Relations and Functions

Lecturer: Askarbekkyzy Aknur

MS in Mathematics
 RELATIONS
▪ Formally, we define a relation in terms of “ordered
pairs.”
▪ An ordered pair of elements 𝑎 and 𝑏, where 𝑎 is
designated as the first element and 𝑏 as the
second element, is denoted by (𝑎, 𝑏).
▪ In particular,
(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑐, 𝑑)
if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.
 RELATIONS: Product Sets
▪ Thus 𝑎, 𝑏 ≠ (𝑏, 𝑎) unless 𝑎 = 𝑏. This
contrasts with sets where the order of elements
is irrelevant; for example, {3, 5} = {5, 3}.
▪ Consider two arbitrary sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. The set of
all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵
is called the product, or Cartesian product, of 𝐴
and 𝐵. A short designation of this product is
𝐴 × 𝐵, which is read “𝐴 cross 𝐵.” By definition,
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) | 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
▪ One frequently writes 𝐴2 instead of 𝐴 × 𝐴.
 RELATIONS
▪ Definition 2.1: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. A binary
relation or, simply, relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a
subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵.
▪ Suppose 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵. Then 𝑅 is a
set of ordered pairs where each first element
comes from 𝐴 and each second element comes
from 𝐵.
▪ If 𝑅 is a relation from a set 𝐴 to itself, that is, if 𝑅
is a subset of 𝐴2 = 𝐴 × 𝐴, then we say that 𝑅 is
a relation on 𝐴.
 RELATIONS
▪ The domain of a relation 𝑅 is the set of all first
elements of the ordered pairs which belong to 𝑅,
𝑑𝑜𝑚 𝑅 = 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}
▪ and the range is the set of all second elements.
𝑟𝑛𝑔 𝑅 = 𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}
 Inverse Relation

▪ Let 𝑅 be any relation from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵.

The inverse of 𝑅, denoted by 𝑅−1 , is the relation
from 𝐵 to 𝐴 which consists of those ordered
pairs which, when reversed, belong to 𝑅
𝑅−1 = 𝑏, 𝑎 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅}
 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIVES OF RELATIONS
▪ Let 𝑆 be a relation on the set ℝ of real numbers;
that is, 𝑆 is a subset of ℝ𝟐 = ℝ × ℝ. Frequently, 𝑆
consists of all ordered pairs of real numbers which
satisfy some given equation 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 (for
example, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25).
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIVES OF RELATIONS

▪ There is an important way of picturing a

relation 𝑅 on a finite set.
▪ First we write down the elements of the set,
and then we draw an arrow from each
element 𝑥 to each element 𝑦 whenever 𝑥 is
related to 𝑦. This diagram is called the
directed graph of the relation
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATIVES OF RELATIONS
▪ For example, shows the directed graph of the
following relation 𝑅 on the set 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}:
𝑅 = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 3)}
 Pictures of Relations on Finite Sets
▪ Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are finite sets. There are two
ways of picturing a relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
▪ Form a rectangular array (matrix) whose rows are
labeled by the elements of 𝐴 and whose columns
are labeled by the elements of 𝐵. Put a 1 or 0 in
each position of the array according as 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 is or
is not related to 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵. This array is called the
matrix of the relation.
▪ 𝑅 = { 1, 𝑦 , 1, 𝑧 , (3, 𝑦)}
 Pictures of Relations on Finite Sets
▪ Suppose 𝐴 and 𝐵 are finite sets. There are two
ways of picturing a relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
▪ Write down the elements of 𝐴 and the elements
of 𝐵 in two disjoint disks, and then draw an arrow
from 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 to 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 whenever 𝑎 is related to 𝑏.
This picture will be called the arrow diagram of
the relation.
▪𝑅= 1, 𝑦 , 1, 𝑧 , 3, 𝑦
 COMPOSITION OF RELATIONS

▪ Let 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 be sets, and let 𝑅 be a relation from

𝐴 to 𝐵 and let 𝑆 be a relation from 𝐵 to 𝐶. That is,
𝑅 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵 and 𝑆 is a subset of 𝐵 × 𝐶.
Then 𝑅 and 𝑆 give rise to a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐶
denoted by 𝑅 ◦ 𝑆 and defined by: 𝑎(𝑅 ◦ 𝑆)𝑐 if
for some 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 we have 𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑆𝑐. That is,
𝑅◦𝑆 = 𝑎, 𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑆}
 COMPOSITION OF RELATIONS

▪ The relation 𝑅 ◦ 𝑆 is called the composition of

𝑅 and 𝑆; it is sometimes denoted simply by 𝑅𝑆.

▪ Theorem 2.1: Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 be sets.

