CONTROL ENGINEERING

MCE 401

Module 2: System Modelling

Course Instructor: Ahmad A. Galadima

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 Introduction

Any system whose status changes with time is called a

dynamic system.

For engineers, everything they deal with is a dynamic

system. In studying Control Systems they have to design
them, operate them and predict how a given system is
going to behave in a particular circumstance.

Dynamical systems are described by differential equations –

whose solutions show how the variables of the system
depend on the independent variable time.

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 Introduction (Cont’d)

Any electrical, mechanical, electromechanical, biological,

thermal system etc. is composed of some elements that
interact with one another to produce the dynamics of the
total system.

To model the dynamics of the system, therefore, it is

necessary to understand the dynamical properties of the
individual elements.

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 Modeling of Dynamic Systems

Modeling of dynamic systems may be done in

several ways
Use the standard equation of motion (Newton’s
Law) for mechanical systems.
Use circuits theorems (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s
laws: KCL and KVL).
Utilize the notation of energy to model the
dynamic system (Lagrange model).
Many more

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 Equations of Motion: Lagrange
Equations

Lagrangian method, depends on energy balances. The resulting equations can be

calculated in closed form and allow an appropriate system analysis for most
system applications.

Why Lagrange?
– Scalar not vector.
– Eliminate solving for constraint forces (what holds the system together)
– Avoid finding acceleration.
– Used extensively in robotics and many other fields

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 Energy in Mechanical and Electrical
Systems

In the Lagrangian approach, energy is the key

issue. Accordingly, we look at various forms of
energy for electrical and mechanical systems:
For objects in motion, we have kinetic energy Ke which is always a scalar quantity
and not a vector. (INERTIAL ELEMENT)
The potential energy of a mass m at a height h in a gravitational field with
constant g is given in the next table. Only differences in potential energy are
meaningful. For mechanical systems with springs, compressed a distance x, and
a spring constant k. (COMPLIANT ELEMENT)

We also have dissipated energy P in the system. For mechanical system, energy
is usually dissipated in sliding friction. In electrical systems, energy is dissipated
in resistors. (RESISTIVE/DISSIPATIVE ELEMENT)

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 The Inertial Element

The property of inertia is to resist change in velocity. A moving point mass or a

rotating rigid body are examples of the inertial element in mechanical systems.

If a force f is applied on a translational mass that moves with

momentum p, then the fundamental property of the inertial
element is given by the relation:

With q, v and a representing the position, velocity and acceleration respectively, this
relation can be written as

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 The Inertial Element (Cont’d)

For the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis, the same relationship obtains
between the applied torque f and angular momentum, given by

where ω and α are the

angular velocity and
acceleration respectively.

Inertial element in the electrical domain is the inductance, whose dynamical

property is given by

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 The Compliant Element

The property of a compliant element is to resist change in the separation between its end
points, that is, to resist compression or stretching. If a translational spring is given a
relative displacement of q between the two ends, it produces a force f given by

The corresponding electrical element is the capacitance, whose dynamical relation

between the voltage across the capacitor e and the charge in the capacitor q

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 The Resistive Element

The electrical resistance is represented by the Ohm’s law, which is a linear

approximation of the relationship between the voltage across it and the current flowing
through it:

There are, in the main, two types of mechanical friction or

damping:

1. Viscous friction

2. Coulomb friction.

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 Viscous friction

Viscous friction is generated when two surfaces

separated by a liquid slide against each other. The
damping force due to friction opposes the motion,
and depends on the nature of fluid flow between
the surfaces.

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 Coulomb friction

Coulomb friction is generated when two dry

surfaces slide against each other. Suppose a solid
body is resting on a dry surface and a force is
applied to move it.

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The voltage source and externally
impressed force

The voltage source and externally impressed force represent the

source of effort in electrical and mechanical system respectively.

What they apply on a system – mechanical force in case of

mechanical system and electromotive force in case of
electrical system – are independent variables, not affected
by the rest of the system.

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The current source and externally
impressed sources of flow

The current source and cam represent the source of flow in electrical
and mechanical system respectively.

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 Electrical & Mechanical Systems

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 Equivalence of variables and parameters in
mechanical and electrical systems

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 Electrical and Mechanical
Counterparts “Energy”

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 The generalized coordinates

The minimum number of independent coordinates

in any system, consistent with the constraints, is
also the number of generalized coordinates.

To be exact, any set of coordinates {q1, q2, q3, . . . , qn} is called a

set of generalized coordinates of a system if and only if the number n
of its members is necessary and sufficient to define the configuration or
positional status of the system uniquely.

For mechanical systems: masses or inertias will serve as generalized

coordinates.

For electrical systems: electrical charges may also serve as

appropriate coordinates.

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 Obtaining Dynamical Equations by
Lagrangian Method

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Example 1

Write Lagrangian equations for the mass-spring

system below.

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Example 2

Write Lagrangian equations for the mechanical

system below

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Example 3

Write Lagrangian equations for the mechanical

system below

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 Systems with External Forces or
Electromotive Forces

So far we have considered only conservative systems with

no externally applied force or voltage source.

If there are external forces or voltage sources Fi(t) present

in the system, the same general framework can be used to
formulate the differential equations.

The forces Fi may be constant, or may vary as functions of

time (as in a sinusoidal voltage source). In this case, we
only need to incorporate the additional force in the potential
function. This can be done by adding a term to V .

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Example 4

In the mechanical system below the coordinates q1 & q2

have value zero at the unstretched positions of the two
springs

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Example 5

Write Lagrangian equations for the electrical

system below

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Example 6

Write Lagrangian equations for the electrical

system below

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Accounting for Current Sources

If a current source is present in a circuit, it

essentially defines the charge flow in that
particular branch.
Therefore, current sources are automatically
accounted when these branch currents are
expressed in terms of the source current function.
The charge flow is:

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Example 7

Write Lagrangian equations for the electrical

system below

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Modelling Mutual Inductances

In case the inductances in a system have

magnetic coupling, leading to mutual inductance
effect, it can be easily accounted for in terms of a
change in the kinetic energy.
We know that if there are two coils with self
inductances L1 and L2, and mutual inductance M,
and if currents i1 and i2 flow in them, then the
total energy stored is

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Mutual Inductance

The sign of the mutual inductance term depends on

whether the magnetic coupling is additive or subtractive.

If the coils are wound in the same sense, the magnetic

fields reinforce each other, resulting in a higher amount of
energy storage. In that case, we take the positive sign.

If, on the other hand, the coils are wound in the opposite
sense, the total magnetic field reduces and we have to take
the negative sign.

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Example 8

In the circuit below there are two loops, and so

the coordinates are chosen as q1 and q2. Find the
Lagrangian of the system

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 Reference

1. Ogata K. Modern Control Engineering. Fourth ed. New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall; 2002. 976 p. ISBN: 0-13-043245-8

2. AJITH K.MANDAL-Introduction-to-Control-Engineering-Modeling-
Analysis-and-Design. New age. 2006, ISBN : 978-81-224-2414-0

2. Burns R. Advanced control engineering. First ed. Oxford:

Butterworth-Heinemann; 2001. 450.ISBN: 0750651008

3. Nise NS. Control systems engineering. sixth ed. New Jersey:

John Wiley & Sons; 2006. 925 p. ISBN: 978-0470-54756-4

4. Joseph J. Distefano, Allen Stubberd & Ivan J. Williams, Schaum’s

Outline Series: Feedback and Control Systems. Second Ed.
McGraw-Hill

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