Taylor, Maclaurin, and Binomial series

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
a. Define what are Taylor, Maclaurin, and Binomial series
b. Construct an example of Taylor, Maclaurin, and Binomial series
c. Solve a function using Taylor, Maclaurin, and Binomial series
d. Develop skills using these series

Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Taylor series or Taylor expansion of a function is an infinite sum of terms that are
expressed in terms of the function's derivatives at a single point. Taylor series are named
after Brook Taylor, who introduced them in 1715. A Taylor series is also called a
Maclaurin series when 0 is the point where the derivatives are considered, after Colin
Maclaurin, who made extensive use of this special case of Taylor series in the mid-18th
century.

The Taylor series of a real or complex-valued function f (x) that is infinitely differentiable
at a real or complex number a is the power series.

𝑓'(𝑎) 𝑓''(𝑎) 𝑓'''(𝑎)

f(a) + 1!
(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 2!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 3!
(𝑥 − 𝑎) 3+...

In terms of sigma notation, the Taylor series can be written as

∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (𝑎)
∑ 𝑛!
(x-a)n
𝑛=0

n! = Factorial of n
a = a real pr complex number
f(n)(a) = nth derivative of f evaluated at the point a.

The Maclaurin series is a power series that uses successive derivatives of the function and
the values of these derivatives when the input is equal to zero. In fact, the Maclaurin
series is a special type of the Taylor series.
Maclaurin series formula

∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0)
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑛!
(x)n
𝑛=0
𝑓''(0) 𝑓'''(0)
= f(0) + f’(0)x+ 2!
x2+ 3!
𝑥3+....
Example 1. Find the Taylor series for ln x centered at a = 1:

f(x) = ln x f(1) = 0

f’(x) =
1 f’(1) = 1
𝑥

f’’(x) =
−1 f’’(1) = -1
𝑥²

f’’’(x) =
2
3
f’’’(1) = 2
𝑥

f’’’’(x) =
−6
4
f’’’’(1) = -6
𝑥

𝑓'(𝑎) 𝑓''(𝑎) 𝑓'''(𝑎) 𝑓''''(𝑎)

f(a) + 1!
(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 2!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 3!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)3+ 4!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)4
…
1 −1 2 −6
f(x) = 0 + 1!
(x-1)+ 2!
(x-1)² + 3!
(x-1)3 + 4!
(x-1)4
3 4
(𝑥−1)² (𝑥−1) (𝑥−1)
f(x) = (x-1) - 2
+ 3
- 4

4
Example 2. Find the Taylor Series for 𝑥 +x-2 centered at a =1

4
f(x) = 𝑥 +x-2 f(1) = 0

f’(x) = 4𝑥 +1
3 f’(1) = 5

f’’(x) = 12x² f’’(1) = 12

f’’’(x) = 24x f’’’(1) = 24

f’’’’(x) = 24 f’’’’(1) = 24
 𝑓'(𝑎) 𝑓''(𝑎) 𝑓'''(𝑎) 𝑓''''(𝑎)
f(a) + 1!
(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 2!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 3!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)3+ 4!
(𝑥 − 𝑎)4
…
5 12 24 24
f(x) = 0 + 1!
(x-1)+ 2!
(x-1)² + 3!
(x-1)3 + 4!
(x-1)4
3
f(x) = 5(x-1)+6(x-1)²+4(x-1) +(x-1)4

Example 3. Evaluate the Taylor Series for f ( x ) = x3 − 10x2 + 6 at x = 3.

Solution: First, we will find the derivatives of the given function.

3
f(x) = 𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 6
2 f(3) = -57

f’(x) = 3𝑥 − 20x
2 f’(3) = 33

f’’(x) = 6x – 20 f’’(3) = -2

f’’’(x) = 6 f’’’(3) = 6

f’’’’(x) = 0 f’’’’(3) = 0
Therefore, the required series is:
∞ (𝑛)
3 2 𝑓 (3)
x − 10x + 6 = ∑ 𝑛!
(x-3)n
𝑛=0
𝑓'(3) 𝑓''(3) 2 𝑓'''(3) 3
f(3) + 1!
(x-3) + 2!
(𝑥 − 3) + 3!
(𝑥 − 3) + 0