Suppose 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵, 𝑆 is a
relation from 𝐵 to 𝐶, and 𝑇 is a relation from 𝐶
to 𝐷. Then
(𝑅𝑆)𝑇 = 𝑅(𝑆𝑇)
 Composition of Relations and Matrices
▪ Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}, 𝐶 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}
and let 𝑅 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑑), (3, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏), (3, 𝑑)} and
𝑆 = {(𝑏, 𝑥), (𝑏, 𝑧), (𝑐, 𝑦), (𝑑, 𝑧)}
▪ There is another way of finding 𝑅 ◦ 𝑆. Let 𝑀𝑅 and
𝑀𝑆 denote respectively the matrix representations
of the relations 𝑅 and 𝑆. Then
 Composition of Relations and Matrices
▪ Multiplying 𝑀𝑅 and 𝑀𝑆 we obtain the matrix

▪ The nonzero entries in this matrix tell us which

elements are related by 𝑅 ◦ 𝑆. Thus 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑅 𝑀𝑆
and 𝑀𝑅◦𝑆 have the same nonzero entries.
 TYPES OF RELATIONS

▪ A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is reflexive if 𝑎𝑅𝑎 for

every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, that is, if (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 for every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
▪ A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is symmetric if whenever
𝑎𝑅𝑏 then 𝑏𝑅𝑎, that is, if whenever
(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 then (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅.
▪ A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is antisymmetric if
whenever 𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑅𝑎 then 𝑎 = 𝑏. Thus 𝑅 is
not antisymmetric if there exist distinct elements
𝑎 and 𝑏 in 𝐴 such that 𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑅𝑎.
 Examples
▪ Consider the following five relations on the set
𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}:
▪ 𝑅1 = 1,1 , 1,2 , 2,3 , 1,3 , 4,4
▪ 𝑅2 = 1,1 , 1,2 , 2,1 , 2,2 , 3,3 , 4,4
▪ 𝑅3 = 1,3 , 2,1
▪ 𝑅4 = ∅, the empty relation
▪ 𝑅5 = 𝐴 × 𝐴, the universal relation
Determine which of the relations are reflexive
symmetric, antisymmetric.
 Examples
▪ (1) Relation ≤ (less than or equal) on the set ℤ of integers;
▪ (2) Set inclusion ⊆ on a collection 𝐶 of sets;
▪ (3) Relation ⊥ (perpendicular) on the set 𝐿 of all lines in
the plane;
▪ (4) Relation ∥ (parallel) on the set 𝐿 of all lines in the
plane.
▪ (5) Relation | of divisibility on the set ℕ of positive
integers.
Determine which of the relations are reflexive
symmetric, antisymmetric.
 TYPES OF RELATIONS

▪ A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝐴 is transitive if whenever

𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑅𝑐 then 𝑎𝑅𝑐, that is, if whenever
(𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 then (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅.

▪ Theorem 2.2: A relation 𝑅 is transitive if and

only if, for every 𝑛 ≥ 1, we have
𝑅𝑛 ⊆ 𝑅.
 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

▪ Consider a nonempty set 𝑆. A relation 𝑅 on 𝑆 is

an equivalence relation if 𝑅 is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive. That is, 𝑅 is an
equivalence relation on 𝑆 if it has the following
three properties:
(1) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑎𝑅𝑎.
(2) If 𝑎𝑅𝑏, then 𝑏𝑅𝑎.
(3) If 𝑎𝑅𝑏 and 𝑏𝑅𝑐, then 𝑎𝑅𝑐.
 Equivalence Relations and Partitions

▪ The general idea behind an equivalence

relation is that it is a classification of objects
which are in some way “alike.”
▪ Suppose 𝑅 is an equivalence relation on a set 𝑆.
For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, let [𝑎] denote the set of
elements of 𝑆 to which 𝑎 is related under 𝑅;
that is:
[𝑎] = {𝑥 | (𝑎, 𝑥) ∈ 𝑅}
 Equivalence Relations and Partitions

▪ We call [𝑎] the equivalence class of 𝑎 in 𝑆; any

𝑏 ∈ [𝑎] is called a representative of the
equivalence class.
▪ The collection of all equivalence classes of
elements of 𝑆 under an equivalence relation 𝑅
is denoted by 𝑆/𝑅, that is,
𝑆/𝑅 = {[𝑎] | 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆}
It is called the quotient set of 𝑆 by 𝑅.
 Equivalence Relations and Partitions
▪ The fundamental property of a quotient set is
contained in the following theorem.
▪ Theorem 2.6: Let 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on
a set 𝑆. Then 𝑆/𝑅 is a partition of 𝑆. Specifically:
(i) For each 𝑎 in 𝑆, we have 𝑎 ∈ [𝑎].
(ii) [𝑎] = [𝑏] if and only if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅.
(iii) If 𝑎 ≠ [𝑏], then [𝑎] and [𝑏] are disjoint.
 PARTIAL ORDERING RELATIONS

