ra)

“304 Fundantentals of Electrical Drives

ly ' Voltage source inverter

+
cy
Battery T Cr Ps oF :

Traction Drives
Induction
motor
ion motor drive with voltage source inverter control for EV One major application of electric drive
Fig. 9.12 Induction m s is in electric traction, i-e. to trans
from one place to another. port men and material
;
9.5 SOLAR-POWERED ELECTRICAL VEHICLES AND BOATS
cles and boats are at exper imental stage, but their applications are likely to
10.1 ELECTRIC TRACTION SERVIC
ES
At present these vehic on intermediate battery, and therefore, the supply system is similar Electrical traction services can be broad
ly classified assy
toae
what is Theyshownemploy
in Fig, 4 9.10 10 (left
(le of terminals A, B). The drives are similar to those shown in
(i) Electric Trains,
Figs. 9,11 and 9.12.
(ii) Electric buses, trams (or tram
ways) and trolleys.
(iii) Battery driven and solar powe
red vehicles (see Chapter 9 for
details).
PROBLEMS
.
10.1.1 Electric Trains
operate 2 solar panel near the maxi
Why is it necessary to nee motor mum power points? Electric trains run on fixed rails. They are
is pteferred for low power applicatio ‘further classified as main line trains and
Why a permanent magn nearthe maximum power points
ns? trains, : suburban
Explain how the eperalion is obtained ina pump drive using
centrifugal
:
.
pumps. 4 in a drive consisting of a permanent
magnet motor directly connected
Do you need a starter i to the Intercity passenger and goods trains which come
battery? ages
and disadvantages of using a battery in a solar men and material driven by locomoti
under this
category have trailer coaches carrying
9.5 What are ihe advange’ and disadv pump drive? ves carrying driving motors. Since
9.6 What are
antages of an electric vehicl e compared to internal combustion driving motors travel
the advantag!
vehicle? .
9.7 Draw the cizcuit diagram andng explain the operation of a battery Powered de series motor drive for an
electric vehicle without facility for regenerative braking. In electric locomotive, driving motor and
power modulato rs are housed in the locomotive. An
overhead transmission line is laid
along or above the track (or raiis)
. A current collector mounted

“dropper” wires, which in turn are suppo

rted at interval by appropriate structures
high speed trains, contact wires are (Fig. 10.1). For
rarely given a vertical inclination to
the track greater than 1

wire. The commonly used collector has

the shape of a pentagon, therefore, it
collector (Fig. 10.2). It has a cond is called a pantograph
ucting strip which is pressed again
springs. The collector strips are usual st the contact wire by
ly of steel with Brease lubrication,
or of carbon, in which
 306 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives oe
Traction Drives 307
Catanary Dropper wires In diesel electric locomotive, the electric power is generated within the locomotive by adiesel
\ cable
engine driven electric generator. Capital cost of electric traction employing electric locomotive
\ is very high because of the necessity of having expensive transmission lines, although the total
cost (capital plus running) is lower compared to diesel electric traction using diesel electric
\ Contact wire ‘
locomotive.
Fig. 10.1. Transmission arrangement (catanary)

+ case no lubrication is needed. Function of the pantograph is to maintain as constant a pressure Suburban Trains . =
as possible between the collector strip and contact wire and to prevent any vertical oscillation'of They are employed for transporting men within a city or between cities located at small distances.
the collector strip; as these will produce arcing due to breaking of electric contact. When the The main difference being that the distance between consecutive stops (or stations) is much
pantograph.is not in use, it is maintained in lower position with the help of stiff springs. When smaller for suburban trains than the main line. The suburban trains are also known as local trains.
to be used, the collector strip is raised by compressed aiz. For high speed trains, the designof Because of shortage of land in cities, they are often run through underground tunnels and are
‘collector is critical. : called subway trains, metros or simply underground trains. Suburban trains are driven by motor
(or motorized) coaches, instead of locomotives. Reasons for this arrangement are explained later
in Sec. 10.3 Each motor coach is equipped with an electric drive with its controls in driver’s
A B ~ c cabin and a pantograph coliector. Usual pattern is to use moter coaches and trailer coaches in the
ww)
ratio : 2. In high speed trains the ratio may be increased to 1 : 1. The trains empluying motor
=z re =
coaches and trailer coaches are also known as electrical multiple unit (EMU) trains. Such an
Fig, 10.2 Typical forms of pantograph. A: Open frame; 8: Faivcley; C: Crossed arm arrangement provides the flexibility in train size. During light traffic periods, one or two units,
each consisting of one motor coach and two trailer coaches form a train. During rush hours,
As supply lines are to be laid all along the track, with adequate spacing, the economy dictates number of such units are coupled together. Each unit is provided with local and remote control
use of minimum number of such lines. Therefore, single, phase supply is used. The current equipment, so that all the motor coaches of a train can be controlled from the driver's cabin of
enters locomotive through the collector, flows through the primary of a step down transformer the front motor coach, The electric supplies for suburban trains are similar to those used in main
and retums to supply earth through locomotive wheels and one of the rails on which locomotive line trains, except in case of underground trains. The cost of making underground tunnels is very
travels, thus avoiding need for a second conductor. Main secondary winding (or windings) of the large, therefore, their size is kept minimum possible. As enough space is not available for a high
transformer feeds the power modulator, which in turn powers the driving motors. The auxiliary voltage line, in underground traction, the voltage chosen is usually small, 500 to 1000 V (in
secondary windings of the transformer feed power for other needs of the train such as lighting, Calcutta metro it is 750 V dc) and usually it is de because first it needs lesser clearance from the
fans, airconditioning etc. :
supply conductor to the train body and the ground and secondly the power modulator becomes
The locomotive power ratings can be as high as 6000 HP and more. Powering such a large simpler and jess expensive. The underground trains generally do not use overhead transmission
single phase load can lead to large unbalance in the supply system which is ‘always three phase. line. It is a common practice to use a third rai] for the supply. The rail may be mounted between
In order to reduce unbalance, the-track supply is divided into sections which are electrically the running rails or on one side of the tunnel. Brushes are mounted undérneath or on the side of
isolated from each other, and substations supplying these sections are connected to different the motor coaches, depending on the location of the supply zail, for current collection. The rails
’ phases cf the three phase supply. Though the unbalance is reduced, its magnitude still remains are cheaper than overhead supply, so they are preferred whenever the chance of pedestrains
large. If the three phase supply system capacity is much larger than the power drawn by the comming across them is remote.
tocomotive, then this unbalance will not significantly affect the three phase supply system. 1 .
Therefore, it is essential that the main source of traction supply should be sufficiently large. 10.1.2 Electric Buses, Trams and Trolleys .
When Iccomotive travels through different sections, the supply is momentarily disconnected Because of lower running expenses and complete absence of pollution, electric buses are preferred
when it moves from one section to another. The movement during the transition occurs because over diesel engine driven buses for city services and are quite popular in Burope and Canada.
of the inertia. Momentary disruption of power produces inductive voltage spikes. Their main disadvantage is the need for elaborate supply network, which makes their capital cost
Electric traction is classified as single phase ac and dc depending on the supply. It has nothing very iiigh (though total expenses are lower) and makes them unsuitable for intercity services.
to do with the motor type. Based.on the study done by French and German Railways in late The electric buses, also known as electric cars, usually consists of single motor driven coach.
forties, 25 kV was considered suitable for ac traction. Indian Railways have also adopted 25 kV, The supply is generally low voltage de overhead line running along the road. As the currents are
50 Hz, single phase supply for ac traction. 25 kV, 50 Hz ac-supply is now being used for main usualty small, the collector consists of a rod carrying at its end a grooved wheel or two rods
line traction throughout India, except Bombay-Igatpuri section where 1500 V dc traction is in
bridged by a contact bow (Fig. 10.3). Collector system is provided with enough flexibility for the
use. .
bus to manceuvre’ sideways. through traffic without adversely affecting contact between the
 Traction Drives 309
-308 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives .
10.2.1 Coefficient of Adhesion (C,)
ement has also to be provided for additional conductor
‘collector and supply conductor, Arrang In traction, the task of driving equipment consists of pushing the carriage on which it is mounted
for the return of current. and pulling coaches and wagons behind it. Wheels coupled to the motors, either directly or
through a reduction gear, are known as driving wheels, When motors run, driving wheels in their
effort for rotation, exert a frictional force on the track tangentially backward at points of contact
Line conductor
between the driving wheels and track. As a result, driving wheels experience a reaction in the
forward direction, consequently wheels and the carriage move in forward direction.
<--—— Contact bow | If at the points of contact between driving wheel and the track, force applied is large, the
‘ wheels may slip, then the wheels tum but carriage remains stationary.
| ‘A very important factor in traction drives, coefficient of adhesion (2,), provides a quantitative
Fig, 10.3 Current collector for an electric bus measure of the tendency of wheels to slip and is defined as: :
) which run on rails and consists of a single motor coach.
The trains are electric buses (or cars _ Maximum tractive effort that can be applied without slipping of wheels
to buses and its
In nso some cases one or two trailer coaches are added. Current collection is similar a’ Weight on the driving axles (10.1)
ils, their
i As ams run On ralls, path through roads is fixed.
h one of the rails.
slows down. Hence,
Cinlow toads every wide, their movements along with the rest of traffic Weight on the driving axlesis also the weight on driving wheels. It is also known as adhesive
ed any more. . . ; weight. Tractive effort is the total force at rims of driving wheels, and therefore, it is proportidnal
run on rails.
EE eae eye ased for transporting-material in mines and factories mostly to the motor torque. Value of the coefficient of adhesion depénds
on the condition of surfaces of
ent.
They are similar to trams, only shape is differ driving wheels and track at the point of contact. The coefficient of adhesion is somewhat
analogous to coefficient of friction; while latter deperids on conditions at one point of contact,
10.2 NATURE OF TRACTION LOAD the former depends on conditions at several points of contact. Equation (10.1) suggests that for
level tr ric onal forces s opposoppose
, r of fricti e its a given value of the coefficient of adhesion, there is a-maximum value of torque that can be
in runs at a constant velocity on evel track, a numbe
applied, without the slipping of driving wheels; this in turn places restriction on the maximum
re on at bearings, guides etc. 'S¢ lassified as internal friction. The rolling friction
motion.theThetrainfricti
‘When
n v value of acceleration. :
between wheels and rails, and friction betwee _ When wheel of a train slips at start, it slides against the same point on the rail. Due to friction
wheel-flanges and rails is termed as external and heat produced, rail surface is damaged at the point of contact commonly called ‘burning of
n
friction. A third category consists of ait frictio track’. It further increases the tendency to slip. As a result, the life of track and wheels reduce.
whichis independent of weight of train but In road vehicles, if wheel stip occurs when vehicle is already in motion, it not only reduces the
y
depends upon its size and shape, and velocit
and relative direction of wind. All these frictional
life of tyres, but can lead to serious accidents as the driver looses complete control on the
nce. vehicle. That is why every care is taken in all electrical vehicles to avoid wheel slip.
forces together are known as train resista
ance (F,) with speed _ The coefficient of adhesion depends on many factors such as
Variation of train resist
(V) is shown in Fig. 10.4; load torque vs speed
}
ne F (i) Type and condition of surfaces at the point of contact.
0
curve will have similar nature. The train ' (#) . Vehicle speed.
” yesistance (or load torque) can also be identified Fig. 10.4 Relation between speed V and train : (iti) ‘Nature of motor speed-torque characteristic.
in terms of common classification of face Tesistance F, (iv) Motor connections.
i i iction, coworn! _-(v) Type of power modulator.
enon ee Mie. 7 Storr has a large value and the influence of air friction, which
speeds. These are explained below.. .
varies as the square of speed, is quite prominent at high
nents required to
"When deciding torque requirements of driving motors, the torque compo
| The coefficient of friction, and therefore, the coefficient of adhesion depends on the natuze of
7
re considered. material used for making the track and wheels and also on conditions of track and wheel
provide acceleration and to overcome gravity must also
acceterating torque forms majér proportion
- Owing to large inertia, particularly of electric trains,
surfaces, e.g. presence of oil, grease, water, snow and mud reduces the coefficient of adhesion.
Becaus
BO e of values of stictit on and accelerating
large valu Electric buses possessing rubber tyres rolling on metalled Toad have much higher coefficient of
of the total torque in accelerating range.
torque. ‘the tongue requirement at startand during accele ration is much higher than the torque adhesion than electric trains having stee] wheels rolling on steel rails.
needed for running at the highest speed. Therefore, only those drives which develop large torque Coefficient of adhesion decreases with increase in speed. The nature of variation is shown in
suitable for traction applica tion.
from zero to the base speed are
 310 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
Traction Drives 311
Fig. 10.5. If oil, grease, water, snow and mud v 10.2.2 Duty Cycie of Traction Drives
fall on the rail or on wheel surface, it will be
The duty cycle of electric trains is explained with the help of Speed-, torque- and power-time
shifted towards left.
diagrams (Fig. 10.6) which are drawn for travel between two consecutive stations on a levelled
It also depends on the nature of speed-torque track. The train is accelerated at the maximum permissible torque, giving constant maximum
characteristics of driving motor and has a higher acceleration. The power increases linearly with speed. At time t, the base speed and the maximum,
value for motor with low regulation of speed allowable power is reached, Further acceleration occurs at constant power. Torque and acceleration
ie. when for a given increase of speed drop in decrease inversally with speed. At time f, the drive torque equals the load torque and steady
torque is large. When a wheel slips, the speed speed is reached. The acceleration time (0 to #)) has two parts: acceleration at a Constant torque
of driving motor increases. The torque drops (Oto ¢)) and acceleration at a constant power (f, to ty). From #, to #5, train runs at a constant speed
by a large amount in motors with low regulation . and constant drive power. This duration is known as free running. At é3, supply to the motor is
of speed and the wheels regain their grip on 0 Ca turned off, reducing the drive torque to zero. Now the train coasts due to its Own inertia: At a
rails immediately avoiding slip. Fig. 10.5 Relation between train speed V and suitable time z,, brake is applied to stop the train at the next station. The area beneath: the speed-
in a locomotive more than one motors are coefficient of adhesion C, time curve gives the distance covered. Thus, larger the area beneath the Speed-tirne curve,
employed. They may be connected in suitable
greater will be the distance covered in a given time or lesser will be the time taken to cover a
series and parallel combination. The ability of locomotive to cross a section of the track with low given distance.
adhesive coefficient depends on this combination of series parallel connection. To understand ‘
this let us consider case of two motors with the option of connecting them either in series or in Constant
parallel; the power modulator can always be designed to obtain voltage suitable for any of these power Free
connections. Due to the bad patch on the track, let the wheels coupled to one motor slip. The
a]
speed of this motor will increase, decreasing the current and torque. When the two motors are
connected in series, current and torque of the other motor will also decrease, decreasing the total
z
w
35 5z
Ee
available torque. When connected in parallel, their current and torque are independent. Therefore, . 1 — o a Sore |
the current and torque of other motor will not decrease, i.e. the total torque will be higher. Thus, hho & «| t oh of) V'
according to Eq. (10.1), for the same condition of track, coefficient of adhesion will have a
higher value for the parallel connection. Since the maximum torque that can be applied without (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.6 Speed-, torque- and power-time curves for an electric irain
wheel slip is higher for parallel connection, there is greater chance for the train to negotiate bad
patch on the track without wheel slip. When the locomotive has four motors, from the point of The diagrams of Fig. 10.6 are drawn for‘a levelled track. When gradients are involved, they
view of the coefficient of adhesion, the best connection will be all motors in parallel. Next best will be modified. When going up the gradient, the acceleration and free running speed will be
will be two pairs of series connected motors in parallel and worst will be all the four motors in low. While going down the gradient, the braking may be required both during acceleration and
series. . free running, and coasting may have to be avoided. During braking, the deceleration will be low,
A power modulator capable of allowing stepless change in motor voltage is preferable from because 2 part of braking torque is utilised in balancing the gravitational pull due to the down
the point of view of wheel slip. If the voltage can only be controlled in steps, then at the time of gradient. . :
speed change, motor torque may exceed the value at which wheels slip. For example in 25 kV The duration of various parts of duty cycle of Fig. 10.6 will differ according to the distance
ac traction using tap changers, the de motors’ voltage can be controlled only in discrete steps. between two consecutive stations (or stops) and the type of service. In case of main line trains
Whenever changeover is done to increase the speed, the motor voltage increases abruptly causing all parts—acceleration, free running, coasting and braking, willbe-usually present, although
a step increase in current and torque. Thus during transition, the instantaneous value of torque their-duration will change with the distance between consecutive stations.
is much larger than what would occur if the motor voltage is gradually increased with speed. In case of suburban trains, the distance between stations can be so small that brakes may have
Theiefore, the tendency for wheel slip is minimised if the power modulator is capable of providing to be applied even before the train is fully accelecated. In that case free running and coasting will
stepless change in voltage, : be absent. When the distance is larger than this, either free running or coasting may be present.
Coefficient of adhesion is also affected by the speed of response of power modtilator and In high speed trains, coasting is avoided ds it reduces the average speed. oe
drive. When a wheel slips, the wheel slip detection circuit gives command for the reduction of
motor torque sc that the slipping wheel can regain the grip. In a drive where the torque car be 10.2.3. Load Sharing Between Traction Motors .
reduced faster, the tendency for wheel slip will be lower. An electric locomotive uses more than one motor, Each motor drives different setof axles and
wheels. Due to wear and tear, the diameters of wheels become different after they have been in
 qr

