CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction to computer
The computer comprises of technologically advanced hardware put together to work at great
speed. To accomplish its various tasks, the computer is made of different parts, each serving a
particular purpose in conjunction with other parts. In other words, a 'computer' is an ensemble of
different machines that you will be using to accomplish your job. A computer is primarily made
of the Central Processing Unit (usually referred to as the computer), the monitor, the keyboard
and the mouse. Other pieces of hardware, commonly referred to as peripherals, can enhance or
improve your experience with the computer.

Some key terms in computer

➢ Data and Information

There is a subtle difference between data and information. Data is the unprocessed materials
while information is the result of processed data which is meaningful.

Comparison between data and information committee

Data Information

Data is raw, unorganized facts that

need to be processed. Data can be When data is processed, organized, structured
Meaning something simple and seemingly or presented in a given context so as to make
random and useless until it is it useful, it is called information.
organized.

The average score of a class or of the entire

Each student's test score is one piece
Example school is information that can be derived
of data.
from the given data.

"Data" comes from a singular Latin "Information" is an older word that dates back to
word, datum, which originally meant the 1300s and has Old French and Middle English
Etymology "something given." Its early usage dates origins. It has always referred to "the act of
back to the 1600s. Over time "data" has informing, " usually in regard to education,
become the plural of datum. instruction, or other knowledge communication.

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 ➢ Representation: is the process of putting data in a machine readable form.
➢ Storage: the process putting data in memory for future use
➢ Manipulation: processing data in the way desired
➢ Presentation: putting the data in human readable and desirable format
➢ Boot: To start up a computer. Cold boot means restarting computer after having
turned off the power. Warm boot means restarting computer without having turned
off the power
➢ Input: Data that goes into a computer device.
➢ Output: Data that come out of a computer device. For example, information
displayed on the monitor, sound from the speakers, and information printed to paper.
➢ Software: Computer programs; also called .applications.
➢ Hardware: The physical and mechanical components of a computer system, such as
the electronic circuitry, chips, monitor, disks, disk drives, keyboard, modem, and
printer.
➢ Processing: Perform mathematical and logical operations on (data) according to
programmed instructions in order to obtain the required information or a series of
actions or steps towards achieving a particular end.

Overview of computers

What is computer?

Computer is:
An electronic device capable of accepting data, process the data, at the end generate
result at the output known as information.
It accepts data, processes the data by doing some mathematical and logical operations and
gives us the desired output. Therefore, we may define computer as a device that
transforms data.
a machine that is controlled by internally stored programs and that
Can perform operations without human intervention.

Computer system

In general, a computer system is a group of components that work together in coordination to

achieve common objectives which is data processing. The major components of computer
system are hardware and software.
Hardware: the physical component of the computer system that we can see, touch and sense. It
includes devices the computer system use to interact with the external world, to process the data
it has received, to store the data it has received and processed.
Software: is the set of instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task. Without
software, the hardware is useless. Hardware and software are analogous to flesh and soul of
human beings respectively.

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Evolution of computer technology

The origin of computer technology took place in the 19th century. People desired to have a
machine that would carry out mathematical calculations for them. The ABACUS is considered to
have been the first computer in the world. It was used to perform simple measurements and
calculations. ABACUS is available even today for school going children.

In the 17th century, a scientist named Pascal developed a machine that could perform
mathematical calculations. This machine comprised of a number of gears. The movement of gear
mechanism was used to perform some calculations. He named the machine PASCALINE.
However, the concept of the modern computer was propounded by the scientist and
mathematician Charles Babbage. He first wrote on the use of logic and loops in process
execution. Based on the concept of logic and loops, Babbage envisaged two models for
performing computations- Analytical Engine and Difference Engine. In those days,
electronics was not developed. Therefore, these models proposed by Babbage existed only on
paper. However, the ideas given by Babbage were implemented after the invention of
electronics.
George Boolean developed the famous Boolean Algebra based on binary numbers. De
Morgan put forward theorems on logic gates. These theorems are known as De Morgan’s
Theorems.
Lady Ada was the first computer programmer.
The real application of computers began in the late fifties. The computers were used in the
United States for various applications such as census, defense, R&D, universities etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Let us identify the major characteristics of computer. These can be discussed under the headings
of speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and memory.
1. Speed
Speed -Computers can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take
hours to complete if we make use of computers.
Computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second. Therefore,
we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nano-
second (10-9 part of a second).
2. Storage
The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. It is also
possible to store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside a
given computer and can be carried to other computers.

