The International Journal of Management Education 22 (2024) 100895

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The International Journal of Management Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijme

Entrepreneurial attitude: Gender differences in moroccan

university students
José María Biedma-Ferrer *, Miguel Ángel Montañés-Del Río, Carmen Virues,
Jose M. Sanchez
Business Management Department, Cádiz University, Cádiz, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Higher education institutions play an important role in fostering a positive student attitude to­
Entrepreneurship wards entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurial attitude concerns one’s predisposition to look favour­
Gender ably or unfavourably upon starting a business. Previous studies discuss whether gender might
University
affect this attitude. The aim of this paper is to supplement the scant, Morocco-based studies by
GUESSS
exploring whether gender influences students’ entrepreneurial attitudes, taking into account their
Morocco
marital status and level of education. A non-parametric statistical analysis is applied to a sample
of 549 Moroccan students and the results show that gender affects their entrepreneurial attitudes.
Female students show a higher entrepreneurial attitude than male students, especially when they
are single and at the bachelor level. These findings have practical implications for higher edu­
cation institutions and policy makers.

1. Introduction

While entrepreneurship is possible without higher education, universities contribute to the improvement of students’ entrepre­
neurial attitudes and skills (Miço & Cungu, 2023). Fostering the entrepreneurial attitudes of students is crucial in a knowledge-based
economy (Răulea et al., 2016), as it increases the probability of them starting new businesses (Bosma et al., 2021). Student partici­
pation in curricular programmes and co-curricular activities which address entrepreneurship has a positive effect (Morris et al., 2017).
Further knowledge of student entrepreneurial attitudes is a topic of great interest to students, academics and policy makers (Qosja &
Druga, 2015).
Entrepreneurial attitudes play a key role in the creation of entrepreneurial intentions and are a determining factor in shaping
entrepreneurial behaviour (Eliyana et al., 2020). Wijayati et al. (2021) found that a student’s entrepreneurial intention is influenced by
their attitude. There is evidence that entrepreneurial attitudes effectively mediate the influence of several determinant variables
(including entrepreneurial education, family upbringing and environment) on entrepreneurial intention variables (Ozaralli & Riv­
enburgh, 2016; Wardana et al., 2020). Entrepreneurial attitude goes beyond a stated intention, focusing on the actual predisposition to
behave favourably or unfavourably towards starting a business (Shaver & Scott, 1992). The foregoing leads to consideration that in
order to strengthen the future entrepreneurial intention of vocational students, their entrepreneurial attitudes must first be
strengthened (Kusumojanto et al., 2021).
Studies have found that a student’s gender seems to affect their entrepreneurial attitude. Some of these studies (Dabic et al., 2012;

* Corresponding author. Avda. de la Universidad, 4, 11406, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain.

E-mail address: [email protected] (J.M. Biedma-Ferrer).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2023.100895
Received 24 February 2023; Received in revised form 4 October 2023; Accepted 3 November 2023
Available online 24 November 2023
1472-8117/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.M. Biedma-Ferrer et al. The International Journal of Management Education 22 (2024) 100895