3)2 Fimdamentalsof Electrical Drives Traction Drives 313

service for quite sometime, The linear speed of the locomotive and wheels will be the same. very small. The acceleration and deceleration times forma major proportion of the'total travelling
Therefore, thé motor speeds will be different due to the difference in the diameters of the wheels time. To get a high average’ speed, itis necessary to reduce acceleration and deceleration times.
driven by them. Consequently, the motors will not share the torque equally. Figs. 10.7(a) and (b) For a given value of coefficient of adhesion, acceleration and deceleration can be increased only
show the torque sharing for separately excited de and series de motors when the locomotive uses by increasing the ratio. of the weight on driving wheels and total weight of the train. Hence,
two motors, which run at speeds N, and N3 due to the.difference in wheel diameters. Torque instead of a locomotive, motorized coaches are used. Each coach has its own driving motors. The
developed by two motors are shown as T, and T;. When T, becomes equal to the rated motor usual pattern is to use the motorized and trailer coaches in the ratio of 1 ; 2; the ratio is increased
torque 7, T; is smaller than 7, The total torque that the locomotive can develop without upto 1: 1 in case, of high speed trains. This arrangement alfows a much higher proportion of the
overloading any motor is only (T+ Ts which is less than the sum of rated motor torques 2T,. train weight to come on the driving wheels. compared to a locomotive, and hence, much faster
Thus, unequal torque sharing virtually derates the torque capability of the locomotive. The acceleration and deceleration can be obtained.
derating is larger for Separately excited motor than the series motor. In general, torque sharing
will be more unequal for motors with low speed regulation. Note that this requirement is 103.2. Driving Axle Code for Locomotives
contrary to that for adhesive coefficient. As explained in See. 10.2.1, the adhesive coefficient has Weight of the locomotive is supported on axles which are coupled to wheels. The weight per axle
regulation.
a larger value fora motor with low speed is limited by the strength of the track and bridges, and usually varies between 15 and 30 tons.
N N Total number of axles is calculated by the following equation:

Ny b= x aeiaialoae Weight of locomotive

ft er ! 2 Number of axles = Permissible weight per axle (10.2)
poor !
4I
i t Certain amount of torque is needed for driving a given train. The number of driving axles‘can
' E
I I be calculated from Eq. (10.1).
t I
t ! The number of driving axles and coupled motors are described using a code. If a lccomotive
1 1
(
I
I
!
possesses two driving axles, it belongs to category B. Similazly, for a 3-, 4- and 6-axte drive, the
| symbols used are C, B-B and C-C respectively. If each axle is driven by an individual motor; a
0 i) subscript ‘o’ is used along with these symbols. In case axles aré divided into groups and each
q, Th r
group is driven by a single motor, only letters B and C are. appropriately used. The number of
(a) Separately excited motor (b) Series motor
dummy (non-driving) axles is denoted by numerals. Use of these codes is i!lustrated in Fig. 10.8
"Fig. 10.7 Torque sharing between motors where dotted circles represent dummy wheels, code B,-B, (Fig. 10.8(a)) denotes that the locomotive
When motors are fed from different converters, equal torque sharing can be achieved by has four driving axles and each axle is driven by its own. driving motor. Code 1-C,-2 in Fig.
suitably controlling converter output voltages. But then the cost of drive goes up as two convertérs, 10.8(b) shows that it has three driving axles each driven by a separate motor, and 3 dummy
each of 50% rating, will be more expensive than a single converter of full rating. axles. Fig. 10,8(c) indicates that the locomotive has 3 + 3 driving axles anda group of three axles
is provided with one driving motor.
10.3 MAIN LINE AND SUBURBAN TRAIN CONFIGURATIONS
10.3.1. Difference in Construction of Main Line and Suburban Trains
In main line trains, distance between the consecutive stations is generally large. Acceleration and
deceleration times form only a very small proportion of the total time of travel between the two OO OO COOCOCOD GOO CoO
stations (Fig. 10.6). Therofore, average speed mainly. depends on the free running speed and ‘Locomotive 8,-2, - +. + Locomotive 1-C,-2 me Locomotive C-C
acceleration is allowed to be tow to suit the passengers’ convenience. In the main line trains @) )
which are driven by locomotives, the maximum weight on driving wheels can be at most equal
So ©
Fig. 10.8 Arrangement of driving axles and wheels and locomotive cade
to the weight of locomotive. According to Eq. (10.1),
for a given value of coefficient of adhesion,
"the torque that can be applied without wheel slip is directly Proportional to weight on the driving
- wheels. As the weight on driving wheels is restricted to the weight of locomotive, the main line
10.4 BRAKING _
trains can have only moderate acceleration and deceleration. Electric braking has number of advantages-aver mechanical braking. It reduces wear and tear on
In case of suburban trains, as already stated, distance between consecutive stations is usually tails and wheels, substantially increasing their life.It ig smooth, fast and can be precisely and
314 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives Traction Drives 315

automatically controlled. On the other hand, mechanical brakes require frequent mairitenance, of electronic equipment connected to the line, excitation of system resonances, overloading of
particularly when subjected to heavy duty as in suburban trains requiring frequent stops and in _ capacitors, decrease in efficiency owing to increase in losses due to harmonic currents and skin
hilly regions while going down 4 gradient. Further, regenerative braking can help in saving effect, saturation of transformer and interference with telecommunication equipment. As far as
enerpy. ‘Thus present practice js to use electric braking for stopping and decelerating. Electric traction application is concerned two mast undesirable effects of harmonics are maloperation of
braking torque is available only for speeds greater than zero; it cannot be used for holding the signals and interference with telephone lines which run by the side of the track.
train at zero speed against gradiants, as would be needed at stations. Therefore, even when the The circuit which operates signals is called track circuitand its supply consists of low-voltage
electrical braking is used, mechanical brakes are provided for holding the train ona gradient. de or 2c, As already mentioned, one of the running rail is used as earth for the main power
Because of the large inertia, a running tain will have large energy stored in the form of kinetic circuit, Usually, same running rail is used as the return line for track circuit. As the power and
energy. When mechanical brakes or dynamic braking is used, the stored kinetic energy is converted track circuit share the same return conductor (earthed running rail), power circuit harmonics can
into heat; and is'wasted. When regenerative braking is used, major proportion of this energy is cause maloperation of the signals, which can be dangerous. Further, high frequency harmonics
returned to the mains, In case of main line trains, where the distance between stations is large, in the source current produce electromagnetic radiation, which generates noise in telecommunication
the energy saved forms only 2 smail proportion: of the energy spent in running. Thus, mostly lines.
dynamic braking is used and regenerative braking is used only when the drive has inherent Problem of low power factor and source current harmonics is solved in two.steps. First, those
capability for regenerative braking (i.e. when no additional equipment is required to get regenerative converters are used which have good power factor and lower harmonics. Secondly static var
braking). In suburban trains, where distance between stations is small, the energy saved by compensator is used to maintain power factor above 0.8 and filters to reduce harmonics to the
regenerative braking forms a substantial proportion of the energy spent in running. Hence extent that the possibility of maloperation of signals is completely eliminated and the noise iri
regenerative braking is generally used. oo 7 _— the telecommunication lines is reduced to tolerable level.
In hilly region, when a tain moves down-gradient, in addition to Kinetic energy, its potential
energy is also available for regeneration. Thus, large amount of energy is saved if regenerative 10.6 CALCULATIONS OF TRACTION DRIVE RATING AND
braking is used. If dynamic braking is used, dissipation of such a large amount of energy can be © ENERGY CONSUMPTION
a problem. In case of mechanical biakes wear and iear will be rather large. Because of these
reasons. trains for hilly regions are usually equipped with regenerative braking capability. : The speed-time curve of Fig. 10.6(a) is reproduced in Fig. 10.9. For simplification in calculations,
Main pzoblem faced with regenerative braking is of over voltages. When the current is forced it is approximated by a trapezoidal curve having constant values for acceleration and deceleration,
against the supply vottage-for regeneration, line voltage may rise 10 to 15% above the normal. As the area beneath curve represents distance covered, the area of trapezoidal curve is chosen
Therefore, with regenerative braking. voltage rating of the line and associated equipment, has to equal to the area of actual curve. Let D be the distance in km, T the time taken by wain to move
be 10 io 15% higher than without regenerative braking. 7 from A to D in sec, V,, the free running speed of trapezoidal curve in km/hr (kmph) and a,
An important requirement for regenerative braking is that the supply should have the ability £ = acceleration/deceleration in km/hefsec (kmphps).
to absorb regenerated energy. When this is not assured, dynamic braking is used. : Then
In case of buses and trolleys also, because of the frequent stops, substanfial amount of energy
V,, = Average speed of the train, kmph
can be regenerated, that is why it is how common to use regenerative braking. The mechanical
)
brakes are also common because of simplicity.
In case of battery and solar powered vehicles, regenerative braking increases the range of
yehicle, hence it is desirable.

10.5 POWER FACTOR AND HARMONICS -

Velocity
Many traction systems employ ac to de thyristor converters which have the drawback of low
power factor at low output voltage and generation of harmonics in source current and voltage.
Locomotives with capacities as large as 5 MW (and higher) are powered from a single phage
supply, resulting into large voltage drop and high transmission line losses during acceleration, if acceleration | H

“a
the power factor is allowed to fall low, the voltage drop and transmission line tosses will be too tanta
high and transmission line and substation equipment may be over loaded. Thus, measures are lL if ~
taken to ensure that the power factor does not fall below 0.8. 7
A E F OD
Harmonics in source current and voltage have a number of undesitable effects such as malfunction
Fig. 10.9 Speed-time-curve and its approximation
316 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
Traction Drives 317

axles, gears and rotor of the motor. The inertia of gears and axles can be ignored ia comparison
Distance between the stops,km 3600 D
(10.3) to that of wheels. Moment of inertia of wheels
=~ Actual time ofrun,hours SO
J, = 2M, Sy (10.7)
V, = Scheduled speed of the train, kmph
where Jy is the moment of inertia of one wheel, kg-m? and N, the number of axles on the train.
- Distance between the steps, km Let , N = number of driving motors
* tActual time of run + Time of stop), hours (16.4)
n, = teeth on motor gear wheel
i
nz = teeth on axle gear wheel
From the trapezoidal’ curve,
_ my _ Wheel speed :
-_V ¥, 7 ly motor speed (10.8)
t = ys sec and 1, = B2, sec
R = radius of the wheel, m

a V, i 1 Jey = Moment of inertia of one motor, kg-m?

