INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AUTOMOTIVE AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (IJAME)

ISSN: 2229-8649 e-ISSN: 2180-1606

VOL. 19, ISSUE 4, 10084 – 10093
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15282/ijame.19.4.2022.05.0779

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Throttling Effect on the Performance and Emissions of a Multi-Cylinder Gasoline

Fuelled Spark Ignition Engine
Khalaf I. Hamada1, *, M. F. Rahim2 , M. M. Raham2 and Rosli A. Bakar2
1Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Tikrit University, 34100 Iraq
2Faculty of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26600 Pahang, Malaysia

ARTICLE HISTORY
ABSTRACT – The throttle mechanism, a regulatory technique of engine output, is accompanied Received: 26th Oct. 2020
by a loss of some energy. The effect of intake air throttling on the performance and emissions of a Revised: 22nd Nov. 2022
multi-cylinder spark ignition gasoline engine was experimentally investigated. The engine was Accepted: 10th Dec. 2022
coupled to a hydraulic dynamometer equipped with a customized cooling system for both the Published: 28th Dec. 2022
engine and dynamometer. Experimental tests were performed for various engine speeds and air-
fuel ratios at the WOT and POT conditions with optimized ignition timing. The acquired results KEYWORDS
recorded that a better engine operation could be achieved with WOT in terms of bmep, bsfc, ηb, Part load;
CO, CO2 and UHC compared to POT. At the same time, the worst trend at WOT was noticed for Throttle position;
Naturally aspirated;
the NOx concentration due to the higher conversion efficiency of fuel combustion. In terms of engine
Carburetted engine
speed for both WOT and POT conditions, operating at 3000 rpm represents the minima of ϕ, bsfc,
CO and UHC; and the maxima of ηb, CO2 and NOx with some fluctuation on both sides of this point.
Maximum recorded values of ηb were about 30.55% and 28. 55%, while the minimum values of
bsfc were about 274 and 293 g/kW.h for the WOT and POT conditions, respectively. The maximum
bmep was obtained at 2500 rpm at WOT and POT conditions with values of about 940 kPa and
904 kPa, respectively. Maximum recorded values of NOx were about 1525 and 977 ppm for the
WOT and POT conditions, respectively.

INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engine (ICE) is the leading technology employed as the power generator of various vehicles and
steering the transportation sector for more than 100 years. Among different categories of ICEs, spark ignition (SI) is one
of the most favourable prime movers for passenger vehicles [1],[2]. Several mechanisms have been implemented to
achieve a regular and smooth operation of SI engines under various conditions. For example, a reduction technique of
engine output torque is required for all spark ignition (SI) engines to meet their load and speed range [3]. To match this
requirement for conventional carburetted SI engines, the airflow is usually restricted by the intake throttle plate, which
governs the fuel flow through the carburettor [4], as well as controls the air quantity which enters into the combustion
chamber [5]. As a result of throttle restriction, the manifold absolute pressure (MAP) falls below atmospheric pressure
through the intake manifold. This prevents airflow into the cylinder as the piston descends; thereby, the induced fresh
charge would be less than its amount at un-throttled conditions [6]. To compensate for this reduction, the engine should
perform extra work on the piston, which increases the intake pumping losses. As a result, under part load conditions,
engines use some of the work to pump air across the partially closed throttle valve [7]. Consequently, the thermal
efficiency of the spark ignition engine, which is running at low loads, is reduced due to the effect of the throttle valve that
controls the engine load and by the fact that the compression starts at low pressure [8]. Furthermore, the reduction of
airflow into the engine cylinder causes a lack of oxygen, leading to incomplete combustion of the fuel-air mixture.
Subsequently, undesirable exhaust gas emissions could be produced from the engine running under such conditions [9].
Numerous techniques have been adopted on conventional carburetted engines to mitigate pumping losses. One of the
oldest approaches is adopted the concept of the Miller cycle engine to diminish this type of loss. The Miller cycle engine
is characterized by its long expansion stroke compared to the conventional Otto cycle engine [10]. It was a candidate for
the concept of Miller cycle to simulate engine operation under part load conditions instead of the traditional Otto cycle
[11]. Furthermore, an adjustment of the compression ratio and the variation of valve timing has revealed that a substantial
enhancement could be achieved [12]. Further developments were latterly introduced, including the exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR), variable valve timing (VVT) and lift, variable compression ratio, stratified charge lean burn engine,
and variable displacement [13],[14]. Also, turbine throttling, valve throttling, supercharger de-throttling, and cylinder
deactivation were recently implemented to reduce or even eliminate the use of a conventional throttle. However,
unbalanced vibration and cooling were commonly stimulated to be overcome with these technologies [15]. A significant
reduction in throttle loss was achieved based on the downsized concept of naturally aspirated gasoline engines. However,
a rather great throttling loss is still recorded under part load operation, even for extremely downsized engines [16]. The
fuel injection strategy was introduced as an alternative technique to regulate the engine load in diesel engines. It is

