Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.

Joseph Arun

Unit 1 – Introduction to Aircraft Design

Aircraft:
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It
counters the force of gravity by using either static lift, dynamic lift of an airfoil, or the
downward thrust from jet engines.
Airplanes, helicopters, airships, gliders, para-motors, and hot air balloons are
some examples.

Airplane: (Aeroplane)
An airplane is a specific type of aircraft that has fixed wings and is heavier than
air that is capable of sustained, powered, and controlled flight.

Airplane Design:
Airplane design is the intellectual engineering process of creating a flying
machine
a. To meet certain specifications and requirements established by potential
users
b. To initiate innovative, new ideas and technologies into the airplane.
c. To produce an aircraft that is strong, lightweight, economical and can carry an
adequate payload
d. To ensure safe flight of aircraft in its entire life period.

Airplane Design involves,

a. Study of working of all components involved
b. Iterative Techniques
c. High level of configuration trade off
d. Analysis and Testing
e. Examination by Civil Airworthiness Authorities

Page 1
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Purpose & Scope of Airplane Design:

The process of Airplane Design, involves the use of knowledge in diverse fields to
arrive at a product that will satisfy requirements regarding functional aspects,
operational safety and cost.
The design of an airplane involves synthesizing knowledge in areas like
aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, systems and manufacturing techniques. The aim
is to arrive at the configuration of an airplane, which will satisfy above requirements.

The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the

following.
a. Obtaining the specifications of the airplane, selecting the type and determining
the geometric parameters.
b. Selection of the power plant.
c. Structural design and working out details of construction.
d. Fabrication of prototype.
e. Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural integrity from
flight tests.

Aircraft Parts & Functions:

Main Parts:
a. Fuselage:
The fuselage is the portion of the airplane used to join, or fuse, the other parts
together. It is considered of as the body of the aircraft and holds the passengers
and cargo safely inside. The parts of fuselage are the nose, the cockpit, the central
fuselage (or passenger cabin) and the rear fuselage (or tail cone)

b. Wings:
The wing provides the majority of the lift an airplane requires for flight. Its shape
is specifically designed for the aircraft to which it is attached. On most aircraft,
the interior of the wing is also used to store the fuel required to power the
engines. The wing has flaps and ailerons.

Page 2
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

c. Power Plants:
An airplane has engines which provide the thrust needed to fly. There are
many different makes and models, but all perform the same basic function of
taking the air that’s in front of the aircraft, accelerating it and pushing out behind
the aircraft.

d. Emphanage:
Emphanage is the name given to the entire tail section of the aircraft,
including the horizontal and vertical stabilizers, the rudder and the elevator. As a
combined unit, it works identically to the feather on the arrow, helping guide the
aircraft to its destination.

e. Landing Gear:
There are two main types in Landing Gear (Strut) - Straight leg and Trailing
link. The function is to absorb the impact of the landing as the aircraft touches the
ground. Each strut contains a shock absorber (a collection of springs), hydraulic
oil and gasses which work together to reduce the impact felt by the passengers.

f. Other Systems:
Aircraft also has control systems, communications systems the electrical
systems, the fuel systems etc

Page 3
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Classification of Airplanes:
Airplanes are primarily classified based on Purpose (Mission, Function etc),
Configuration and Mach number.

Based on Purpose:

1. Civil Airplanes:
Aircraft operated by private individuals, corporations, or government
primarily for transporting people and goods are called Civil Airplanes. All planes
that perform commercial and non - militarized activities are considered as Civil
Airplanes.
a. Passenger Airplanes:
Planes that are built specifically to transport groups of people and small
luggage are called Passenger Planes. They are used by airlines for commercial
flights. They can carry up to 800 persons and travel at speed of 900 km/hr. They
have large cabins and spacious seating arrangements. The seats are First Class,
Business Class and Economy Class.
Example: Airbus / Boeing

b. Cargo Airplanes:
Cargo airplane is a fixed-wing aircraft that is designed or converted for the
carriage of cargo instead of passengers. Such aircraft usually do not have
passenger amenities and generally feature one or more large doors for loading
cargo.
Example:

