Week 1: Computer Fundamentals

Week 1: Computer Fundamentals

To identify the different parts of a computer and understands its functions.

To understand the different types of software

A computer is an electronic machine (which is composed of electronic components like

resistor, transistors, capacitors, etc and also mechanical parts inside it like the spindle
of hard drives, power button etc) that performs calculations based on a given set of
instructions.
A computer system consists of hardware and software components. Hardware is the
physical (tangible or anything you can touch) equipment. It includes the case, keyboard,
monitor, cables, storage drives, speakers, and printers. Software (non-tangible) which
includes the operating system, drivers, and programs. The operating system manages
computer operations such as scheduling, memory management, hardware
management and processing information. Programs or applications perform different
functions.

Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive

computers. These huge computers are used to solve very
complex science and engineering problems. Supercomputers get
their processing power by taking advantage of parallel
processing; they use lots of CPUs at the same time on one
problem. A typical supercomputer can do up to ten trillion
individual calculations every second.

Example of Supercomputers
1. The K computer was based on a distributed
memory architecture with over 80,000 compute nodes. It
was used for a variety of applications, including climate
research, disaster prevention and medical research

2. The Columbia is used for high-fidelity simulations of the

Space Shuttle vehicle and launch systems, hurricane
track prediction, global ocean circulation, and the physics
of supernova detonations
Mainframe (colloquially, "big iron") computers are similar to
supercomputers in many aspects, the main difference between
them is the fact that a supercomputer uses all its raw power to
focus on very few tasks, while a mainframe purpose is to perform
thousands or millions of operations concurrently. Due to its
nature, mainframes are often employed by large organizations for
bulk data processing, such as census, industry and consumer
statistics, enterprise resource planning and transaction
processing.
A server is a central computer that contains collections of data
and programs. Also called a network server, this system allows
all connected users to share and store electronic data and
 applications. Two important types of servers are file servers and
application servers.
Workstations are high-end, expensive computers that are made
for more complex procedures and are intended for one user at a
time. Some of the complex procedures consist of science, math
and engineering calculations and are useful for computer design
and manufacturing. Workstations are sometimes improperly
named for marketing reasons. Real workstations are not usually
sold in retail, but this is starting to change; Apple's Mac Pro would
be considered a workstation
personal computer is an all-around device that can be used as a
productivity tool, a media server and a gaming machine

Personal digital assistant is a term for a small, mobile, handheld

device that provides computing and information storage and
retrieval capabilities for personal or business use, often for
keeping schedules, calendars and address book information
handy.
Microcontrollers are mini-computers that enable the user to store
data and execute simple commands and tasks. These single
circuit devices have minimal memory and program length but are
normally designed to be very good at performing a niche task.
Many such systems are known as embedded systems. The
computer in your car, for example, is an embedded system. A
common microcontroller that one might come across is
called Arduino.

Personal computers (PCs) are composed of hardware and software components that
must be chosen with specific features in mind. Computer component manufactures
follows same standards so that components are compatible to each other PCs.

The case of a desktop computer houses and holds firmly all the internal components,
such as the power supply, motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), memory, disk
drives, and assorted adapter cards.
Cases are typically made of plastic, steel, or aluminum and provide the framework to
support, protect, and cool the internal components

Power supplies provide power to almost all components of the computer, from the
electricity (alternating current /AC) from the wall outlet and converts it to direct current
(DC) to supply these components.
The motherboard, also known as the system board or the main board, is the backbone
of the computer. A motherboard is a printed circuit board (PCB) that contains electrical
pathways called bus, which interconnect electronic components. These components
may be soldered directly to the motherboard. Components like mouse, printers are
connected to the motherboard through the use of ports.

The central processing unit (CPU) or the brain of the computer which is responsible for
fetching, decoding, and executing of instructions. It performs arithmetic, logical and data
transfer. It fetches
and software. The CPU interprets the instructions and outputs the information to the
monitor or performs the requested tasks.
The clock speed of CPU is measured in cycles per second, and one cycle per second is known
as 1 hertz. This means that a CPU with a clock speed of 3 gigahertz (GHz) can carry out three
thousand million (or two billion) cycles per second. The higher the clock speed a CPU has, the
faster it can process instructions.

Understanding Intel® Processor Naming Conventions

Source: Intel.com
Understanding AMD Processor Naming Conventions

Source: techconsumerguide.com

For deeper understanding of Intel naming convention, you can visit:

For deeper understanding of AMD naming convention, you can visit:

Computer used different types of memory to store data which later be used by the CPE.
Computer memory components can be volatile and nonvolatile, and it can store
information temporarily, as RAM (random access memory) does, or permanently, as
ROM (read-only memory) does.

Types of Memory
A computer might use different types of memory chips. However, all memory chips store
data in the form of bytes. A byte is a grouping of digital information and represents
information such as letters, numbers, and symbols. Specifically, a byte is a block of 8 bits
stored as either 0 or 1 in the memory chip.

