Unit 3

Data Link Layer and responsibilities

What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or
bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple signals
coming from multiple sources are combined and
transmitted over a single communication/physical
line.
Types of Multiplexing
There are three types of Multiplexing :
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing :

Frequency division multiplexing is defined as

a type of multiplexing where the bandwidth
of a single physical medium is divided into a
number of smaller, independent frequency
channels.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio
and television transmission.
In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel
cross-talk, due to the fact that in this type of
multiplexing the bandwidth is divided into
frequency channels. In order to prevent the
inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of
bandwidth must be placed between each
channel. These unused strips between each
channel are known as guard bands.
2. Time Division Multiplexing :
Time-division multiplexing is defined as a
type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead
of sharing a portion of the bandwidth in
the form of channels, in TDM, time is
shared. Each connection occupies a
portion of time in the link.
In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals
operate with the same frequency
(bandwidth) at different times.
ERROR Detection
Error
A condition when the receiver’s information
does not match with the sender’s information.
During transmission, digital signals suffer from
noise that can introduce errors in the binary
bits travelling from sender to receiver. That
means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may
change to 0.
Error Detecting Codes (Implemented either
at Data link layer or Transport Layer of OSI
Model)
Whenever a message is transmitted, it may get
scrambled by noise or data may get corrupted.
To avoid this, we use error-detecting codes
which are additional data added to a given
digital message to help us detect if any error
has occurred during transmission of the
message.
Basic approach used for error detection is
the use of redundancy bits, where
additional bits are added to facilitate
detection of errors.
Some popular techniques for error
detection are:
1. Simple Parity check
2. Two-dimensional Parity check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic redundancy check
1. Simple Parity check
Blocks of data from the source are subjected
to a check bit or parity bit generator form,
where a parity of :
1 is added to the block if it contains odd
number of 1’s, and
0 is added if it contains even number of 1’s
This scheme makes the total number of 1’s
even, that is why it is called even parity
checking.
2. Two-dimensional Parity check
Parity check bits are calculated for each
row, which is equivalent to a simple parity
check bit. Parity check bits are also
calculated for all columns, then both are
sent along with the data. At the receiving
end these are compared with the parity
bits calculated on the received data.
3. Checksum
In checksum error detection scheme, the data is divided into k
segments each of m bits.
In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s
complement arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is
complemented to get the checksum.
The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using
1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is
complemented.
If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise
discarded.
4. Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition,
CRC is based on binary division.
In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic
redundancy check bits, are appended to the end of
data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes
exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary
number.
At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by
the same number. If at this step there is no remainder,
the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore
accepted.
A remainder indicates that the data unit has been
damaged in transit and therefore must be rejected.
 Switching Techniques

Switched communication networks are those in which data

transferred from source to destination is routed between
various intermediate nodes. Switching is the technique by
which nodes control or switch data to transmit it between
specific points on a network. There are 3 common switching
techniques:

Circuit Switching
Packet Switching
Message Switching
switching is switching method that creates a dedicated
channel between the transmitter and the receiver.
Once the link is created via the Circuit Switching
Technique, the dedicated path will exist until the
connection is cancelled.
Message Switching –
Message switching was a technique developed as an alternative to circuit switching
before packet switching was introduced. In message switching, end-users
communicate by sending and receiving messages that included the entire data to be
shared. Messages are the smallest individual unit.
Also, the sender and receiver are not directly connected. There are a number of
intermediate nodes that transfer data and ensure that the message reaches its
destination. Message switched data networks are hence called hop-by-hop systems.
They provide 2 distinct and important characteristics:
Store and forward – The intermediate nodes have the responsibility of transferring the
entire message to the next node. Hence, each node must have storage capacity. A
message will only be delivered if the next hop and the link connecting it are both
available, otherwise, it’ll be stored indefinitely. A store-and-forward switch forwards a
message only if sufficient resources are available and the next hop is accepting data.
This is called the store-and-forward property.

Message delivery – This implies wrapping the entire information in a single message
and transferring it from the source to the destination node. Each message must have a
header that contains the message routing information, including the source and
destination.
Message switching network consists of transmission links (channels),
store-and-forward switch nodes,
 Circuit Switching

The Circuit Switching technique establishes a dedicated

path or channel between the sender and receiver for data
transmission, and once a dedicated path is established then
it does not terminate it until and unless the connection
between the two data transmission point terminates. We
can say that it operates in a similar manner in which a
telephonic network operates when you call someone, then
a dedicated communication channel or path is established
between you two, which remains open till you disconnect
the phone call.
 Packet Switching

We've seen that in circuit switching we select a dedicated

path for data transmission, but let's assume you have a
small amount data. The packet switching technique
transmits data through the network by breaking it down
into several data packets for more efficient transfer and it
also utilizes multiple vacant resources, these network
devices direct or route the data packets to the destination
where the receiving device then collects all of them and
reassembles to get the proper orientation of the message.
Datalink protocols are sets of specifications used to
implement the info datalink layer to this end, they contain
rules for line discipline, flow control, and error handling,
among others.
Datalink protocols can be divided into two subgroups:-
Asynchronous protocols
synchronous protocols.
Asynchronous protocols aren’t complex and are
inexpensive to implement. asynchronous transmission a
data unit is transmitted with no timing coordination
between the sender and receiver.
XMODEM in Datalink protocols, In 1979 ward Christiansen designed a file transfer
protocol for telephonic-line communication between PCs.