Page 4
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

c. Agricultural Airplanes:
An agricultural aircraft is an aircraft that has been built or converted for
agricultural use, usually aerial application of pesticides or fertilizer. It is mostly
single seater and operate at low speed. It is run by piston engine or turbo prop
engine.
Example:

d. Sports Airplanes:
Sports Airplane is small, lightweight aircraft that is simple to fly and
operated for sports, education or recreation purposes. It mostly has one or two
seats. It should have Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) Certification.
Example:

e. Ambulance Airplanes:
An ambulance airplane is an aircraft that has been professionally equipped
as a flying ambulance and faster than ambulance helicopter. They are specifically
operated for many air medical services including medical evacuations or
emergency rescues. They are capable of landing at small, regional airports with
shorter runways
Example:

Requirements of a Civil Airplane:

• High level of safety in operation,
• Adequate payload carrying capacity,
• Economy in operation,
• Comfort level depending on range and cruising altitude,
• Ability to fly in all weather conditions encountered on chosen routes
• Ability to use airfields of intended destinations.

Page 5
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

2. Military Airplanes::
Aircraft operated by any legal governmental armed forces for military and
self defence purposes are called Military Aircrafts. They are mainly classified as
Combat and Non Combat types.

a. Fighter:
Military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat is called Fighter.
In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the
battle space. Fighters must be capable of the highest possible performance in
order to be able to out-fly the opposing fighters. They must be armed with
specialized weapons capable of hitting and destroying enemy aircraft
Example:

b. Bomber:
Combat aircraft designed to attack ground and naval targets by dropping
air-to-ground weaponry as bombs), torpedoes, or cruise missiles are called
Bombers. They are used to demolish enemy infrastructure or to reduce enemy’s
industrial output.
Example:

Page 6
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

c. Interceptor:
An interceptor is a fighter whose design and armament best fit it for
intercepting and defeating invading enemy fighters. It is used specifically for the
defensive interception role against an attacking enemy aircraft, particularly
bombers. It should have all-weather designs, the integration of mid-air refuelling,
satellite navigation, on-board radar and beyond visual range (BVR) missile
systems.
Example:

d. Reconnaissance Airplane:
Military aircraft designed or adapted to perform Aerial Surveillance with
roles including collection of images, radio signals and measurements is called
Reconnaissance Airplane. It is used to collect and transfer data regarding
battlefield, enemy airspace, border patrol and even fishery protection.
Example:

e. Logistics Support Airplanes:

It is primarily used to transport troops, heavy military machines and war
supplies. They are also often used for civilian emergency relief missions by
transporting humanitarian aid. They can be used for evacuation purposes also.
Example:

Requirements of a Military Airplane:

• Long range corresponding to the mission
• Capacity to carry and deploy intended bomb load
• High values of speed, endurance, and ceiling
• Ability to fly in adverse weather conditions
• Excellent manoeuvrability
• Appropriate arms and weapons
• Adequate protection against accidental fire.

Based on Mach number:

Airplanes are classified based on their velocity and Mach number. Mach number
is defined as the ratio of object velocity to sound velocity.
• Subsonic Airplane: Airplane whose Mach number is less than 1
• Supersonic Airplane: Airplane whose Mach number is greater than 1
• Hypersonic Airplane: Airplane whose Mach number is greater than 5

Page 7
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Based on Configuration:

Based on Wings:
1. No. of Wings:
Early airplanes had two or more wings. Presently only single wing is used.
Based on number of wings, airplanes are classified as Monoplane, Bi-plane and
Tri-plane.

Monoplane – Single Wing – Ex:

Bi-plane – Two Wings – Ex:
Tri-plane – Three Wings – Ex:

Page 8
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

2. Based on Wing Type:

In some planes, additional structural members are added, which stiffen the
functional airframe to give it rigidity and strength under load. Struts are attached
where compression load acts and Wires are attached where tension load acts.
These type of airplanes are called Braced Wing Airplanes.