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR | Khalaf |  [email protected] 10084

© The Authors 2022. Published by University Malaysia Pahang Publishing. This is an open access article under the CC BY license.
 Khalaf et al. │ International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering │ Vol. 19, Issue 4 (2022)

comparable to wide open throttle (WOT) conditions in terms of operating without restrictions imposed by the throttle
valve in SI engines. Even if it reduces engine pumping losses, it is limited by operating outside fuel stoichiometry in Otto
cycle engines [17].
Tremendous developments have been accomplished on ICEs which are mostly focused on improving engine
performance and reducing harmful emissions. Abdullah and his co-authors [9] studied the influence of pressure drop
caused by air filters across the intake manifold on the performance and emission of small gasoline SI engines. It was
revealed that a higher pressure of intake air could be acquired by eliminating air filters, which reduces the airflow
restriction in the air intake system. Accordingly, a better combustion process was achieved due to higher air availability,
which improves power output and fuel economy and reduces exhaust emissions. Rashid and his co-authors [4] studied
the influence of the octane value of gasoline fuel on the performance and emission of SI engines. Three octane values of
gasoline fuel were tested, namely, RON95, RON97 and RON102. Experiments were performed at various engine speeds,
ranging from 1000 to 3500 rpm in steps of 500 rpm, with a constant throttle position of 18%. It was revealed that the
higher engine brake torque, power and thermal efficiency were achieved with a higher RON while using the RON97
reduced the brake-specific fuel consumption by about 5–10% compared to RON102 and RON95. Regarding engine
emissions, the lowest concentration of NOx was recorded with the RON102 fuel; however, it was conjugated with the
production of the highest concentration of CO and HC. Finally, it was recommended to use the RON97 fuel, for Malaysian
engine models with the newest technology, due to its’ higher performance and efficiency as well as the most
environmentally friendly. Jahirul and his co-authors [18] experimentally compared the performance and emissions of
gasoline and CNG fuel injection SI engine. Tests were performed with various engine loading ranging from 25% to 65%
of full load over a wide range of engine speeds at 50 and 80 % throttle positions. It was concluded that the 50 % throttle
position worsens CNG and gasoline-fuelled engines’ performance parameters and CO emission. However, the engine test
at full throttle position was avoided for safety as the continuous operation on the CNG produced high exhaust gas
temperature. Aljamali and his co-authors [19] experimentally compared the performance and emissions of gasoline and
CNG-fuelled port injection SI engine. Tests were performed with a full load over a wide range of engine speed 1000 to
6000 rpm, at 50 and 100 % throttle positions. It was revealed that there is no big difference between the results at 50 and
100 % throttle positions for gasoline and CNG fuelled engines. Based on Kilicarslan and Qatu [20], there are not many
studies concerning the emission characteristics of gasoline engines in terms of engine speed. So, they conducted an
experimental analysis of the exhaust gas emission of a gasoline-fueled engine to introduce contribution research in this
area. The engine tests were performed based on various speeds at 60 % throttle position. It was concluded that a similar
trend of NOx and CO emissions with engine speed while the SO2 behave differently.