Goktan & Gupta, 2015; Yang & Wang, 2014) affirm that female students express less inclination to start their own business compared
to male students, while others (e.g., Aloulou, 2016) suggest that the opposite is true. Still others state that gender may not have a
significant effect on a student’s entrepreneurial attitude (Gomes et al., 2021; Mansour, 2018). Furthermore, there are arguments about
how entrepreneurship education plays an important role for female students who are inclined towards an entrepreneurial career (Devi
et al., 2019). Consequently, further research on gender perspective in entrepreneurial attitude is key to developing the economic and
social phenomenon of female entrepreneurship (Eugenia et al., 2014, pp. 421–439; Ferreras-Garcia et al., 2021).
This paper explores the impact of gender on students’ entrepreneurial attitudes within Moroccan universities and also considers
whether marital status and level of education have any influence on entrepreneurial attitudes. Within the Middle East and North
Africa, Morocco is the country that made the most progress in reducing the gender gap in 2022 (World Economic Forum, 2022).
However, despite steady growth in the number of women entrepreneurs, they still represent a low percentage compared to men
(Constantinidis et al., 2017; Himrane, 2018). Tijar and Smouni (2022) pointed out that the country’s employment structure by pro­
fessional status shows that the rate of feminisation among the self-employed is only 12.3% (Haut-Commissiarat Au Plan, 2018). Little
has been studied about Moroccan women’s entrepreneurship, including their positive/negative attitude towards the process of
identifying, assessing and taking advantage of a business opportunity (Low, 2001). Borrero (2018) highlights the scarcity of studies
that explore gender issues in developing countries (more specifically Africa) and calls for more research.
The paper develops a set of questions based on prior research on entrepreneurship and gender. The methodology is then described,
with the main results outlined and discussed in light of related work. Finally, potential contributions to both theory and practice are
highlighted, along with limitations that offer pathways for future research.

2. Theoretical framework

2.1. Entrepreneurship education

Higher education institutions can guide students towards behaving like and becoming entrepreneurs by providing them with
entrepreneurial skills (Bosma et al., 2021). Universities can inculcate and nurture entrepreneurial spirit in students and graduates by
facilitating the development of the relevant skills, providing physical spaces within the university, and assisting nascent entrepreneurs
in their start-up activity (Abdullah, 2015).
Entrepreneurship education involves the improvement of personal qualities and characteristics that enable the adoption and
application of an entrepreneurial mindset. Therefore, training programmes should ensure that the relevant skills and attitudes are
developed in all potential entrepreneurs (Paunovi & Nikolić, 2012). In fact, there is evidence that educational entrepreneurship
courses can build an awareness of entrepreneurship as a career option, encouraging favourable entrepreneurial attitudes (Gorman
et al., 1997). The positive effect of entrepreneurship education on students’ entrepreneurial attitude is well-documented and supported
by appropriate evidence (Ayob, 2021).

2.2. Entrepreneurial attitudes

The Theory of Planned Behaviour, hereinafter TPB, is one of the most prominent and frequently-cited models for understanding,
predicting and changing human social behaviour (Ajzen, 2012, 2020). The TPB, founded on the concept that individuals make rational
choices, suggests that a person’s intention to engage in a specific voluntary deliberative behaviour arises from three key elements: their
attitude towards the behaviour, the subjective norms associated with it, and their perceived level of control over it. As a general rule,
the more favourable the attitude and the subjective norm, and the greater the perceived behavioural control, the stronger the person’s
intention to perform the behaviour (Ajzen, 2012; Ajzen & Cote, 2008).
One advantage of using an attitudinal approach is that it can be more domain-specific, which increases correlation with actual
behaviour and reduces unexplained variability (Harris & Gibson, 2008). Vamvaka et al. (2020) indicate that attitude is considered the
least controversial construct, due to the consistency of empirical findings related to its influence on intention, and the agreement
regarding its conceptualization and operationalisation (Yap et al., 2013). Rosmiati et al. (2015) argue that attitude is the mental
disposition to perform actions in response to something and how people respond to the conditions and regulations in their lives.
Beyond a mere expression of intention, entrepreneurial attitude concerns the inherent inclination to behave in a generally positive or
negative manner towards the specific objective of starting a business (Shaver & Scott, 1992). Attitude is the seed of everything, and a
student’s attitude towards entrepreneurship is influenced by entrepreneurship education (Kusumojanto et al., 2021; Wijayati et al.,
2021). Attitudes may change due to time and circumstances, through an interactive process with the environment (Carlson, 1985), but
their longevity is dependent on the educational experiences that create them (Gough, 2018). Consequently, this research focuses on an
attitudinal analysis because entrepreneurship is about much more than launching new businesses; students and graduates can be
highly entrepreneurial even while working within companies. If imbued with an entrepreneurial attitude and regardless of their
specialisation, these employees can enrich the most dynamic and innovative businesses and facilitate economic and social
transformations.