Some airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the
flight and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since
the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, it is
called Semi-Cantilever Wing Airplanes.
In Full Cantilever Wing Airplanes, the wing is attached directly to the
fuselage and does not have any type of external, stress-bearing structures. In the
cantilever wing, one or more strong beams, called spars, run along the span of the
wing. The end fixed rigidly to the central fuselage is known as the root and the far
end as the tip. In flight, the wings generate lift and the spars carry this load
through to the fuselage.

3. Based on Wing Position:

Airplanes are classified based on location of wings in the fuselage. If the
wings are attached on upper portion of the fuselage, it is known as High Wing.
These wings tend to flatter downwards. On a high-wing aircraft, wings will be
above the fuselage, allowing an open portion perfect for loading cargo.

When the wings are mounted exactly at the midline of the airplane, at half
of the height of the fuselage, it is known as Mid Wing. This gives more space for
wing mounted weapons
When wings are mounted near or below the bottom of the fuselage, it is
known as Low Wing. These wings can also be used to house part of the landing
gear structures.

Page 9
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

4. Based on Wing Sweep:

Wings are occasionally swept back to arrange centre of gravity and centre
of aerodynamics more closely to get better longitudinal balance. Straight Wing
extends at right angles to the line of flight.
The most structurally-efficient wing, it has been common for low-speed
designs. Swept Wing sweeps rearwards from the root to the tip.
Delta Wing has triangular Planform with swept leading edge and straight
trailing edge. This has good structural efficiency and low frontal area.

Based on Fuselage:
Fuselage is the main body of the aircraft. It should be large and strong
enough to hold engine and payload. Generally airplanes have a single fuselage
with wing and tail surfaces mounted on the fuselage. They are called
Conventional Fuselage.
In some cases the fuselage is in the form of a pod. In such a case, the
horizontal tail is placed between two booms emanating from the wings. These
airplanes generally have two vertical tails located on the booms. The booms
provide required tail arm for the tail surfaces. They are known as Pod & Boom
Fuselage.
Some airplanes with Twin Fuselage had been designed in the past.
However, these configurations are not currently favoured.

Page 10
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Based on Horizontal Tail or Stabilizer:

In a Conventional Configuration, the horizontal stabilizer is located
behind the wing. In some airplanes there is no horizontal stabilizer and the
configuration is called Tailless Design. In these airplanes, the functions of
elevator and aileron are performed by ailerons located near the wing tips.
In some airplanes, the control in pitch is obtained by a surface located
ahead of the wing. This configuration is called Canard Configuration

Based on Landing Gear:

Landing gear (also known as the Undercarriage) is the integral component
that provides a ground or water-based interface for an aircraft when not in flight.
Landing gear is specifically designed to allow the aircraft to land, take off, and
move slowly.
In Non-Retractable Landing Gear arrangement, airplanes are fitted with
wheel sets underneath each of the plane's main wings and one additional set of
wheels in front or rear. They are always projecting outside the fuselage.
To decrease drag in flight undercarriages retract into the wings or fuselage
with wheels flush with the surrounding surface or concealed with a door. This
type is called Retractable Landing Gear.
Replacing wheels altogether and supplying a plane with pontoons allows
the vehicle to operate solely on aquatic surfaces or snow. This type is called
Floating Landing Gear.

Page 11
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Based on Engines:
1. Based on Type of Engine:
Piston Engine Aircrafts are fitted with one or more reciprocating engines,
which convert pressure energy into rotational motion. These engines are similar
to automobile engines in construction. The rotary motion of the crank shaft is
transferred to the propeller.
Turbojet Engine Aircraft consists of a tube with an inlet (Diffuser),
followed by a compressor for the air, a combustor (where the high-pressure air
and fuel are mixed and burned), and a turbine to power the compressor. At the
exhaust end of the turbine there is a nozzle to direct the exhaust to give thrust
There are two main parts in Turbo-Prop Engine Aircraft, the core engine
and the propeller. The core is very similar to a basic turbojet except that instead
of expanding all the hot exhaust through the nozzle to produce thrust, most of the
energy of the exhaust is used to turn the turbine. The drive shaft is connected to a
gear box. The gear box is then connected to a propeller that produces most of the
thrust.
A Turbofan Engine Aircraft is the most modern variation of the basic gas
turbine engine aircraft. In the turbofan engine, the core engine is surrounded by a
fan in the front and an additional turbine at the rear. The fan and fan turbine are
composed of many blades. The fan shaft passes through the core shaft for
mechanical reasons. This type of arrangement is called a two spool engine.

