The Manual Metal Arc Process

The Manual Metal Arc Process
Manual metal arc welding was first invented in Russia in 1888. It involved
a bare metal rod with no flux coating to give a protective gas shield. The
development of coated electrodes did not occur until the early 1900s
when the Kjellberg process was invented in Sweden and the Quasi-arc
method was introduced in the UK. It is worth noting that coated
electrodes were slow to be adopted because of their high cost. However,
it was inevitable that as the demand for sound welds grew, manual metal
arc became synonymous with coated electrodes. When an arc is struck
between the metal rod (electrode) and the workpiece, both the rod and
workpiece surface melt to form a weld pool. Simultaneous melting of the
flux coating on the rod will form gas and slag which protects the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere. The slag
will solidify and cool and must be chipped off the weld bead once the weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass
is deposited).
The process allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode needs to be inserted in the holder.
Weld penetration is low and the quality of the weld deposit is highly dependent on the skill of the welder.
1. Types of Flux/Electrodes
Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional capability are greatly influenced by the chemical
composition of the flux coating on the electrode. Electrodes can be divided into three main groups:
• Cellulosic
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• Rutile
• Basic
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1.1. Cellulosic Electrodes
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Cellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are characterised by a deeply penetrating
arc and a rapid burn-off rate giving high welding speeds. Weld deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can
be difficult. These electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted for their use in the 'stovepipe' welding
technique.
Features:
• deep penetration in all positions

• suitability for vertical down welding
• reasonably good mechanical properties
• high level of hydrogen generated - risk of cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ)
1.2. Rutile Electrodes

Rutile electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating. Titanium oxide promotes easy arc
ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These electrodes are general purpose electrodes with good welding
properties. They can be used with AC and DC power sources and in all positions. The electrodes are especially suitable for
welding fillet joints in the horizontal/vertical (H/V) position.
Features:
• moderate weld metal mechanical properties

• good bead profile produced through the viscous slag
• positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride)
• easily removable slag
TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 1-2

1.3. Basic Electrodes
Basic electrodes contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride (fluorspar) in the
coating. This makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile coatings - this is also fast-freezing which assists welding in
the vertical and overhead position. These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy section fabrications where
higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and resistance to cracking (due to high restraint) are required.
Features:
• low weld metal produces hydrogen

• requires high welding currents/speeds
• poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile)
• slag removal difficult
1.4. Metal Powder Electrodes

Metal powder electrodes contain an addition of metal powder to the flux coating to increase the maximum permissible
welding current level. Thus, for a given electrode size, the metal deposition rate and efficiency (percentage of the metal
deposited) are increased compared with an electrode containing no iron powder in the coating. The slag is normally easily
removed. Iron powder electrodes are mainly used in the flat and H/V positions to take advantage of the higher deposition
rates. Efficiencies as high as 130 to 140% can be achieved for rutile and basic electrodes without marked deterioration of
the arcing characteristics but the arc tends to be less forceful which reduces bead penetration.
2. Power Source
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Electrodes can be operated with AC and DC power supplies. Not all DC electrodes can be operated on AC power sources,
however AC electrodes are normally used on DC.
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3. Welding Current
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Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode - the normal
operating range and current are recommended by manufacturers. Typical
operating ranges for a selection of electrode sizes are illustrated in the
table. As a rule of thumb when selecting a suitable current level, an
electrode will require about 40A per millimeter (diameter). Therefore, the
preferred current level for a 4mm diameter electrode would be 160A, but
the acceptable operating range is 140 to 180A.
4. What's New
Transistor (inverter) technology is now enabling very small and comparatively low weight power sources to be produced.
These power sources are finding increasing use for site welding where they can be readily transported from job to job. As
they are electronically controlled, add-on units are available for TIG and MIG welding which increase the flexibility.
Electrodes are now available in hermetically sealed containers. These vacuum packs obviate the need for baking the
electrodes immediately prior to use. However, if a container has been opened or damaged, it is essential that the
electrodes are redried according to the manufacturer's instructions.
TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 2-2

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The Manual Metal Arc Process

• deep penetration in all positions

1.2. Rutile Electrodes

• moderate weld metal mechanical properties

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 1-2

• low weld metal produces hydrogen

1.4. Metal Powder Electrodes

TWI JOB KNOWLEDGE FOR WELDERS 2-2

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