2.3. Women and entrepreneurship

Literature indicates that theories of entrepreneurship may not be gender-neutral (Brush & Cooper, 2012). The stereotypical image
of an entrepreneur is predominantly male, conforming to the notion of masculinity (Edelman et al., 2018), and there is an interesting

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debate on the effect of gender on entrepreneurial attitudes. In their review of a variety of studies, Saral and Alpkan (2019) found
differences between men and women in terms of their entrepreneurial intentions. Strobl et al. (2012) pointed out that male students
display a more positive attitude towards entrepreneurship than female students. Males are also more inclined to set up a business when
they are older, having received more intensive entrepreneurship-based education (Holienka et al., 2017). Some studies evidence that
female entrepreneurs have comparatively fewer of the skills needed to realise an entrepreneurial project (Balachandra, 2020). Sperber
and Linder (2019) found that women are more critical of their own abilities, which could be associated with issues of self-confidence
and risk-taking. These behaviours could be potential barriers for women’s entrepreneurship (Damsten & Hasselgren, 2020). Gomes
et al. (2021) point out that the personal attitude of women has a less direct positive impact on their entrepreneurial spirit. However, in
the university context, Pulka et al. (2015) indicate that there are no significant differences between women and men in terms of at­
titudes towards entrepreneurship. Aloulou (2016) concludes that female undergraduates are more likely to start a business than their
male counterparts. However, Gomes et al. (2021) and Mansour (2018) state that gender has no significant effect on the entrepreneurial
attitude of students, nor does it impact their intention to venture into online business creation (Bennani & Oumlil, 2014).
Research on the comparison between female and male entrepreneurship shows significant differences not only in participation, but
also in orientation, motivation and opportunities (Pérez-Pérez & Avilés-Hernández, 2016). According to research conducted by
Pérez-Pérez and Avilés-Hernández (2016), one of the four categories of explanatory factors for female entrepreneurship is related to
cultural change, and women’s development and empowerment. This refers to the social and personal transformation that women have
undergone as a result of cultural progress, particularly in terms of gender equality.
Despite the many challenges of female entrepreneurship, it is seen as one of the major contributors to economic growth (Bou­
zekraoui & Ferhane, 2017; Elam et al., 2021), as it aids in reducing poverty, raising incomes and fostering local resolve (Pérez-Pérez &
Avilés-Hernández, 2016). The importance of female entrepreneurship lies in the fact that it could be one of the solutions to economic
crises, not only due to its importance for economic development, but also its positive effects on the creation of economic and social
benefits in the global economy (Bouzekraoui & Ferhane, 2017). Furthermore, some studies indicate the importance of universities in
women’s entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions (Laudano et al., 2019).

