Logic

Question No 1
How to Reduce the number of terms in categorical syllogism And how to translate
categorical proposition into standard forms. Discuss briefly and give examples at least
three for each

In a categorical syllogism, you have three terms: the major term, the minor term, and the middle
term. The goal is to reduce the number of terms to make the argument easier to understand
and analyze.

One way to do this is by combining similar terms. For example, if you have a statement like “All
dogs are mammals” and another statement like “Some mammals are cats,” you can
combine them into a single statement like “All dogs are mammals, and some mammals are
cats.” By doing this, you eliminate the need for separate terms for dogs and cats, reducing the
total number of terms.

Another technique is to use pronouns instead of repeating the terms. For instance, instead of
saying “All dogs are mammals, and some mammals are cats,” you can say “All dogs are
mammals, and some of them are cats.” This way, you’re referring back to the previously
mentioned mammals without repeating the term.

By reducing the number of terms, you make the syllogism more concise and easier to follow. It
helps in analyzing the logical relationships between the statements and drawing valid
conclusions

Examples:

1. Let’s say we have the syllogism:

“All dogs are animals.

All animals have tails.

Therefore, all dogs have tails.”

In this syllogism, the major term is “tails,” the minor term is “dogs,” and the middle term is
“animals.” Since the middle term appears in both premises and the conclusion, we can
eliminate it. The syllogism can be simplified to:
 “All dogs have tails.”

2. Another example:

“All roses are flowers.

All flowers need sunlight.

Therefore, all roses need sunlight.”

In this syllogism, the major term is “sunlight,” the minor term is “roses,” and the middle term is
“flowers.” Since the middle term appears in both premises and the conclusion, we can eliminate
it. The syllogism can be simplified to:

“All roses need sunlight.”

3. One more example:

“No snakes have legs.

All reptiles are snakes.

Therefore, no reptiles have legs.”

In this syllogism, the major term is “legs,” the minor term is “reptiles,” and the middle term is
“snakes.” Since the middle term appears in both premises and the conclusion, we can eliminate
it. The syllogism can be simplified to:

“No reptiles have legs.”

To translate a categorical proposition into standard form, you can follow these steps:

1. Identify the subject and predicate terms of the proposition. The subject term refers
to the class or group being talked about, while the predicate term refers to the attribute or
characteristic being ascribed to the subject.
2. Determine the quantity (universal or particular) and quality (affirmative or
negative) of the proposition. The quantity indicates whether the proposition refers to
all, some, or none of the subject class. The quality indicates whether the proposition
affirms or negates the relationship between the subject and predicate.
3. Convert the proposition into its standard form using logical symbols. The standard
form uses symbols to represent the quantity and quality of the proposition. Here are the
symbols commonly used:

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- Universal Affirmative (A): All S are P.

- Universal Negative (E): No S are P.

- Particular Affirmative (I): Some S are P.

- Particular Negative (O): Some S are not P.

For example, let’s say we have the proposition “All dogs are mammals.” The subject term is
“dogs” and the predicate term is “mammals.” Since it affirms the relationship between dogs and
mammals for all instances, it is a universal affirmative proposition, which can be represented as
“All dogs are mammals (A).”

Similarly, if we have the proposition “Some cats are not dogs,” the subject term is “cats” and the
predicate term is “dogs.” It indicates that there are some instances of cats that are not dogs, so
it is a particular negative proposition, which can be represented as “Some cats are not dogs
(O).”

By translating categorical propositions into standard forms, we can analyze and evaluate their
logical relationships more effectively

Examples:

There are examples of categorical propositions translated into standard forms:

1. “All birds have feathers.” This proposition affirms that the attribute of having feathers
applies to all instances of the subject class, birds. In standard form, it would be
represented as “All birds are feathered (A).”
2. “No vegetables are animals.” This proposition negates the relationship between the
subject class, vegetables, and the predicate class, animals. In standard form, it would be
represented as “No vegetables are animals (E).”
3. “Some cars are red.” This proposition affirms that there are instances of the subject
class, cars, that possess the attribute of being red. In standard form, it would be
represented as “Some cars are red (I).”

