Group Theory Cheat Sheet

Group Axioms Stablizer, Kernel of Group Action Cosets and Quotient Groups
A group is an ordered pair (G, ∗) where G is a set and ∗ is a binary operation If G acts on a set X then we define the following, For any N ≤ G and any g ∈ G
on G satisfying the following axioms: Orbit of a x ∈ X is the set Gx = {gx ∈ X | g ∈ G}. Alternatively its the • gN = {gn | n ∈ N } = {g, gh1 , gh2 . . . } and,
• Associativity: (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c)∀a, b, c ∈ G equivalence class induced by the group action. • N g = {ng | n ∈ N } = {g, h1 g, h2 g . . . } are called a left coset and a right
• Identity: ∃e ∈ G, called an identity element of G, s.t. ∀a ∈ G we have Stablizer of an element x ∈ X is the set of elements from the group which coset respectively.
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a. leave x fixed, i.e. Gx = {g ∈ G | gx = x}
• Inverse ∀a ∈ G∃ a−1 ∈ G, called an inverse of a, s.t. a∗a−1 = a−1 ∗a = e. Kernel of a group action is the kernel of the associated group homomorphism For a Group G and N ⊴ G, the quotient group of N in G (i.e. G/N), is the
Closure is guaranteed due to the definition of binary operation. i.e., {g ∈ G | gx = x, ∀x ∈ X} set of cosets of N in G.
Identity and inverses are unique. An action is called transitive if it has only one orbit, and is called faithful The definition of a normal subgroup is the same as left and right cosets being
if its kernel is trivial. equal.
Some Special Groups Conjugacy classes of G is the equivalence classes of G when it acts on itself
with conjugation. i.e. {gag −1 | g ∈ G} Lagrange’s Theorem and some results
• A group is called abelian if it is commutative.
• The group of all symmetries of a n−sided regular polygon is called the Lagrange’s Theorem: For a finite group G and H ≤ G,
dihedral group. It is represented as, Centralizers and Normalizers • The order of H divides the order of G, and,
Centralizer of A ⊆ G in G is a subset of G defined as |G|
• The number of left cosets of H in G equals |H|
D2n = ⟨r, s | rn = s2 = 1, rs = sr−1 ⟩.
CG (A) = {g ∈ G | gag −1 = a ∀ a ∈ A}.
Some important results
• The group of all bijections on a set on n elements is called the symmetric
It is the set of all elements of G which commute with every element of A. • If G is a finite group and x ∈ G, then the order of x divides the order of G,
group denoted as Sn .
Center of G is the subset of G defined as and x|G| = e ∀ x ∈ G
• The Klein-4 group is a group with 4 elements in which each element is
• If G is a group of prime order, then G is cyclic
a self inverse.
Z(G) = {g ∈ G | gx = xg ∀ x ∈ G}.
Cauchy’s Theorem
Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms
It is the set of elements commutating with all the elements of G. It is the Cauchy’s Theorem: If G is a finite group and p is a prime dividing |G| then
Let (G, ∗) and (H, ◦) be groups. A map φ : G → H, s.t. φ(x ∗ y) = kernel of the conjugation action. G has an element of order p.
φ(x) ◦ φ(y) ∀ x, y ∈ G is called a homomorphism. Normalizer of A in G is defined as
A bijective homomorphism is called an isomorphism.
The Isomorphism Theorems
NG (A) = {g ∈ G | gAg −1 = A}
Subgroups First Isomorphism Theorem:
gAg = {gag | a ∈ A}. Note that CG (A) ≤ NG (A). The normalizer of a
−1 −1 If φ : G → H is a homomorphism of groups. Then kerφ ⊴ G and,
For a Group G a subset H ⊆ G, is a subgroup of G, i.e. H ≤ G if it is non G/kerφ ∼
subset is its stabilizer under conjugation action. = φ(G).
empty and a group with the binary operation of G restricted to H. Second Isomorphism Theorem:
Alternatively, a subset of a group is a subgroup if it is non empty and closed For a group G with, A, B ≤ G and, A ⊴ NG (B). Then AB ≤ G,
under products and inverses, i.e. for H ⊆ G Cyclic Groups and Cycle Notation
B ⊴ AB, A ∩ B ⊴ A and, AB/B ∼ = A/A ∩ B
• H ̸= ∅ A Group H is cyclic if ∃ x ∈ H s.t. H = {xn | n ∈ Z} The Third Isomoprhism Theorem:
• xy −1 ∈ H, ∀x, y ∈ H For the above case we say H = ⟨x⟩ and that H is generated by x. For a group G with, H, K ⊴ G and, H ≤ K. Then K/H ⊴ G/H and,
A subgroup N of G is called normal, denoted as N ⊴ G if gng −1 ∈ N, ∀ g ∈ • A cyclic group can have more than one generator. G/H ∼
G, n ∈ N. • All cyclic groups are abelian. K/H = G/K