D=Areaof trapezoidal cue = 3600. (54 +g + 7s) Then moment of inertia of motors referred to wheels

V,
= A599 AT - (a +13)] i= oe (10.9)

Ym
= 9 V, Vin Acceleration (in meters/second?) = axe, mpsps
[27 - (= + ali km (10.5)

_ Acceleration in rad/sec? = ee rpsps

Bq. (10.5) has five variables D, Vis T, @and B. If any four are known, the fifth can be evaluated.
Tractive effort for driving rotating parts
10.6.1 Tractive Effert and Drive Ratings
Tractive effort is the force developed at the rims of driving wheels for moving train. In main line
trains it is caused by locomotive and in suburban by motor coaches. Draw bar pull is the force Fa = (i+ Jy 1000 = (2m. + x 2 x =f (16.10)
exerted by locomotive through draw bar for moving train. Thus, draw bar pull is less than tractive
effort by the force required to move the locomotive. The tractive effort has to perform following Total tractive effort required for accelerating the train on a level track (iri newtons)
functions:
(i) Accelerate the train mass horizontally. R=
.
+ Fa = 277 8Ma + (2¥.t0+ Me)
NJw)\ oe
a. (10.11)
(ii) Accelerate the rotating parts of train such as wheels, : gears, axles and the rotor of the
.
motor. ” nt. = 277.8 M,a, N (10.12)
vity when moving up-gradie
(iii) Overcome force due to gra
istance, _ where M, is defined'as the effective mass of the train. It accounts for rotating parts in addition
(iv) Overcome train res : to the train mass. It is around $-15% higtier than 4. Equation (10.12) can also be written as
(i) Tractive effort required to accelerate the train mass horizontally (in newtons) at an acceleration
R= ane M0 = 28.3M,01, kg (10.13)
of oe kmphps is
a x 1000
Fy = (1000 M) x “Sap 277.8 Ma,N (10.6) . Giii) Tractive effart required to overcome force due to gravity: When moving up-gradient, the
drive has to produce tractive effort to overcome force due to gravity. When deciding drive rating,
in tonnes.
where M is the mass gradient with the maximum, permissible slope is to be considered. In railway practice, gradient
is expressed as rise in ‘meters in a track distance of 1000 m and is denoted by G.
(ii) Tractive effort required to accelerate the rotating parts: Rotating parts consists of wheels, Now, tractive effort required to overcome force due to gravity wiil be
 +
t

aM
318 Fundamentals of Eleciticul Drives Traction Drives 319

Torque per motor

F, = 1000 Mx gS xe, . :
aRF, Nem
= 98IMG,N (10.14)
Tx = aN (10.23)

= MG, kg (10.15) where N is the number of motors.

When deciding motor rating, maximum gradient allowed while laying down the track should
(iv) Tractive effort required to overcome train resistance: Variation of train resistance with be considered. . :
speed is shown in Fig. 10.4. It is not possible to accurately represent it analytically. Among
several empirical relations proposed, the simplest is based on the understanding that train resistance 10.6.2. Specific Energy Consumption
is due to various kinds of frictions. Therefote, it will have three basic components: one due to An estimate of energy required to operate train is needed so that running expenses can be
coulomb friction which is independent of speed, second will be due to viscous friction which is calculated. To facilitate these calculations the term specific energy consumption has been defined
proportional to speed, and third because of air friction which is proportional to speed squared. as the energy consumed in watt-hours per tonne of train weight and per kilometer of distance
Thus, . travelled. The energy output at the driving axles is spent to:
Foe A+ BV+ ov, N (10. 16 (i) Accelerate the train.
(ii) Overcome the gradient. —
where V is the speed of the train, andA, B, C are constants. Eq. (10.16) suggests that it is difficult
(iii) Overcome the train resistance.
to estimate the train resistance. Since it is quite small compared to F,,, an approximate value of
F, can be used and is often assumed as r newtons per tonne weight of the train. Thus,
(1) Energy output at the driving axles to accelerate the train (E,)
F,= rl, N (10.17) Assuming trapezoidal speed-time curve of Fig. 10.9
rM. i &, = F, in newion x Distance travelled during acceleration (AE) in meters
= oar kg . (10.18)
= F, x Area of triangle ABE
For calculating drive rating, r ts chosen to be 20 N/tonne.
1 ¥, x 1000 V,=) 1
= 277.8 Maal 5 3600 a | x* 3600" = 0.01072 ¥2M,, Wh _(10.24)
(¥) Total tractive effort required to move the train
Foky+ Py +i, (ii) Energy output at the driving axles to overcome the gradient (E,)
Mr | E, = F, in newtons x D; x 1000
= 28.3M.a + MG + ——,
Sar xe (10.19)
where Dy is the distance in km for which the power remains on. From the trapezoidal curve this
= 277.8 Mga + 9.81 MG + Mr, N (10.20)
distance is AF which is equal to the area ABCF. Thus
The positive sign is used for the train movement up-gradient and negative for down the gradient. 9.81MG x 10000, yy,
Ey= 3600 .
(vi) Motor torque rating
= 2.725 MGD,, Wh (10.25)
Total torque at the rims of driving wheels = Total tractive effort (in newtons) x R + ; Distance D, = D -~ Distance FD
= RF, N-m (10.21)
-= EIW
ae00 * YeB fo . (10.26)
where R is the radius of the driving wheels in meters.
Total torque referred to the motor shaft
(iii) Energy output at the driving axles to overcome the train resistance (E,)
= ARF Ny. (10.22) ”
NM : E, = F, in‘newtons x D, x 1000, Ws
where 1, is the efficiency of transmission.
= 1000 rMD, = 0.2778 rMD,, Wh (10,27)
3609
 ht

320° Fundamentals of Electrical Drives Traction Drives 32)

axles (E,)
Total energy output at the driving driven by 4 de motors, each geared to a driving axle through a reduction gear for which the gear
ratio 2 = 0.4. All the wheels in.a motor coach are driving wheels and the trailer coach has the
E:= 8, +8, +b
same number of wheels as motor coach. All wheels have a wheel tread of 0.54 m in radius and
= 0.01072 ViMe £2,725 MGD, +.0.2778rMD,, Wh (10.28) each has a mass of 450 kg. The mass of each motor armature is 0.48 tonne and average diameter
of armature core is 0.5 m. The combined weight of one motor and one trailer coach is 40 tonnes

Specific energy output in Wh per tome per ~ = ay Whptpkm

when fully loaded. Determine the coupling torque per motor required to accelerate the train at
5 kmphps. Assume train resistance to be 20 N/tonne of the train weight.

. = Soret
D i. #275 Gp + 0.2778 7 Whpplon (10.29) Solution
M=40,a@=5
Specific energy consumption : _
SO , Specific energy output
(10.30) Jy = Grr? = 4 x 450 x (0.54)? = 65.61 kg-m?
Eo = aan
Number of wheels = 2(4x2)=16
transmission and motor,
where 77 is the efficiency of Combined inertia of all wheels = 65.61 x 16 = 1049.76 kg-m 2
When regenerative brakin gis used, energy regenerated is fed back to the source, thus reducing
eeding as above, we obtain eniergy output at the driving axle
specific energy consumption. Proc Approximate inertia of afl motors = 4 x E x 480 x (3 sy = 60 kg—m?
&, as follows:
2 2

Ey = — 0.01072 Ve Me +£ 2.7SMG(D — D\) + 0.2778 Mr(D-D,),Wh (10.31) Approximate inertia of all motors referred to wheels = an = 375 kg-m?

where-V, is the initial speed during braking, + ve sign is for up- Bradient and —ve for down gradient From Eq. (10.10)
for second term on right side only):
= x 1000
Assuming on ee system and motor efficiency to be the same during motoring and
braking
Fo = (+ 4X Senor
F E,
Energy consumption = 7 -
nEy
: = (1049.76 + 375) x 3600
1000
x 0.54 | x6645, N
from Eq. (10.6)
Specific energy consumption
_ Fy, = 277.8 Ma = 277.8 X 40 x 5 = 55560, N
- 7. (EIN) = 0B (16.32)
B= and from Eq, (10.17) |
F. = rM =20 x 40 = 800, N
=Fo- WD (10.33)
Fo = Py, + Fg + F, = 55560 + 3664.5 + 800 = 6024.5, N
Effort Assuming transmission efficiency to be unity, from Eq. (10.23), torque per motor is
106.3 Maximum Allowable Tractive
The maximum tractive effort that cat be ‘applied without wheel slip Ta =
ORF, _ 0.4 x 0.54 x 600245 _ 39413 Nem
Fn 9.81 e(1000Mg)= 9810p Af,, N : (10.34) Nn Fi = 32a.

where jis the coefficient of adhesion and M, the adhesive weight or weight on the driving EXaMPLe 10.2
wheels. ; A 100 tonne motor coach is driven by 4 motors, each developing a torque of 5000 N-m during
acceleration. If up-gradient is 50 in 1000, gear ratio ¢ = 0.25, gear transmission effi iciency 98%,
Exampe 10.1 wheel radius 0.54 m, train resistance 25 Nétonne, effective mass on account of rotational inertia
A Suburban train consists of motor and taller coaches in the ratio of 1 : 1, Bach motor coach is is 10% higer, calculate the time taken to attain a speed of 100 kmph.
322 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives _ Traction Drives 323

Solution Distance covered during constant specd

From Eq. (10.23)
= Area FBCG = 150 » a = 12.5 km
R= Te’
OR _= 0.98025x054
x 5000.x 4 _= 145185.2, N 0);

Speed
Distance covered during mee
From Eq. (10.20),
= Area GCDH = HV +V}%
F, = 277.8 M.a+ 9.81 MG + Mr a0

=
= 277.8 x Lx 10004 9.81 x 100
x 50 + 100
x 25 (ii) $150 + 89) x A= 5.975 km
Equating i) and {il) gives Distance covered during braking
o = 3.064 kmphps
= Area HDE =

~
tate

ct

wl

ie}
Oo

an
we
«

o
It
x

a
Time taken 10 attain a speed of 100 kmph = aVa. ~Toa7
100 32.6, sec
Distance between stops

DB = 1.25 + 12.5 + 5.975 + 0.367 = 20.092 km

Exampce 10.3 ; ;
An electric twain weighing 500 tonnes climbs up-gradient with G= 8 and following speed-time D, = 1,25 + 12.5 = 13.75 km
curve:
Dy 137. - dD
Fes Fp 3 0.684; 1 ~ Fy = 0.316
(i) Uniform acceleration of 2.5 km/hc/sec for 60 sec
(ii) Constant speed for 5 min From Eq. (10.29)
iii) Coasting for 3 min
(iv) Dynamic braking at 3 kmphps to rest 0107215 MM,
Specific energy output = oonye te . ue +2.725G- wa + G.2778r -
The train resistance is 25 Nétonne. rotational inertia effect 10% and combined efficiency of
transmission and motor is 80%. Calculate the specific energy consumption. _ 0.01072(150)-
=——a9g07°7— *xX VE + 2.725 13.75 13.75
x 8 x 36.053 + 0.2778 x 25 x IO.057
=e
Solution
= 13.205 + 14.919 + 4.753 = 32.877, Whptpkm
Vin = @t, = 2.5 x 60 = 150 kmph
Specific energy consumption = aa = 41.1, Whptpkm
Retarding force during coasting
+ Mr
Fos = Fy + F, = 9.81 MG
Exampce 10.4
= 9.81 x 500 x 8 + 50G0 x 25 = 51740, N The drive of Example 10.3 is now moving down gradient with G = 20. Speed time curve hag
following details:
Deceleration during coasting
Fog 51740 _ ii) Uniform acceleration of 3 xmphps for 50 sec
Be = 277.8M, 277.8 Lix 500 0.3386 Ui) Constant speed operation for 10 min
(iii) Uniform braking at 2.5 kmphps to rest
Speed after coasting V= Vi, — Bets = 150 - 0.3386 x 180 = 89 kmph
ty at. & = 29.67. sec Assume efficiency of transmission system and motor during cegeneration to be the same as
B during motoring. Calculate the energy consumption for starting, uniform speed interval and braking,
on
Distance covered during accelerati
Sotution
= Area ABF = 5 ¥, wie oh x 150 x 00 2 1.25 km It will be more appropriate to calculate energy consumptions separately for starting, uniform
Yn 3600 ~ 3 3600
speed interval and braking.
 w ‘ ,

324 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives

Traction Drives 325
From Fig. 10.9 ;
"Fy XD, X 1000 _ 467975 x 1.25 x 1000
Vin = Of) = 3 x 50 = 150, kmph Energy output Ey = 8 oy = 3600
V,
ty = B= Z¥ = 60, sec =e 162352.4, Wh
Net energy consumption
During acceleration total tractive effort from Ea. (10.20)
Fig
= 277.8 Mc
~ 9.81 MG + Mr ,N E _ Energy output in motoring + 1) (Energy output in braking)
~ 7
= 277.8 x 1.1 x 500 x 3— 9.81 x 500 x 20 + 500 x 25
= 458370 ~ 98100 + 12500 = 372770 = = — (Ey + By) = 107865 ~ 0.8(730694.4 + 162352.4)
Distance travelied during acceleration
= ~ 758215.8, Wh
Ds sly 4 =150,“S~ X Begg
= 5 Vn 3ggq 50 =_ L047,km
Distance travelled D = D, + Dy + Dy
Energy output during acceleration = 1.0417 + 25 + 1.25 = 27.2917
_ Fa xD, X 1000
E,
~ 3600
» Wh
Specific energy consumption Ey = ~758215.8
500 x 27.2917
== 372770 x 4600
1.0417 x 1000 _
= 107885, Wh = — $5.56, Whptpkm °
Daring uniform speed net tractive effort This problem suggets that it is advisable to use regenerative braking in hilly areas.