▪ A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝑆 is called a partial

ordering or a partial order of 𝑆 if 𝑅 is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive.
▪ A set 𝑆 together with a partial ordering 𝑅 is
called a partially ordered set or poset.
 𝒏-ARY RELATIONS

▪ All the relations discussed above were binary

relations.
▪ By an 𝑛-ary relation, we mean a set of ordered
𝑛-tuples. For any set 𝑆, a subset of the product
set 𝑆 𝑛 is called an 𝑛-ary relation on 𝑆.
▪ In particular, a subset of 𝑆 3 is called a ternary
relation on 𝑆.
HOMEWORK: Exercises 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 on p. 581; Ex.
2, 4, 10 on p.596; Ex. 2, 10, 16, 22 on pp. 615-616
 FUNCTIONS

▪ Suppose that to each element of a set 𝐴 we

assign a unique element of a set 𝐵; the
collection of such assignments is called a
function from 𝐴 into 𝐵.
▪ The set 𝐴 is called the domain of the function,
and the set 𝐵 is called the target set or
codomain.
 FUNCTIONS

▪ Functions are ordinarily denoted by symbols.

For example, let 𝑓 denote a function from 𝐴
into 𝐵. Then we write
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵
which is read: “𝑓 is a function from 𝐴 into 𝐵,” or
“𝑓 takes (or maps) 𝐴 into 𝐵.”
 FUNCTIONS
▪ If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, then 𝑓(𝑎) (read: “𝑓 of 𝑎”) denotes
the unique element of 𝐵 which 𝑓 assigns to 𝑎;
it is called the image of 𝑎 under 𝑓, or the value
of 𝑓 at 𝑎.
▪ The set of all image values is called the range
or image of 𝑓. The image of 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 is
denoted by
𝑅𝑎𝑛(𝑓), 𝐼𝑚(𝑓) or 𝑓(𝐴).
 Functions as Relations

▪ There is another point of view from which

functions may be considered. First of all, every
function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 gives rise to a relation from
𝐴 to 𝐵 called the graph of 𝑓 and defined by
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ(𝑓) = {(𝑎, 𝑏) | 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎)}.
▪ Definition: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a relation
from 𝐴 to 𝐵 (i.e., a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵) such that
each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 belongs to a unique ordered pair
(𝑎, 𝑏) in 𝑓.
 Composition of Functions
▪ Consider functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶; that
is, where the codomain of 𝑓 is the domain of 𝑔.
Then we may define a new function from 𝐴 to
𝐶, called the composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔 and
written 𝑔 ◦ 𝑓, as follows:
(𝑔 ◦ 𝑓)(𝒂) ≡ 𝑔(𝑓(𝒂)).
That is, we find the image of 𝑎 under 𝑓 and then
find the image of 𝑓(𝑎) under 𝑔.
 ONE-TO-ONE, ONTO, AND INVERTIBLE
FUNCTIONS
▪ A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be one-to-one
(written 1-1) if different elements in the domain
𝐴 have distinct images. Another way of saying
the same thing is that 𝑓 is one-to-one if 𝑓(𝑎) =
𝑓(𝑎’) implies 𝑎 = 𝑎’.
▪ A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be an onto
function if each element of 𝐵 is the image of
some element of 𝐴. In other words, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is
onto if the image of 𝑓 is the entire codomain,
i.e., if 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝐵. In such a case we say that 𝑓 is a
function from 𝐴 onto 𝐵 or that 𝑓 maps 𝐴 onto 𝐵.
 ONE-TO-ONE, ONTO, AND INVERTIBLE
FUNCTIONS
▪ A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is invertible if its inverse
relation 𝑓 −1 is a function from 𝐵 to 𝐴. In
general, the inverse relation 𝑓 −1 may not be a
function.
▪ The following theorem gives simple criteria
which tells us when it is.
▪ Theorem 3.1: A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is invertible
if and only if 𝑓 is both one-to-one and onto.
 ONE-TO-ONE, ONTO, AND INVERTIBLE
FUNCTIONS
▪ If 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 is one-to-one and onto, then 𝑓 is
called a one-to-one correspondence between 𝐴
and 𝐵. This terminology comes from the fact
that each element of 𝐴 will then correspond to
a unique element of 𝐵 and vice versa.
▪ Sometimes we use the terms injective for a
one-to-one function, surjective for an onto
function, and bijective for a one-to-one
correspondence.
 Example
▪ Consider the functions
𝑓1 : 𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝑓2 : 𝐵 → 𝐶, 𝑓3 : 𝐶 → 𝐷, 𝑓4 : 𝐷 → 𝐸
defined by the diagram

▪ Determine which of the functions are one-to-

one, which ones are onto.
HOMEWORK: Exercises 4, 6, 10, 12, 14, 16,
20, 22, 30, 36, 42 on pp. 152-154;