Read-Only Memory

Read-only memory (ROM) chip is located on the motherboard contain basic

operation instructions such as for booting the computer and loading the operating
system that can be directly accessed by a CPU. The instructions stored in ROM
include
ROM is nonvolatile memory, which means the contents are not erased when the
computer is powered off.
ROM size is typically 4 to 8 MB per chip

Types of ROM
The list that follows describes the types of ROM:

ROM: Information is written to a ROM chip when it is. A ROM chip

that cannot be erased or rewritten is now obsolete. The term ROM
still tends to be used generically for any read-only memory chip type.
 PROM: Information on a programmable read-only memory
(PROM) chip is written after it is manufactured. PROMs are
manufactured blank and can be programmed by a PROM
programmer when needed. Generally, these chips cannot be
erased and can be programmed only once.
EPROM: Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM))
is nonvolatile but can be erased by being exposed to strong
ultraviolet light. EPROM usually has a transparent quartz window
on the top of the chip. Constant erasing and reprogramming could
eventually render the chip useless.
EEPROM: Information is written to an electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) chip after it is
manufactured and without removing it from the device. EEPROM
chips are also called Flash ROMs because the contents can be

Random Access Memory

Random access memory (RAM) is temporary working storage for data and
programs being accessed by the CPU. Programs that can be seen on the RAM is,
Operating System, Hardware Drivers and other currently working programs.
RAM is volatile memory, which means the contents are erased every time the
computer is powered off.
RAM, with higher capacity allows to hold and process more programs and files.
With less RAM, a computer must swap data between RAM and the much slower
hard drive.
RAM size is from 4GB to 16GB

Types of RAM
The different types of RAM are as follows:

DRAM must be constantly refreshed with pulses of electricity to maintain

s
used as cache memory. SRAM is much faster than DRAM and does not
have to be refreshed as often.
Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) is DRAM that operates in
synchronization with the memory bus. The memory bus is the data path
between the CPU and the main memory.

fast as SDRAM. DDR SDRAM increases performance by transferring data

twice per cycle.
-SDRAM
memory. DDR2 SDRAM improves performance over DDR SDRAM by
decreasing noise and crosstalk between the signal wires.
 Cache Memory SRAM is used as cache memory to store the most frequently
used data. SRAM gives the processor faster access to the data than retrieving it
from the slower DRAM, or main memory.
Cache stored data that might be the result of an earlier computation or a copy of
data stored elsewhere.
The three types of cache memory are as follows:

mounted on the motherboard near

the CPU. L2 cache is now integrated into the CPU.
-end workstations and server CPUs.

Adapter cards are the peripheral hardware used in computers to improve the performance
and compatibility of systems. On the motherboard, there are different kinds of expansion
slots that provide connections to the system bus for the various types of adapter cards,
allowing expansion of system performance. There are different kinds of adapter cards
and expansion slots available.

Adapter Cards
Adapter cards increase the functionality of a computer by adding controllers for specific
devices or by replacing malfunctioning ports.
Network interface card (NIC): A NIC connects a computer to a network using a
network cable.
Wireless NIC: A wireless NIC connects a computer to a network using radio
frequencies.
Video adapter: Video adapters provide video capability.
eSATA card: Adds additional internal and external SATA ports to a computer
through a single PCI Express slot.

Storage drives read information from or write information to magnetic, optical, or

semiconductor storage media. The drives can be used to store data permanently or to
retrieve information from a media disk.

Types of Storage Devices

A number of different types of devices are available for data storage on a PC. Data drives
provide nonvolatile storage of data, meaning when the drive loses power, the data is
retained and available the next time the drive is powered on. Some drives have fixed
media, and other drives have removable media. Some offer the ability to read and write
data, while others only allow data to be accessed but not written. Data storage devices
can be classified according to the media on which the data is stored: magnetic (such as
hard disk drives and tape drives), solid state, or optical.

Storage Device Interfaces

Internal storage devices often connect to the motherboard using Serial AT Attachment
(SATA) connections. The SATA standards define the way data is transferred, the transfer
rates, and physical characteristics of the cables and connectors.
There are three main versions of the SATA standard: SATA 1, SATA 2, and SATA 3. The
cables and connectors are the same, but the data transfer speeds are different. SATA 1
allows for a maximum data transfer rate of 1.5 Gb/s, while SATA 2 can reach up to 3
Gb/s. SATA 3 is the fastest, with speeds up to 6 Gb/s.

One type of storage represents binary values as magnetized or non-magnetized physical

areas of magnetic media. Mechanical systems are used to position and read the media.
The following are common types of magnetic media storage drives:

Hard disk drive (HDD): HDDs are the traditional magnetic disk devices that have
been used for years. Their storage capacity ranges from gigabytes (GB) to
terabytes (TB).
External hard drive is a portable storage device that can be attached to a computer
through a USB or FireWire connection, or wirelessly. External hard drives typically have
high storage capacities and are often used to back up computers or serve as a
network drive.
Tape drive: Magnetic tapes are most often used for archiving data. At one time,
they were useful for backing up PCs. However, the price of HDDs has dropped,
and external HDDs are now frequently used for this purpose. However, tape
backups are still used in enterprise networks. A tape drive uses a magnetic
read/write head and removable tape cartridge. Although data retrieval using a tape
drive can be fast, locating specific data is slow because the tape must be wound
on a reel until the data is found. Common tape storage capacities vary between a
few gigabytes and many terabytes.