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3. Accuracy
Suppose someone calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing. Such result is
useless. There is another aspect. Suppose you want to divide 15 by 7. You may work out up to 2
decimal places and say the dividend is 2.14. I may calculate up to 4 decimal places and say that
the result is 2.1428. Someone else may go up to 9 decimal places and say the result is
2.142857143. Hence, in addition to speed, the computer should have accuracy or correctness in
computing.
The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the
same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors
in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
4. Automatic-Once a program is in the computer’s memory, it continues without the need for
human intervention until completion. But don’t be confused that human intervention is
unavoidable (for example it is human that starts a computer).
5. Versatility-It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use
your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management
or to prepare electric bills.
6. Diligence-A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work
for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer
will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers
human being in routine type of work. Moreover, computer does not go on sick leave, nor annual
leave, not maternity leave, nor strike, nor require old age pension. As long as there is no failure
of power and no defect in the machine itself, it will never be un-operational.
7. Can’t Think-Even if it is artificially intelligent, it does nothing more than it is programmed to
do nor does it know whether it could do. It does not create a brand new idea.
8. No Feeling -It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it
does not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
9. Power of Remembering-Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or
data. Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of
years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to
lose or retrieve these data.
10. No IQ -Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what
you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

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 4. TYPES OF COMPUTERS
A. Based on the application of computers for various purposes and the type of data they process,
computers can be classified into three types:
1. Analog Computers
Computers that use analog signals for calculating and transmitting data are called analog
computers. It can be defined as “A device that operates on data in the form of continuously
varying physical quantities.” The values of the analog signals are continuously changing with
states in between high and low. Analog data is calculated using the concept of “measuring
values” like magnitude in terms of voltage, length, current, etc. The analog data is transmitted in
a continuous form that closely reassembles the information it represents. Electrical signals on a
telephone line are nothing but analog data representing the original voice.
e.g. Slide Rule, Thermometer, Hydrodynamics, Speedometer
2. Digital Computers
The computers that use digital signals to calculate and transmit data are called digital computers.
The word digital is derived from the word “digit”. The word digit simply means numeral. The
digital signal has only two states in which it can be represented. They are ON and OFF or HIGH
and LOW or 1 and 0. Digital data is calculated using the concept of “counting values”. The result
obtained from the digital computer is more accurate when compared to the analog computers.
These computers manipulate digital data and perform arithmetic and logical operations on these
data.
3. Hybrid Computers
Computer systems that use both analog and digital mechanisms are called hybrid computers.
Desirable features of analog and digital computers are combined to develop a hybrid computer.
In hospitals, the intensive care unit, an analog device measures a patient’s heart function,
temperature and other vital signs, these measurements are then converted into numbers and
supplied to a digital component that monitors the patient’s vital signs and signals to a nurse’s
station.
B. Based on their size, speed and storage capacity, (based on capacity and size of
microprocessor).
Now let us discuss the varieties of computers that we see today. Although they belong to the
fifth generation they can be divided into different categories depending upon the size, efficiency,
memory and number of users. Broadly they can be divided into the following four categories.
1. Microcomputer: Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of
speed and storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first microcomputers were built
of 8-bit microprocessor chips. The most common application of personal computers (PC) is
in this category. The PC supports a number of input and output devices. An improvement of
8-bit chip is 16-bit and 32-bit chips. Examples of microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT.
2. Mini Computer: This is designed to support more than one user at a time. It possesses large
storage capacity and operates at a higher speed. The mini computer is used in multi-user

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 system in which various users can work at the same time. This type of computer is generally
used for processing large volume of data in an organization. They are also used as servers in
Local Area Networks (LAN).
3. Mainframes: These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They operate
at very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the work load of many
users. They are generally used in centralized databases. They are also used as controlling
nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN). Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000
series.
4. Supercomputer: They are the fastest and most expensive machines. They have high
processing speed compared to other computers. They have also multiprocessing technique. One
of the ways in which supercomputers are built is by interconnecting hundreds of
microprocessors. Supercomputers are mainly being used for weather forecasting, biomedical
research, remote sensing, aircraft design and other areas of science and technology. Examples of
supercomputers are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and PARAM from India.
Personal Computer PC is the term referred to the computer that is designed for use by a single
person. PCs are also called microcontrollers because these are smaller when compared to
mainframes and minicomputers. The term ‘PC’ is frequently used to refer to desktop computers.
Although PCs are used by individuals, they can also be used in computer networks.