Fy =- 9.81 MG + Mr,N EXAMPLE 10.5

= 9.81 x 500 x 20 + 500 x 25 =- 105220, N A local train uses motor and trailer coaches in the ratio of 1: 2. The weight of a motor coach is
40 tonnes and that of trailer 35 tonues. All the wheels in a motor coach are driving wheels. The
The -ve sign suggests braking operation. train resistance is 30 N/tonne. Effective rotating mass is 10% of the dead weight. If the coefficient
of achesion is 0.2, calculate (a) The maximum train acceleration on a level track. (b}
Distance travelled . 10 = 25 km
DBD, =150x 60
What will
be the maximum acceleration if the motor and trailer coaches are used in the ratio of 1 : i

F x D, x 1000 Solution ; . so, .

Energy output Ey=-* 3600 + Wh {a) The probiem can be solved by considering a unit consisting of one motor coach and two
trailer coaches.
-105220 x 25 x 1000 :
The weight of one unit M = 40.+2x35=110,T
:
; " "3600 = -730604.4, Wh
Weight on the driving wheels M4 = 40, T ;
During braking the net tractive effort Maximum tractive effort that can be applied without wheel slip (Eq. (10.34))
Fy = -277.8M,B-981MG+Mr - . Fry = 98101 My = 9810 x 0.2 x 40 = 78480, N ti)
=-277.8x Li x 500 x 2.5 — 9.81 x 500 x 20 + 500 x 25 From Eq. (10:20)

= — 381975 — 98100 + 12500 = — 467575, N _F,

= 277.8 My + Mr = 277.8 x 110 x Lar + 30 110 Gi)
At maximum acceleration @y, Fy = F.
pistance travelled Dy + x 150 x ca = 1.25, km Therefore, from Eqs. (i) and (ii) :
4
Gp, = 2.2366, kmphps
|
 ves
326 Fundamentals of Blectrical Dri Traction Driy,
- S39)
(b} Now the weig ht of one unit M = 40 + 35 = 75,
g wheels Mg = 40, ‘fT Equating (iii) and.{iv)
Weight of the drivin
— 480493.8 _
Fy = 9810 Mz = 9810 x 0.2 x 40 = 78480, N (il) M= 438.68 = 1095.3, T
F227 8X75 & Ld Oy + 30 x 75 (iv) Weight of additional bogies = 1095.3 — (500 + 110 + 70)

Since f= Fm —_ = 415.3, T
977.8 X75 X LL Oy + 30 x 75 78480 Examete i0.7
Og = 3.326, kmphps A goods train is employed to transport ore from the top of hill to ground.
or Weight ‘of f
The maximum 8 cceleration is now 48.7% higher. train is 1000 tonnes and when fully loaded 5000 tonnes. The track has a Btadient of
| 5, ®mpty
and maximum train speed is limited to 30 kmph. Acceleration when climbing
shoutg Q 'n 1009
than 0.3 kmphps. Train resistance is 40 N/tonne, rotational inertia 10% and the coe
ONE ii 110 tonnes can just accelerate a trainee . an acceleration
. adhesion 0.25. How many locomotives, each weighing 100 tonnes will be
8 SE legs
weighting 500 tonnes with Fequired? lent og
ocom . G= 10. Train
vmradient with resistance is 35 N/tonne and increase of mass due
of I kmphps on up-8 10%. 30% of jocomotive weight Solution
is carried by driving wheels. This locomotive
to rotational inertia is weighing 70 tonne and with its full weight coming on driving wheels. Let » locomotives be employed,
& assisted by snot th additional bogies Braking force required when moving down the hill
that could be attached to this train maintai
ning the
A e same track,
same schedule of operation 7 th Fy = 9.81(5000 + 1007) x 15 - (5000 + 100n) x 40
= {5000 + 100n) x 107.15, N
Salution to lone
With 110 tonne locomotive #0 . Fry = 981 0M, = 9810 x 0.25 x 100n 0)
My,= 110
x 0.8 = 88, T
Equating (i) and (ii) yields
Gti)
From Eq. (10.34) n= 2.28
Fy = 9810uM, = 9810 x 88u :
i) Number of locomotives that will satisfy the braking requirement will be 3.
rain mass M=5004120=610,T | Let us next examine whether 3 locomotives will be able to
accelerate the train,
and from Eq. (10.20) M = 1000 + 3 x 100 = 1300, T
F Vs2 2778x610 X LX i + 9.81 x 610 x 10 + 610 x 35
From Eg. (10.20)
_ 1964038 + 59841 + 21350 = 267594.8, N (ii) F,= 277.8 X 1300 x 1.1 x 0.3 + 9.81 x 1300 x 15 + 1300 x 49
Equating (i) and (ii) = 119176.2 + 191295 + 52000 = 362471.2, N
_267594.8 _
A= d8i0.x 38 = 03! Fira = 9810 My = 9810 x 0.3 x 300 = 882900, N
Since F,, > Fi, the train can be accelerated with
With twa locomotives 3 locomotives. Thus 3 locomotives wi
required, il be
+ 70 = 680, T
M= 500+ 110
| 10.7 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF TRACTION DRIVES
Myz 08x 110+ 70 = 158, T
F nz= 9910 Ma = 9810 x 0.31 x 158 = 480493.8, N Gi) Various requirements of traction drives discussed in previous sections are summarised he
the listing of few additional requirements not discussed earlier. Important
F228 Mxilx 149.81 x 10 M+35 M = 438.68 M,N (iv) features of the ve With
m
a system which have bearing on the drive are also described, Supply
 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives - Traction Drives 329
328

1. Large torque is required during start and acceleration in order to accelerate the heavy front. In main line trains also sometimes more than one locomotive are required to drive
a train. In locomotives also, arrangement for inter-connections may be provided so that
mass. | -
etloads during acceleration and when négotiating up both the locomotives can be controlled from the master controller of any one locomotive.
2. The motor is subjected to torque ov
gradients. ;
i¢ phase supply is used in ac traction. Indian Railways 10.8 TRACTION MOTORS
3. Because of economic reasons sing
i ingle-ph ase supply.
4 . empl The 25 eM nes nee
c 6000 HP and :higher. Againi because of economic reasons 10.8.1 Motors Employed in Traction
i i i Consequently, the traction
not very high. i supp ly is weak and Earlier, de series motor was widely used in traction. It has high starting torque and capability for
the supply voltage
; ioe votive su wy wolage varies in wide limits. In 25 kV ac traction, high torque overloads. With an increase in torque, the flux also increases; therefore, for the same
may vary from 19 1027.5 k¥ on continuous basis. For a short duration (around 10 sec) inctease in torque, the increase in motor current is less compared to other motors. Thus during
17.5 to 29 kV. heavy torque overloads, power overload on the source and thermal overloading of the motor are
5. Th pely
Thes hae ; sharp volag e { tions, including discontinuity when the locomotive
fluctua kept limited to reasonable values. The motor speed-torque characteristic is also suitable for
upply section to another. -. .: better sharing of loads between motors. Further due to a large inductance in the field, sharp
se effect. Therefore, fluctuations in supply voltage do not produce sharp peaks in armature current. Thus the motor
Since, nccanaty i weak in natuse, the reactive power has very adver
6 . See
ed to be lower than 0.8 and it should never be allowed - commutation remains satisfactory, which does net happen in‘a separately excited motor, unless
power factor should not be allow
i id over voltages. an additional inductance is connected in thé armature circuit.
tion With the availability of semiconductor converters, separately excited motor is now preferred
7 See ajdt the source, bothin ac and de traction, can cause malopera
i int in telephone lines. over series motor. With independent control of armature and field, the speed-torque characteristic
8 + D: MY Sa aking i widely used. Mechanical brakes _ are also provided for use when the of separately excited motor can be shaped to satisfy the traction requirements in the optimum
;
manner. Further, because of low regulation of its speed-torque characteristics, the coefficient of
train is stationary.
. ‘ne i¢ used when the energy saved isisl large enough h to to justify
justify the the addition:
additional adhesion has higher value. On the other hand, series motor has a number of limitations. The field
9. Regenerative braking is us
ive and transmission jines and is possible only when the system is able to! of a series motor cannot be easily controlled by semiconductor switches. If field control isnot
absorb the a erated Mostly, system is not able to absorb all the energy that is employed, the series motor must be designed with its speed equal ‘o the highest desired speed
braking i1S combined
micic braking i The energy w
ined withwi regenerative. hich of the drive. The higher base speeds are obtained by using fewer turns in the field winding This,
regenerative
Bene earbed “sipaed by dynamic braking. Such a combination of however, reduces the torque per ampere at start and therefore, acceleration. Further, there are a
is known as composite braking. 7 ; number of problems with regenerative and.dynamic brakings of a series motor. On-the other
braking-and dynamic braking
10. Wh enerative braking is used, the distribution system is subjected to higher voltages hand, regenerative and dynamic brakings of a separately excited motor are fairly simple and
, during regenerati on. The distribution system and the drive equipment must be designed efficient, and can be carried out down to very low speeds.
to account for this. Currently compound motor is being preferred for traction applications as it incorporates the
which is a measure of the
~ 11. Wheel slip should be avoided. The coefficient of adhesion, advantages of both series and separately excited motor.
on the following factors: Due to the availability of reliable variable frequency semiconductor inverters, squirrel-cage
tendency for wheel slip, depen ds
7 induction metor and synchronous motor are now finding applications in traction. Because of a
i , i iction b
ction between wheels and the rail.Lo
number of advantages associated with these motors, they are likely to replace de motors for traction
a Neure f et vote speed-torque characteristics—a
: a characteristic with low speed
uy f applications.
regulation is preferred. Some of the important advantages of squirrel-cage induction motors over de are: ruggedness;
tors.
(iii) Series-paralle: connections of m lower maintenance; better reliability; lower cost, weight, volume and inertia; higher efficiency;
¢ can be controlled.
(iv) Smoothness with which the torqu and ability to operate satisfactorily with sharp supply voltage fluctuations and in dirty environment.
(v) Speed of response of the drive. The: major drawback of de motor is the presence of commutator and brushes, which require
12. inal motive more than one motors are fed from a converter. The load sharing between frequent maintenance, particularly when the flashovers at the commutator occur due to sharp
This requirement
, motors is more uniform when the motors have a large speed regulation. voltage fluctuations. In terms of advantages mentioned for squirrel-cage motor in comparison
: iremel 1! ii
(i) stated beve.
above. ; oo
i r the requirement with de motors, the synchronous motor lies in-between the two and has one important advantage
13 5 urban, (neluding ‘underground) wains have more thar one motor coach. Electrical over squirrel-cage induction motor, that it can be operated at leading power factor. Thus permitting
"interconnections
interc bet
tions between ‘otr ¢ coaches are provided
motor tf the S drive for all motor
ded so that the use of load-commutated thyristor inverter which is cheaper and occupies less volume and !
vozates en be controlled autcmatically from the master controller in the motor coach in weight compared to forced commutated thyristor inverter required by induction motors. The
 at

Traction Drives
330 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives 331

: ction motor drive can also’ be kept low by using GTO (gate turn- 10.10.1 The de Traction Drives Employing Resistance Control
welent and iar of wat indu :
jg more expensive than.a load commutated thyristor :
inverter. At the time of writing this book, the following dc traction drives employing resistance control
of thyristor) inverter, were in use in India:
. ntrol
woe . : (#) 1500 V de traction on Bombay-Igatpuri-Pune section for main line and Bombay suburban
aan Trae ae Mor excited motor for traction applications can be divided into three
peration of a de sep : service.
o those shown in Fig. 5.19, i.e. constant torque and power
~ regions. First two ate jdentical ¢ (ii) 750 V de traction in underground trains at Calcutta.
: ye region, from Zero to base speed, the field current is maintained (iii) 55¢-V de traction in Calcutta tramways.
regions. In constant ior nd the armature voltage is controlled. In constant power region,
constant at the rated va se speed, the armature voltage is maintained constant at the rated Each motor coach of 1500 and 750 V de tractions have four de series motors with voitage
which is carried out abov . werolled. In both these regions, the armature current is allowed tu ratings of 750 and 375 V, respectively; two motor are permanently connected in series. Similar
value and field current ‘ nan basis. The limit of constant power operation is reached when a connection is used in locomotives for 1560 V main line de traction. The 550 V de traction of
reach rated value on CO ycrease motor speed ieads to sparking at the brushes at the rated Calcutta tramways use two dc series motors each rated 550 V.
is said to reach the commutation limit. Operation at higher speeds Basic control scheme for all these drives is essentially the same. When four motors are used,
decrease in field current
armature current, The motor! two motors are permanently connected in series to form one pair. Thus, the drive will have two
_(and lower field currents)can now be carried out by progressively decreasing maximum allowable
a ird region of operation in which available output power of the pairs each having two motors permanently connected in series. Starting, speed control and
acmature current. This 's tr ie increase in speed. Traction motor can be operated in third torque control up to base speed is carried out with the hefp of contactor-controlled sectionalised
motor progressively deere yired at high speeds is much less compared to the accelerating resistors. At start both motor-pairs are connected in series with the sectionalised resistors in
region because the torque , an js determined by whether or not the motor is compensated and seties as shown in Fig. 10.10(a). As the train accelerates resistor-sections are cut out one by one
torque. The form of third re For a non-compensated motor, the ratio of maximum allowable So as to limit the starting current within prescribed maximum and minimum limits. When all
the type of power rd js maintained constant. In a compensated motor, the maximum sections of resistance controller are cut out, the motor speed will be nearly half of base speed.
armature current to field “ is varied inversely with speed. A compensated machine is always
allowable ee ows ereatet depree of field weakening and therefore, higher maximum
preferred betause i
speed. Ry Ry Ry Ri RE ORS Mm
Pp
uirrei-cage induction motors are also operated in three
The variable frequency controlled squirrei-cag
. . : ic. 6.36): Constant torque region from standstill to base speed with a constant
identical regions (Fig, 6. imum allowable stator current; constant power region from base
Vif rato and 2 consian re breakdown torque limit is reached, here V and maximum allowable
speed to the speed at ww for higher speeds the motor operates in the third region where
stator cure a ent ig reduced inversely with speed, thus ensuring that the
motor torque
maximum allowal
+ = ie.
does not exceed its breakdown valu

10.9 TRACTION DRIVES

. . i
yately discussed i
important i
points re lated to tractionmi supply,
supply, nature,
nature,
Previous sections have joad and traction drives. We are now in a position to consider
and tequirements «i 10.10 to 10.17 describe drives for electric and diesel tractions. Drives
traction drives. Sections wvered
"* vehicles are described
1 in ChapterC 9. Main line and ‘suburban r
for batery a Oe classified into conventional and semiconductor controlled and are;
traction drives have
described in separate sections.

