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Mathematical constant
A mathematical constant is a key number whose value is fixed
by an unambiguous definition, often referred to by a special
symbol (e.g., an alphabet letter), or by mathematicians' names to
facilitate using it across multiple mathematical problems.[1]
Constants arise in many areas of mathematics, with constants The circumference of a circle with
such as e and π occurring in such diverse contexts as geometry, diameter 1 is π.
number theory, statistics, and calculus.

Some constants arise naturally by a fundamental principle or intrinsic property, such as the ratio
between the circumference and diameter of a circle (π). Other constants are notable more for
historical reasons than for their mathematical properties. The more popular constants have been
studied throughout the ages and computed to many decimal places.

All named mathematical constants are definable numbers, and usually are also computable numbers
(Chaitin's constant being a significant exception).

Basic mathematical constants

These are constants which one is likely to encounter during pre-college education in many countries.

Archimedes' constant π

The constant π (pi) has a natural definition in Euclidean geometry as the ratio between the
circumference and diameter of a circle. It may be found in many other places in mathematics: for
example, the Gaussian integral, the complex roots of unity, and Cauchy distributions in probability.
However, its ubiquity is not limited to pure mathematics. It appears in many formulas in physics, and
several physical constants are most naturally defined with π or its reciprocal factored out. For
example, the ground state wave function of the hydrogen atom is

where is the Bohr radius.

π is an irrational number and a transcendental number.

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The numeric value of π is approximately 3.1415926536 (sequence A000796 in the OEIS). Memorizing
increasingly precise digits of π is a world record pursuit.

The imaginary unit i

The imaginary unit or unit imaginary number, denoted as i,

is a mathematical concept which extends the real number system
to the complex number system The imaginary unit's core
property is that i2 = −1. The term "imaginary" was coined because
there is no (real) number having a negative square.

There are in fact two complex square roots of −1, namely i and −i,
just as there are two complex square roots of every other real
number (except zero, which has one double square root).

In contexts where the symbol i is ambiguous or problematic, j or

the Greek iota (ι) is sometimes used. This is in particular the case
The imaginary unit i in the complex
in electrical engineering and control systems engineering, where
plane. Real numbers lie on the
the imaginary unit is often denoted by j, because i is commonly
horizontal axis, and imaginary
used to denote electric current. numbers lie on the vertical axis

Euler's number e

Euler's number e, also known as the exponential growth constant,

appears in many areas of mathematics, and one possible definition of it
is the value of the following expression:

The constant e is intrinsically related to the exponential function

Exponential growth (green)
.
describes many physical
The Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli discovered that e arises in phenomena.
compound interest: If an account starts at $1, and yields interest at
annual rate R, then as the number of compounding periods per year
tends to infinity (a situation known as continuous compounding), the amount of money at the end of
the year will approach eR dollars.

The constant e also has applications to probability theory, where it arises in a way not obviously
related to exponential growth. As an example, suppose that a slot machine with a one in n probability
of winning is played n times, then for large n (e.g., one million), the probability that nothing will be
won will tend to 1/e as n tends to infinity.

Another application of e, discovered in part by Jacob Bernoulli along with French mathematician
Pierre Raymond de Montmort, is in the problem of derangements, also known as the hat check
problem.[2] Here, n guests are invited to a party, and at the door each guest checks his hat with the

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butler, who then places them into labelled boxes. The butler does not know the name of the guests,
and hence must put them into boxes selected at random. The problem of de Montmort is: what is the
probability that none of the hats gets put into the right box. The answer is

which, as n tends to infinity, approaches 1/e.

e is an irrational number.
The numeric value of e is approximately 2.7182818284 (sequence A001113 in the OEIS).

Pythagoras' constant √2

The square root of 2, often known as root 2, radical 2, or

Pythagoras' constant, and written as √2 , is the positive algebraic
number that, when multiplied by itself, gives the number 2. It is more
precisely called the principal square root of 2, to distinguish it
from the negative number with the same property.