Solid-state drives (SSD) store data as electrical charges in semiconductor flash

memory. This makes SSDs much faster than magnetic HDDs. SSD storage capacity
ranges from around 120 GB to many terabytes. SSDs have no moving parts, make no
noise, are more energy efficient, and produce less heat than HDDs. Because SSDs have
no moving parts to fail, they are considered to be more reliable than HDDs.
SSDs come in three form factors:
Disc drive form factor: With this form factor, the semiconductor memory is in a
closed package that can be mounted in computer cases like an HDD. It can be 2.5,
3.5, or 1.8 inches (although 1.8 inch form factors are rare).
Expansion card: This plugs directly into the motherboard and mounts in the
computer case like other expansion cards.
mSATA or M.2 module: These packages may use a special socket. M.2 is a
standard for computer expansion cards. It is a family of standards that specify
physical aspects of expansion cards such as connectors and dimension.
Non-Volatile Memory Express (NVMe) specification was developed specifically
to allow computers to take greater advantage of the features of SSDs by providing
a standard interface between SSDs, the PCIe bus, and operating systems. NVMe
 allows compliant SSD drives to attach to the PCIe bus without requiring special
drivers, in much the same way USB flash drives can be used in multiple computers
without requiring installation on each.
solid-state hybrid drive (SSHD) is a compromise between a magnetic HDD and
an SSD. A SSHD is faster than an HDD but less expensive than an SSD. It
combines a magnetic HDD with onboard flash memory that serves as a nonvolatile
cache. An SSHD drive automatically caches data that is frequently accessed,
which can speed up certain operations such as operating system startup.

Optical Storage Devices

An optical storage device is a peripheral computer component that can read CD-
ROMs or other optical discs using a laser to store and retrieve saved data.

Types of Optical Storage Devices

Using lasers to read and write data on optical media, optical drives provide
another storage option in a computer system. They were developed to overcome
the storage capacity limitations of removable magnetic media such as floppy discs
and magnetic storage cartridges.
Compact disc (CD): Stores audio and data
Digital versatile disc (DVD): Stores digital video and data
Blu-ray disc (BD): Stores HD digital video and data
Different Optical Medias.

Optical Description Storage Capacity

Media

CD-ROM CD read-only memory media that is pre- <700 MB

recorded

CD-R CD recordable media that can be

recorded one time

CD-RW CD rewritable media that can be

recorded, erased, and re-recorded

DVD- DVD read-only memory media that is <4.7 GB (single-layer)

ROM pre-recorded and <8.5 GB (dual-layer)

DVD+/-R DVD recordable media that can be

recorded one time

DVD+/- DVD rewritable media that can be

RW recorded, erased, and re-recorded

BD-ROM Blu-ray read-only media that is pre-

recorded with movies, games, or
software

This section describes and identifies common cables and ports used for
connecting peripherals internally and externally on computers. Video port connects a
monitor cable to a computer. Video ports and monitor cables transfer analog signals,
digital signals, or both. Computers are digital devices that create digital signals. The digital
signals are sent to the graphics card, where they are transmitted through a cable to a
display. DisplayPort is an interface technology designed to connect high-end graphics-
capable PCs and displays, as well as home theater equipment and displays.

Digital Visual Interface (DVI) connector, is usually white and consists of as many
as 24 pins (three rows of 8 pins) for digital signals, up to 4 pins for analog signals,
and a flat pin called a ground bar.
High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) was developed specifically for
high-definition televisions. However, its digital features also make it a good
candidate for computers.
 Video Graphics Array (VGA) is a connector for analog video. It has three rows
and 15 pins. It is also sometimes referred to as a DE-15 or HD-15 connector.
Radio Corporation of America (RCA) connector has a central plug with a ring
around it. RCA connectors, which are used to carry audio or video, are often found
in groups of three, where a yellow connector carries video and a pair of red and
white connectors carries left and right audio channels.

Input/output (I/O) ports on a computer connect peripheral devices such as printers,

scanners, and portable drives. In addition to the ports and interfaces previously
discussed, a computer might also have other ports.
A PS/2 port connects a keyboard or a mouse to a computer. A PS/2 port is a 6-
pin mini-DIN female connector. The connectors for the keyboard and mouse are
often colored differently. If the ports are not color-coded, look for a small figure of
a mouse or keyboard next to each port.
Audio ports connect audio devices to the computer. Analog ports typically include
a line-in port to connect to an external source (for example, a stereo system), a
microphone port, and line-out ports to connect speakers or headphones.
The game port connects to a joystick or MIDI-interfaced device.
A network port also known as an RJ-45, has 8 pins and connects devices to a
network. The connection speed depends on the type of network port. The
maximum length of the Ethernet network cable is 100 m (328 ft.).
The Serial AT Attachment (SATA) cable connects SATA devices to the SATA
interface using a 7-pin data cable. SATA connectors have an L-shaped slot so the
cable fits in only one orientation. This cable does not supply any power to the SATA
device. A separate power cable provides power to the drive.
The Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) (obsolete) cable is a ribbon cable used
to connect storage drives inside the computer. The two most common types of IDE
ribbon cables are the 34-pin cable used for floppy drives and the 40-pin cable for
hard drives and optical drives.
IDE cables are keyed so the cable inserts into the connector only one way.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standard interface that connects peripheral
devices to a computer. USB devices are hot swappable, which means users can
connect and disconnect the devices while the computer is powered on.