2.4. The situation in Morocco

Literature related to the entrepreneurial attitude of Moroccan women is scarce (Bastian & Zali, 2016; Constantinidis et al., 2017;
Hattab, 2012) because the majority of research focuses on European or Anglo-Saxon contexts (Al-Dajani & Marlow, 2010; Tlaiss,
2015). There are few qualitative and quantitative studies on female entrepreneurship in the Arab world (Bastian et al., 2018; Hattab,
2012; Mulnix et al., 2014).
Previous empirical studies show that a country’s culture has a significant impact on its level of entrepreneurial activity (De Clercq
et al., 2013; Hechavarría, 2016). Entrepreneurial intention is deemed to increase when there is a patriarchal model of society, but the
effect of its influence is moderated by gender (Moreno-Gómez et al., 2020). For example, research on university students in the United
Arab Emirates revealed that men are more entrepreneurially inspired than women, due to the androcentrism of Arab culture
(Abdullah, 2015).
Arab women have traditionally been limited to household chores and the upbringing of children and, as a result of these con­
straints, they are often discouraged from assuming economic responsibilities or even considering entrepreneurial endeavours
(Abdullah, 2015). Due to cultural roles, women view themselves as less capable in tasks typically associated with men, including
entrepreneurship. As a result, they require a higher level of education to develop a sense of self-perceived competence and readiness to
pursue an entrepreneurial career (Nowińsk et al., 2019).
Despite a steady increase in the number of women-owned businesses in recent years in the Middle East and North Africa (Egypt,
Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, and Morocco), hereinafter MENA, there is still a substantial gender gap in female entrepreneurship (Meunier
et al., 2017). Although MENA region exhibits some of the world’s highest rates of women’s entrepreneurial intent, Morocco stands as a
clear contradiction in this regard: less than 5% of businesses are created by women (Elam et al., 2021). Nevertheless, data indicates
that Moroccan female entrepreneurs are twice as likely as men to set up a business with the intention of changing the world (Elam
et al., 2021).
Morocco is a country with a traditional culture, where women generally attain lower levels of education and are less exposed to
business environments. According to Bastian and Zali (2016), Moroccan women may have a more negative attitude towards entre­
preneurship due to the influence of socially constructed gender definitions and characterisations regarding their expectations,
particularly where success in starting a business is concerned. Socio-cultural factors, patriarchal and discriminatory attitudes towards
them may explain their submissive and passive role (Boubker et al., 2021; Parra et al., 2022). Borrero (2018) points out that the
Moroccan stereotype is that women occupy an inferior position and this is perhaps reinforced by two circumstances: 1) In 2020, the
illiteracy rate among Moroccan women aged 15 and older was 45% (Galal, 2023); 2) Women have limited and unequal access to
sources of finance, business markets, networks, and training (Bouzekraoui & Ferhane, 2017; World Bank, 2015). Further impediments
include: infrastructure acquisition, recruitment, administrative barriers, work-life imbalance, poor training, and the weight of a pa­
triarchal mentality (Bouzekraoui & Ferhane, 2017). This means that, paradoxically, while the number of female entrepreneurs
worldwide is steadily increasing, growth in Morocco in this aspect is low (Himrane, 2018) compared to other African countries (Asli &
Nour, 2018). The nation’s rate of female entrepreneurship is lagging behind that of men, despite women representing slightly more
than half of the population (Constantinidis et al., 2017).
Nevertheless, female entrepreneurship in Morocco has become an important part of the country’s development and growth strategy
(Asmae, 2020). Nowadays, it constitutes a social and economic force for the country, yet it still requires greater support, particularly in

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financing programs, the absence of which poses a specific obstacle for women entrepreneurs (Asmae, 2020).
In MENA region, education seems to have had a more positive effect on women’s motivation to start a business than it has on men’s
(Bastian & Zali, 2016). However, there is a lack of entrepreneurial education through specific university courses, which, coupled with
the absence of a common strategy in this area, results in a deficit of technical and relational skills, thereby hindering entrepreneurship
among the Moroccan population (Ruiz-Navarro et al., 2017). This is significant because it has been shown that participants in
entrepreneurial courses have higher levels of entrepreneurship, risk-taking and innovative capacity than those who did not have the
opportunity to participate (Saral & Alpkan, 2019).
Although the promotion of female entrepreneurship has become one of Morocco’s most favoured public strategies, due to the
expected positive impact on the economy, scant studies have been conducted on the subject. This lack of research prevents a clear
picture of the current situation (Bouzekraoui, 2022).