= -57 + 33 (x-3) - (x-3)² + (𝑥 − 3)3

𝑥
Example 4. Find the Taylor series for 𝑒 centered at a =3

f(x) = 𝑒
𝑥 f(3) = 0

f’(x) = 𝑒
𝑥 f’(3) = 0

f’’(x) = 𝑒
𝑥 f’’(3) = 0

f’’’(x) = 𝑒
𝑥 f’’’(3) = 0
 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑒 + 1!
(x-3) + 2! (x-3)² + 3!
(x-3)3 + ….
∞ 3 𝑛
𝑥 𝑒 (𝑥−3)
𝑒 = ∑ 𝑛!
𝑛=0
Example 5. Find the Maclaurin Series for Sin x

f(x) = sin x f(0) = 0

f’(x) = cos x f’(0) = 1

f’’(x) = -sin x f’’(0) = 0

f’’’(x) = -cos x f’’’(0) = -1

f’’’’(x) = sin x f’’’’(0) =0

f(5)(x) = cos x f(5)(x) =1

f(6) (x) = -sin x f(6) (x) = 0

f(7)(x) = -cos x f(7)(x) = -1

The Maclaurin series for Sin x at x = 0, is given by:

∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0)
sin x = ∑ 𝑛!
(x)n
𝑛=0
𝑓'(0) 𝑓''(0) 𝑓'''(0) 3 𝑓''''(0) 4 𝑓''''(0) 5 𝑓''''(0) 6
sin x = f(0) + 1!
𝑥+ 2!
𝑥² + 3!
𝑥 + 4!
𝑥+ 5!
𝑥+ 6!
𝑥
𝑓''''(0) 7
+ 7!
𝑥 ....
1 0 −1 3 0 4 1 5 0 6 −1 7
=0+ 1!
𝑥+ 2!
𝑥² + 3!
𝑥 + 4!
𝑥 + 5!
𝑥 + 6! 𝑥 + 7!
𝑥 + ….

1 1 3 1 5 1 7
= 1!
𝑥− 3!
𝑥 + 5!
𝑥 − 7!
𝑥 +...
3 5 7
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
=x- 3!
+ 5!
- 7!
+....
Example 6. Determine the Maclaurin series for f(x) = ex
Solution: Given: f(x) = ex
Differentiate the given equation,

f(x) = ex f(0) = e0 =1

f’(x) = ex f’(0) = e0 =1

f’’(x) =ex f’’(0) = e0=1

f’’’(x) = ex f’’’(0) = e0 = 1

𝑓'(0) 𝑓''(0) 𝑓'''(0)

f(x) = f(0) + 1!
x+ 2!
x2+ 3!
𝑥3+....
3
𝑥² 𝑥
ex = 1+ x(1) +( 2! ) (1)+( 3! )(1)+.....
3
𝑥² 𝑥
Therefore, ex = 1+ x +( 2! ) +( 3! )+.....

Example 7. Evaluate the Maclaurin Series for f ( x ) = cos ( x )

Solution: We need to take the derivatives of the cos x and evaluate them at x = 0.

f(x) = cos x f(0) = 1

f’(x) = -sin x f’(0) = 0

f’’(x) = -cos x f’’(0) = -1

f’’’(x) = sin x f’’’(0) = 0

f’’’’(x) = cos x f’’’’(4) = 1

f(5)(x) = -sin x f(5) (0) = 0

f(6)(x) = -cos x f(6(0) = -1

Therefore, according to the Taylor series expansion;

∞ (𝑛)
𝑓 (0)
cos x = ∑ 𝑛!
(x)n
𝑛=0
 (4) (5) (6)
𝑓''(0) 2 𝑓'''(0) 3 𝑓 (0) 4 𝑓 (0) 5 𝑓 (0) 6
= f(0) + f’(0)x + 2!
x+ 3!
𝑥+ 4!
𝑥 + 5!
𝑥+ 6!
𝑥 ….
−1 1 4 −1 6
=1+0+ 2!
x2 + 0 + 4!
𝑥 +0 6!
𝑥 +....
1 1 4 1 6
cos x = 1 - 2!
x2 + 4!
𝑥 − 6!
𝑥 +....
4 6
𝑥² 𝑥 𝑥
cos x = 1- 2! + 4!
- 6!
+ ….