Input devices are hardware devices (usually outside the computer case) that allow input
of raw data for a computer to process, allowing users to interact with and control the
computer.
Keyboard and mouse these are the two most commonly used input devices.
Keyboards are typically used for creating text documents and emails. The mouse
is used to navigate the graphical user interface (GUI). Laptops also have
touchpads to provide built-in keyboard and mouse features. The keyboard was the
very first type of input device.
ADF/flatbed scanner these devices digitize images and documents. A
photograph or document is placed on the flat glass surface, and the scan head
then moves under the glass. The digitized image is stored as a file that can be
displayed, printed, emailed, or altered. Some of these scanners have ADFs to
support multiple-page input.
Joystick and gamepad these are input devices for playing games. Gamepads
allow the player to control movement and views with small sticks and multiple
buttons. Many gamepads also have triggers that register the amount of pressure
the player puts on them. Joysticks are often used to play flight simulation-style
games.
KVM switch (keyboard, video, and mouse switch), is a hardware device that can
be used to control more than one computer while using a single keyboard,
monitor, and mouse. For businesses, KVM switches provide cost-efficient access
to multiple servers. Home users can save space using a KVM switch to connect
multiple computers to one keyboard, monitor, and mouse. Some KVM switches
have the capability to share USB devices and speakers with multiple computers.
Touchscreens are input devices that have touch- or pressure-sensitive screens.
The computer receives instructions specific to the place on the screen the user
touches.

Stylus is a type of digitizer that allows a designer or an artist to create blueprints,

images, or other artwork by using a pen-like tool called a stylus on a surface that
senses where the tip is touching it. Some digitizers have more than one surface,
or sensor, and allow the user to create 3D models by performing actions with the
stylus in mid-air.

Magnetic stripe reader so called a magstripe reader, is a device that reads

information that is magnetically encoded on the back of plastic cards, such as
identification badges or credit cards. For cards with chips, the card is inserted
into the device, and the device reads the chip. Chip reading provides much more

that cannot be used again.

Barcode scanner, also called a price scanner, reads the information contained
in the barcodes affixed to most products. Barcode scanners can be handheld,
wireless, or stationary. The light source on the reader captures the barcode
image and translates the image into computer-readable content. This device is
typically used at checkout counters in stores or for determining inventory levels.
The barcode often is only a number that is used to look up information. Libraries,
for instance, affix a barcode to a book so when it is checked out, the number gets

track inventory and equipment.

Digital cameras are input devices that capture images and videos that can be
stored, displayed, printed, or altered.

Webcam is a video camera that can be integrated into a computer or that can be
external. Webcams are typically used for video conferencing or to stream live
video onto the Internet.
Signature pad
person uses a stylus to sign on the screen. Because the electronic signature is
legal, it is typically used to establish receipt of deliveries or to sign agreements or
contracts.

Smart card readers are input devices typically used on a computer to

authenticate the user. A smart card might be the size of a credit card with an
embedded integrated circuit that is typically under a gold contact pad on one side
of the card.

Microphone is a type of digitizer that allows users to speak into a computer and
have their voices digitized. Voice, music, or sounds can be stored on the
computer to be played back, uploaded, or emailed. This device can also be used
as input for games and communication software.

NFC devices and terminals (Near Field Communication) is a tap-to-pay devices

such as credit cards or smartphones, are able to read and write to an NFC chip.
This allows the NFC-powered terminal to subtract money from the balance on the
card. Two NFC-capable devices can also transfer data such as photographs, links,
or contacts between them.

Facial recognition scanners, are biometric input devices used to identify a

person based on his or her unique facial features. Many laptops and
smartphones have facial recognition scanners to automate logging in to the
device. Facial recognition is becoming popular in many smartphones and even

recognition or fingerprint readers as biometric input. These devices are typically

used to provide secure access to devices or locations.

Fingerprint scanner, is a biometric input device used to identify a person based

on his or her fingerprint. Many laptops and smart devices have fingerprint
readers to automate logging in to the device. These devices are typically used to
provide secure access to devices or locations.

Voice recognition scanners, is a biometric input device used to identify a

person based on his or her unique voice. These devices are often used to
provide secure access to locations. Voice recognition is also being used for input

Virtual reality headsets, are devices typically used with computer games,
simulators, and training applications. They are head-mounted devices that
provide a separate image for each eye. Most headsets include head-motion and
eye-motion tracking sensors. These devices are also output devices that deliver
video and audio to the wearer.
Output devices are hardware devices that take the data processed from input and pass
on the information for use. Output devices are needed for a user to get processed data in
a usable format.
An output device takes binary information (ones and zeros) from the computer and
converts it into a form easily understood by the user.
Monitors and projectors are output devices that create visual and audio signals for the
user. Virtual reality (VR) headsets are another type of output device. Televisions may also
be output devices. Printers are visual output devices that create hard copies of computer
files.
Speakers and headphones are output devices that produce only audio signals. Output
devices make it possible for users to interact with computers.