10.10 CONVENTIONAL de AND ac TRACTION DRIVES

Th tional drives commonly used.in India are described in this section.
e€ convent Fig. 10.10 de Series motor traction drive with resistance control: (a) Control from zero to half of base speed;
(b) Control from half to full of base speed and (c) Operation at base speed
 id
wee

332 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives Traction Drives 333

For further acceleration, the two motor pairs ate connected in. parallel with the sectionalised to avoid any jerk. These steps may be implemented based on.the values of dlfdt, whereas iater
or: ses with each of them (Fig. 10.10(b)). The resistor-sections are now cut out, one by steps ate bused on the value of I. ;
ee cit
imi t { ithin pr escribed maximum and minimum limits. When
all resistor-
. As a number of operations are involved, it will be very tiring for the driver to carry them out
one anne iout Ele io10(e), motors will be running around the base speed. Speeds higher
manually. Automatic controls using contactors and servo drives are used to simplify the job of
i control. For changing the field current, diverter resistors the ‘driver.
coach with ;
ane conne rin vet wth aide Different steps of control for a motor The above de traction schemes have several disadvantages. Prominent among these are:
two motors is obtained when each pair in Fig. 10.10 is replaced by one motor sobe annlied
"During transition from series to parallel connection closed circuit transition has pplied, (i) Low efficiency due to resistance control.
(ii) Poor adhesion due to: (a) step change in torque and (b) more drooping speed-torque
iti irable to break such a high current. Further, the sudden change of current at
"| curves because of resistance control.
the time itis
because of openi and reconnection will produce step change in torque, causing discomfort to
desirable
not ng
ee! slip. To avoid this, closed circuit transition is used. Gii) Frequent maintenance due to large number of moving contacts. .
" passengers and increasing tendency for wh (iv) Unless very large sections are used in the starting and braking resistances, average
i ed Ci ircuit transition using what is known as bridge ‘circuit }transition.
rene i eon at ono ae (i) close IL, 18 and 2S, which connects both motor pairs 1 and 2 | accelerating and decelerating torques are substantially lower compared to the maximum
1 i *
. vier + alt istors RI and R2; (ii) close progressively LA to 6A, now motor torque the motors can produce. This slows down the average speed of a suburban train.
in series with sectionalised spee d; (iii) close 1B; (iv) open 1S and 1A to 6A; (v) close 2L
and
speeds are nearly half of base s 10.10.2 The 25 kV, 50 Hz ac Traction Using On-Load Transformer Tap Changer
. i r s with a sectionalised resistance in series with
2B :a (vi Pet , this connects
thot opening two.motor pairs WI
motors armature onaised’
and field circuits 1 ;
(vi) close contacts 1A-2A, This scheme has been used both for main line and suburban trains. In India it is widely used for
cae i joe SA-6 ‘A in pairs successively. This connects two motor pairs main line traction. All main line electric traction schemes, except Bombay-Igatpuri-Pune route,
in parallel and starting
are using this scheme. The basic principle of operation of this scheme and some of its features
process is completed. are described in Sec. 5.8. The drive scheme is shown in Fig. 10.12. :
24 4A 6A 25 kV
50 Hz Filter

Ta ain On ac

l IS
' lar
"
1B 2B
2b
i

1A cn 5A ; ; 7
Fig. 10.11 Resistance contre! of de traction drive with bridge transition

For dynamic braking, supply is switched off, fields are reversed and sectionalised resistors are
ted across each motor pair. The motors work as self-excited generator. As the train
Gecelerates, resistor’s sections are cut out one by one to maintain good braking torque, As the
braking ceases at a finite speed (Sec. 5.3.2), mechanical brakes are applied to stop the train.
During dynamic braking, larger resistance is required than during starting. Therefore, additional Transformer Diode
sectionalised resistor is employed along with starting resistor. _ with taps
Traction
bridge motors ©
Dynamic braking is not always used. For example in India while underground trains in Fig. 10.12 25 kV, 50 Hz ac traction using transformer with tap changer
Calcutta use dynamic braking but not the trains of 1500 ¥ dc traction in Bombay. The torque
control during motoring and braking is realised by changing the value of armature circuit Astep down transformer reduces the voltage from 25 kV to a suitable value. The secondary
i winding is provided with tappings. An on-load tap changer (Fig, 5:24) is used to vary the taps
diticral features are incorporated for'smooth acceleration of the train. The first few steps
on transformer without voltage surges. A diode rectifier bridge converts ac to de and through
during starting are chosen such that the current, and therefore, torque is build up in small steps somoothing reactor Ly feeds.dc series traction motors, which are connected in appropriate seriés-
 nt
\
3 aN
i 334 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives Traction Drives 335

parallel combinations. Usually a locomotive with four motors will have series-parallel connection Gi) As the motor voltage iis controlled in steps, adhesion is poor and maximum accelerating
as shown in Fig. 10.12. torque is lower compared to what can be achieved with stepless control using semiconductor
As explained carlier, the tendency for wheel slip willbe lowest when all motors are connected converters. .
in parallel, but then the transformer secondary current rating will be the highest. On the other
hand, the transformer current cating will be the lowest and the tendency for wheel slip will be 10.11 SEMICONDUCTOR CONVERTER CONTROLLED DRIVES
highest when all four motors are connected in sezies. The connection of Fig. 10.12 provides a
These are now widely used both in ac and de iractions involving de and ac motors, and the
compromise between the two contradictory requirements. The smoothing reactor L, may be
conventional drives described in Sec. 10.10 have all become outdated, and will be phased out in
divided into four sections, one in series with each traction motor, so that in the event of a motor
near future. The semiconductor converter controlled drives have several advantages, Some of
fault, a high impedance is in the circuit and motor protection is simplified. For starting, and
their common advantages are listed below:
speed and torque contral up to base speed, the motor terminal voltage is varied by changing taps
on the transformer. The speed control above base speed is obtained by connecting a diverter (i) High efficiency.
resistor in parallel with the field of each motor. Braking is generally provided by mechanical (ii} Low maintenance requirements flue to absence of moving parts.
brakes. Dynamic brakirig has also been used. For this, motors have been connected as separately (iii} Better adhesion due to stepless cdntrol of motor torque and fast response of semiconductor
excited generators. Fixed braking resistors are connected across armatures of each motor. The converter. Wheel-slip control is very simple.
fields of all motors are connected ini series across an auxiliary de generator driven by an auxiliary (iv) Higher.acceleration, deceleration and speed due to better adhesion.
induction motor. The current through the motor fields is controlled by controlling the field {¥} Increased comfort of passengers due to smooth acceleration and braking.
current of the auxiliary de generator. As the motor decelerates under braking, the motor field (vi) Flexible control, which makes it amenable to micro computer/microprocessor/programmable
current is increased to maintain a specified current through the motor armature. logic controller control, !eading to optimal and efficient performance.
The tap-changer may have 20 to 40 taps. Varying them manually can be very tiring for the (vii) Easy maintenance, repair and fault diagnosis.
griver. Therefore, tap changer control has to be automatic. Contactors and servo drives are used (viii) Interfaces more readily with automatic train control.
to realise automatic control of the tap-changer. (ix) Longer life.
Some important features of this scheme are discussed in Sec. 5.8. it has following advantages (x) Some form of torque control is used, which allows a performance to some extent independent
cover de drives employing resistance control: of line’ voltage and passenger weight, both during motoring and braking.
(i) Higher efficiency as the starting, speed and torque control are done by varying armature Several types of converter controlled drives have been developed. The commonly used drives
voltage instead of armature resistance. : are described in Secs. 10.12 to 10.17. All these drives are operated with closed-loop torque
(it) Better adhesicn, because with armature voltage control the motor speed-rorque eharacteriticy control. As sensing the torque directly is difficult, the torque control is affected indirectly. In the
are less drooping compared to armature resistance control. case of de drive it takes the form of closed-loop current controlas the torque is a function of current.
(iii) In underground trains, one is forced to use low voltage due to limited space available In case of induction motors, the torque control is effected with the help of either stator-earrent
between the train and tunnel. No such restriction is applicable to over ground traction. In or rotor slip-speed control. The traction drives are also operated with inner torque control and
case of de traction, the maximum transmission voltage depends on the number of motors” outer speed control loops. These closed loop schemes are explained in Chapters 3, 5, 6 and 7.
in series and their voltage rating because no simple means were available for stepping
down the de voltage. As the de motor voltage rating because of commutator is restricted 10.12 THE 25 KV ac TRACTION,
to 750 V de and since two motors are permanently connected in series, the dc transmission USING SEMICONDUCTOR
voltage is chosen as 1500 V. In ac transmission as the voltage can be stepped down easily CONVERTER CONTROLLED TY,
and efficiently by a transformer, it is possible to use 25 kV voltage for transmission. de MOTORS
Because of the much higher transmission voltage, the cost of transmission and power loss
in transmission are much lower in 25 kV ac traction than in 1500 V dc traction. Because The simplest arrangement consists of a half-
of high cost, 1500 V de traction is net used in new installation. Although because of the controlled converter feeding dc series traction
prohibitive cost of replacement it continues to be there wherever it was installed prior to motors, as shown in Fig, 10.13. Such an
the development of 25 kV ac traction. arrangement is sometimes used in low power
x Ad,

ht
shunting locomotives. It suffers from two
The 25 kV ac traction using transformer with tap changer has following limitations: important limitations. First, at low output
(i) Due to a larger number of moving contacts and parts, the tap changer requires frequent voltages the converter power factor is low. Fig. 10.13 Drive of a shunting locomotive of 25 kV,
maintenance and is susceptible to frequent failures and fire hazards. Secondly, the source current with square wave ac traction with thyristor converter
 i
-
.a

fy
: Tractiin Brive
336 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
337
shape is rich in harmonics. The rapid changes at the leading and trailing edges of the source
unication lines.
current cause sharp harmonic disturbances in the supply network and telecomm
of these edges, and their
The frequency range of harmonics is determined by the steepness e,
locomotiv
amplitudes by the magnitude of the step. Because of the low power rating of a shunting
effect on the
the poor povver factor, harmonics and harmonic disturbances have only marginal a Tha,
, such a simple arrangem ent (Fig. 10. 13)
supply network and telecommunication lines, therefore ;/ /
case of suburban and main line trains power rating is large, conseque ntly
is found acceptable, In i
i F
the adverse effects of the poor power factor, harmonics and harmonic disturbances on the supply
e fe; te,
network and telecoramunication lines are unacceptable. To overcome these limitations multistag . 0
converters, which are operated with sequence controi, are used to feed armatures of traction
a
motors. Two forms of two stage converters are shown in Figs. 10.14 and 10.16, The two-stage
A transformer . 24
converter of Fig. 10,14 uses two half-controlled converters connected in series.
voltage from
with two identical secondaries, feeds the balf-controlled converters. For de output : | n +0; i, i,
Figure 10.152
0 to half, only converter I is controlled and converter Hf is bypassed by its diodes.
0 ch x nan .
shows the waveforms of de output voltage and the source current for the converter I firing angle
. =
a, = 90°. At half of full-output voltage, a = 0°. For the output voltage between half and full,
180 and 0°. Figure .
Oj is retained at 0°and the firing angle of converted If is controlled between ey x -
= 0 and 0%) =
10.15(b) shows the converter output voltage and source current waveforms for a; @i
90°. The jump in source current is now reduced to half compared to the single stage converter
power factor,
of Fig: 19.13. Considerable reduction in reactive power, leading to improvement in
‘ a (a) ()
Two stage hal .
Fig. 10.15 The two stage converter waveforms at: (a) 0,25 and (b} 0.75 per unit outpur ¥olta
contralled . Bes
converter
is obtained. A comparison of reactive power at rated motor current is shown in Fj I
+ ' Field supply single stage and two stage control. Field supply, as shown in Fig. 10.14, is obtained from for
{ stage half-controlled converter. . Single
converter
i . The operation, waveforms and performance of converter of Fig. 10.16 are identic al
converter of Fig. 10.4. The series circuit of Fig. 10.14 requires devices which will wi © the
haif : the circuit voltage, but then it requires a transformer with two secondary wi : tths d
converter of Fig. 10.16 requires only a single centre-tapped secondary winding bur me The
: CVicgs
i -e
Us
i
ke)
1
i

; motors
Field supply

fan fe
.
A, to A, : Motor armatures
+ Motor fields T
~ as F, to F,

25k¥ actraction employing two stage converter feeding four separately excited motors. =
Fig. 10.14
- Field supply is from a single-stage converter Fig. 10.16 Alternative two stage converter circuit. Field connections are not showy
 —y |

wR
338 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives Traction Drives 339