Desktop Computer: This is the most commonly used personal computer. It comprises of a
keyboard, mouse, monitor and system unit. The system unit is also known as cabinet or chassis.
It is the container that houses most of the components such as motherboard, disk drives, ports,
switch mode power supply and add-on cards etc. The desktop
Computers are available in two models- horizontal model and tower model.
Laptops: Are also called notebook computers. These are the portable
Computers. They have a size of 8.5 x 11 inch and weigh about
three-to-four kilos.
Palmtops: Palmtops are also called handheld computers. These are
computing devices, which are small enough to fit into your palm.
The size of a palmtop is like an appointment book. The palmtops
are generally kept for personal use such as taking notes, developing a list of friends, keeping
track of dates, agendas etc. The Palmtop can also be connected to a PC for downloading data. It
also provides value-added features such as voice input, Internet, cell phone, camera, movie
player and GPS.
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) – is the palm type computer. It combines pen input, writing
recognition, personal organizational tools and communication capabilities in a small package.

Computer Classification by Purpose of Application

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Computers are designed for different purposes. They can be used either for Specific (special)
purpose or general purpose.

 Specific Purpose Computers: - These computers designed to handle a specific problem

or perform or solve a single type of problem. Examples:- public telephone box, Traffic
control system, Pocket calculator, Counters, Airline reservation system
✓ NB. Most analog computers are special or specific purpose computers.
 General purpose computers: - These computers are designed to solve variety problems
through the use of stored program concept, have the ability to store numerous programs.
These computers use different programs for different problems. They are more flexible
and versatile. Example:- Microcomputer, Minicomputer, Supercomputer

APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS
Main Application Areas:
1 Commercial application-The emphasis is on data processing: it covers the use of
computers for clerical, administrative and business uses
2 Scientific, engineering and research application -The emphasis is on scientific
processing: it covers the use of computers for complex calculations, design, analysis and
control of physical system and analysis of experimental data or results
3 Computer in Education
-The use of computers in education ranges from assisting teaching and learning process to
managing it. Hence the terms CAL (Computer Aided Learning) and CAI (Computer Aided
Instruction).Multiple choice questions can be processed.
4 Computer in Medicine:
In medicine, computers are used
o for analyzing medical research
o to aid in diagnosis
o to hold details of patients
5 Computers in Manufacturing
o Stock and production control (CAM-Computer Aided Manufacturing)
o Engineering design (CAD -Computer Aided Design e.g. Auto CAD)

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 Chapter Two
COMPUTER SYSTEM COMPONENTS
System is a group of components that work together to attain a common goal. Likewise,
computer system is composed of Hardware Components (input, processing, memory and output
units) and Software Component (system, and application software).
HARDWARE COMPONENTS
Hardware components are units that are visible (or physical); Software components are
non-visible programs, procedures and associated documentations that make possible the effective
operation of computer system; firmware is software integrated into hardware.
The Computer without software constitutes just the hardware only. The hardware of the
computer can be divided into:
1. Input Unit constituting the various Input Devices.
2. Output Unit constituting the various Output Devices.
3. Various Components within the CPU (Central Processing Unit).
4. Memory Unit consisting primary and secondary memory

These system components are organized as shown in the following figure

CENTRAL
INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESSSING
UNIT
UNIT (CPU) UNIT

MEMORY UNIT

Fig .2.1. Organization of computer system

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Input Devices
Input Devices are those devices that are required to translate data that is in human
readable form, into a form the computer can process. These devices allow direct interaction
between human and machine. Input Devices includes:
A. Keyboard
A Keyboard converts letters, numbers and other characters into electrical signals that are
machine readable by the computer’s processor. There are two types of keyboard
(a) .Special Purpose Keyboard
(b).General Purpose Keyboard

a) Special Purpose Keyboard contains limited number of keys and they are used for specific
applications.
For Example: 1. Billing Machines
2. ATM in Banks, etc.
b) General Purpose Keyboard is connected to the personal computer and look like a typewriter
keyboard to which some additional keys are added.