Most monitors use one of three types of technology: LCD, LED, or OLED.
Liquid crystal display (LCD) has two polarizing filters with a liquid crystal
solution between them. An electronic current aligns the crystals so light can
pass through or not pass through, creating the image.
Light-emitting diode (LED) is an LCD display that uses LED backlighting.
LED has lower power consumption than standard LCD backlighting. The
panel is thinner, lighter, and brighter and has better contrast than LCD.
Organic LED (OLED) is a type of LED display that uses a layer of organic
material that responds to electrical stimulus to emit light. Each pixel lights
individually, resulting in much deeper black levels than are available with
LED.
Most video projectors use LCD or DLP technology.
Digital light processing (DLP) uses a spinning color wheel with an array
of mirrors. Each mirror corresponds to a pixel and reflects light toward or
away from the projector optics, creating an image of up to 1024 shades of
gray. The color wheel then adds the color data to complete the projected
image. Different projectors have different numbers of lumens, which affects
the level of brightness of the projected image. LCD projectors typically have
more lumens (are brighter) than DLP projectors. ANSI has a standardized
procedure for testing projectors. Projectors tested with this procedure are

of their brightness specifications. Brightness (white light output) indicates

the total amount of light projected, in lumens. The color brightness
specification measures red, green, and blue using the same approach used
to measure brightness.

Virtual reality (VR) uses computer technology to create a simulated three-

dimensional environment. The user feels immersed in this virtual world and
manipulates it. A VR headset completely encases the upper portion of the

Most VR experiences have three-dimensional images that seem life-sized

 Augmented reality (AR) uses similar technology but superimposes images
and audio over the real world in real time. AR can provide users with
immediate access to information about their real surroundings. An AR
headset, usually does not close off ambient light to users, allowing them to
see their real-life surroundings. Not all AR requires a headset. Some AR
can simply be downloaded onto a smart phone. Pokémon Go is an early

virtual objects in the real world. Smart glasses are also AR devices. They
weigh much less than AR headsets and are often designed for a specific
audience, such as cyclists.
Printers are output devices that create hard copies of files. A hard copy might be
a on a sheet of paper. It could also be a plastic form created from a 3D printer.
These are the two main printer categories: impact and non-impact.
Impact printers work by banging a head or needle against an ink ribbon to
make a mark on the paper while n on-

Inkjet printers are a type of non-impact printer that creates output

by spraying ink onto the material being printed on. This type of printer
is commonly used for low-volume printing and is a strong choice for
home users and small businesses.
Laser printers are non-impact printers that create the output by
using toner and lasers. Laser printers usually have an expensive
upfront cost but offer a lower total cost of ownership.
Dot matrix printers typically use a print head that moves back and
forth or in an up-and-down motion on the page and prints by impact,
striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the
print mechanism on a typewriter or line .

Thermal paper is chemically treated and has a waxy quality.

Thermal paper becomes black when heated. After a roll of thermal
paper is loaded, the feed assembly moves the paper through the
printer. Electrical current is sent to the heating element in the print
head to generate heat. The heated areas of the print head make the
image on the paper.
3D Printer is used to create three-dimensional solid objects from
digital files by putting down layer after layer of material, usually
plastic, until the object is completed. It is being used in a variety of
industries for many different applications, from dentures to dinosaur
bones.

Speakers are a type of auditory output device. Most computers and mobile
devices have audio support either integrated into the motherboard or on an adapter
card. Audio support includes ports that allow input and output of audio signals. The
audio card has an amplifier to power headphones and external speakers.
Headphones, earbuds, and the earphones found in headsets are all auditory
output devices. These can be wired or wireless. Some are Wi-Fi or Bluetooth
enabled.
 software. Software is a collection of data or computer
instructions that tell the computer how to work. There two types of software (1) System
Software and (2) Application Software

System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a

hardware and application programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered
model, the system software is the interface between the hardware and user applications.
The operating system (OS) is the best-known example of system software. The OS
manages all the other programs in a computer.
Which OS is better?
1. When it comes to home use, traditional Windows and MAC OS are great options.

browsing the web. For gaming, the Windows operating system is well optimized
than that of MAC.

2. While discussing the fastest OS, there is no argument that Linux based OS is the

processor unlike Windows to operate at an optimal level.

3. Linux based OS like Ubuntu Server, CentOS server, Fedora is great options
especially for running business enterprises where substantial computing power is
mandatory.

Most Common Operating System

1. MS-Windows
2. Ubuntu
3. Mac OS
4. Fedora
5. Solaris
6. Free BSD
7. Chrome OS
8. CentOS
9. Debian
10. Deepin

Application software (app for short) is a program or group of programs designed for end users.
Examples of an application include a word processor, a spreadsheet, an
accounting application, a web browser, an email client, a media player, a file viewer, simulators,
a console game or a photo editor.

Proprietary is a licensed software under exclusive right of owner

In-house developed within an organization to help their internal processes.
Off-the-shelf An existing software program
Contract the software which develop for a certain company
Open Source software is the software that is available to users with source
code. Source code is a part of a program or software. Users can modify, inspect
and enhance it to improve the software.

The best open source software at a glance

LibreOffice
VLC Media Player
GIMP
Linux

Freeware software is a software that is available free of cost. An user can

download freeware from internet and uses it. These softwares do not provide any
freedom of modifying, sharing and studying the program as in open source
software.

Some examples of freeware software are

Anti-Virus
Games
Emulators
Ebook reader
WinRar

Shareware software is a software that are freely distributed to users on trial

basis. There is a time limit inbuilt in the software( for example- free for 30 days or
2 months). As the time limit gets over, it will be deactivated. To use it after time
limit, you have to pay for the software.

Some examples of shareware software are

Bandicam
Internet Download Manager
Remote Desktop Manager
Anti-virus
Proprietary software refers to the software which is owned by an individual or a
company. There are restrictions on its distribution and use. It is also sometimes
known as closed-source or commercial software.