Single stage reference which is compared with the actual converter output current, The error is used to adjust
the converter firing angles so that the actual current is maintained equal to the reference current
throughout the accelerating range. An additional loop may be provided for limiting maximum
acceleration. This avoids jetks and consequent inconvenience to ihe passengers. As the torque

Reactive power
Two stage during acceleration is controlled steplessly, high acceleration and.good adhesion are obtained,
Wheel-slip control may be easily incorporated here by having provision for master controller
to set the current reference to zero whenever the wheel-slip is detected.
Because of flexible control many other features can be casily incorporated such as complete
automatic contro] and fault detection. Programmable logic controllers, microprocessors
or
05 1.0 microcomputers can be utilised for this purpose. ‘
Per unit converter output voltage Dynamic braking can be incorporated in both separately excited and series excited motors.
In
case of separately excited motors, fixed resistors are connected across the armature and converter
two stage converers
Fig. 10,17
10. Reactive power at rated motor current for single and is disconnected. The braking torque is controlled by controlling the field current. Controlling the
toa _ In main line traction several pairs of two series connected! field current is not a problem because fields are in any case fed from controlled rectifiers. For
have to withstand full ct oe 10,14), consequently the converter output voltage falls in: dynamic braking, series motors are also connected for separate excitation. Field windin gs connected
motors are employed we “V de. The converter of Fig. 10.14 is found more economical for this: in series are fed from one of the converters and the converter is supplied by another step down
the range of 1000 to re (euborban) applications all motors are connected in parallel. Therefore, transformer with low output voltage, because of the low resistance of field windings. Fixed
application. In SEN ee is in the range of 500 to 750 V de. The converter of Fig. 10.16 is! resistors are connected across the armature. Braking torque is controlled by controlling the field
the cgaverter OvIpDE is application. current.
:
found more economical foo lage ‘converters. Performance can be improved further by- Braking performance with field current control and fixed resistors across armatures is inferior
Above description 1s te es beyond two: Converters up to four stages have been compared to control with full field and switched (or sectionalised) resistors across the armature,
reported,
increasing the converter nee adding each stage diminishes as the number of stages is increased Theoretically regenerative braking can be used by replacing half controlled converters of
However, the benefits one use of more than two stages becomes uneconomical because of the Fig. 10.14 by fully controlled converters. But it is generally not used because of two problems:
beyond two. In practice, “ihe number of devices and transformer secondaries.
(a) A thyristor converter uses line voltage for commutation. The commutation failure can
proportionate increase 10 cately excited motors are shown. The number of motors depends on- occur during braking due to following: (i) loss of supply, (ii) pantograph contact bounce
In Fig, 10.14 four sept ected in different combinations depending on application and or (iii) while passing through neutral sections. Then thyristors conduct continuously
ratings and they are on EMUs (electrical multiple units) in Madras suburban trains employ
giving a short circuit both on ac and de terminals. This problem is overcome when
manufacturer's Feared in two parallel pairs with each pair having two series connected | thyristors are replaced by GTOs (gate wrn-off thyristors).
four secies motors a oevomotve designed by BHEL uses six series motors
connected to form: (b) Cost of the locomotive and transmission equipment increases, because with regenerative
Fe el pain vith each pair having two motors in series.
braking their voltage ratings go up by 10 to 15%.
ins) converters, which are relatively of low power rating (around 1500
For EMU (suburban ih t the simple two stage converter of Fig. 10.14 requires no additional :
kVA), it has been found ' - improve power factor. However, this is not the case with the more. 10.13 THE de TRACTION USING SEMICONDUCTOR CHOPPER
steps to reduce aa uited for locomotives. For locomotives, harmonic filter is connected at!
. CONTROLLED de MOTORS
powerful converters ea converter to reduce harmonics, both low frequency and high frequency, - Chopper control has repiaced tesistance control in all de traction schemes, such as 1500 V de
the input terminais of eae «th telecommunication lines and track circuit and-to reduce harmonic main line and suburban traction, 750 V de underground traction and electric buses. In addition
to prevent interference rework. Thyristor switched capacitors with two stages are employed. to the advantages listed in Sec. 10.11, the chopper control has following additional advantages
disturbance in the surety tor does not fall below 0.8. Such a scheme has been used in Hitachi - over the resistance control:
to ensure that the power 4 has been to use gate tum-off thyristors (GTOs) instead of thyristors
| (i) Regenerative braking can be carried out almost up to zero speed. Reduction in energy

ues aes
Locomotive. Recent tren with an appropriate pulsewidth modulation technique. This operation |
and to operate ee operat at unity fundamental power factor throughout and simplifies the consumption compared to resistance control can be from 30 to 50%.
allows the converte efficiency. (ii) With single section of resistance, excellent dynamic braking performance can be obtained,

se s
harmonic filter design ane ection and good adhesion, both in locomotives (iii) Composite braking can be easily implemented.
and EMUs, the
(iv) Light weight and volume.
In order to on vith closed-loop current contro). A master controller sets the current
converter 18 op
 340 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
(v) A chopper without provision for regenerative braking is Traction Drives 341
¥) A choppel now cheaper than a cam-controller
(resistance contra). ,

motoring, dynamic braking and zegenerative in opera tions . are

braking
d lescribed Secs, 5.
chopperin conto ; and
5.20 . a regenerative
, i
drive for battery operated vehicle is explained the semiconductor switch SS, the arma
| ture current builds up through the
in wearer “hives have been built path consisting of diode
using both dynamic and Tegenera flows against the source voltage
: traction :
tive brakings but the drives through the path consisting of
: een preferred, diode Dy, inductance ZL and ener diode D,, diode D,, Lp, source,
with regenerative braking aie gy is fed ts“the source. If source
In de traction, de oe oow in by rectifying ac into.de by uncontro does not have enough load to
one direction only , i.e. from ac to de. When lled (diode) rectifiers
which permit energy in energy regenera a chopper controlled
train Is regenerating, ‘ened ted must be absorbed by other trai
to ac supply. Further, ns which are motoring
since it cannot be a energy regenerated by.a train
single train when motoring. is greater than
the energy required ae the rege This suggests that a traction SS and L, and T is tumed off, disc
nerated energy. If the regenera supply will not onnecting Rg, due to want of current. In each
ted energy is pumped into the chopper, during off period of swit cyclé of the
be able to always wt ve it, the supply ch SS, first the drive operates in
voltage rises due to charging of capa when the regeneration is not poss regenerative braking and only
supply when it all Jead te insulation citances between ible, due to absence of enough
failure and damage to the equipment, It dynamic braking is resorted to, load to absorb this energy,
line and ground and w is, therefore, Thus, drive regenerates as much
which cannot energyas the source is capable
necessary that the aoe braking with be utilised is dissipated in a resistance by dynamic
a provision to dissipate excess ener
braking. The regener osite braking. gy through dynamic
As regenerative braking of series moto
Brak r is not reliable,
mosting is known as sted rotor is used in regenera
ly separately ne in Fig, tive drives, A chopper controlled drive with
10.18. de supply feeds the
composite braking Iss the drive through a Lp-Ce filte
source current within a tole r which
rable Tange by filtering out
keeps the harmonies ” er. §5 is semi the harmonics
generated by the eee conductor switch, and MS; and MS)
are the mechanical
switch, which allows reve rsal of motor connection
switches. RS is the adh ctor with respect to cheppers are used. Because of
low frequency dperation of these
L is added when the motor armature inductance devices {around 300-800 Hz)
heen the Aad B. corent ripple with is not enough to Source current harmonics can pose
in perm a problem. Two or three phase
ee i q issi ble value and to provide good tegenera choppers {2} are used to
braking performance. The drive operates as follows: tive S a motor fed from a three-phase
chopper.
: oe tion mechanic ring opera
ssis periodically operated. al switches MS and MS) are kept closed
Motoring operation: ao
and the Semiconducor ss ough During the on period of the
the path consisting semiconductor
of source, Ly, MS),
SS, L, motor armature and
MS. ny ing dl wy intera of the chopper. During the off perio
d of the semiconductor switch, the
MS» Biving duty ireew heels through the path consisting of closed switch MS,,
Dz and L.
Compos ite braking: . For braking operation mechanical
OMposy switches MS, and MS, are kept open,
Is » 6 Fig. 10.19 Three-phase chopper fed de motor
Kl-r u traction drive
+ —
I MS, SS 10.14 POLYPHASE ac MOTORS FOR
OT a D; TRACTION DRIVES
+
A Advantages of ac motors over
yi ean Ge RE
.

hd ruggedness and higher Power per

de are given in Sec. 10.8.2. Beca
use of negligible maintenance,
unit weight or volume, the Squirrel ;
Re KD, OOO [as
ideally suitable for traction appl
ications, Because of higher effic
-cage induction motor is
iency, and simpler and cheaper
a D
Fig. 10,18 Chopper controlied traction drive with composi Variable frequency control is
te braking used both for itiduction motor
and synchronous motor.
 i

|
7
|
tt

i ah
Traction Drives 343
342 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives.
i

an induction motors connected in paralle!. The inverter switches S, to Sg may consists of self-commutated
Fig. 10.20 shows the modes of operation employed for vatiable frequency control of
torque, by keeping devices such as GTO, power transistor or IGBT or a forced commutated thyristor. IGBT is the
motdr. From zero to the base speed @,,y, the motor is accelerated at a constant
accelerates most suitable device for motor coaches. :
the Vif ratio constant and increasing it at low speeds. Above the base speed the motor
One motor 's
in the constant power mode witli a constant ¥ and variable f. At a critical speed
reduced
break-down-torque limit is reached (Sec. 6.12.3), therefore, the motor power is gradually
it with lesser and lesser stator current. The figure.also shows modes of motor
by operating.
Above
operation during braking, From zero to a speed @,.2 motor is braked at a constant torque.
braking torque so as 10 avoid + exceeding wheel to rail :
Oncr the motor is braked at a decreasing . Pe :
adhesion capability and to limit the peak power requiremen ts of the drive. Similar curves are
obtained in case of synchronous motor.
Op,

\
For dynamic
braking
Induction
Motors
Fig: 10.21 PWM VSI Induction motor drive

A locomotive, because of high power rating will employ suitable number of voltage source
, inverters, with each inverter feeding a suitable number of squirrel-cage motors connected in parallel.
GTOs are popular, although forced commutated thyristors have also been used in-the past.
Because of PWM inverter, the drive has smooth acceleration. The regenerative braking is
inherent in the sense that no additional equipment is required to achieve it. If inverter frequency
is lowered to make synchronous speed less than the motor speed, the drive operation shifts from
Braking Motoring
motoring tc regenerative braking. Whenever, a possibility exists that regenerated energy may not
be fully absorbed by the source, a facility for dynamic brakingsis added by the incorporation of
fa) T
frequency control
Rg, Sg, 5 and D. While regenerating if the source is not able to absorb all the regenerated energy,
Fig. 10.20 Modes of operation of ac motors with variable
excess energy is absorbed by filter capacitor C and its voltage V, rises. When V, crosses a
prescribed limit, S is opened to isolate the source from de link of the inverter and Sx is closed
Several drives employing squirrel-cage induction and synchronous motors are in use in traction.
Here only those drives are presented which have received.wide acceplance. to initiate dynamic braking.
The PWM VSI induction motor drive has following advantages:
10.15 THE de TRACTION EMPLOYING POLYPHASE ac MOTORS (1) Smooth acceleration due to absence of low speed torque pulsations.
(ii) Good adhesion due to fast dynamic response and absence of torque pulsations.
For 1500 V and 750 V de tractions, following ac drives are widely used:
(iii) Voltage source inverter is more suitable for multi-motor drives.
(i) Pulsewidth Modulated (PWM) Voltage Source Inverlar (VSI) Squirrel-cage Induction tiv) Low. weight, volurne and cost.
Motor Drives. {v) Simpler control and efficient operation.
(ii) Load Commutated Inverter (LCI) Synchronous Motor Drives. (vi) Regenerative braking capability
The following sections briefly describe these drives: One major drawback of this drive is the possibility of a shoot through fault in the voitage
source inverter, The inverter is designed carefully to prevent such a fault. Further, expensive
PWM Voltage Source Inverter (VST) Induction Motor Drives :
10.15.1 fuses are used to protect the switches 5; to Sg against a shoot through fault.
Operation and performance of VSI drive is described in Sec. 6.13, PWM VSI induction motor
drive for traction is shown in Fig. 10.21. A pulsewidth modulated voltage source inverter converts 10.15.2 Load Commutated Inverter Fed Synchronous Motor Drives
de into variabie frequency and variable voltage ac, which is then fed to induction motors. Each This is shown in Fig. 10.22. The inverter is a current source inverter employing thyristors T|—
motor coach of a suburban train may employ a single inverier feeding several squirrel-cage
1
i
344 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives Traction Drives 345

T,. The commutation of inverter thyristor is done by the voltages induced in armature of the (iti) Larger weight.and volume.
to (iv) Bach motor should have its own inverter and these inverters can be connected in series but
synchronous motor. Such a drive is explained in greater detail in Sec. 7.5. A chopper is used
obtain a variable de voltage V4, from the fixed source voltage V. The V,, is varied with V4
so that | not in parallel. When large traction motors are involved the drive becomes expensive and
a required current is supplied to the de link, and therefore, to the motor. During motoring, the complex. Series connection also has adverse effect on adhesion.
to the motor. When the Inverter is more reliable due to absence of shoot through fault.
power flows from the dc mains through the chopper, de link and inverter (v)
inverter firing angle is changed from close to 180° to 0°, the voitage V4, reverses. If chopper (vi) Because of torque pulsations produced by harmonics, the acceleration is not smooth. This
flows
operation is also changed to make +4, negative but less than Vy in magnitude, the power also has adverse effect on adhesion.
from the load, through the machine, inverter and chopper to the de mains, giving regenerative
braking operation. Here arrangement for dynamic braking is not shown, but it can be incorporated 10.16 THE ac TRACTION EMPLOYING POLYPHASE ac MOTORS
in the samme way as shown in Fig. 10.21. Following ao drives are widely used in 25 kV ac traction:
‘Two quadrant Load commutated
chopper inverter (i) Current Source Inverter (CSI) Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Drive.
Filter ------ by pcs 17779 Commutation (ii) PWM Voltage Source Inverter (VST) Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor (IM) Drive.
| circuit for * (iii) Load Commutated Inverter (LCI) Synchronous Motor Drive.
7| low speeds
Following sections briefly describe the operations of these drives.