Page 12
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

A Ramjet Engine Aircraft

A has an air breathing jet engine that does not
include a rotary compressor. It
It uses the engine's forward motion
moti to compress the
incoming air and produce thrust. It can achieve high amount of velocity.

Based on No. of Engines:

If the aircraft has only one engine, it is called Single Engine Aircraft.
Aircraft The
one engine is usually fitted in the nose or rear of the aircraft.
If the aircraft has two engines, it is called Twin Engine Aircraft.
Aircraft The two
engines are usually fitted on the wings.
w
If the aircraft has more than two engines, it is called as Multi Engine
Aircraft.

Based on Location of Engine:

In certain aircrafts, the engine and propeller are located in the fuselage
nose. This is called Tractor Layout Aircraft.
In some aircrafts, the engine is located at the backside of the fuselage. This
is called Pusher Layout Aircraft.
When engines are suspended under the wings, the aircraft is known as Pod
Mounted Aircraft

Page 13
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Sometimes, engines are made as an integral part of the wings. They are
called Submerged Layout. Engines are submerged at the Root of the Wing or
Along the Span of the wing as shown below.

Merits of Different Airplane Layouts:

1. Semi-Cantilever Wing Layout:
• It has more structural strength and rigidity
• The struts support the wing and carry aerodynamic and landing loads.

2. Full Cantilever Wing Layout:

• The cantilever wing is heavier.
• It avoids aerodynamic drag and flies faster.

3. High Wing Layout:

• It allows fuselage to lie lower to ground. This simplifies loading and
unloading process in cargo aircrafts.
• More stable in terms of lateral, rolling motion.

4. Mid Wing Layout:

• It has low drag than the other configurations.
• It can fly faster hence it used for military fighter jets

5. Low Wing Layout:

• The landing gear can be retracted directly into the wing box
• Maintenance and inspection of engines are easy

6. Straight Wing Layout:

• Easy to manufacture.
• More efficient at low-subsonic speeds.
Page 14
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

7. Swept Wing Layout:

• It has high aerodynamic stability
• It can reach high mach number and has high velocity

8. Delta Wing Layout:

• Large wing size and less drag
• It has high manoeuvrability

9. Tractor Layout:
• The heavy engine is at the front, which helps to move the centre of gravity
forward and therefore allows a smaller tail for stability considerations.
• The propeller is working in a free stream and there is a more effective flow
of cooling air for the engine.

10. Pusher Layout:

• Higher-quality (clean) airflow prevails over the wing and fuselage.
• Engine noise in the cabin area is reduced and the pilot's front field of view
is improved.

11. Pod Layout:

• The weight of wing structure decreases by 15-20 %as the wing is relieved
by the weight of the engines.
• The wing structure is free from the heat from the engines, and better fire
safety.

12. Engine at Wing Root Layout:

• There is very little increase in frontal area due to installation of power
plants.
• Almost the entire wing span can be used for ailerons and high lift devices

13. Engine along the Span Layout:

• It posses ramjet engine and capable of flying mach 3 speed
• Rarely deductable in radar and used for interceptor flights

14. Tail-less Layout:

• Horizontal tail and that part of the fuselage carrying the tail is eliminated.
Hence less structural weight.
• Small drag

15. Canard Layout:

• Less wing area and weight. Hence lift is higher
• When the Mach number increases, the static stability of the canard also
increases.

Page 15
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Factors affecting Configuration:

1. Aerodynamic Considerations:
The aerodynamic considerations in the design process involve the
following.
a. Drag:
The drag of the entire configuration must be as small as possible. This
requires
• Thin wings & Slender fuselage
• Smooth surface conditions
• Proper values of aspect ratio and sweep.

b. Lift:
The airplane must be able to develop sufficient lift under various flight
conditions including manoeuvres. The maximum lift coefficient also decides
the landing speed. These considerations require proper choice of
• Aero foil
• Means to prevent separation
• High lift devices.

c. Interference Effects:
• In aerodynamics the flows past various components like the wing, the
fuselage and the tail are usually studied individually. However, in an
airplane, these components are in proximity of each other and the
flow past one component affects the flow past the others
(components).
• The changes in aerodynamic forces and moments due to this
proximity are called Interference effects.
• The lay-out of the airplane should be such that increase in drag and
decrease in lift due to interference effects are minimized.
• These can be achieved by proper fillets at the joints between (a) wing
and fuselage, (b) tail and fuselage and (c) wing and engine pods.