Geometrically the square root of 2 is the length of a diagonal across a

square with sides of one unit of length; this follows from the
Pythagorean theorem. It was probably the first number known to be
irrational. Its numerical value truncated to 65 decimal places is:
The square root of 2 is equal to
the length of the hypotenuse of a
right-angled triangle with legs of
length 1.

1.41421 35623 73095 04880 16887 24209 69807 85696 71875 37694 80731 76679 73799...
(sequence A002193 in the OEIS).

Alternatively, the quick approximation 99/70 (≈ 1.41429) for the

square root of two was frequently used before the common use of
electronic calculators and computers. Despite having a denominator
of only 70, it differs from the correct value by less than 1/10,000
(approx. 7.2 × 10 −5).

The square root of 2.

Theodorus' constant √3

The numeric value of √3 is approximately 1.7320508075 (sequence A002194 in the OEIS).

Constants in advanced mathematics

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These are constants which are encountered frequently in higher mathematics.

The Feigenbaum constants α and δ

Iterations of continuous maps serve as the simplest examples of

models for dynamical systems.[3] Named after mathematical
physicist Mitchell Feigenbaum, the two Feigenbaum constants
appear in such iterative processes: they are mathematical invariants
of logistic maps with quadratic maximum points[4] and their
bifurcation diagrams. Specifically, the constant α is the ratio between
the width of a tine and the width of one of its two subtines, and the
constant δ is the limiting ratio of each bifurcation interval to the next Bifurcation diagram of the
between every period-doubling bifurcation. logistic map.

The logistic map is a polynomial mapping, often cited as an

archetypal example of how chaotic behaviour can arise from very simple non-linear dynamical
equations. The map was popularized in a seminal 1976 paper by the Australian biologist Robert
May,[5] in part as a discrete-time demographic model analogous to the logistic equation first created
by Pierre François Verhulst. The difference equation is intended to capture the two effects of
reproduction and starvation.

The numeric value of α is approximately 2.5029. The numeric value of δ is approximately 4.6692.

Apéry's constant ζ(3)

Apery's constant is the sum of the series

Apéry's constant is an irrational number and its numeric value is approximately 1.2020569.

Despite being a special value of the Riemann zeta function, Apéry's constant arises naturally in a
number of physical problems, including in the second- and third-order terms of the electron's
gyromagnetic ratio, computed using quantum electrodynamics.[6]

The golden ratio φ

The number φ, also called the golden ratio, turns up frequently in geometry, particularly in figures
with pentagonal symmetry. Indeed, the length of a regular pentagon's diagonal is φ times its side. The
vertices of a regular icosahedron are those of three mutually orthogonal golden rectangles. Also, it
appears in the Fibonacci sequence, related to growth by recursion.[7] Kepler proved that it is the limit
of the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.[8] The golden ratio has the slowest convergence of any
irrational number.[9] It is, for that reason, one of the worst cases of Lagrange's approximation

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theorem and it is an
extremal case of the
Hurwitz inequality for
An explicit formula for the nth Fibonacci Diophantine
number involving the golden ratio φ. approximations. This
may be why angles close
to the golden ratio often
show up in phyllotaxis (the growth of plants).[10] It is
approximately equal to 1.6180339887498948482, or, more
precisely 2⋅sin(54°) =

Golden rectangles in a regular

The Euler–Mascheroni constant γ icosahedron

The Euler–Mascheroni constant is

defined as the following limit:

The Euler–Mascheroni constant appears in Mertens' third theorem and

The area between the two has relations to the gamma function, the zeta function and many
curves (red) tends to a limit,
different integrals and series.
namely the Euler-Mascheroni
constant. It is yet unknown whether is rational or not.

The numeric value of is approximately 0.57721.

Conway's constant λ

Conway's constant is the invariant growth rate of all derived strings similar to the
look-and-say sequence (except for one trivial one).[11]

It is given by the unique positive real root of a polynomial of degree 71 with integer
coefficients.[11]

The value of λ is approximately 1.30357.