10.16.1 CSI Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Drive

Performance and operation of CSI induction motor drive is given in Sec. 6.17. Figure 10.23
shows details of the traction drive. In a multistage converter ac is converted into de with
sequence control to improve converter power factor and to reduce harmonics produced by it.
Filters and static VAR.compensators ate used to maintain power factor above 0.8 and to Keep
. the harmonics within acceptable limits. Current source inverter (CSD converts de into variable
Synchronous frequency current which is then fed to the induction miotor. Each motor is fed from a separate
motor CSI. Since CSI are not suitable for parallel opezation, they are connected in series. When four
_ motors aré employed: one alternative will be to connect all the four inverters in series, each
Fig. 10.22 Load commutated inverter synchronous motor drive feeding its own motor,. A single converter in sequence control then feeds all the four inverters.

Filters
Armature induced voltages are too small to commutate inverter thyristors at low speeds,
and VAR fy
including standstill. Thyristors T; and Tgand capacitor C are used to commutate inverter thyristors compensatot -
at low speeds. Around 10% of the base speed gate pulses are withdrawn from Tz and Tg, and the
load commutation is employed.
Due to the presence of L,, inverter is essentially current source inverter. Therefore, each
traction rnotor is fed by its own inverter. If there are four traction motors, four such inverters will

Converters in sequence control

be required. Further, because of current source characteristics, the inverters can be connected in
series but not in parallel. Thus, when four iraction motors are used one alternative will be to
connect all four inverters in series fed by a common chopper. Such a series connection will have
adverse effect on adhesion. Alternatively, on¢ can connect two inverters in series, and each such
series pair is then fed by its own chopper.
This drive has following features in comparison to PWM VSI induction motor drive:
(i) Because of an additional power stage (i.e. chopper), the converter efficiency is lower, but
;
the motor efficiency is higher
nse giving
(ii) Due to the presence of large inductance Ly, the drive has slow dynamic respo
inferior adhesion. Fig. 10.23 CSI squirrel-cage induction motor drive
346 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives Traction Drives 344

Another alternative will be to connect two inverters in series powered by one sequence controlled braking operations respectively. During motoring operation, power flows from source-through
fed from one sequence SLC, de link and inverter into motor. Here /, is in phase with V, and Vy and /, have polarities as
converter (Fig. 10.23). Two such pairs, each consisting of two inverters
controlled converters, are then supplied from a common transformer . The current source inverter: shown in the figure. When machine operation is shifted to braking, J, reverses and I, has a phase
has a circuit shown in Fig. 6.45. At low speeds pulsewidth modulation is sometimes employed: of 180° with respect to V,, and therefore, pawer generated by motor flows through inverter, de
2 smo oth star t. link and SLC to ac supply giving regenerative braking. As the power supplied to the de link jg
to achieve
inverter frequency is reduced independent of power taken from it, a closed loop control of dc link voltage is used to balance
Regenerative br. aking capability is inherent in the drive. For this

]
oring to braking and the converter is operated as inv erter. " the two (Fig. 10.25(a)). A constant voltage across the dc link capacitor is obtained when the
m tur
rationingfrofea
to shift motor hasopefol motes:
The drive low power supplied to the de link equals the power taken from it. Since the SLC works as a boost
converter, the closed loop control of dc link voltage ensures that the torque and power capability
(i) Bulky, heavy and expensive. of the drive remains unaffected by a drop in source voltage. This SLC fed PWM VSI induction
connection.
(ii) Poor adhesion due to slow dynamic response and series motor drive is the most widely used drive. ABB locomotive in Indian Railway has this drive.
has all the advantages of PWM inverter induction motor drive listed in Sec. 10.15.1. As compared
10.162 PWM VSI Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Drive to other ac motor drives employed in ac traction, it has the unique advantages of high power
Operation and performance of PWM VSI drive are explained in Sec. 6.13. factor, low harmonics in source current achieved with a simple filter and ride through capability
The PWM VSI squirrel-cage motor tractions drive is shown in Fig. 10.24. de link is supplied against voltage sag and under voltages.
of diode rectifier,
from ac source through a transformer and a diode rectifier. Because of the use
repenerative braking is not possible, hence dynamic braking is employed. Operation of drive is,
the same as that of the drive of Fig. 10.21 except that,regencrative braking is not possible.:
Important features of this drive are also the same as those of Fig. 10.21 (listed in Sec. 10.15.1).

soos]
Braking

oo")
tesistor VSI

21-4

ae
Thoooreon,

os
—_
|
Aly

7"
5
7
=

/—.-—_—+
}—__——*

i—[>}—
rn

Diode de nn naa i
Banas po nnn Control and
bridge. link i 2 firing circuit

ehelele I
(a) Synchronous link converter

¥, y
Fig. 10.24 PWM YSI squirrel cage IM drive with dynamic braking

The drive can be provided with regenerative braking capability by replacing circuit on the; | Vy Vv;

left of AB in Fig. 10.24 by synchronous link converter (SLC) circuit shown in Fig. 10.25. SLC . rf @
employs GTO switches for a locomotive and IGTB switches for a motor coach. It operates ati y ; V,
goity fundamental power factor and lowharmonic content in source current, which can be adequately’ (b) Motoring (c) Braking

filtered by a low cost highpass filter. :

Fig. 10.25 SLC operation at unity power factorfor motoring and regenerative braking operation
Operation of 3-phase SLC (Fig. 6.40) and SLC fed PWM VSI induction motor drive are:
deseribed in Sec. 6.13.2. Circuit of Fig. 10.25 is a I-phase SLC, and therefore, employs 1-phase 10.16.3 Load Commutated Inverter (LCI) Synchronous Motor Drive
PWM inverter. The inverter and inductor L, together form SLC. For producing a given value of
LCI synchronous motor drive is described in Sec. 7.5. High efficiency and high speed capability,
J, in phase with V,, the PWM inverter produces an ac input voltage V; of given phase and
and ability for regenerative braking are some of the important features of this drive. A traction,
magnitude, as shown in phasor diagrams of Fig. 10.25(b) and (c) for motoring and regenerative
 es
348 Fundamentals of Electrical Driv Traction Drives 349

a io C'S] are replaced by LCT and induction motor by synchronous most suited to the traction load. Several electric transmissions have been used, the most common
drive is‘obtained when inFig 1020 Fig. 10.22. Ail important features of the drive of Fig. 10.22 ones are:
motor. Ll has the _ reept (i), ae applicable here. As compared to regenerative drive
described (i) Diese! engine driven de generator feeding dc series motor.
oat in Sec, F 10.152, ion, ¢
this has lower power factor and high harmonic content, unless
:
described in aan ower fact! correction is employed. French Railways TGV use this
:
(ii) Diesel engine driven three phase alternator supplying dc series traction motors through
eavy filtering ;
semiconductor diode rectifier. —
drive. (iii) Diesel engine driven alternator feeding squirel-cage motors through diode rectifier followed’

DIESEL ELECTRIC TRACTION

by 3-phase voltage source inverter.
10.17
electric traction is justified only where there is sufficient volume of 10.171 Diesel Engine Driven de Generator Feeding de Series Motors . .
Because. of high initial cost, ferable where the traffic is limited. Boundary between these two Block diagram of the scheme is shown in Fig, 10.27. Diesel engine has a very small overloading
_ traffic. Diesel traction is pre! capacity. Even a 10% overload results in stalling the engine. It becomes necessary to modify the
‘ors such as initial cost, running cost, amount of traffic,
alternatives depends on several fact
© mployed both for locomotives and motor coaches. As in
maintenance etc. Diesel tract; ion 1s in main line traction. Motor coaches are employed in i Traction motors
clectic«tract!
tact af vesdensities
are used andin main
are not used in‘ suburban trains.
maeDiesel
electric;
branch lines wi . : ial i . +
are. * used
iocomotives are.also
locomoilves at low material
transporting
cannot forfunction in steel plants .
speeds and hence cannot be directly Diesel | v
coupled to the
A diesel engine* ca bout its most favourable value of constant speed and power is engine "]
a
driving wheels - i euacen using
at al
either electric or hydraulic5 transmissi
se
on, Both transmissi.ons
transmitted to the dn "
function like a gear system whe otstio can:of bea changed steplessly over a large range. The
diesel engine for different levels Of fuel i f.
speed-torque an Een in Fig. 10.26. These characteristic may vary with the type of
Field
injection are somew. ‘inject on, speed of working and degree of supercharging; but the nature controller .
engine, method of Fee im 18 Th ¢ torque is roughly independent of speed over
an appreciable
remains as shown in Fig. 1U. mewhat at higher speeds. The value of speed corresponding
to Fig. 10.27 Diesel electric traction using de generator and de series traction motors
range, but tends to See ical Engine is, therefore, driven at the optimum
speed and electric
maximum Po ne oe eriet) is used to tansmit power to the driving wheels in a manner generator characteristics so that overloading of the diesel engine can be avoided. Desired V-I
transmission characteristic of the generator are shown in Fig. 10.28. The ideal system of electric transmission
for diesel electric locomotive is one in which
full horse power of the engine can be ulilised v
by conversion into tractive effort over the wide
range of locomotive speeds, i.e, for a given
fuel injection the generator output power must

j sf /
zy .

bé held constant regardless of speed of the -

traction motors. ‘When operatingat full fuel
wo fet tet el injection, part BC of the characteristic ABCD
ensures operation of the generator at constant
eT power (V x I = constant). Part CD is obtained .
Output power
by imposing a limit on generator current fer:
(a) b) (i) protecting the generator and motor and
Fig, 10.25 Speed torque and speed output power curves of a diesel engine (jii).to limit the traction motor torque. Too high
ig. 10. : . traction motor torque can produce twé Fig. 10.28 Generator V-f characteristics
ig already discussed in Sec. 5.7 (Fig. 5.22). Readers are undesirable results: (1) with high adhesion .
advised to read
Base schemes of desl oe reefing Ins pt of Sec. 1017
the last two paragraphs of Sze. 5.7 be
between locomotive’s driving wheels and fails, draw bar fracture might result, and (2) with low
adhesion, slippingof driving wheels might result, Pait AB is realised by imposing generator
 baad

Traction Drives 35}

350 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
exceed the rated value, and iit) Use of brushless alternator results in reduced maintenance.
voltage limit so that: (a) generator and motor voltages do not
oo sppepome (iv) Efficiency of transmission is improved by 2-4%.
(b) motor speed will remain within a safe limit.
has the charact eristic s A‘B’C’D’ and A”B“C"D” (v) With the cost of alternator-rectifier being less and with lower maintenance the scheme is
For lower diesel engine fuel injections, generator
power. Current
etc. Parts B’C’ and B“C” of these charactezistics represent operation at a constant
more economical. .
for smooth accelcration
jimits C’D' and C’D” and voltage limits A’B’ and A“B"are incorporated
(vi) Advantage of good adhesion is retained due to paralle] connection of all motors.
and condition and strength of rails.
and to deal with varying conditions of tack related to slope, The only disadvantage of altenator-rectifier scheme is that the engine cannot be started by
The characteristics $, and S2 are provided for shunting. ~ this arrangement. A separate starting motor is provided for this purpose.
generator to work as a
Diesel engine does not have starting torque. It is started by making
motor. For this the generator may be fed from a battery. 10.17.3 Diesel Engine Driven Alternator Feeding Squirrel-Cage Induction Moters
Through Diode-Bridge and Inverter
Motors
10.17.2 Diesel Engine Driven Three-Phase Alternator Supplying de Figure 10.30 shows the block diagram of this scheme. Both six-step and PWM inverter can be
ive using 2 brushless alternator.
Figure 10.29 shows the circuit diagram of a diesel electric locomot tor used. When six-step inverter is used voltage control is provided by adjustment of alternator field
Excitation of an alterna
The de series traction motors are supplied through two diode bridges. current. When PWM inverter is used, voltage control is provided by the inverter itself and the
gs and brushes which require
is usually obtained by feeding dc into the rotor by means of slip-rin rectifier output voltage can be maintained constant at the rated value. This allows reduction in
:
frequent maintenance. the current rating of alternator and diode rectifter; further reducing the cost, weight and size of
the generating unit. A cycloconverter can also be used instead of diode rectifier and inverter, But
then the alternator myst be driven at a higher speed.

Brushless |- ; p
Voltage -
}——— Brushless alternator ——| 7] alternator [77] Rectifier --*) source >} Induction
erator inverter motors
Field Stator
Field Reter ' Diesel
S-phase Traction - engine
diode bridges motors
Fig. 10.30 Block diagram of diesel electric drive using inverter fed induction motors
et

Because of the use of squirrel-cage motors, alternator and inverter, this scheme has following
AVA

Bxclter Alternator
advantages: 7
Rotating part
Je driven by diesel —+| (i) High ratio of power output, to locomotive weight. The locomotive can therefore pull
engine
riers

heavier trains on faster schedules.