2.5. Research questions statement

As emphasized above, previous studies have confirmed the influence that attitude exerts on entrepreneurial activity (Bouarir et al.,
2023). Although entrepreneurial education at universities has been found to have a significant influence on students’ entrepreneurial
attitudes, there is an interesting debate on the effect of gender on said attitudes. Some studies consider that entrepreneurial attitude, as
well as innovation, stems from entrepreneurial education (Devi et al., 2019; Vamvaka et al., 2020). Laudano et al. (2019) found that
education had a significant impact on women’s entrepreneurial attitudes. According to Aljuwaiber (2021), this could be attributed to
the effects of universities fostering the interest of female students towards entrepreneurship and assisting them in the early stages of
business creation.
When addressing the issue of female entrepreneurship in Morocco, women’s attitudes continue to be strongly influenced by tra­
ditions, as well as by their marital status and level of education. Single persons (regardless of gender) exhibit a more positive
entrepreneurial attitude than married persons, perhaps due to the fact that the latter are less prone to taking risks (Saral & Alpkan,
2019). In Morocco however, although both single and married women actively participate in entrepreneurial activities, it is married
women who exhibit higher rates of entrepreneurial activity (Hattab, 2012). This aligns with findings encountered in other MENA
countries, such as Lebanon (Youness, 2007). Additionally, some studies identify significant differences in women’s entrepreneurship
based on their level of education (e.g., La Rubia et al., 2021). In their study conducted in Jordan, Abualbasal and Badran (2019) found
a strong relationship between students’ level of education and their awareness of entrepreneurship, which in turn affected their
entrepreneurial attitude.
To reflect the foregoing, the following research questions (RQ) are proposed:
RQ1: Does gender affect the entrepreneurial attitude of Moroccan university students?
RQ1a: Does marital status affect the relationship between gender and the entrepreneurial attitude of Moroccan university students?
RQ1b: Does education level affect the relationship between gender and the entrepreneurial attitude of Moroccan university
students?

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Sample

The data was obtained from the Global University Entrepreneurial Spirit Students’ Survey (GUESSS), which was founded in 2003

Table 1
Descriptive data.
Female Male

N 549 293 256

Age Mean Statistic Min. Max.
Deviation
23.43 4.98 18 53
Level of education Bachelor Master’s PhD
35% 48% 17%
Marital status Single Married
91% 9%

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by the Swiss Entrepreneurship Institute and is now one of the largest entrepreneurship projects in the world. GUESSS is widely used
because it provides information on students’ entrepreneurial activities and career intentions (Biedma-Ferrer et al., 2021; Sieger et al.,
2021). The information collection process involved sending an email to students to explain the project and request their participation
in a digital survey. At the same time, an email with similar information was sent to professors, deans and directors of Moroccan
universities. In accordance with ethics approval, participants were duly informed about the study and their consent was obtained
before data collection.
By the start of 2021, 549 Moroccan university students aged between 18 and 53 (M = 23.43, SD = 4.98) had agreed to fill in the
questionnaires: 293 women (53%) and 256 men (47%). Among the respondents, 35% had undertaken undergraduate studies, 48%
graduate studies, and 17% PhD studies. The students were from different specialities, including humanities, business, engineering,
health science, law, social sciences, science of art, and natural science, among others. The majority of the respondents were single
(91%). The descriptive data is shown in Table 1.

3.2. Study procedure

Entrepreneurial attitude was measured using five items from Liñán and Chen (2009): “Being an entrepreneur implies more advantages
than disadvantages to me”, “A career as an entrepreneur is attractive to me”, “If I had the opportunity and resources, I would become an
entrepreneur”, “Being an entrepreneur would entail great satisfactions for me”, “Among various options, I would rather become an entre­
preneur”. The responses were measured using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). Adapted from Federal
Statistical Office of Germany (Destatis, 2015), the level of education was measured using the question "On what level are you studying?"
and the values were 1 for bachelor, 2 for master’s, and 3 for PhD. Two control variables were included: entrepreneurial skills (e.g.,
Aljarodi et al., 2022), and educational background (e.g., Cunha et al., 2022). Entrepreneurial skills were measured using a 7-point
Likert scale (1 = very low competence, 7 = very high competence) (Chen et al., 1998; George & Zhou, 2001; Zhao et al., 2005).
Educational background used the value of 1 for economic/business sciences and 0 for others (e.g., Cunha et al., 2022).