Examples of Proprietary Software are

MacOS
Microsoft Windows Professional Edition
Adobe Suite
Activity #1
In this activity give for 10 hardware components look for image of each component and
give its definition, function and purpose.

Computer Part and Image Definition /Function / Purpose

Motherboard Motherboard is a printed circuit board that
connects computer component together. Each
component pass data through the use of buses.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Activity #2
In this activity identify the type and classification of each software

Application Software Type Classification

1. Kaspersky Anti-Virus
2. CCleaner
3. Microsoft Office
4. Mobile Legends
5. Mozilla Firefox
6. Facebook App
7. Adobe Photoshop
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INTRODUCTION

This chapter covers the following main topics:

Background

Counting in different bases

Range Calculations

Integer conversion

Fraction conversion

Arithmetic in different bases

OBJECTIVES

After completion of this module, the students must be able;

1. To describe the different bases in number systems.

2. To convert number in different bases.

3. To solve addition and multiplication in different bases.

DISCUSSION

A number system is a representation method for numbers

A number system is identified by its base

The base is a decimal unsigned integer with a minimum value of 2

There is no limit on the maximum value for the base, however, the largest known base is 16

Commonly used number systems are also identified by their name

There are 4 commonly used number systems:

Decimal base 10

Hexadecimal base 16

Octal base 8

Binary base 2

The base determines the range of a digit in the number system which starts with 0 and ends with

base-1
 For bases with range exceeding 10, the A-Z alpha symbols are used to represent values greater

than 9

Examples

Base 10 digit range is 0 9

Base 5 digit range is 0 - 4

Base 16 digit range is 0 9 and A F

Computers internally stores and process data using the binary system

Binary is compatible with the computer hardware architecture which is based on Boolean

digital logic

Binary is base 2 with a digit range of 0 - 1

A binary digit is also known as bit

Most computers use the hexadecimal or the octal number systems in programming and debugging

Hexadecimal is also known as hex

Hex is base 16 with a digit range of 0 9, A F

Octal is base 8 with a digit range of 0 7

Advantages

Both number systems can be used as a short hand notation for binary

More readable than binary and hence easier for humans to work with

Easy to convert into and from binary

Humans on the other hand, work with the decimal system

Conversion between binary and decimal is necessary to make human to machine interaction

possible

Conversion between the different number systems is also possible

Conversion does not change the magnitude of the number

Counting is the process of repeatedly adding 1 to the number

Going through a complete digit range, exhausting all possible combinations

Shift to the left one place

Repeat as necessary until the number is completely represented

 Theoretically, the counting process can continue indefinitely. However, there is always a limit on

the available digits to store a number (storage size). Therefore, counting process will stop when all

the available digits are exhausted. Overflow will occur when storage size limit is exceeded. The

following table shows a count in hexadecimal, decimal, octal, and binary

Hexadecimal Decimal Octal Binary

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

2 2 2 10

3 3 3 11

4 4 4 100

5 5 5 101

6 6 6 110

7 7 7 111

8 8 10 1000

9 9 11 1001

A 10 12 1010

B 11 13 1011

C 12 14 1100

D 13 15 1101

E 14 16 1110

F 15 17 1111

10 16 20 10000

Range Calculations

The range of a number that can be represented is determined by:

Storage size number of digits

Base of the number system used to represent the number

Range can be computed as: (result in decimal)

 R = Bn (R = Range, B = Base, n = number of digits)

Examples

8 binary bits range 2 8 = 25610

3 decimal digits range 103 = 100010

3 digits in hex range 16 3 = 409610

Binary range calculations is often required in computers

Examples

Integer number data unit range with storage size of 16 bits = 2 16 = 65536

Memory addressing capability MAR size of 32 bits = 2 32 = 4GB

Range can also be computed as the product of its sub-ranges

32 binary bits range 210 X 210 X 210 X 22 = 1K X 1K X 1K X 4 = 4G

12 binary bits range 210 X 22 = 1K X 4 = 4K

Integer Conversion

1. Decimal to any base conversion

Division by the base

Calculations is done using a tabular form of the following headings (New Base, From base

number, Remainder)

Divide until the from base number reaches zero

The remainder column is the conversion result

A remainder digit should never be greater than new base - 1

Copy the remainder digits from bottom to top

Examples

Convert 612410 to base 5

New Base From Base Number Remainder

5 6124 4 least significant digit

5 1224 4

5 244 4

5 48 3

5 9 4

5 1 1 most significant digit

= 1434445

Convert 815110 to hexadecimal

New Base From Base Number Remainder

16 8151 7 least significant digit

16 509 13

16 31 15

16 1 1 most significant digit

= 1FD716

Convert 64 10 to binary

New Base From Base Number Remainder

2 64 0 least significant digit

2 32 0

2 16 0

2 8 0

2 4 0
 2 2 0

2 1 1 most significant digit

= 10000002

2. Any base to decimal conversion

sum of weight times digit

Compute the weight of each digit

SUM of: weight times digit

Integer Digit Weight Calculations

A digit weight is computed as: (result is always in decimal)

W = Bn (W = Weight, B = base, n = digit position)