Sun and his co-authors [21] compared the throttled and unthrottled SI engines in terms of the pumping losses at low-
to-medium loads. An early intake valve closing was fully controlled based on a variable valve hydraulic system instead
of the traditional throttle valve. The unthrottled SI engine was improved by reducing the pumping losses by about 81%
at 2000 rpm and the bsfc by about 4.1% to 11.2% at 2000 and 3000 rpm, respectively. Kardan and his co-authors [22]
investigate the influences of varying throttle positions on the performance and emissions of a nonconventional (crank-
rocker) engine. Experiments were performed with various throttle positions (25%, 50%, 75% and 100%) at constant
engine speed and ignition timing of 2000 rpm and 6.5o bTDC. It was revealed that a throttle position of 75% acquired
the best engine performance in terms of brake torque, power, bsfc and thermal efficiency. Moreover, the emissions trends
behaved comparably to the conventional (crank-slider) engines until the throttle position of 75%. The throttle opening of
the crank-rocker engine wider than 75% leads to the emissions oppositely behaved due to choking of the intake charge.
Accordingly, it was recommended that larger inlet ports should be adopted to improve the performance of such engine
types. A comparison of the gasoline and methane fuelled SI engines based on the environmental characteristics was
performed by Dimitrov and his co-authors [23]. The experiments were performed under WOT and various engine speeds
with the optimum setting of the spark timing and the air-to-fuel mixing for both tested fuels. It was revealed that the
methane-fuelled engine ensures a homogeneous air-fuel mixture over the entire engine speed range, which is not achieved
by a gasoline-fuelled engine. Accordingly, the lower levels of harmful exhaust emissions were attended to due to an
improved combustion process. The influence of the engine load based on partial throttle openings (25% and 75% of
WOT) in low and high conditions was investigated by Yontar and Doğu [24] for gasoline and CNG fuelled SI engines. It
was concluded that engine brake torque and power, as well as the exhaust emission, were dropped while the bsfc was
increased as the throttle opening lowered due to less air induced.
It is generally true that research investigations dealing with the performance of internal combustion engines are carried
out at full load conditions. However, for the greater portion of their lifetime, motor-car engines operate at part-load [24-
25], therefore, investigating the engine efficiency at part-load is of great importance. Conventional gasoline engines use
a throttle to control the engine load, causing substantial pumping losses at part load [26]. Moreover, the engine speed is
mainly governed by the pressure drop across the intake manifold of a naturally aspirated engine [27]. It is expected that
the SI engine has a poor part-load performance compared to the full-load conditions. Besides that, the performance of
ICE and its pollutants are strongly correlated together. So, the impact of load conditions on the performance and emissions
for such types of engines should reveal concurrently [28]. Based on the summarized literature survey above, the influence
of throttle position and engine speed was conducted mostly for fuel injection engines other than carburetted type. Hence,
the purpose of this manuscript is dedicated to investigating the effect of engine speed on the performance and emission
of carburetted type SI engine under wide-open throttle (WOT) and part-open throttle (POT) conditions. An experimental
setup, as well as test procedures, was implemented for a certain multi-cylinder naturally-aspirated gasoline automobile