Conway's look-
Khinchin's constant K and-say
sequence
If a real number r is written as a simple continued fraction:

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where ak are natural numbers for all k, then, as the Russian mathematician Aleksandr Khinchin
proved in 1934, the limit as n tends to infinity of the geometric mean: (a1a2...an)1/n exists and is a
constant, Khinchin's constant, except for a set of measure 0.[12]

The numeric value of K is approximately 2.6854520010.

The Glaisher–Kinkelin constant A

The Glaisher–Kinkelin constant is defined as the limit:

It appears in some expressions of the derivative of the Riemann zeta function. It has a numerical value
of approximately 1.2824271291.

Mathematical curiosities and unspecified constants

Simple representatives of sets of numbers

Liouville's constant is a simple example of a transcendental number.

Some constants, such as the square root of 2, Liouville's constant and

Champernowne constant:
This Babylonian clay
tablet gives an
approximation of the
square root of 2 in four
are not important mathematical invariants but retain interest being simple
sexagesimal figures: 1; representatives of special sets of numbers, the irrational numbers,[14] the
24, 51, 10, which is transcendental numbers[15] and the normal numbers (in base 10)[16]
accurate to about six respectively. The discovery of the irrational numbers is usually attributed
decimal figures. [13] to the Pythagorean Hippasus of Metapontum who proved, most likely
geometrically, the irrationality of the square root of 2. As for Liouville's
constant, named after French mathematician Joseph Liouville, it was the
first number to be proven transcendental.[17]

Chaitin's constant Ω

In the computer science subfield of algorithmic information theory, Chaitin's constant is the real
number representing the probability that a randomly chosen Turing machine will halt, formed from a
construction due to Argentine-American mathematician and computer scientist Gregory Chaitin.

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Chaitin's constant, though not being computable, has been proven to be transcendental and normal.
Chaitin's constant is not universal, depending heavily on the numerical encoding used for Turing
machines; however, its interesting properties are independent of the encoding.

Unspecified constants

When unspecified, constants indicate classes of similar objects, commonly functions, all equal up to a
constant—technically speaking, this may be viewed as 'similarity up to a constant'. Such constants
appear frequently when dealing with integrals and differential equations. Though unspecified, they
have a specific value, which often is not important.

In integrals

Indefinite integrals are called indefinite because their solutions are

only unique up to a constant. For example, when working over the
field of real numbers

where C, the constant of integration, is an arbitrary fixed real

Solutions with different constants
number.[18] In other words, whatever the value of C, differentiating
of integration of
sin x + C with respect to x always yields cos x.
.
In differential equations

In a similar fashion, constants appear in the solutions to differential equations where not enough
initial values or boundary conditions are given. For example, the ordinary differential equation
y' = y(x) has solution Cex where C is an arbitrary constant.

When dealing with partial differential equations, the constants may be functions, constant with
respect to some variables (but not necessarily all of them). For example, the PDE

has solutions f(x,y) = C(y), where C(y) is an arbitrary function in the variable y.

Notation

Representing constants

It is common to express the numerical value of a constant by giving its decimal representation (or just
the first few digits of it). For two reasons this representation may cause problems. First, even though
rational numbers all have a finite or ever-repeating decimal expansion, irrational numbers don't have

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such an expression making them impossible to completely describe in this manner. Also, the decimal
expansion of a number is not necessarily unique. For example, the two representations 0.999... and 1
are equivalent[19][20] in the sense that they represent the same number.

Calculating digits of the decimal expansion of constants has been a common enterprise for many
centuries. For example, German mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen of the 16th century spent a major
part of his life calculating the first 35 digits of pi.[21] Using computers and supercomputers, some of
the mathematical constants, including π, e, and the square root of 2, have been computed to more
than one hundred billion digits. Fast algorithms have been developed, some of which — as for Apéry's
constant — are unexpectedly fast.

Some constants differ so much from the usual kind that a

new notation has been invented to represent them
reasonably. Graham's number illustrates this as Knuth's up-
arrow notation is used.[22][23]

It may be of interest to represent them using continued Graham's number defined using Knuth's
fractions to perform various studies, including statistical up-arrow notation.
analysis. Many mathematical constants have an analytic
form, that is they can be constructed using well-known
operations that lend themselves readily to calculation. Not all constants have known analytic forms,
though; Grossman's constant[24] and Foias' constant[25] are examples.