• If H = ⟨x⟩ then |H| = |x|, if |H| = n < ∞ then xn = 1

Group Actions • Any two cyclic groups of the same order are isomorphic. Class equations and Orbit-stabilizer Theorem
A group action of a group (G, ∗) on a set X is a map ◦ : G × X → X Two-Line to Cycle
 notation for permutations Class equationP of a finite group G is written as:
1 2 3 4 5 |G| = |Z(G)| + | (Conjugancy classes of G)|

satisfying the following properties, = (125)(34) = (34)(125) = (34)(512) = (15)(25)(34)
• Identity: e ◦ x = x, ∀x ∈ X 2 5 4 3 1 Oribit-stabilizer Theorem:
• Compatibility: g ◦ (h ◦ x) = g ∗ h ◦ x, ∀g, h ∈ G, x ∈ X Here, the last form is a case of 2-cycle (transposition). For a group G acting on a set X, for any x ∈ X we have, |Gx||Gx | = |G|
Alternatively a group action on a set X can be thought of as a homomorphism
from G to the symmetric group of X. Parity of Permutations and Alternating Groups Cayley’s Theorem
The conjugation action is a homomorphism φx : G → G for some fixed The parity of any permutation σ is given by the parity of the number of its Cayley’s Theorem:
x ∈ G is defined as φx (g) = xgx−1 . 2-cycles (transpositions). Every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of some symmetric group. If G is a
Alternating Groups: group of order n, then G is isomoprhic to a subgroup of Sn
An alternating group is the group of even permutations of a finite set of length
n. It is denoted by An it’s order is n! Automorphisms
2
Automorphism of G is defined as an isomorphism from G onto itself.
The set of all automorphisms of G is denoted by Aut(G)
p-groups and Sylow p-groups Jordan Hölder theorem
• p-group is defined as a group of order p for some a ≥ 1. Sub-groups of G
a Every finite non trivial group G has a composition series and the composition
which are p-groups are called p-subgroups. factors are unique up to permutation.
• Sylow p-group is defined as a group of order pa m, where p ∤ m, a sub-
group of order pa is called a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Sylp (G) is the set of Solvable groups
Sylow p-subgroups of G. A group G is called solvable if there is a chain of normal subgroups with each
subsequent quotient group being abelian.
The Sylow Theorems Alternatively if there exists G(n) = 1 for some n ≥ 0 where we define the
First Sylow Theorem: commutator/derived series as follows,
If p divides |G|, then G has a Sylow p-subgroup.
Second Sylow Theorem: G(0) = G, G(1) = [G, G], and G(i+1) = [G(i) , G(i) ]
All Sylow p-subgroups of G are conjugate to each other for a fixed p.
Third Sylow Theorem: • If N ⊴ G and N, G/N are solvable then G is solvable.
np ≡ 1(mod p), where np is the number of Sylow p-subgroups of G. • Burnsides theorem: If |G| = pa q b for primes p, q then G is solvable
• Feit-Thompson: All finite groups of odd order are solvable.
Commutators
Nilpotent groups
For a group G and x, y ∈ G call [x, y] = x−1 y −1 xy the commutator of x and
A group is called nilpotent if its lower central series defined below termi-
y.
nates,
For subsets A, B ⊆ G define the group generated by its commutators as
G = G0 ⊵ G1 ⊵ · · · ⊵ Gn = 1, Gi+1 = [Gi , G].
[A, B] = ⟨[a, b] | a ∈ A, b ∈ B⟩.
Similarly G′ = [G, G] is the subgroup of G generated by all commutators, its and n is called its nilpotency class.
called the commutator subgroup of G, or its derived subgroup.
The following are some useful properties of commutators,
• xy = yx ⇐⇒ [x, y] = 1
• H ⊴ G ⇐⇒ [H, G] ≤ H
• G/G′ is abelian and its the largest abelian quotient of G. It is called the
abelianization of G.
• Any homomorphism from G to an abelian group A factors through G′ .
i.e. its universal

Direct products
The direct product G1 × G2 × · · · of groups G1 , G2 , . . . is set of sequences
(g1 , g2 , · · · ) with gi ∈ Gi and operation ∗ defined component wise.
If H, K are normal subgroups of G with H ∩ K = 1 then HK ∼ =H ×K

Semidirect products
Let H, K be groups and φ be a homomorphism from K → Aut(H). The
semidirect product of H and K with respect to φ denoted as H ⋊φ H is de-
fined as an ordered pair (h, k), h ∈ H, k ∈ K with multiplication defined as
(h1 , k1 )(h2 , k2 ) = (h1 k1 h2 , k1 k2 ).

Fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups

Every finite abelian group can be written as a direct product of cyclic groups
of prime power order.

Schur-Zassenhaus Theorem
If G is a finite group and N ⊴ G and (|G|, |G/N |) = 1 then G = N ⋊ G/N

Simple groups and Composition Series

A group G is called simple if |G| > 1 and its only normal subgroups are 1
and G.
A sequence of subgroups as follows (called a subnormal sequence),

1 = N0 ⊴ N1 ⊴ · · · ⊴ Nk−1 ≤ Nk = G

is called a composition series if Ni+1 /Ni is simple, for i = 0, . . . k − 1. The

quotient groups are called composition factors.