Digit position numbering starts from the least significant digit and ends with the most

significant digit

Digit position starts at 0 and ends with the number of digits 1

Examples

4-digit decimal weight calculation 103, 102, 101, 100 = 100010, 10010, 1010, 110

4-bit binary weight calculation 23, 22, 21, 20 = 810, 410, 210, 110

4-digit octal weight calculation 83, 82, 81, 80 = 51210, 6410, 810, 110

Note: that any base power 0 = 1

Each digit has n times the weight of its next rightmost neighbor (where n is the base)

In binary each digit has twice the weight of its next right neighbor

In decimal each digit has 10 times the weight of its next rightmost neighbor
Conversion Examples

Convert 137548 to decimal

= 4 x 80 + 5 x 81 + 7 x 82 + 3 x 83 + 1 x 84

= 4 x 1 + 5 x 8 + 7 x 64 + 3 x 512 + 1 x 4096

= 612410

Convert 100012 to decimal

= 1 x 20 + 0 x 21 + 0 x 22 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 24

= 1 + 0 + 0 + 16

= 1710

Convert 10100012 to decimal

= 1 + 16 + 64

= 8110

Convert 53D16 to decimal

= 13 x 160 + 3 x 161 + 5 x 162

= 13 + 48 + 1280

= 134110

3. Convert between related bases

Two number systems are related when one number system base is an integral power of the other

A single digit in the larger base requires n digits in the smaller base (where n is the power value)

Octal is related to binary since it takes 3 binary digits to represent 1 octal digit (23 = 8)

Hex is related to binary since it takes 4 binary digits to represent 1 hex digit (24 = 16)

Hex and octal, however, are not related

Conversion between related number systems is direct

 Use a trial and error method to determine if two bases are related

Smaller base

If result = larger base, then the two bases are related

If result exceed larger base, then the two bases are not related

Examples

Are 2 and 16 related

22 = 4

23 = 8

24 = 16 base 2 and 16 are related

Are 3 and 8 related

32 = 9 base 3 and 8 are not related

a. Smaller base to larger base conversion method

Determine the n value

Construct a conversion table (i.e. counting table as seen above is an example of conversion table)

Group the number into groups of n digits

Must start grouping from the right (i.e. least significant digit)

Pad with zeros if last group is less than n digits

Group by group, perform direct conversion using the conversion table

Examples

Convert 11010111011000 2 to hex

4 binary digits are required to represent a single hex digit (i.e. n = 4)

Refer to the conversion table above

Group the number into groups of 4 digits: 11 0101 1101 1000

Pad last group with zeros: 0011 0101 1101 1000

Convert each group to their equivalent hex digit

= 35D816
 Convert 11010111011000 2 to octal

3 binary digits are required to represent a single octal digit (i.e. n = 3)

Refer to the conversion table above

Group the number into groups of 3 digits: 11 010 111 011 000

Pad last group with zeros: 011 010 111 011 000

Convert each group to their equivalent octal digit

= 327308

Convert 11010111011000 2 to base 4

2 binary digits are required to represent a single base 4 digit (i.e. n = 2)

Construct a conversion table

Base 4 Binary

0 00

1 01

2 10

3 11

Group the number into groups of 2 digits: 11 01 01 11 01 10 00

Convert each group to their equivalent base 4 digit

= 31131204

b. Larger base to Smaller base conversion

Determine the n value

Construct a conversion table (i.e. counting table as seen above)

Digit by digit, perform direct conversion using the conversion table

Examples

Convert 35D816 to binary

Each hex digit requires 4 binary digits (i.e. n = 4)

Refer to the conversion table above

Map each digit to its equivalent binary digits

= 0011 0101 1101 10002

Convert 2753318 to binary

Each octal digit requires 3 binary digits (i.e. n = 3)

Refer to the conversion table above

Map each digit to its equivalent binary digits

= 010 111 101 011 011 0012

Convert 212234 to binary

Each base 4 digit requires 2 binary digits (i.e. n = 2)

Refer to the base 4 to binary conversion table above

Map each digit to its equivalent binary digits

= 10 01 10 10 112

4. Convert between none decimal and none related number systems

It is impractical to directly convert between none decimal number systems that are not related

Decimal can be used as an intermediary conversion base

As well, a base that is related to both bases can be used as an intermediary conversion base

Binary can be used as an intermediate conversion base to convert between hex and octal

Examples

Convert 35D816 to octal (note that the two bases are none decimal and are not related)

Convert the number to binary = 00110101110110002

Convert the binary result to octal = 011 010 111 011 000

= 327302
Convert 21203 to base 5 (note that the two bases are none decimal and are not related)

There is no intermediate base that is related to both bases so we use decimal as an

intermediate base

Convert the number to decimal = 0x30+2x31+1x32+2x33= 6910

Convert the decimal result to base 5 = 2345

= 2345

Fraction conversion

Fraction number conversion does not always result in an accurate result due to:

Representation of a fraction number that is possible in one base may be impossible to

represent in another base

If precise conversion cannot be done, conversion will result in lose of accuracy (i.e. lose of

significant digits)

Examples

0.110 is impossibl

When converting a number that contains both integer and fraction parts

The two parts must be converted separately

The fraction point must remain at its original location

Multiply the fraction by the base

Calculations is done using a tabular form of the following headings (New Base, From base

number, Integer part)