Function keys Alphanumeric keys

Space bar
Numeric keypad
Fig.2.2. general purpose keyboard
Cursor keys
There are different categories of keys available in the keyboard.

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1 Standard tying keys (alphanumeric keys) are in the same familiar QWERTY arrangement of
letter, number and punctuation keys found on any typewriter. QWERTY refers to the
alphabet keys in the top left row on a standard typewriter keyboard.
2 Cursor movement keys: The Cursor, also called the insertion point, is the symbol on the
display screen that shows where data may be entered next. The cursor movement keys, or
arrow keys, are used to move the cursor around the text on the screen. These keys move the
cursor left, right, up or down. The keys labeled Page Up and Page Down move the cursor, the
equivalent of one page, up or down on the screen.
3 Numeric keypad: A separate set of keys, 0 through 9 known as the numeric keypad, is laid
out like the keys on a calculator. The toggle key called Num Lock changes the function of
some of the keys on the numeric keypad as a number entering key and cursor movement key
alternately.
4 Function keys are the keys labeled with an F and a number, such as F1 and F2. Personal
Computers have normally 12 Function keys.
5 Editing keys: Space bar, Backspace, Delete, Insert are used to change a text.
6 Special keys: ctrl,shift,alt

B. Mouse
Mouse is a small, handy pointing device containing usually two buttons:
- Primary button (Left button)
- Secondary button (Right Button) and
- Sometimes a scrolling button in the middle.

Fig.2.3. computer mouse

Mouse contains a rolling ball beneath it and on moving the mouse, the cursor moves on the
screen, as the ball rotates. The following operations can be performed using the mouse.
1 Selection (Single click)
2 Giving Commands (Double click)
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 3 Dragging Objects (By pressing mouse button)
4 Dropping Objects (By releasing mouse button)
The mouse is designed for selecting preprogrammed commands from a menu displayed on the
screen or moving around data that have already been input in to the system. Thus a mouse is
used in conjunction with the keyboard rather than exclusively.

Joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle mounted on a base containing one
or two buttons. The vertical handle of the joystick can be rotated around 360 degrees. As the
handle is rotated the cursor also moves on the screen. Joystick is often used for playing games.

Fig .2.4. Joystick

In Touchpad the cursor is controlled with the fingers. About the same size as a mouse, touchpad
is a flat, rectangular device. Since it is pressure sensitive to finger and can sense the horizontal
and vertical coordinates being touched, as fingers are moved over the surface of the touchpad the
cursor moves on the screen. The click operation is performed by tapping the fingers on the
surface of the pad.

Touchpad

Fig.2.5. touchpad
The Light Pen is a light sensitive stylus or pen like device, connected by a wire to the computer.
There is a button in the Light Pen. When the user brings the pen to the desired location in the

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screen and presses the button, the computer identifies the command and executes accordingly. It
is used for providing graphical input as well as menu selection. It is mainly used for CAD
(Computer Aided Design) applications.

Digitizing Tablet is an electronic device with a flat surface and specially designed stylus. A user
can draw or write anything over the flat surface using the stylus. It is used mainly for CAD and
graphics applications in designing cars, buildings, medical devices and robots.

Touch Screen is a device that has mixed characteristics of being input and output device. It
displays the choice of commands, and instructions. When you touch the screen using your
fingers, the unit senses the X-Y coordinate points and executes the command at that point. It is
used in grocery, stores and fast food restaurant.
C. Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a
picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical
matter and display it back.
◼ A device that allows pictures to be placed into a computer.

Fig.2.6. scanner
Barcode Reader: Barcode is a printed code (bars of different thickness and spacing between
them) on products that uniquely identifies that product. Barcode is also called Universal Product
Code (UPC). Barcode Reader detects this combination of marks or printed bars that represent
data. UPC is 10 digits long; the first 5 identify he manufacturer (supplier); the next 5 identify the

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specific product of that manufacturer; the number on the left shows the category of product. E.g.