Page 16
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

2. Low Structural Weight

The weight of the aircraft must be as low as possible. This implies use of
• High strength to weight ratio material
• Aerofoil with high thickness ratio
• Wing with low aspect ratio
• Relieving loads (e.g. wing mounted engines) etc.
The airplane structure must be strong enough, to take all permissible flight loads
and stiff enough to avoid instabilities like, divergence, aileron reversal and flutter.

3. Layout Peculiarities :
• The specific function of the airplane often decides its shape e.g. the fuselage
of a cargo airplane generally has a rectangular cross section and a large
cargo door.
• The height of fuselage floor should be appropriate for quick loading and
unloading.

4. Manufacturing Processes:
• During the detail design stage, attention must be paid to the manufacturing
processes. The cost of manufacture and quality control also must be kept in
mind.

5. Cost and Operational Economics:

• The total operating cost of an airplane is the sum of the Direct Operating
Cost (DOC) and the Indirect Operating Cost (IOC).
• The DOC relates to the cost of hourly operation of the airplane viz. cost of
fuel, lubricants, maintenance, overhaul, replacement of parts for airframe
and engine.
• IOC relates to crew cost, insurance cost, depreciation of airplane and
ground equipment, hangar rental, landing charges and overheads. Thus, for
a personal plane lower initial cost of the airplane may be more important
whereas, for a long range passenger airplane lower cost of fuel may be the
primary consideration.

6. Interaction of Various Factors:

• Some of the considerations mentioned above may lead to conflicting
requirements.
• For example, a wing with an airfoil of relatively higher thickness ratio, has
lower structural weight but, at the same time has higher drag. In such
situations, optimization techniques are employed to arrive at the best
compromise.

Page 17
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Three Phases of Aircraft Design:

The process of design of aircraft involves the use of knowledge in diverse fields to
arrive at a product that will satisfy requirements regarding functional aspects,
operational safety and cost.
The design of an airplane, involves synthesizing knowledge in areas like
aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, systems and manufacturing techniques. The aim
is to arrive at the configuration of an airplane, which will satisfy aforesaid
requirements.
Aircraft Design involves three phases namely, Conceptual Design, Preliminary
Design, and Detail Design.

 Conceptual Design:
Conceptual Design involves seven pivotal points interconnected by many
detailed approaches. Basic questions of configuration arrangement, size, weight,
and performance are answered in conceptual design.
1. Requirements & Feasibility Study:
The aim of this study is to evolve a complete set of specifications and
requirements for the airplane. It involves the following steps.
• Comprehensive market survey to assess the no. of airplanes needed.
• Study of the operating conditions for the proposed airplane. These
conditions include (a) Landing field length (b) Type of landing field,
(c) Weather conditions (d) Visibility.
• Study of the relevant design requirements given by the civil and
military regulating agencies such as FAA, DGCA etc.

Page 18
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

• Listing down preliminary specifications such as Maximum speed,

Maximum rate of climb, Range, Endurance, Rate of turn, Take-off and
landing distances and Payload.

2. Weight of Airplane – First Estimate:

The airplane cannot fly unless it can produce a lift greater than its
weight. Hence after finalizing all requirements, rough estimate of weight has
to be prepared and following questions should be answered.
• Can enough aerodynamic lift be produced?
• What power plant is required to produce thrust?

3. Critical Performance Parameters:

Airplane performance is critically dependent on several parameters,
which appear in governing equations especially
(a) Maximum lift coefficient CL max (b) Lift to drag ratio L/ D
(c) Wing loading W / S (d) Thrust-to-weight ratio T / W.
Therefore, the next pivot point is the calculation of above said
Performance Parameters.