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engine. Through a robust experimental setup and procedure, a diagnostic analysis can be achieved for the performance
and emissions of the tested engine under part and full-throttle opening conditions.

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
This section is devoted to reporting the main components of the experimental setup and measurement techniques. The
experimental setup consists of a detailed description of the experimental engine test rig and important parameters. The
engine test rig was developed using in-lab facilities and tested for a wide range of speeds and loads. A schematic of the
experimental setup with all details of the main components and connections is presented in Figure 1. This test rig was
basically proposed to validate the predictability of a one-dimensional engine model of simulating the processes in a
gasoline fuelled (RON97) SI engine [29]. Measurement data include the engine torque, engine speed, cylinder pressure,
rate of air and fuel consumption, ignition timing and engine emissions. The experimental setup of the tested engine is
built based on the ATE-60 hydraulic dynamometer, which has a maximum capacity of 170 hp at 7000 rpm. The hydraulic
dynamometer is coupled to the baseline research engine, which is a multi-cylinder, in-line arrangement, gasoline (Otto)
engine. Its original intake system is naturally aspirated, and the mixture formation system is carburetted in design. Table
1 lists the details of the engine specifications. The engine specification remains unchanged except for the cooling system,
which has been modified to incorporate external and portable characteristics. The coolant temperature is controlled
physically based on the instantaneous cooling water outlet temperature. To fulfil an optimum operation, a sufficient supply
of water is fed to the dynamometer and the engine. The dynamometer water supply is pressurized in the range of 1.0-1.75
bar for operations ranging from 1000 to 5000 rpm. To supply the water as well as to release the heat generated by the
dynamometer operation, a customized cooling system that consists of a heat exchanger, cooling fan and special water
reservoir is connected with the outlet water pipeline.
As for the engine, a sufficient flow rate of water is required to cool down the engine, especially when running at full
power. The mass flow rate of water in the range of 4 to 15 litres per minute is supplied accordingly, appropriate to engine
speed and load. The engine torque was evaluated using an S-type load cell coupled to the dynamometer’s arm. The
maximum deviation of the load cell was about 2.3% based on in-lab calibration. The engine speed was specified by means
of the crank angle encoder of Kistler (Type 2613B). The crank angle encoder transmits the signal to the combustion
analyzer for recording and display. The cylinder pressure is indicated based on the measurement of the combustion
pressure sensor of Kistler TM (Type 6117), which is a spark plug-type pressure transducer. Cylinder number one was set
as the reference for the combustion pressure measurement. The fuel flow rate was gauged manually based on the
gravimetric method. The elapsed time interval for consumption of a specified volume (50 ml) of fuel in a bulb glass tube
was pointed out. A predictable method of differential-pressure measurement was adopted for monitoring the air flow rate
based on an orifice plate meter.

C Carburettor E Crank angle encoder F Fuel flow meter

L Load cell P Pressure transducer O Orifice plate meter
T Temperature sensor TB Throttle body ---- Signal line
Figure 1. Schematic of the experimental setup
The airflow meter is located upstream of a surge tank which is used to dampen the flow pulsation in the intake system.
The maximum deviation of the airflow meter was about 3.5% at the tested flow conditions (1500 rpm to 6000 rpm). A

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stroboscope-based measurement kit labelled Strobo-tester (Model DG83-D) product was employed for ignition timing
measurement. An in-lab fabricated mechanism was tailored and tuned with the throttle body to control the carburettor
opening. The fabricated mechanism is composed of a cable and a threaded bolt moving inside a nut fixed on the
instrumentation panel. Accordingly, engine testing can be performed under part and wide-open throttle conditions. The
exhaust gas composition of the engine was analyzed by the gas analyzer kit. The model of KEG500 of KOEN gas analyzer
was utilized to measure the species concentration of the exhaust gas. It is utilized to measure of CO2 (0.0−20.0%), CO
(0.00−9.99%), HC (0−9999 ppm), and NOx (0−5000 ppm). Furthermore, it also measures the air-fuel ratio (0.0 − 99.0)
and air surplus rate (lambda-λ) (0−2.000).
Table 1. Specifications of test engine
Parameter Size and feature
Engine type and model 4-stroke, spark-ignition, 4-cylinder,Mitsubishi Magma
Bore x Stroke (mm×mm) 75.5 ×82.0
Displacement (cm3) 1488
Compression ratio 9.2:1
Max. (or nominal) Power 66 kW@6000 rpm
Max. (or nominal) Torque 124 Nm@3000 rpm
Valve train type In-line OHV, SOHC, 3 valves per cylinder (two intake valves and one exhaust valve)
Intake Open 15o bTDC
Close 63o aBDC
Valve events (°CA)
Exhaust Open 57o bBDC
Close 13o aTDC