Question No:03

Prove the Absorption Law:

As Absorption law is :

X(X+Y) = X. (A)

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X+XY = X. (B)

First of All the we solve A :

L.H.S X(X+Y)

=(X+0)(X+Y) : by using identity law

=X+Y.0 : by using distributive law

=X+0 : by using Domination law

=X : by using identity law

Hence proved L.H.S=R.H.S

By table:

X Y X+Y X(X+Y)
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0

Now We solve the B

L.H.S : X+XY

=X+X.Y

=X.(1+Y) : by using Domination law

=X.1 : by using Identity law

=X

Proved L.H.S = R.H.S

By Table:

X Y XY X+XY
1 1 1 1

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 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0

Distributive Law:

X+YZ = (X+Y)(X+Z) ......(A)

X(Y+Z) = XY+XZ ............(B)

First we solve A: X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)

R.H.S:(X+Y)(X+Z)

=X.X+X.Z+Y.X+YZ : By using distributive law

=X+XZ+YX+YZ : by using adempotant law

=X+XZ+XY+YZ. : by using commutative law

=X(1+Z+Y)+YZ : by using distributive law

=X(1+Y)+YZ : by using Domination law

=X.1 + YZ : by using identity law

=X+YZ Hence proved

By table:

X Y Z X+Z YZ X+Y X+YZ (X+Y)(X+Z)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Now we solve the B

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X(Y+Z) = XY+XZ

R.H.S= XY+XZ

=XY.1+XZ.1 : by using identity law

XY(Z+𝑍)+XZ(Y+𝑌) : unit property

XYZ+XY𝑍 + XZY+XZ𝑌 : using distributive law

XYZ+XYZ+XY𝑍+X𝑌Z : using commutative law

XYZ+XY𝑧+X𝑌Z : using adempotant law

X(YZ+Y 𝑍+𝑌Z) :X as common

X[YZ+ 𝑍. (Y+𝑌)Z] : associative law

X(YZ+𝑧.1 + Z) : by unit property

X(YZ+𝑍+Z) : identity law

X[Y(Z+𝑍)+Z] : by using associative law

X(Y.1+Z) : by using Unit property

X(Y+Z) : identity law

L.H.S=R.H.S

By table:

X Y Z Y+Z X(Y+Z) XY XY+XZ

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Proved!!!

De Morgan’s Law :

(𝑿𝒀) = 𝑿 + 𝒀 … . . (𝑨)

(𝑋 + 𝑦) = 𝑋𝑌 … … . (𝐵)

FiRST of All we solve A

R.H.S = 𝑋 + 𝑌

𝑋.1+ 𝑌.1 : by using identity law

𝑋(Y+𝑌) + 𝑌(𝑋 + 𝑋) : by using unit property

𝑋𝑌 + 𝑋𝑌 + 𝑌𝑋 + 𝑦𝑋 ∶ 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 Distributive law

𝑋Y +𝑌𝑋 + 𝑋𝑌 + 𝑋𝑌 ∶ 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤

𝑋(Y+𝑌)𝑋 + 𝑋𝑌 ∶ 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑤

𝑋. 1 + 𝑋 + 𝑋𝑌 : by using unit property

𝑋+X +𝑋𝑌 . ∶ 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑤

1+𝑋𝑌 . ∶ 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦

.𝑋𝑌 ∶ 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑤

Hence proved L.H.S=R.H.S

BY TABLE :

X Y 𝑋 𝑌 𝑥+𝑦 XY 𝑥𝑦
1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 1

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Question No.04

Explain the importance of boolean Algebra in our daily life.

1. Digital Technology:

Boolean Algebra powers the digital technology we rely on every day. It forms the foundation of
computer logic and helps in designing and building electronic devices like smartphones,
computers, and smart home systems.

2. Internet and Networking:

Boolean Algebra is essential for the functioning of the internet and networking systems. It
enables data transmission, routing, and network protocols, ensuring efficient communication
and connectivity.

3. Information Retrieval:

Boolean Algebra plays a role in information retrieval systems, such as search engines. By using
logical operators like AND, OR, and NOT, we can refine our searches and find relevant
information quickly.

4. Decision Making and Problem Solving:

Boolean Algebra helps in decision making and problem solving. It allows us to analyze different
conditions and make logical choices based on the results. It’s like having a set of rules to follow
when faced with complex situations.

5. Digital Circuit Design:

Boolean Algebra is crucial in designing digital circuits. It helps in simplifying complex circuits,
reducing the number of components needed, and improving the efficiency of electronic devices.

6. Logic and Critical Thinking:

Boolean Algebra enhances our logical thinking and critical reasoning skills. It provides a
systematic approach to evaluate and simplify logical expressions, which can be applied in
various aspects of our daily lives.

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In summary, Boolean Algebra is not something we consciously think about in our daily lives, but
its concepts are deeply ingrained in the technology we use and rely on. From our smartphones
to the internet, Boolean Algebra plays a vital role in making our digital world function efficiently.

Solve:

Q01:

Output:

Solve =(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑦

Q:02

Output:

Solve=(𝑋 + 𝑌)′

Q:03

Output:

Solve=𝑋𝑌 + (𝑋 + 𝑧)

Q:04

Output:

Solve=𝑋𝑌𝑍(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)

Q:05

Output:

Solve=(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑍) + (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) + (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)

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