. Show that 8" ~ 1 is divisible by 7 forall postive integers. Proo! For n=1,7-8! Suppose true for n Bka1 For n = k +1 Check if 8**1 — 1 is divisible by 7. git paar 147 ght] 18.1 +8.1-1=8(72) +7 (8 — 1) +7 = 7(82 +1) => T divides 8**! —1 So, true for n = k-+ 1 whenever true for n = k. Therefore, true for all positive integers. 8. Show that 8 is a factor of 9" ~ 1 for every positive integer n. Proo! so true for n k 8(1) so true for n= Suppose true for n= k, k€ Z~ 8(t), kez ke =o 949 — ‘True for n. NUMBERS‘+ The set of all natural numbers (positive integers) is N= (1,2,3,4,...}(ltis also denoted by Z*) + The set of non-negative integers ig zronnes — (0,1,2,8,4, ..} = Z* U {0} ‘+ The set of integers (whole number is) Bay B-2,-1,0,1,2,34,..} 4 The set of rational numbers is Q= (ele = $,0,b€ 2,54 0 and geda,2) = 1} Numbers that are not rational are called irrational. ‘The set irrational numbers is denoted Q* ‘« The set of all peal numbers is given by R= QUQE. ‘* A.complex number is one of the form a-+bi where a and bare real numbers ‘while ‘is the imaginary number defined as i = VT. The set ofall complex. numbers is denoted by C. NB:NCZcQcRe ‘* A positive integer p is called prime if it has exactly two positive divisors, namely 1 and p itself. ‘The frst few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 and 23. The number 2 is the only even prime number. * An integer n > 1 is called composite if it is not prime. In other words 1 is composite if there exists two integers a and b with 1
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