TEST PROCEDURE AND DATA REDUCTION

The test engine was loaded through a hydraulic dynamometer, which controls the applied load on the engine by
adjusting the water flow rate. The test procedure is based on the ‘position-speed mode’ test sequence. In this mode, the
throttle position continues to be set for a specified condition, but the dynamometer is equipped with an automatic
controller, which adjusts the torque absorbed by the machine to maintain the engine speed constant, whatever the throttle
position and power output. This is a very stable mode, and it is generally used for plotting engine torque–speed curves at
full and part throttle openings [30]. The throttle opening and engine speed are considered independent variables.
Currently, the throttle opening is controlled to achieve 50% and 100% opening, while the engine speed is set
independently to satisfy the selected engine speed condition. The dynamometer load is then imposed to achieve the highest
possible engine torque in that condition [31]. Hence, other variables, such as engine torque, power, and emissions are
considered dependent variables. The data collection is carried out from 1500 rpm to 4000 rpm with an interval of 500
rpm based on engine speed. The engine test was repeated three times, and an average arithmetical value for each parameter
was considered. To warm up the engine for operating temperature, it is started on a very rich fuel-air mixture ratio. After
the engine has been run for about 5 minutes on the rich setting, the mixture is leaned somewhat and the engine is again
allowed to run for the same duration.
After the warming-up period, the engine was tested at a specified speed of 1500 rpm. Then, increase the throttle
opening until the engine overshoot up to 1500-2000 rpm. At that instantaneous engine speed, the brake load increased
until the speed reduced to 1500 rpm, and allowed the engine to stabilize before applying any load or throttle opening. As
the engine stabilized, the throttle opening increased until the engine overshoot up to 1500-2000 rpm again. Then, the
brake load increased to reduce the engine speed down to the stabilized engine speed of 1500 rpm. This sequence is
continued until the throttle opening achieves the specified throttle opening (50% or 100% opening) at that specified engine
speed (here, 1500 rpm). As the specified throttle opening is achieved, there is no need to apply any more loads on the
engine. After the engine come to stabilize the condition, recording the required data is started. Thus, the brake load is a
dependent variable, whereas the engine speed is an independent variable, and the throttle opening is the controlled
variable. Following this, the throttle opening is reduced and unloads the engine gradually until the engine return to the
idle state. The above procedure was considered for an engine speed of 2000 rpm, 2500 rpm, 3000 rpm, 3500 rpm and
4000 rpm. The measurement of the AFR was based on the exhaust gas analyzer because it is more precise [32].
In order to evaluate the trustworthiness of the measured results, the results must be compared in terms of more general
and convenient parameters. These are enabled by deriving values for brake mean effective pressure (bmep), brake specific
fuel consumption (bsfc) and brake thermal efficiency (ηb). The engine output torque and power at the crankshaft, when
related to the engine displacement, are generating another performance parameter called the brake mean effective pressure
(bmep). It is a measure of work output from an engine and not of the pressures in the engine cylinder. Brake mean effective
pressure is used to compare the performance of differing engine capacities and the number of cylinders. It is measured in
kPa, and can be expressed as [6]:

𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 × 𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟 × 60
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = (1)
2𝜋𝜋 × 𝑁𝑁 × 𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑

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where nr the number of crank revolutions for one complete cycle, which is 2 for a four-stroke engine, N engine speed
in rpm, and Vd the total volume of the engine cylinders in m3. The brake power, Pb, delivered by the engine and absorbed
by the dynamometer is the product of torque and angular speed [6].

2𝜋𝜋 × 𝑁𝑁 × 𝜏𝜏
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 = (2)
60000

where τ is the brake torque applied to the cradled housing in N.m. It was measured based on an attached load cell to
the dynamometer’s arm. The load cell was calibrated by applying a specified load amount and comparing the acquired
record of the load cell to the theoretical value. Based on this in-lab calibration, the maximum deviation of load cell was
about 2.33%. The specific fuel consumption based on the brake power (bsfc) was evaluated according to the following
expression [6]:

𝑚𝑚̇𝑓𝑓 × 3600
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =
𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏
(3)

where 𝑚𝑚̇𝑓𝑓 is the consumed mass of fuel during a test period. Engine thermal efficiency based on the brake power (ηb)
is estimated by adapting the following expression [6]:

𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏
𝜂𝜂𝑏𝑏 = (4)
𝑚𝑚̇𝑓𝑓 × 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 × 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐

where 𝑚𝑚̇𝑓𝑓 is the consumed mass of fuel during a test period in kg/s, LCV is the lower calorific value of the fuel (kJ/kg),
and 𝜂𝜂𝑐𝑐 is the combustion efficiency.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section divides the acquired results from the experimental test rig into two distinctive parts, which are engine
performance results and exhaust pollutants results. Engine performance and exhaust pollutants results consist of the
measured data and the subsequently evaluated parameters. Measurements were carried out for the engine over a speed
range from 1500 to 4000 rpm with a step change of 500, which represent the road load conditions for automobiles engine.
Engine Performance
The performance of the engine in terms of brake mean effective pressure (bmep), brake specific fuel consumption
(bsfc) and brake thermal efficiency (ηb) were investigated for a wide range of engine speeds under WOT and POT
conditions. The main parameter that governs engine performance and emission is the equivalence ratio (ϕ); therefore, its
trends under tested conditions will be presented first. The variation of the measured ϕ as a function of engine speed at
WOT and POT conditions is presented in Figure 2(a). Based on the graph, the ϕ is completely located in the rich mixture
region. The stoichiometric mixture ratio for ICEs operation corresponds to the ϕ value of 1. Greater than this limit
indicates a richer mixture achieved and vice versa. According to Figure 2(a), there is a fluctuation in the trend of
equivalence ratio with engine speed for both WOT and POT conditions. Although, there is a minimum (or leanest) point
produced at an engine speed of 3000 rpm with ϕ values of about 1.04 and 1.13 at WOT and POT, respectively. The
coincidence of this minimum point for both throttle conditions concludes that the engine reached its peak breathing
capacity. On the other hand, a richer mixture is achieved on both sides of this point because of the deteriorating engine
breathing capacity. Generally, the trend of ϕ under POT is always higher than that one under WOT due to the lack of
induced air as a result of flow restriction and less air enters the throttle body at POT [6]. Generally, the trend of ϕ with
decreasing throttle opening is matched with the finding of Jahirul and his co-authors [18].
Figure 2(b) reveals trends of the bmep versus engine speed at WOT and POT conditions. There was a tendency for the
WOT condition to produce a higher value of bmep over the entire range of engine speed. This basically is due to an
increase in the friction mean effective pressure, as a result of increasing vacuum in the intake manifold, where the pumping
losses grow as the throttle opening reduces. Furthermore, a fluctuating trend of the bmep with engine speed was detected
only in the case of WOT condition. Although, it is worth noting that the maximum point of bmep was coincidental at 2500
rpm for both WOT and POT conditions. The maximum values were about 940 kPa and 904 kPa at WOT and POT
conditions, respectively. The evaluated bmep gives values in the range of 870 kPa and 940 kPa at WOT; and in the range
of 841 kPa and 904 kPa at POT. The naturally aspirated, medium size SI gasoline engines are characterized by the typical
range of 850 to 1050 kPa of the bmep [6]. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the achieved results are in the acceptable
range for SI engines. Even though the trend of the bmep with throttle opening disagreed with the findings of Aljamali and
his co-authors [19], their result (in terms of the bmep) is doubtful due to its inconsistency with the recorded trends of the
brake power.

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WOT POT
1.4

1.2

ϕ (-)
0.8

0.6

0.4
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Engine speed (rpm)
(a)
WOT POT
960
940
920
bmep (kPa)

900
880
860
840
820
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

Engine speed (rpm)

(b)
WOT POT
450

400
bsfc (g/kW.hr)

350

300

250

200
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Engine speed (rpm)
(c)
WOT POT
36
33
30
ηb (%)

27
24
21
18
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Engine speed (rpm)
(d)
Figure 2. Variation of (a) equivalence ratio and (b) brake mean effective pressure, (c) brake specific fuel consumption,
and (d) brake thermal efficiency, versus engine speed