9 for Books
fig.2.7. Barcode reader
D. Microphones are used to enter voice data. They let computers listen to us. Without
microphones, computers would not have sound data in th

fig.2.8.microphone
E. Digital Cameras are photoelectrical devices that enter image data to computers.
Output Devices
Results have to be received from the CPU after processing. Output devices are used to
receive the results from the CPU after processing. These output devices after receiving the
results, translate the information processed by the computer into a form that humans can
understand. Most output can be divided in to two categories, soft copy and hard copy.
Soft copy is ideal when you are writing a document, playing games, watching a video clip or
reading the latest news. Soft copy is what you on the monitor. Soft is temporary, after you have
finished with it there is nothing solid to hold.
Hard copy can be touched and carried. Hard copy is usually some form of paper output or it is
printed information.
There are various output devices:
A. Monitor or Display Devices
B. Printers
C. Other Output Devices

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A. Monitor or Display Devices
The Monitors are also called as Display devices or soft copy output devices. These
monitors display information in the human readable form. The size of the monitors (measured
diagonally from one corner to another) differs from 12 inches to 21 inches.

Fig .2.9. Monitor

B. Printers
Printers are also called as Hardcopy output devices. Using printers any information
consisting of text, symbols, pictures (graphics), etc. can be printed in paper for future reference.

Fig.2.10. printer

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C. Other Output Devices
1 A Plotter is also a printer that produces hard copy output. Plotters produce high quality color
graphics output by using pens for creating images. Plotters help to draw maps from stored
data. Plotters are ideal for Engineering, Drafting and many other applications that require
intricate graphics.
2 Speakers are sound producing output devices. They are used in multimedia systems. They
are ideal for virtual classrooms, together with display.

Fig.2.11. speaker

COMPONENTS WITHIN THE CPU

The Central Processing Unit is the Computing part of the Computer and is also called as
the Brain of the Computer. The various components within the CPU can be identified as
following:
(a) Control Unit
(b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
In a personal computer or microcomputer, the control unit and the ALU together, is a small chip
called the Microprocessor or the Processor. This Processor and other components necessary to
make the computer to function are housed in a main circuit board called the Mother Board or the
System Board. In micro computers the processor works hand in hand with memory unit and
other components to carry out processing.

The Processor executes the given instructions and manipulates data into information.
As mentioned earlier the processor can be further divided into two components:
1 Control Unit
2 Arithmetic & Logic Unit

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The Control Unit directs the Instructions in the form of electronic signals, to the rest of the
computer that are input unit, ALU, memory and output unit. The Control unit can be defined as
‘the section of the CPU that selects, interprets and sees to the execution of program
instructions’
The Arithmetic & Logic Unit performs all Arithmetic and Logical operations and controls the
speed of those operations. The ALU can be defined as ‘the part of a computing system
containing the circuitry that does the adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing and
comparing.’
As a separate device the control and ALU units are known as the Processor. Processors used in
Microcomputers are known as Microprocessors. The speed of the Processor is summed by 2
things
• The number of Operating cycle it executes in a time period
• And the amount of data it can process in one cycle.
During one operating cycle, "the processors transfers an amount of data from memory to the
arithmetic unit, performs a calculation on an amount of data, Transforms an amount of data from
memory to an output device, or Reverse data into memory from an input device". Minimum
speed of the processor operates at about 1 million cycles per second.
Successful Processors
1 INTEL Processors
 8086, 80286, 80386, 80486, 80586
 Pentium I to IV
2 APPLE MACINTOSH: Uses the Motorola 68000 microprocessors - Has an internal bus of
32 bit and an external bus of 16 bits.
3 ALPHA MICRO - Uses both side 32 bits Microprocessor - that is both internal and external.
4 IBM - Uses a processor called System 38 - Is an 48 bit processor
5 ZILOG - Uses an 8-bit process - Processors used in today's computer are 1000 times more
powerful than those used earlier are. Yesterday's Mainframe power is available in today's
Laptop Microcomputers.

Fig .2.12. CPU

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2.1.4. Memory unit
• Primary memory is known as the main memory or internal memory or Random Access
Memory (RAM) of the computer. Memory can be defined as ‘Descriptive of a device or
medium that can accept data, hold them and deliver them, on demand at a later time. If
power drops information stored in memory is destroyed. That is, if power is off, information
stored in memory will be destroyed. That is why, main memories are said to be volatile.
This main memory is used for storing
Data - for processing
1 Instructions - to process the data
2 Results - the processed data.
• There is also another type of Memory called Read Only Memory (ROM). Information once
stored cannot be modified. Information stored in this memory can be used only for reading
purpose. Hence, the name Read Only Memory.