YMODEM is a type of Datalink protocol that is similar to XMODEM, The data unit is
1024 bytes.
Blocked asynchronous transmission (BLAST) is more powerful than XMODEM. It is a
full-duplex with sliding window flow control. It allows the transmission of data and
binary files.
KERMIT is another type of datalink protocol, which is designed at Columbia University,
is currently the foremost widely used asynchronous protocol.

Synchronous Protocols
Now you are going to learn about synchronous protocols in Datalink protocols, and
about their types.
The speed of synchronous transmission makes it the better choice, over the
synchronous transmission, For LAN, MAN, and WAN technology. Protocols governing
synchronous transmission are often divided into two classes:
character-oriented protocols
bit-oriented protocols
Character-Oriented Protocols:-

character-oriented protocols (also called byte-oriented

protocols) interpret a transmission frame or packet as a
succession of characters, each usually composed of one byte
(eight bits). All control information is within sort of an existing
character encoding system.

Bit-Oriented Protocols:-Bit-oriented protocols interpret a transfer

frame or packet as a succession of individual bits, made meaningful
by their placement in the frame and by their juxtaposition with
other bits.
 Authentication in Computer Network

Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a

user or information. User authentication is the process of
verifying the identity of a user when that user logs in to a
computer system.

There are different types of authentication systems which

are: –
1. Single-Factor authentication
2. Two-factor Authentication:
3. Multi-Factor authentication system
The disadvantage of the Multi-Factor Authentication System are: –
It is time-consuming.
it can rely on third parties. The main objective of authentication is to allow
authorized users to access the computer and to deny access to unauthorized
users. Operating Systems generally identify/authenticates users using the
following 3 ways: Passwords, Physical identification, and Biometrics. These are
explained as following below.
Passwords: Password verification is the most popular and commonly
used authentication technique. A password is a secret text that is
supposed to be known only to a user. In a password-based system, each
user is assigned a valid username and password by the system
administrator. The system stores all usernames and Passwords. When a
user logs in, their user name and password are verified by comparing
them with the stored login name and password. If the contents are the
same then the user is allowed to access the system otherwise it is
rejected.
A database that stores information for all
authorized users.
Facial Characteristics – Humans are
differentiated on the basis of facial
characteristics such as eyes, nose, lips,
eyebrows, and chin shape.
Fingerprints – Fingerprints are believed to
be unique across the entire human
population.
Hand Geometry – Hand geometry
systems identify features of the hand that
includes the shape, length, and width of
fingers.
Retinal pattern – It is concerned with the
detailed structure of the eye.
Signature – Every individual has a unique
style of handwriting, and this feature is
reflected in the signatures of a person.
Voice – This method records the
frequency pattern of the voice of an
individual speaker.
Physical Identification: This technique includes machine-readable
badges(symbols), cards, or smart cards. In some companies,
badges are required for employees to gain access to the
organization’s gate. In many systems, identification is combined
with the use of a password i.e the user must insert the card and
then supply his /her password. This kind of authentication is
commonly used with ATMs. Smart cards can enhance this scheme
by keeping the user password within the card itself. This allows
authentication without the storage of passwords in the computer
system. The loss of such a card can be dangerous.
Biometrics: This method of authentication is based on the unique
biological characteristics of each user such as fingerprints, voice or
face recognition, signatures, and eyes.
A scanner or other devices to gather the necessary data about the
user.
Software to convert the data into a form that can be compared
and stored.
the Link Control Protocol (LCP) forms part of
the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), within the family
of Internet protocols. In setting up PPP
communications, both the sending and receiving
devices send out LCP packets to determine the
standards of the ensuing data transmission.
The protocol:
checks the identity of the linked device and either
accepts or rejects the device
determines the acceptable packet size for
transmission
searches for errors in configuration
can terminate the link if requirements exceed the
parameters
Network Control Protocol (NCP) was an early
protocol implemented by ARPANET, the world's
first operational packet-switching network that
later evolved into what became the Internet.
NCP allowed users to access and use computers
and devices at remote locations and to
transmit files between computers.