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Figure 2(c) shows the variations of bsfc versus engine speed at WOT and POT conditions. Generally, the bsfc is higher
for the POT condition for all tested points. This general trend of the bsfc with decreasing throttle opening coincides with
previously published works [18-19]. Such a trend is expected as the deficiency of airflow at POT condition (see Figure
2(a) above), and consequently, a richer mixture is delivered to the engine. It can be seen that the minimum values of the
bsfc were located at 3000 rpm under the WOT and POT conditions. It was recorded that the minimum values of bsfc were
about 274 and 293 g/kW.h for the WOT and POT conditions, respectively. Moreover, it is worth noting that there is a
coincidence between the lowest bsfc and leanest points of the mixture, see Figure 2(a) above. This interrelationship
between the bsfc and ϕ is highlighted in detail by Stone [6], where the air discharge increases with a pressure drop across
the intake manifold. This brings a lower ϕ and reduces bsfc of the engine. Moreover, this trend is identically followed by
the previously reported work by [33] at full load (WOT) condition.
The trends of ηb for various engine speeds at WOT and POT conditions are presented in Figure 2(d). Again, there is a
tendency for the WOT condition to produce a higher value of ηb over the entire range of engine speed. It can be seen that
the maximum values of the ηb were located at 3000 rpm under the WOT and POT conditions. It was recorded that the
maximum values of ηb about 30.55% and 28.55% for the WOT and POT conditions, respectively. Such rising in brake
thermal efficiency with increasing throttle opening was also noticed by Jahirul and his co-authors [18]. Furthermore, it is
worth noting that there is a coincidence between the maximum and minimum points of the ηb and bsfc values, see Figure
2(c). This link between the trends of the ηb and bsfc basically reflects their reciprocal interrelationship. Such interrelated
trends of the ηb and bsfc were indicated by previously published work [24,34].
Exhaust Pollutants
The exhaust pollutants (emissions) of the engine, which including of CO, CO2, unburned HC and NOx emissions,
were investigated under various engine speeds and throttle positions. Figure 3(a) shows the variation of CO concentration,
on volume percentage based, versus engine speed at WOT and POT conditions. One of the most important variables
affecting the emissions in the exhaust of ICE is the equivalence ratio (ϕ). The substantial production of CO emission in
the SI engines is caused due to running a rich mixture. This is essentially due to the oxygen deficiency to completely
combust the entire carbon in the fuel into CO2. In terms of the throttle effect, it can be noted that there is a tendency to
decrease CO concentration with the increase in the throttle opening. At the POT condition, the airflow into the engine is
restricted to a limited amount which operates the engine with a more probability of incomplete combustion. This general
trend of the CO concentration with decreasing throttle opening coincides with previously published work [18, 24].
Moreover, this trend is identically followed of the previously reported work by [33] at full load (or WOT) condition. On
the other hand, there is a minimum point of CO fraction versus engine speed, which coincides with one of the best
performance characteristics (ηb and bsfc) at 3000 rpm. It was recorded that the minimum values of CO were about 1.83%
and 4.47% for the WOT and POT conditions, respectively. These behaviours are basically related to the induced amount
of air in the combustion chamber.

WOT POT
12
10
CO (vol.%)

8
6
4
2
0
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Engine speed (rpm)
(a)
WOT POT
16

14
CO2 (vol.%)

12

10

6
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Engine speed (rpm)