Secondary memory
The Memory which can store data or information permanently for future use is called
secondary storage devices (secondary memory). Normally, these secondary storage devices are
very huge in storage capacity and economical when compared to RAM.
Examples of secondary storage devices are:
• Hard disks
• Magnetic Tapes
• CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)
• Floppy Disks, Etc.
1. HARD DISKS are also called as Non-removable disk or Rigid Disk fixed inside the
computer. It can contain more volume of data. Removable, smaller size hard disks are called
Winchester Disk. Brand names of the hard disks are SEAGATE, SAMSUNG, KANESK, and
LARSON AND TUBRO.
Hard disks are available in many sizes such as
• 20MB, 40MB, 100MB, 540MB, 1GB, 20GB, 40GB, 80GB but today there is also more
than this.
• Two different hard technologies are there
1.IDE- INTEGRATED DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
2.SCSI - SMALL COMPONENT SYSTEM INTERFACE
IDE hard disks are cheaper and slower. SCSI hard disks are costly and faster

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 fig .2.13.hard disk
2. FLOPPY DISKS are also called floppies flexible diskettes or removable disks used for
backup purpose. They are encased permanently in a protective envelope, which is insulated into
the disk drive.

• Depending upon the size three types are available such as

o 5.5 inch, 3.5 inch
• Advantages of these floppies
o Portable
o Cheaper cost
o Easy to handle
• Disadvantage of these floppies
o Small memory capacity
o Not Reliable
• Manufacturers of floppy diskettes are
o IMATION, SONY, AMKETTE, DYSAN, KOREX

3. TAPE DRIVES are much slower than disk drives, but their capacity is extremely large. They
are generally used for system backups: long-term storage of large amounts of important
information.
4. CD DRIVES
Like floppy disk drives, Compact Disks (CDs) are removable storage mediums. There are three
types of CD:
• CD-ROM (CD Read-Only Memory)
• CD-R (CD-Recordable)
• CD-RW (CD-Rewritable)
CD-ROMs are read-only - this means that it is not possible to write new information to the disks.
For many years all CDs were read-only. However, in recent years drives capable of writing new
information to CDs have become more and more common. These can use two different types of
writeable disk: CD-R disks can only be written to only one time, whereas CD-RW disks can be
written too many times.
5. DVD DRIVES
the technology involved in DVD (Digital Video Disk) drives is similar to that of CD drives.
However their storage capacity is greater – around 3GB per disk. Like CDs, DVDs can be either
read-only or writeable.

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The following terms are used to denote the capacity of the memory
1 Bit – Binary digit – Either 0 or 1 – Smallest unit of measurement.
2 Byte – Group of 8 Bits is called a Byte.
The memory capacity is generally expressed in multiples of Byte.
Kilo Byte (KB) – 1024 Bytes = 1 KB
Mega Byte (MB) – 1024 KB = 1 MB ~ 1 Million Bytes
Giga Byte (GB) – 1024 MB = 1 GB ~ 1 Billion Bytes
Tera Byte (TB) – 1024 GB = 1 TB ~ 1 Trillion Bytes
2.2. SOFTWARE COMPONENTS
Data are nothing but raw facts and figures without any meaning. They are to be
processed. Information is nothing but meaningful data after processing.
To convert or process any raw data into meaningful information software is required.
Software is very, very important to any computer and it is compared as “breathe life” into the
computer.
Definition: Computer software is nothing but the step-by-step instructions given to the
computer in the form of programs or procedures or routines in order to accomplish any specified
task or to process the raw data and convert it into meaningful information. In short the software
is nothing but the intelligence of the computer.
Software is “Soft” because you can’t touch the instructions, the way you touch the
computer equipment – the “hard” ware.
Software is of two different types as it is, for the computer and for the user.
1. System Software – controls and coordinates the computer hardware.
2. Applications Software – designed to solve a specific problem.
2.2.1. System Software
✓ System Software manages the computer’s basic operations, allows the computer to run
applications software and allows the user to interact with the computer.
✓ System software tells the computer how to interpret data and instructions; how to
communicate with peripheral equipments like mouse, keyboard, printers etc; and how to use
the hardware in general.
✓ There are many number of system software, but let us consider only a few for our discussion.
The different types of system software are:
▪ Operating Systems
▪ Device Drivers
▪ Language Translators
▪ Utility Programs