3.3. Data analysis methods

The relationships between gender and entrepreneurial attitude were verified by comparing mean scores in the general indicator of
entrepreneurial attitude in two groups: female students and male students. In order to identify potential differences according to other
socio-demographic aspects, these groups were segmented by marital status (see Table 2) and level of education (see Table 3).
To assess whether the students’ gender affects their entrepreneurial attitude, statistical analyses (with SPSS 25) with the non-
parametric Mann–Whitney U test (as distribution was not normal) were performed. Otherwise, the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis
test (as distribution was not normal and it is suitable for small samples) was performed to compare mean scores between more than two
subgroups. To find out which of the subgroups differ significantly, the Mann-Whitney U test was applied again. Similarly to Neal
(2020), a correlation analysis was carried out to test whether the control variables have a relationship with the “entrepreneurial
attitude” dependent variable.

Table 2
Marital status.
Single male vs. married male

Single male vs. single female

Married male vs. married female
Single female vs. married female

Table 3
Level of education.
Bachelor male vs. Master’s male

Bachelor male vs. PhD male

Master’s male vs. PhD male
Bachelor female vs. Master’s female
Bachelor female vs. PhD female
Master’s female vs. PhD female
Bachelor male vs. Bachelor female
Master’s male vs. Master’s female
PhD male vs. PhD female

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4. Results

Tables 4–6 show the differences in the average ranges of the various groups, indicating which group has a higher entrepreneurial
attitude and highlighting statistically significant differences. Considering RQ1, gender affects entrepreneurial attitude, as female
students have a higher entrepreneurial attitude. The results demonstrate statistically significant differences between entrepreneurial
attitude by gender (U = 33372, p < 0.05), as shown in Table 4.
Regarding RQ1a, Table 5 shows that a student’s marital status affects their entrepreneurial attitude according to their gender, with
differences seen between students depending on their marital status (χ2 (3, N = 543) = 8.40, p < 0.05). Single females are shown to
have a more positive attitude towards entrepreneurial activity than others, based on the results in RQ1. However, further analysis
(non-parametric Mann–Whitney U test) shows that the only statistically significant difference is in single female students, not single
male students. This also reinforces the previous results.
Regarding RQ1b: in a first analysis, Table 6 shows that a student’s level of education affects their entrepreneurial attitude according
to their gender (χ2 (5, N = 481) = 17.58, p < 0.01). Female students have a consistently more positive attitude across all education
levels, supporting the RQ1 results. The biggest difference is observed among bachelor students, where females have a stronger
entrepreneurial attitude than others. Likewise, using a non-parametric Mann–Whitney U test, Table 6 shows that male master’s stu­
dents present a statistically significant difference compared to PhD male students, and that female bachelor students also have a
significantly more positive entrepreneurial attitude compared to PhD female students.

Table 4
Differences in entrepreneurial attitude mean scores in various groups (Mann–Whitney U test values).
Female Male

N = 293 N = 256
Average rank Average rank Mann-Whitney U Z P
Entrepreneurial attitude 289.10 258.86 33372 − 2.238 0.025

Table 5
Differences in entrepreneurial attitude mean scores in various groups (Kruskal-Wallis test values).
Gender – Marital status Kruskal-Wallis Gl P

Female-single Female-married Male-single Male-married

N = 270 N = 20 N = 227 N = 26
Average rank Average rank Average rank Average rank
Entrepreneurial attitude 288.54 262.55 260.18 210.69 8.396 3 0.038
Mann-Whitney U Z P
129.33 106.69 2426 − 1.498 0.135
260.76 235.01 27469.5 − 2 0.046
26.45 21.26 201 − 1.311 0.194
146.55 131.35 2417 − 0.787 0.432