Symbolizing and naming of constants

Symbolizing constants with letters is a frequent means of making the notation more concise. A
common convention, instigated by René Descartes in the 17th century and Leonhard Euler in the 18th
century, is to use lower case letters from the beginning of the Latin alphabet or the Greek
alphabet when dealing with constants in general.

However, for more important constants, the symbols may be more complex and have an extra letter,
an asterisk, a number, a lemniscate or use different alphabets such as Hebrew, Cyrillic or Gothic.[23]

Sometimes, the symbol representing a constant is a whole word.

Erdős–Borwein constant
For example, American mathematician Edward Kasner's 9-year- Embree–Trefethen constant
old nephew coined the names googol and googolplex.[23][26] Brun's constant for twin prime
Champernowne constants
cardinal number aleph naught
Examples of different kinds of
Other names are either related to the meaning of the constant notation for constants.
(universal parabolic constant, twin prime constant, ...) or to a
specific person (Sierpiński's constant, Josephson constant, and so
on).

Selected mathematical constants

Abbreviations used:

R – Rational number, I – Irrational number (may be algebraic or transcendental), A – Algebraic

number (irrational), T – Transcendental number
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Gen – General, NuT – Number theory, ChT – Chaos theory, Com

– Combinatorics, Inf – Information theory, Ana – Mathematical
analysis

The universal parabolic

constant is the ratio, for any
parabola, of the arc length of
the parabolic segment (red)
formed by the latus rectum
(blue) to the focal parameter
(green).

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First Number of known

Symbol Value Name Field N
described decimal digits

0 =0 Zero Gen R by c. 500 BC all

1 =1 One, Unity Gen R all

Imaginary unit, unit Gen,

i = √–1
imaginary number Ana
A by c. 1500 all

≈ 3.14159 26535 Pi, Archimedes'

Gen, by
π 89793 23846 26433 constant or
Ana
T
c. 2600 BC 62,831,853,071,796[27]
83279 50288 Ludolph's number

≈ 2.71828 18284 e, Napier's

Gen,
e 59045 23536 02874 constant, or
Ana
T 1618 31,415,926,535,897[27]
71352 66249 Euler's number
≈ 1.41421 35623 Pythagoras'
√2 73095 04880 16887 constant, square Gen A by c. 800 BC 10,000,000,000,000[27]
24209 69807 root of 2

≈ 1.73205 08075 Theodorus'

√3 68877 29352 74463 constant, square Gen A by c. 800 BC 2,199,023,255,552[28]
41505 87236 root of 3

≈ 2.23606 79774
√5 99789 69640 91736 Square root of 5 Gen A by c. 800 BC 2,199,023,255,552[28]
68731 27623
≈ 0.57721 56649
Euler–Mascheroni Gen,
01532 86060 65120
constant NuT
1735 600,000,000,100[28]
90082 40243

≈ 1.61803 39887
49894 84820 45868 Golden ratio Gen A by c. 200 BC 10,000,000,000,000[28]
34365 63811

de Bruijn–Newman NuT,
[29][30][31][32] 1950 none
constant Ana

≈ 0.26149 72128
Meissel–Mertens 1866
M1 47642 78375 54268
constant
NuT
1874
8,010
38608 69585

≈ 0.28016 94990 Bernstein's

Ana
23869 13303 constant[33]

≈ 0.30366 30028
Gauss–Kuzmin–
98732 65859 74481 Com 1974 385
Wirsing constant
21901 55623
≈ 0.35323 63718
Hafner–Sarnak–
54995 98454 35165 NuT 1993
McCurley constant
50432 68201

L ≈ 0.5 Landau's constant Ana 1

≈ 0.56714 32904
Ω 09783 87299 99686 Omega constant Ana T
62210 35554
≈ 0.62432 99885
Golomb–Dickman Com, 1930
, 43550 87099 29363
constant NuT 1964
83100 83724