(ii) High power rating.
Fig. 10.29 Diesel electric traction employing brushless alternator and de series traction motors Git) Reduced maintenance and overtime.
excitation (iv) High efficiency due to low power losses.
In the present scheme brushes and slip-rings are eliminated by the use of brushless (v) All motors can be connected in parallel providing best condition from the point of view
system. It employs an exciter which is an alternator with inverted rotor and stator functions, i.e.:
of "of adhesion.
field is on the stator and three phase ac winding on the rotor Exciter is mounted on the shaft
by a diode bridge
alternator, Three phase voltages induced in the rotor of exciter are rectified
which is mounted on the rotor shaft, and therefore, revolves with it. The rectified voltage is fed:
PROBLEMS
by the control of exciter field:
to the field of the alternator. Alternator field adjustment is done
of Fig. 10.27:
current. This scheme has following advantages compared to de generator scheme 10. Define the coefficient of adhesion. In what way it is different from the coefficient of friction? What are
By. the factors which influence the value of coefficient of adhesion? Explain your answer in detail.
(i) Because of low maximum speed, the maximum power rating of a de generator is low. 10.2 Describe the duty cycles of main line and suburban trains.
the use of an alternator, maximum power rating of a diesel electric locomotive can be
10.3. Why the traction drive should have large torque at low speeds and when just being started. Why the
increased. ; torque required during free running is lower than the torque required during starting?
down the
(ii) Reduction in the weight of generating unit by around 50%. It also brings 10.4 For good adhesion, the motor speed-torque characteristic should have low speed regulation, and for
volume and cost of generating unit. good sharing of loads between motors, the speed-torque curve should have high speed regulation.
Why?
 es
352 Fundamentals of Electrical Driv Traction Drives 4353

10.5 Why a train drivenby separately excited dc motors has better adhesion .than a train driven by series de reduced fram 150 kmph to 100 kmph by regenerative braking. The tractive resistance is 40 Nétonne,
effect of rotational mass is 10% and efficiency of the drive in regenerative braking is 80%. Calculate
9
service? Why a locomotive the energy returned to the line.
10.6 Whatis the main difference between main ine train service and local train A 509 tonne train moves as follows:
service?
is preferred for the main line train service and motor coaches for the suburban train
10.7 List and explain the advantages of using electric braking instead of mechanical brakes.
(i) Uniform acceleration of 3 kmphps on a level track for § min

10.8 What are the disadvantages of the low power factor and supply current harmonic distortion
in traction (ii) Constant speed for 30 min up-gradient with G = 10
: . - : : . Git) Constant speed for 30 min on down gradient with G + 20
drives?
of following: (iv) Coasting for 5 min on a level wack .
10.9 A train service consists
Uniform acceleration of 5 kmphps for 30 sec (v) Regenerative braking to stop at 3 kmphps on a level track.
Train resistance is 30 N/tonne, rotational inertia effect 10% and combined efficiency of power modulator,
Free nmning for 10 min
Uniform braking at 5 koyphps to stop * motor and transmission both during motoring and braking is 85%. Calculate the specific energy
- : consumption.
min
AstopofS — . 4
Calculate (a} Distance between the stations, (b) Average speed and (c) Scheduled speed. A train is employed to transport ore form the top of the hill to a factory below. The fully loaded train
of following: ; . weighing 250 tonnes moves down under regenerative braking and the empty train weighs 50 tonnes.
10.10 A train service consists
2 min
Uniform acceleration of 1 kmphps for
The track has a length of 20-km with a slope such that G = 50. The train resistance is 40 N/tonne, and
ing for 30 min the combined efficiency of power modulator, motor and transmission both during motoring and braking
Coating ford min at a deceleration of 0.1 kmphps is 80 %. Calculate the total energy consumption per duty cycle, neglecting periods of acceleration and
Uniform braking at 1.2 kinphps to stop deceleration.
A 1000 tonnes goods train is to be hauled by a locomotive with an acceleration of 1.2 kmphps on a
Asore ta isace between the stations and (b} Scheduled speed. jevel track. Coefficient of adhesion is 0.3, track resistance 30 N/tonne and effective rotating masses
10.17 An electric train has acceleration and deceleration of 5 kmphps between two stations at 15 km aprt. 10% of train weight. Find the weight of the locomotive and number of axles, if load per axle should
Assuming # trapezoidal speed-time curve, calculate speed during free running if the running time of not be more than 20 tonnes. Also calculate the minimum time required to accelerate the train toa speed
the train is 6 min. ; ; _ od 50 kmph on up-gradient with G = 10.
10.12 ‘A 100 tonnes locomotive is entployed to drive a train weighing 500 tonnes. The effect of rotating A local train uses motor coaches and trailer coaches in the ratio of f : 2. The weight of a motor coach
inertia is to make the effective mass higherby 10%. The locomotive has 4 de motors, each geared to is 50 tonnes and that of a trailer 35 totnes. All wheels of a motor coach are driving wheels. Train
the driving axle through a reduction gear with a= 0.25. Transmission system efficiency is 95%. Each resistance is 30 N/tonne, and effective rotating mass of 10% of the dead weight. If the coefficient of
wheel has a radius of 0.54 m. Train resistance is 30 NAonae. Determine coupling torque per motor adhesion is 0.3, determine
required to accelerate the train at 2kmphps on a level track. If maximum train speed is 150 kmph, what (a) Maximum acceleration on a level track.
; ;
is the maximum speed of the moter? (b) Maximum deceleration on a level track.
10.13 ‘A 80 tonne Locomotive is employed to drive a train weighing 400 tonnes. The locomotive is driven by (c) Distance covered and average speed wher the train has free running speed of 150 kmph for
4 de motors, each geared to a driving axle through a reduction gear with a = 0.3. The train has 48 5 sec. :
wheels (cluding he wheels of locomotive), each with a radius of 0.5 m and weight of 450 kg. The (d) What will be the answers of (a) to (c) when motor and trailer coaches are used in the ratio of
mass of each motor is 5 tonnes and the average diameter of the armature core is 1.0 m. The train Ish
resistance is 30 Nicnne. Inertia of rotating paris other than wheels and motors can be neglected. A track is to be designed for transporting ore from a place at the top of the hill to a place at the bottom
on a up gradient
Calculate the coupling torque per motor required to accelerate the train at | kmphps of the hill. The weight of the locomotive is 40 tonnes, all coming on driving wheels. Train weight is
withG = 10, Transmission efficiency is 95%. 100 tonnes when loaded and 60 tonnes when empty. The train uses different routes for climbing up and
10,14 ‘A 80 tonne motorcoach is driven by 4 motors, each developing a torque of 2500 N-m during acceleration. for moving down. The coefficient of adhesion is 0.3. Calculate the maximum allowable gradients for
If up-gradient is 20 in 1000, gear ratio 0.25, gear transmission efficiency of 95%, wheel radius 0.5 m, the two routes. Train resistance is 35 Nitonne and effective rotating mass 10% of the dead weight.
the
train resistance 25 Nftonae, effective mass-on account of rotational inertia is 10% higher, calculate
:
Acceleration when clirabing up should not be less than 3 kmphps and deceleration when climbing
time taken to attain a speed of 100 kmph. down should not be more than 2 kmphps.
10.15 An electric train weighing 500 tonnes climbs an up-gradient with G = 10 and with fotlowiug speed- A locomotive of 100 tonnes can just accelerate a train of 200 tonnes at an-acceleration of 2 kmphps on
a level track. Track resistance is 30 N/tonne and increase of mass due to rotational inertia is 10%.
100 sec
a Upifor acceleration of 1 .5 kmphps for Calculate the maximum acceleration on an upgradient with G = 10,
(ii) Constam speed for 60 min A locomotive of 100 tonnes can just accelerate a train of 500 tonnes with an acceleration of 1.25 kmphps
(iii) Coasting for 3 min ona level track. Train resistance is 35 Nétonne and increase of mass dueo rotational inertia is 10%.
;
tiv) Dynamic braking at 2. kinphps to rest 80% of iocomotive weight is carried on the driving wheels. When the train moves through a hilly
Frain resistance is 30 N/tonne, rotational inertia effect 10% and combined efficiency of transmission, region, ancther locomotive of 60 tonnes with a adhesive weight of 100% is added. Calculate the
energy consumption.
motor and power modulatoris 85%. Determine, (a) Average speed and (b) Specific maximum acceleration when climbing a gradient of 50 in 1006.
10.16 ‘What will be the specific energy consumption when the train of Problem 10.15 moves downa gradient 10.25 A locomotive of 100 tonnes with an adhesive weight of 100% can just accelerate a 500 tonnes train
with G = 10. with an acceleration of 1 kmphps on up-gradient with G = 10. The train resistance is 30 Nétonne and
is
10.17 bens tonnes (rain travels a down gradient of 20 in’ 1000 for 50 sec during which period its specd rotational inertia effect of 10%. This locomotive is assisted by another 100 tonne locomotive with an
 ya
a
\

354 Fundamentalsof Electrical Drives

adhesive weight of 80%. Calculate the weight of additional bogies that could be attached to the train
maintaining the same schedule of operation of the same track.
State and explain the issues which should be examined to decide the suitability of regenerative braking
for a given traction application. ;
Why it is necessary to usually combine dynamic braking with regenerative braking?
Why dynamic braking is more common than regenerative braking? Can you get rid of mechanical
brakes when dynamic braking is used?
Recent trend is to use separately excited motors instead of series motors in traction drives. Why?
In some of the recent de traction mnotor drives, dc compound motor has been used. Why?
What makes the squirrel-cage induction motor the best motor for traction application?
Energy Conservation iri Electrical Drives
What type of closed lodp control scheme is employed in traction drive? What are its advantages.
State and explain various modes of operation of a de motor for the traction application. ‘
State and explain the modes of operation of squirel-cage induction motor for the traction application.
Describe the disadvantages of de traction using resistance control. i
In order to keep the manufacturing cost of a product minimum, and make its price competitive
Discuss 25 kV ac traction drive employing transformer with tap-changer. What are its advantages and. in the market, it is necessary to minimise energy consumption at all stages of the manufacturing
disadvantages? ‘
process including electrical drives. Energy conservation is also necessary because with the ever
Describe the advantages and drawbacks of semiconductor converter controlled traction drives,
Discuss 25 kV ac traction drive employing thyristor converter controlled de motors. Why a converter increasing demand, need for electrical power can only be met by conserving electrical power in
with sequence control is employed? ; addition to installation of new generating units. A major proportion of electrical power in a plant
Why and how power factor compensation and harmonic reduction is done in 25 kV ac traction drive: is consumed by electrical drives. Significant amount of electrical energy can be saved by the use
for locomotive using thyristor converter fed de motors? of efficient and right type of electrical drives. This chapter briefly describes measures to be taken
Explain dynamic braking operation of 25 kV ac traction drive using thyristor converter fed de motors. for conservation of energy in electrical drives which is an issue of great concern today.
What are the advantages of using thyristor converter in comparison with transformer tap-changér
:
scheme in 25 k'¥ ac traction using de motors?
In & 25 KV ac traction employing thyristor converter fed de motors, it is customary to connect in 11.1 LOSSES IN ELECTRICAL DRIVE SYSTEM
parallel de motor pairs with each pair consisting of twe moters in series. Why? ‘ :
State and explain the advantages of chopper control over resistance control in a de traction.
Energy conservation in electrical drive is achieved by reduction of losses in its various parts.
er EE
RE SRG

Describe a chopper controlled dc traction drive with composite braking, How it is ensured to minimise Typical losses include the following:
energy dissipation in dynamic braking (or maximise energy fedback)? i
(i) Electrical transmission losses: These losses depend on the drive power factor and harmonics
Explain the modes of aperation of a variable frequency controlled induction motor traction drive for
ag3d

motoring and braking. , : in the line current. .

Describe the braking operation of voltage source inverter fed induction motor drive. : Gi) Conversion losses in the power modulator (or converter): The semi-conductor converter
ai

State the advantages and disadvantages of dc traction drive employing PWM voltage source inverter usually has low conversion losses.
fed induction motor drive. ; , :
(iii) Electric motor losses to convert electric power into mechanical power: These are determined
tap wetsthpmeet

Discuss the operation of de traction drive employing voltage source inverter fed induction mator drive. by choice of motor (quality of its design and selection of right rating) and quality of
. :
How composite braking is carried out?
What are the important features of load commutated inverter fed synchronous motor de traction drive?
supply (voltage variations, unbalance, frequency variations and harmonics).
Why the coefficient of adhesion is not as good as in voltage source inverter induction motor drive?, (iv), Mechanica! losses in the parts of the transmission system such as bearings, gears, clutches
Explain the operation of ac traction drive using PWM voltage source inverter induction motor drive - and belts.
with a provision for dynamic braking. What are its main features? (v Losses in the load: As explained in Chapter 1, load is a machine required to perform 4

=
10.51 Describe load commutated inverter synchronous motor ac traction drive. How does it operate in specified task such as fan, pump and train.
regenerative braking? How does it compare with PWM voltage source inverter induction motor drive? (vi) Losses caused by throttling or by other means that control material flow by absorbing or
10.52 When diesel electric traction is preferred over electric traction? ,
bypassing excess output.
10.53 Why a diesel engine cannot be used to directly drive the locomotive?
10,54 What is ihe role of a torque converter in a diesel electric. action? ” (vii) Mechanical transmission losses, such as friction losses to move material from one location
10.55 Expiain the operation of diesel action drive employing a torque converter consisting of an altemator, to another. Losses in pipe line carrying fluid is one such example.
;
diode bridge and de series motors.
10.56 What kind of braking is used in diesel electric tractio n? Explain your answer. The efficient operation of an electrical drive, with minimum consumption of energy, requires
that the drive and the driven machinery (or load) operate efficiently. This calls for careful design
+ of both electrical and mechanical systems. Only those measures are considered here which can
lead to efficient operation of electrical drive systems.