Table 6
Differences in entrepreneurial attitude mean scores in various groups.
Gender – Level of education Kruskal- Gl p
Wallis

Female- Female- Female- Male- Male- Male-PhD

Bachelor Master’s PhD Bachelor Master’s
N = 94 N = 122 N = 33 N = 75 N = 107 N = 50
Average rank Average rank Average Average Average Average
rank rank rank rank
Entrepreneurial 276.69 254.84 204.97 232.09 236.18 187.59 17.582 5 0.004
attitude Mann- Z P
Whitney U
90.4 92.27 3930 − 0.237 0.813
67.15 56.77 1563.5 − 1.578 0.115
84.26 67.75 2112.5 − 2.124 0.034
113.91 104.33 5225.5 − 1.125 0.261
69.26 49.02 1056.5 − 2.734 0.006
81.42 65.35 1595.5 − 1.834 0.067
91.49 76.86 2914.5 − 1.949 0.051
119.3 110.09 6002 − 1.053 0.292
44.30 40.48 749 − 0.709 0.479

To complement these analyses, a correlation analysis was carried out to evaluate the potential relationship between entrepreneurial attitudes and
control variables (see Table 7). The scores for educational background (r = 0.102, p = 0.017) and entrepreneurial skills (r = 0.513, p = 0.000) indicate
a significant relationship with the dependent variable.

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Table 7
Correlation analysis.
Skills Entrepreneurial attitude Educational background

Spearman’s rho Skills Correlation coefficient 1.000 .513** .087*

Sig. (2-tailed) . .000 .042
N 553 549 553
Entrepreneurial attitude Correlation coefficient .513** 1.000 .102*
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 . .017
N 549 554 554
Educational background Correlation coefficient .087* .102* 1.000
Sig. (2-tailed) ,042 ,017 .
N 553 554 1264

5. Discussion

Whilst addressing different calls for research on gender perspective in entrepreneurial attitude (Eugenia et al., 2014, pp. 421–439;
Ferreras-Garcia et al., 2021), this study shows a significant gender difference in the entrepreneurial attitude of Moroccan university
students. The results are aligned with other research which shows that female university students are more likely to start a business
than their male counterparts (e.g., Aloulou, 2016). Although Moroccan female entrepreneurship has been largely underestimated
(Rachdi, 2006), according to Laudano et al. (2019) higher education seems to impact positively on women’s entrepreneurial attitudes.
It could contribute significantly to the fostering of the entrepreneurial intentions of Moroccan women, something which is still minimal
according to the 2018 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor report, despite it being an important part of the country’s development and
growth strategy, as argued by Asmae (2020). Time is needed for this positive attitude to have an impact on the percentage of businesses
created by Moroccan women.
This research shows that single females have a more positive entrepreneurial attitude than single males, but it seems that there are
no other differences between male and female students in terms of marital status. While the sample analyzed has a relatively small
portion of married students, and marriage is often delayed beyond college, younger generations may be less inclined to follow
traditional gender roles and women may increasingly adopt those that have been socially classified as masculine (Twenge, 1997), thus
increasing their positive attitude towards entrepreneurship. This contrasts with Hattab’s results (2012) which found that married
women in MENA region tend to be more positive regarding entrepreneurship than single women. It also differs from Uike’s results
(2019) which highlight how single people, irrespective of gender, have a more positive attitude towards entrepreneurship than
married people. The same can be said with Saral and Alpkan (2019), who point out that married people, also irrespective of gender, are
less likely to take risks and consequently have a less positive attitude towards entrepreneurship than single people.
Regarding educational level, previous research has shown that bachelor students have a strong positive attitude towards entre­
preneurship education (Pulka et al., 2015). Similarly, our findings seem to evidence that a student’s educational level affects their
entrepreneurial attitudes depending on their gender: female bachelor students always have a more positive attitude compared to the
rest. Our results are different to other studies (e.g., Abualbasal & Badran, 2019; Holienka et al., 2017) which claim that university
students are more likely to start businesses when they have a higher level of education and are older. Detailed analysis shows that PhD
students, both male and female, have a less positive entrepreneurial attitude, which could be due to the fact that their personal ob­
jectives do not include becoming an entrepreneur.
Finally, academic background and entrepreneurial skills also have an impact on students’ entrepreneurial attitude, as shown in the
survey conducted by Abualbasal and Badran (2019) in Jordan.