Multiply from base number by new base repeatedly until the from base number reaches

zero

The Integer part column is the conversion result

An Integer part digit should never be greater than new base 1

Copy the Integer part digits from top to bottom

Note: It is possible that conversion may not reach closure

Examples

Convert .82812510 to binary

New Base From Base Number Integer Part

2 .828125 1 most significant digit

2 .65625 1

2 .3125 0

2 .625 1

2 .25 0

2 .5 1 least significant digit

= .1101012

Convert .110 to binary (this example will not reach closure)

New Base From Base Number Integer Part

2 .1 0 most significant digit

2 .2 0

2 .4 0

2 .8 1

2 .6 1

2 .2 0 repeat detected

Convert .72510 to octal (this example will not reach closure)

 New Base From Base Number Integer Part

8 .725 5 most significant digit

8 .8 6

8 .4 3

8 .2 1

8 .6 4

8 .8 6 repeat detected

= .563 8

sum of weight times the digit

Fraction Digit Weight Calculations

· Fraction digit weight is computed as: (result in decimal)

W = B-n = 1/Bn (W = Weight, B = base, n = digit position)

Digit position numbering starts from the most significant digit and ends with the least

significant digit

Digit position starts from 1 and ends with the number of digits

Examples

3-digit decimal weight calculation 10-3, 10-2, 10-1 = 1/100010, 1/10010, 1/1010

·3-bit binary weight calculation 2-3, 2-2, 2-1 = 1/810, 1/410, 1/210

3-digit octal weight calculation 8 -3, 8-2, 8-1 = 1/51210, 1/6410, 1/810
Examples

Convert .122013 to decimal

= 1 x 1/31 + 2 x 1/32 + 2 x 1/33 + 0 1/34 x 1/35 + 1 x 1/ 36

= 1 x 1/3 + 2 x 1/9 + 2 x 1/27 + 0 x 1/81 + 1 x 1/ 243

= (81 + 2 x 27 + 2 x 9 + 1) / 243 = 154 / 243

= .6337410

Convert .110012 to decimal

= 1/21 + 1/22 + 1/25

= 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/32

= (16 + 8 + 1) / 32 = 25 / 32

= .7812510

Convert .2378 to decimal

= 2 x 1/81 + 3 x 1/82 + 7 x 1/83

= 2 x 1/8 + 3 x 1/64 + 7 x 1/512

= (128 + 24 + 7) / 512 = 159/512

= .31054687510

Convert .1 3 to decimal (does not convert accurately and round up or truncation is needed)

= 1 x 1/3

= 1/3

10
 Very similar to integer conversion with the following differences

Conversion start at the most significant digit (i.e. the digit to the right of the fraction point)

Padding with zeros of the last group is done to the right

The padding is more significant

a. Larger base to Smaller base conversion

Determine the n value

Construct a conversion table (i.e. counting table as seen above)

Digit by digit, perform direct conversion using the mapping table

Examples

Convert .4A16 to binary

Each hex digit requires 4 binary digits (i.e. n = 4)

Refer to the conversion table above

Map each digit to its equivalent binary digits = 0100 1010

= .010010102

Convert .2378 to binary

Each octal digit requires 3 binary digits (i.e. n = 3)

Refer to the conversion table above

Map each digit to its equivalent binary digits = 010 011 111

= .0100111112

Convert .2324 to binary

Each octal digit requires 2 binary digits (i.e. n = 2)

Refer to the base 4 to binary conversion table above

Map each digit to its equivalent binary digits = 10 11 10

= .1011102
 b. Smaller base to Larger base conversion

Determine the n value

Construct a conversion table (i.e. counting table as seen above)

Group the number into groups of n digits

Must start grouping from the right of the fraction point (i.e. most significant fraction digit)

Pad with zeros if last group is less than n digits

Group by group, perform direct conversion using the conversion table

Examples

Convert .10112 to octal

Each octal digit requires 3 binary digits (i.e. n = 3)

Group into 3 digits groups starting from the right of the binary point: 101 1

Map each group to its equivalent octal digit

= .548

Convert .101112 to hex

Each hex digit requires 4 binary digits (i.e. n = 4)

Group into 4 digits groups starting from the right of the binary point: 1011 1

Map each group to its equivalent octal digit

= .B816

Convert .101112 to base 4

Each base 4 digit requires 2 binary digits (i.e. n = 2)

Group into 2 digits groups starting from the right of the binary point: 10 11 1

Map each group to its equivalent base 4 digit

= .2324
Arithmetic in different bases

This section discusses simple arithmetic in the different bases covering only addition and

multiplication

1. Addition

Traditional addition method is used to add two numbers

Addition in computer is implemented as

Result bit is computed as XOR of the two input bits (i.e. result is 1 only if either digit is

1)

Carry bit is computed as AND of the two input bits (i.e. carry if both digits are 1)

Method

Use the traditional method of addition to add the two numbers

Example

Add 11011012 + 1001102 = 100100112

Add 11011012 + 1001102 + 111111002 = 1100011112

2. Multiplications

Traditional multiplication method is used to multiply two numbers

Multiplication in computer is implemented as

AND a multiplier digit with multiplicand

Bring down multiplicand if multiplier digit is 1

Shift result to line up with multiplier

Repeat for each of the multiplier digit

Add up the result

Method

Use the addition table to add two digits

Use the traditional method of multiplication that you are familiar with