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(b)
WOT POT
180
160

UHC (ppm)
140
120
100
80
60
40
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Engine speed (rpm)
(c)
WOT POT
1600
1400
1200
NOx (ppm)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Engine speed (rpm)
(d)
Figure 3. Variation of (a) CO, (b) CO2 (c) UHC and (d) NOx fractions versus engine speed
Figure 3(b) reveals the variation of CO2 concentration, on volume percentage based, versus engine speed at POT and
WOT conditions. Basically, the behaviour of CO2 represents an inversion of the CO trends as they are interrelated to each
other. It can be noted that there is a tendency to increase CO2 concentration with an increase in the throttle opening. Such
trends are due to more air induced into the combustion chamber which leads to almost complete combustion of the mixture
[9]. This general trend of the CO2 concentration with increasing of throttle opening coincides with previously published
work [18, 24]. Moreover, this trend is identical to the previously reported work by [33] at full load (or WOT) conditions.
On the other hand, there is a maximum point of CO2 fraction versus engine speed, which coincides with one of the best
performance characteristics (ηb and bsfc), at 3000 rpm. It was recorded that the maximum values of CO2 were about
13.8% and 12.1% for the WOT and POT conditions, respectively. These behaviours are basically related to the induced
amount of air in the combustion chamber. Besides that, there is some fluctuation in trends of CO2 concentration on both
sides of this point. The recorded concentrations of CO2 were about 7.9-13.8% and 7.9-12.1% at WOT and POT conditions,
respectively, over the entire engine speed range.
Figure 3(c) displays the variation of UHC concentration, in part per million, versus engine speed at WOT and POT
conditions. Fundamentally, the UHC is frequently produced by an unburned mixture of fuel-air beside other sources
including partial combustion and engine lubricant [32]. The trends of UHC concentration in Figure 3(c) are almost
comparable to the CO emission trends in Figure 3(a), as both of them are commonly affected by the equivalence ratio (ϕ).
In terms of the throttle effect, it can be noted that there is a tendency to decrease UHC concentration with an increase in
the throttle opening. At the POT condition, the airflow into the engine is restricted to a limited amount which operates
the engine with a more probability of incomplete combustion. This general trend of the UHC concentration with
increasing throttle opening coincides with previously published work [18, 24]. Moreover, this trend is identically followed
of the previously reported work by [33] at full load (or WOT) condition. On the other hand, there is a minimum point of
UHC concentration versus engine speed, which coincides with one of the best performance characteristics (ηb and bsfc),
at 3000 rpm. It was recorded that the minimum values of UHC were about 50 and 80 ppm for the WOT and POT
conditions, respectively. These behaviours are basically related to the induced amount of air in the combustion chamber.
Besides that, there is some fluctuation in the trend of UHC concentration at WOT conditions beyond this point. The
recorded concentrations of UHC were about 50–155 ppm and 80-170 ppm at WOT and POT conditions, respectively,
over the entire engine speed range.
Figure 3(d) demonstrates the variation of NOx concentration, in part per million, versus engine speed at WOT and
POT conditions. The production of NOx is directly related to the behaviour of the combustion process and is typically
governed by the maximum combustion temperature, which is known as the Zeldovich mechanism [6]. It can be noted that
the WOT condition produces a higher level of NOx concentration compared to the POT condition, almost for the entire

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engine speed range. These trends are appeared due to the more air induced into the combustion chamber which leads to
almost complete combustion of the mixture and higher fuel conversion efficiency [9]. This general trend of the NOx
concentration with increasing throttle opening coincides with previously published work [18, 24]. Moreover, this trend is
identical to the previously reported work by [33] at full load (or WOT) conditions.
On the other hand, there is a maximum point of NOx concentration versus engine speed, which coincides with one of
the best performance characteristics (ηb and bsfc), at 3000 rpm. It was recorded that the maximum values of NOx were
about 1525 and 977 ppm for the WOT and POT conditions, respectively. These behaviours are basically related to the
trends of the mixture equivalence ratio. The enhanced combustion process leads to producing a higher in-cylinder
temperature in the case of WOT condition. Accordingly, these results are well agreed with the theory of the Zeldovich
mechanism. Besides that, there is some fluctuation in trends of NOx concentration before the maximum point. The
recorded concentrations of NOx were about 119 – 1525 ppm and 128-977 ppm at WOT and POT conditions, respectively,
over the entire engine speed range. Finally, Figure 3 (a)-3(d) reveal that the leanest point is produced at an engine speed
of 3000 rpm, as seen earlier in Figure 2, which means the closest preferred point to complete combustion (stoichiometry).

CONCLUSIONS
Current work is dedicated to revealing experimentally the influence of throttle position on the performance and
emission of the naturally aspirated SI gasoline carburetted ICE. Based on the earlier presented results, the following
bullets can be concluded on this issue:
i. The WOT positively affected the engine breathing capacity compared to the POT for the entire tested range of
engine speed.
ii. The WOT produces higher engine performance compared to the POT for the entire tested range of engine speed.
iii. The WOT positively affects the trends of the CO, CO2 and UHC concentrations, whereas it negatively on the
trends of the NOx concentration compare to the POT for the entire tested range of engine speed.
iv. There is a certain engine speed for the current tested engine, mostly 3000 rpm, which gives the best engine
operation, which is coincident with WOT and POT conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors appreciate the given opportunity to utilize the laboratory facilities for performing the experimental work
at University Malaysia Pahang.

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