≈ 0.64341 05462 Cahen's constant T 1891 4000

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First Number of known

Symbol Value Name Field N
described decimal digits

≈ 0.66016 18158
Twin prime
C2 46869 57392 78121
constant
NuT 5,020
10014 55577

≈ 0.66274 34193
49181 58097 47420 Laplace limit 1822
97109 25290

* Embree–Trefethen
≈ 0.70258 NuT
constant

≈ 0.76422 36535 Landau–

K 89220 66299 06987 Ramanujan NuT 30,010
31250 09232 constant

Brun's constant for

B4 ≈ 0.87058 838
prime quadruplets
NuT 8

≈ 0.91596 55941
G 77219 01505 46035 Catalan's constant Com 1,000,000,001,337[28]
14932 38411

Legendre's
B´L =1
constant
NuT R all

Viswanath's
K ≈ 1.13198 824
constant
NuT 8

≈ 1.20205 69031
59594 28539 97381 Apéry's constant I 1979 1,200,000,000,100[28]
61511 44999

≈ 1.30357 72690
34296 39125 70991 Conway's constant NuT A
12152 55189

≈ 1.30637 78838
63080 69046 86144 Mills' constant NuT 1947 6850
92602 60571
≈ 1.32471 79572
44746 02596 09088 Plastic constant NuT A 1928
54478 09734

≈ 1.45136 92348
Ramanujan–
83381 05028 39684 NuT I 75,500
Soldner constant
85892 02744

≈ 1.45607 49485 Backhouse's

82689 67139 95953
constant[34]
51116 54356
Porter's
≈ 1.46707 80794 NuT 1975
constant[35]
Lieb's square ice
≈ 1.53960 07178 Com A 1967
constant[36]
≈ 1.60669 51524
Erdős–Borwein
EB 15291 76378 33015
constant
NuT I
23190 92458

≈ 1.70521 11401
05367 76428 85514 Niven's constant NuT 1969
53434 50816

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First Number of known

Symbol Value Name Field N
described decimal digits

Brun's constant for

B2 ≈ 1.90216 05831 04
twin primes
NuT 1919 12

≈ 2.29558 71493
Universal parabolic
P2 92638 07403 42980
constant
Gen T
49189 49039
≈ 2.50290 78750
Feigenbaum
95892 82228 39028 ChT
constant
73218 21578

≈ 2.58498 17595
Sierpiński's
K 79253 21706 58935
constant
87383 17116

≈ 2.68545 20010
Khinchin's
65306 44530 97148 NuT 1934 7350
constant
35481 79569
≈ 2.80777 02420
Fransén–Robinson
F 28519 36522 15011
constant
Ana
86557 77293

≈ 3.27582 29187
21811 15978 76818 Lévy's constant NuT
82453 84386

≈ 3.35988 56662 Reciprocal

43177 55317 20113 Fibonacci I
02918 92717 constant[37]

≈ 4.66920 16091
Feigenbaum
02990 67185 32038 ChT 1975
constant
20466 20161

See also
Invariant (mathematics)
List of mathematical symbols
List of numbers
Physical constant

Notes
1. Weisstein, Eric W. "Constant" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Constant.html).
mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-08-08.
2. Grinstead, C.M.; Snell, J.L. "Introduction to probability theory" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110
727200156/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/probability_book/boo
k.html). p. 85. Archived from the original (http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books
_articles/probability_book/book.html) on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
3. Collet & Eckmann (1980). Iterated maps on the inerval as dynamical systems (https://archive.org/
details/iteratedmapsonin0000coll). Birkhauser. ISBN 3-7643-3026-0.
4. Finch, Steven (2003). Mathematical constants (https://archive.org/details/mathematicalcons0000fi
nc). Cambridge University Press. p. 67 (https://archive.org/details/mathematicalcons0000finc/pag
e/67). ISBN 0-521-81805-2.