4. Configuration Layout:
With information of Initial Weight Estimate and Critical Performance
Parameters, the configuration layout is prepared. It is a drawing of the
shape and size (dimensions) of the airplane.

5. Better Weigh Estimate:

Configuration layout gives detailed component weight breakdown and
overall size and shape of the airplane is determined. Hence improved
estimate of weight is to be calculated.

6. Performance Analysis:
At this stage, the airplane is put through performance analysis, where
the configuration is judged whether it can meet all original specifications
listed earlier. The iteration is required and repeated until the resulting
airplane design meets all the requirements.

7. Optimization:
The optimization may be carried out by a systematic variation of
different parameters, such as T/W and W/S, producing a large number of
different airplanes models, and plotting the performance of all these
airplanes on graphs from which the optimum design can be found.

Page 19
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Page 20
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

 Preliminary Design:
• In the preliminary design phase, serious structural and control system
analysis and design take place. During this phase also, substantial Wind
Tunnel Testing will be carried out, and major Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) calculations of the complete flow field over the airplane
configuration will be made.
• In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the
configuration Layout.
• Testing is initiated in areas such as Aerodynamics, propulsion, structures,
and stability control.
• At the end of the preliminary design phase, the airplane configuration is
frozen and precisely defined. The drawing process called Lofting is carried
out which mathematically models the precise shape of the outside skin of
the airplane, making certain that all sections of the aircraft properly fit
together.
• This stage of design process aims at producing a brochure containing
preliminary drawings and stating the estimated operational capabilities of
the airplane.
• This stage includes the following steps.
a. Arrangement of equipment, and control systems.
b. Selection of power plant.
c. Aerodynamic and stability calculations.
d. Preliminary structural design of main components.
e. Preparation of 3-view drawing.
f. Performance estimation.
g. Preparation of brochure.
• The end of Preliminary Design brings the major decision – to commit to
manufacture of the airplane or not. Final Decision is referred as “You bet
Your Company”

 Detail Design:
• The precise design of each individual rib, spar, and section of skin now
takes place. The size, number, and location of fasteners (rivets, welded
joints, etc.) are determined. Manufacturing tools and jigs are designed.
• At this stage, flight simulators for the airplane are developed and testing
effort intensifies. Actual structure of airplane is fabricated and tested.
• Specialists determine how the airplane will be fabricated starting from
small subassemblies to final full assembly.
• At the end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be fabricated. Generally six
prototypes are manufactured.

Page 21
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

State of Art in Airplane Design:

The most recent stage in the development of a product, incorporating the newest
technology, ideas, and features is known as State of Art.
The state of art in airplane design is essential to address issues such as carbon
footprint reduction, lower noise pollution and improved passenger comfort; as well as
contributing to national security.

Current research being undertaken includes:

a. Advanced Configurations:
It includes new designs such as blended wing and morphing wing aircraft
design. This includes both fixed wing and rotorcraft vehicles.

b. Advanced Propulsion Systems:

New Engine systems such as Distributed Propulsion using hydrogen or
alternative fuels for power and high temperature superconducting materials
technology are to be considered.

c. Advanced Materials and Manufacturing Processes:

It includes exploring the benefits achieved through the application of
advanced composite materials.

d. Advanced Design Methodologies:

To develop techniques to ensure that optimum designs are achieved.

e. Airworthiness Compliance:
Research should insure that new designs demonstrate the same safety
requirements as traditional aircraft.

f. Operational Aspects:
Cost, performance, reliability and maintainability are important features of
aircraft design as well as advanced techniques such as Integrated Vehicle Health
Management (IVHM). Vulnerability and susceptibility also have a major impact.

g. Bio-mimetics:
It is study taking lessons from nature for example insects and birds, and
their application in aviation such as launch, recovery and flight.

Page 22
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Designing for Manufacturability: DFM:

DFM is basically the principle of designing a product in such a way as to make it
easy and cost-effective to manufacture. In high-cost fields like aeroplane
manufacturing, nobody has money, time, or resources to be wasted.
While designing a part for efficient functioning, we should also design such that it
is easy to manufacture. A perfectly functional part that’s expensive or difficult to
manufacture won’t provide profit. Some of the DFM activities are listed below.