Example 8. Evaluate the Maclaurin Series for f ( x ) = x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 6

f(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 4x + 6 f(0) = 6

f’(x) = 3x²+4x+4 f’(0) = 4

f’’(x) = 6x + 4 f’’(0) = 4

f’’’(x) = 6 f’’’(0) = 6

𝑓'(0) 𝑓''(0) 𝑓'''(0)

f(x) = f(0)+ 1!
x+ 2! x²+ 3! x3 + ….
4 4 6
=6+ 1!
𝑥+ 2!
x²+ 3! x3+ ….
3
= 6 + 4x + 2x² + 𝑥

Binomial Series

The binomial series is an infinite series that results in expanding a binomial by a given
power. In fact, it is a special type of a Maclaurin series for functions, f(x) = (1+x)k, using
a special series expansion formula.

1 2 3 4
k 𝑘𝑥 𝑘(𝑘−1)𝑥 𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)𝑥 𝑘(𝑘−1)(𝑘−2)(𝑘−3)𝑥
(1+x) = 1 + 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+....

1
Example 1. Find the binomial series for f(x) = 2
(1+𝑥)
1
Given: f(x) = 2
(1+𝑥)
 1 2 3 4
-2 −2𝑥 −2(−3)𝑥 (−2)(−3)(−4)𝑥 (−2)(−3)(−4)(−5)𝑥
=(1+x) = 1 + 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
(1+x)--2 = 1 -2x +3x2 - 4x3+5x4+....

Example 2. Find the binomial series for f(x) = 1 + 𝑥

Given: f(x) = 1 + 𝑥
1 1

2 =(1+x) 2
(1+𝑥)
1 1 1 −1 2 1 −1 −3 3 1 −1 −3 −5 4
1 𝑥 ( )𝑥 ( 2 )( )( )𝑥 ( 2 )( )( )( )𝑥
(1+x) 2 =1+ 2
1!
+ 2 2
2!
+ 2
3!
2
+ 2
4!
2 2

1 2 3 4
1𝑥 1.1.𝑥 1 . 1. 3 . 𝑥 1. 1. 3. 5 . 𝑥
=1+ 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
2 . 1! 2 . 2! 2 . 3! 2 . 4!

1
Example 3. Find the binomial series for f(x) =
1−𝑥
1
Given: f(x) =
1−𝑥
−1
1 1
= 1 = (1-x) 2

1−𝑥 (1−𝑥) 2
1 1 1 −3 2 1 3 5 3 1 3 5 7 4
(− 2 )(−𝑥) (− 2 )( )(−𝑥) (− 2 )(− 2 )(− 2 )(−𝑥) (− 2 )(− )(− 2 )(− 2 )(−𝑥)
=1+ 1!
+ 2
2!
+ 3!
+ 2
4!
1 2 3 4
1. 𝑥 1.3.𝑥 1.3.5.𝑥 1. 3. 5. 7 . 𝑥
=1+ 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
2 . 1! 2 . 2! 2 . 3! 2 . 4!

Assessment

1. Find the Taylor series for x3+x+3 centered at a=2.

2. Find the Taylor series for sin x centered at a = 1
3. Evaluate the Maclaurin series for f(x) = x2+2x+4
4. Evaluate the Maclaurin series for f(x) = x4+ 2x3+4x2+6x+8
1
5. Find the Binomial series of f(x) = 5
32−𝑥
References

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JQXl-ghLESwNBIMdqZKAXU
Smith, W. (2023). MacLaurin Series - Definition, expansion form, and examples. The Story of
Mathematics. https://www.storyofmathematics.com/maclaurin-series/
Taylor Series. (n.d.-b).
https://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/taylor-series.html?fbclid=IwAR3E0MiXcNEQBgwGYwrY1T
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The Organic Chemistry Tutor. (2018, April 3). Binomial series [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V1AKAkGJlN8
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series?fbclid=IwAR2mysAQLVY211roTqsBUu7Wd5ZHAShq
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