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a) Operating System [OS]:- is system software containing a set of programs called the
supervisor that manages the basic operations of a computer. Flexibility of the computer usage
depends on Operating System. Without the operating system loaded into the computer, all
hardware and other software are useless.
When the computer is switched on the operating system is automatically loaded into the main
memory or RAM of the computer. This process of loading the operating system into the RAM
of the computer is called Booting the computer. Can be classified as
• Single user OS [MS-DOS,PC-DOS,NOVELL-DOS]
• Multi user OS [NOVELL, WINDOWS, UNIX, XENIX, OS/2,NT]
• Real time OS [EMBEDDED OPERATING SYSTEMS] - RTOS

Basic functions of an Operating System are:

1 Input-Output management
2 Memory management
3 File management
4 Job control
All these function together as a group of programs known as system programs under the control
of the supervisor yields the computer operating system.
Roles of the operating system
The operating system has various roles:
✓ The operating system is responsible for managing allocation of the processor between the
different programmes using a scheduling algorithm. The type of scheduler is totally
dependent on the operating system, according to the desired objective.
✓ The operating system is responsible for managing the memory space allocated to each
application and, where relevant, to each user. If there is insufficient physical memory, the
operating system can create a memory zone on the hard drive, known as "virtual memory".
The virtual memory lets you run applications requiring more memory than there is available
RAM on the system. However, this memory is a great deal slower.
✓ The operating system is responsible for smooth execution of applications by allocating the
resources required for them to operate. This means an application that is not responding
correctly can be "killed".
✓ The operating system is responsible for security relating to execution of programs by
guaranteeing that the resources are used only by programs and users with the relevant
authorizations.
✓ The operating system manages reading and writing in the file system and the user and
application file access authorizations.
✓ The operating system provides a certain number of indicators that can be used to diagnose
the correct operation of the machine.

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b) Device Drivers: Each and every device (input or output) connected to the computer requires
relevant software, which makes the device to communicate or interact with the CPU. The
software that makes the devices to communicate or interact with the CPU is called the device
driver.
The device drivers for commonly used device may be available along with the operating
system itself. The device drivers for the optional devices used with the computers may be
supplied by the device manufacturer. Without these device drivers any device connected to the
computer is useless and cannot be used.
c) Language Translators: Humans need to communicate with computers. Computers cannot
understand data or information in human readable form. The data or information in human
readable form has to be converted into computer understandable form. To communicate with
computers and to instruct the computers to accomplish any specific task, humans have developed
many computer languages. These computer languages are of two types
High Level Language
Example: Basic, FORTRAN, Pascal, C, C++, PL/1, Java, etc.
Low Level Language
Example: Assembly Language

Both these high level language and low level language require language translators to convert the
instructions in the human understandable form into machine understandable form.
Compilers and Interpreters are the language translators required to translate high level
language into machine understandable form. Compilers are a computer program that produces a
machine language program from a source program that is usually written in a high-level
language by a programmer. The compiler is capable of replacing single source program
statements, with a series of machine language instructions or with a subroutine. Otherwise, it
can be defined as Compiler helps to convert instruction understandable by humans into
instructions understandable by computers.
Assembler is the language translator required to translate the assembly language into
machine understandable form.

d) Utility Programs are generally used to support, enhance or expand existing programs in a
computer system. Examples of utility programs are
• Backup - to duplicate the data or information for safety.
• Data Recovery - to restore data that is physically damaged or corrupted

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• Virus Protection - Antivirus software which will eliminate viruses from affected files or
protect files from being infected from viruses.
• Data Compression - To compress huge files and save memory storage.

2.2.2. Application Software

Computer Software has become a multibillion-dollar industry. Thousands and thousands
of companies have entered the applications software industry, and they have developed a wide
variety of products. Basically, there are four categories of application software.
• Productivity Software: The purpose of this software is to make the users more productive at
performing general tasks. For example, word processing, spread sheets, presentation,
database managers, accounting etc.
• Home / Personal software: The purpose of this software is mainly for domestic and
personal use. For example, cook books, medical guide, gardening, etc.
• Education / Reference software: The purpose of this software is mainly to learn any subject
or to refer for additional information. For example: Encyclopedia, Dictionaries, Computer
Based Tutorials (CBT), etc.
• Entertainment software: The purpose of this software is for entertainment and time
passing. For example games.
Application software can be acquired directly from a software manufacturer. If it does
not satisfy the needs completely, a software can be developed for own purpose, either by having
professionals within the organization or by hiring outside consultants.

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