1. Integrated Product Development Teams:

• For DFM to be successful, it is vital to create a multi-disciplinary design and
product development team from the beginning.
• This team should include representatives from key departments that will
be involved from design through production, including engineering,
product management, manufacturing, quality, sales and marketing, supply
chain, and others appropriate to a given project.
• A good multi-disciplinary team looks at details such as materials selection,
degree of manufacturing difficulty, supply chain issues, and any quality
requirements.

2. The Feasibility Study:

• A comprehensive feasibility study, should examine key specifications and
potential design issues that may occur throughout the life of the airplane
parts.
• A thorough feasibility study will also help identify concerns about
production tooling – whether existing tooling is sufficient, or if custom
tooling is needed.
• Poorly finished parts can be a cause of order rejection and production
delays. The feasibility study can help identify areas of dimensional
inaccuracies and rough surfaces that can lead to noise, excessive wear.
• After reviewing these factors, the DFM team can implement design or
manufacturing alternatives that prevent these problems from occurring.

3. Building in Quality
• Quality initiatives such as Risk Management and Six Sigma can help reduce
variation and remove waste from the manufacturing process.
• An effective DFM process takes these types of quality initiatives to help
build quality into the design and mitigate risk in the production.
• Whenever possible, providing component suppliers and partners with an
overall system FMEA is extremely useful.

Page 23
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

Designing for Maintainability:

• Maintainability means the ease with which an aircraft can be repaired and
fixed. This is measured in Maintenance Man-hour per Flight Hour (MMH/FH).
• MMH/FH is ranged from one hr for small private jets and 100 hrs for
supersonic bomber airplanes.
• Reliability and Maintainability depends largely upon detailed design of the
avionics, engine sub systems. Hence these delicate parts should not be placed
near vibrations and engine heat.
• Accessibility depends on Packaging Density, number and location of doors, etc.
The ratio of total area of access doors to total area of fuselage is a measure of
accessibility.
• Structure doors have more weight and carry airplane weight by hinges and
latches. They are always more difficult to open due to aircraft self weight. Hence
aircraft must be supported by jacks or cradle while opening these doors.
• Generally engine must be easily accessible for routine maintenance. Other
important parts like hydraulic pumps, actuators, electrical generators should be
easily removable. Design should be such that, aircraft does not require major
disassembly for repairing.

Designing for Operating Costs:

• Cost is a factor of success in the aircraft industries. Reducing cost is of great
importance for survival in today competitive market.
• Costs are becoming an important factor and aerospace companies are looking
forward to reduce the cost without compromising on performance.
• Thus, future design choices will also have to take into account manufacturing
and operating costs for better profits
• The breakdown of the direct operating cost is shown in Fig. The direct
operating cost consists of financial, flying and the maintenance cost.

Page 24
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Prepared By: V.P.Joseph Arun

• Design for Operating Cost lead to improvements in aircraft aerodynamic

performance and thereby lead to reductions in direct operating cost.
• Considering the aero-structure interactions will allow the designing for a
better overall aircraft efficiency and Multi-disciplinary trade-off techniques
can reduce the weight and cost of an aircraft design preliminary design phase.

Interactive Designs:
• Interactive Designs or IxD is a practice of designing digital product,
environment and services which can be used as communication between
product and the user.
• The objective goal is to develop a software tool that can be used for aircraft
design. Therefore, it had to be highly interactive with friendly graphical user
interface and easy to use.
• Aircraft design involves a large number of design variables for a variety of
calculations. These variables are required for the estimation of aircraft mass,
aerodynamics, stability and control, propulsion, and aircraft performance.
• Many design software packages use pre- configured input data files to define
the design variables. Alteration to the input data is done through modification
of these files. Thus, the need for a user friendly Graphical-User-Interface (GUI)
becomes necessary.
• The software program consists of many modules. These modules include:
geometry, weight, aerodynamics, static stability, flight performance, cost
estimation, and dynamic stability.
• Examples – CATIA V6 – Airbus
Unigraphics – Boeing

Page 25