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5. May, Robert (1976). Theoretical Ecology: Principles and Applications. Blackwell Scientific
Publishers. ISBN 0-632-00768-0.
6. Steven Finch. "Apéry's constant" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/AperysConstant.html).
MathWorld.
7. Livio, Mario (2002). The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi, The World's Most Astonishing Number (ht
tps://archive.org/details/goldenratiostory00livi). New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 0-7679-0815-5.
8. Tatersall, James (2005). Elementary number theory in nine chapters (2nd ed.
9. "The Secret Life of Continued Fractions" (http://plus.maths.org/content/chaos-numberland-secret-li
fe-continued-fractions)
10. Fibonacci Numbers and Nature - Part 2 : Why is the Golden section the "best" arrangement? (htt
p://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat2.html), from Dr. Ron Knott's (htt
p://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/) Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Section (htt
p://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/), retrieved 2012-11-29.
11. Steven Finch. "Conway's Constant" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ConwaysConstant.html).
MathWorld.
12. Steven Finch. "Khinchin's Constant" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/KhinchinsConstant.html).
MathWorld.
13. Fowler, David; Eleanor Robson (November 1998). "Square Root Approximations in Old
Babylonian Mathematics: YBC 7289 in Context" (https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.1998.2209).
Historia Mathematica. 25 (4): 368. doi:10.1006/hmat.1998.2209 (https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.
1998.2209).
Photograph, illustration, and description of the root(2) tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection
(http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html)
High resolution photographs, descriptions, and analysis of the root(2) tablet (YBC 7289) from the
Yale Babylonian Collection (http://www.math.ubc.ca/%7Ecass/Euclid/ybc/ybc.html)
14. Bogomolny, Alexander. "Square root of 2 is irrational" (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/proofs/sq_root.s
html).
15. Aubrey J. Kempner (Oct 1916). "On Transcendental Numbers" (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F19888
33). Transactions of the American Mathematical Society. Transactions of the American
Mathematical Society, Vol. 17, No. 4. 17 (4): 476–482. doi:10.2307/1988833 (https://doi.org/10.23
07%2F1988833). JSTOR 1988833 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1988833).
16. Champernowne, David (1933). "The Construction of Decimals Normal in the Scale of Ten".
Journal of the London Mathematical Society. 8 (4): 254–260. doi:10.1112/jlms/s1-8.4.254 (https://d
oi.org/10.1112%2Fjlms%2Fs1-8.4.254).
17. Weisstein, Eric W. "Liouville's Constant" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/LiouvillesConstant.html).
MathWorld.
18. Edwards, Henry; David Penney (1994). Calculus with analytic geometry (https://archive.org/detail
s/calculuswithanal0000edwa/page/269) (4e ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 269 (https://archive.org/details/c
alculuswithanal0000edwa/page/269). ISBN 0-13-300575-5.
19. Rudin, Walter (1976) [1953]. Principles of mathematical analysis (https://archive.org/details/princip
lesofmath00rudi) (3e ed.). McGraw-Hill. p.61 theorem 3.26. ISBN 0-07-054235-X.
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External links
Constants – from Wolfram MathWorld (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/topics/Constants.html)

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1/1/24, 1:51 AM Mathematical constant - Wikipedia

Inverse symbolic calculator (CECM, ISC) (https://web.archive.org/web/20120329145758/http://old

web.cecm.sfu.ca/projects/ISC/) (tells you how a given number can be constructed from
mathematical constants)
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OEIS) (http://oeis.org/wiki/Index_to_OEIS)
Simon Plouffe's inverter (https://web.archive.org/web/20050812010306/http://pi.lacim.uqam.ca/en
g/)
Steven Finch's page of mathematical constants (https://web.archive.org/web/20130601103814/htt
p://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~sfinch/) (BROKEN LINK)
Steven R. Finch, "Mathematical Constants (http://assets.cambridge.org/052181/8052/sample/052
1818052ws.pdf)," Encyclopedia of mathematics and its applications, Cambridge University Press
(2003).
Xavier Gourdon and Pascal Sebah's page of numbers, mathematical constants and algorithms (ht
tp://numbers.computation.free.fr/Constants/constants.html)

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