5.1. Practical implications

Policies that promote entrepreneurial university education need to be created in order to foster the positive entrepreneurial attitude
identified in Moroccan female students, who intend to create a better world through entrepreneurship (Elam et al., 2021). Moreover,
enhancing entrepreneurial competencies, which are inter-disciplinary by nature, particularly in bachelor degrees, could contribute to
the development of both female and male students’ entrepreneurial skills and experience. Consequently, this would positively in­
fluence their attitude towards entrepreneurship. Similarly, new educational policies should also focus on fostering entrepreneurship
among PhD students of both sexes, to improve entrepreneurial attitude at the highest of educational levels, thereby encouraging them
to become entrepreneurs or innovators in the companies and institutions where they will undergo their professional development.
Finally, this work encourages decision-makers in Moroccan institutions to continue their efforts to improve the entrepreneurial at­
titudes of university students and provides them with valuable indicators for action to facilitate the development and well-being of
society.

6. Conclusions

This research corroborates the literature that highlights the central role of universities in nurturing the entrepreneurial attitude of
their students (e.g., Bosma et al., 2021), with attitudes being the driving force behind the intentions by which people act (Ajzen, 1987).
Furthermore, the significant gender gap in entrepreneurship in Morocco (Meunier et al., 2017) emphasizes the relevance of this

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research, showing the impact of gender on the entrepreneurial attitudes of university students, future entrepreneurs and employees.
Given the scarcity of research that addresses the influence of gender on attitudes towards entrepreneurship in a university context and
in contexts outside of the European and Anglo-Saxon, the presentation of studies such as this provides an opportunity to garner another
perspective on the gender difference in entrepreneurial attitudes, as influenced by marital status and level of education.
The results show how gender affects the entrepreneurial attitudes of Moroccan students, in contrast to previous studies that do not
consider this aspect to be relevant, or else give it little importance (Gomes et al., 2021; Mansour, 2018). Female students show a higher
entrepreneurial attitude than male students, especially in the case of single students and those at the bachelor level, and this has
practical implications for higher education institutions and policy makers.
It is important to interpret findings in light of the study’s limitations. This exploratory study provides a new approach to the
entrepreneurial attitudes of Moroccan students according to gender, and it could be complemented by a qualitative longitudinal study
of the underlying reasons behind the discovered differences. Second, attitude is of great value, as argued, but it is equally important to
study resultant actions, given that males may be more likely to act on their intentions (Donaldson et al., 2023). Third, this study was
carried out on university students from a single country. Therefore, it is proposed that studies be carried out in other North African
countries. The final limitation is that GUESSS data is gathered via self-report surveys in which the students may not have provided
truthful evaluations of their own capabilities or motives. All of these limitations create very interesting avenues for future research.

Credit author statement

José María Biedma-Ferrer: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Writing- Original draft preparation,
Writing- Reviewing and Editing, Supervision. Visualization, Investigation. Miguel Ángel Montañés-Del Río: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Software, Writing- Original draft preparation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing, Visuali­
zation, Investigation Carmen Virues: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Software Writing- Original draft
preparation, Visualization, Investigation. Jose M. Sanchez: Conceptualization, Writing- Original draft preparation, Writing- Reviewing
and Editing, Supervision. Visualization, Investigation.

Data availability

The authors do not have permission to share data.

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