CHAPTER 1: MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND

I- Introduction
The word "physics" originates from Ancient Greek physiké, meaning "knowledge Of nature. Physics
is the is the natural science of matter, involving the study Of matter, its fundamental constituents, its
motion and behaviour through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. Physics is
one Of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, its main goal being to understand how the
universe behaves.

Physics can be divided into two main classes: classical physics and modem physics:

Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and energy on the normal scale of
observation.
Modern physics is concerned with the behaviour Of matter and energy under
extreme conditions or on a very large or very small scale.

In physics, we use two types Of quantities: scalar quantities and vector quantities:

Scalar physical quantities are entirely defined by a number and an appropriate

unit: e.g. the mass m of a body, the length I of an object, etc.
Vector physical quantity is a quantity specified by a number and an appropriate
unit plus a direction (geometrically represented by a vector); e.g. velocity V, weight F..

II- Reference system

A reference frame is a system of coordinate axes, linked to an observer equipped with a clock. The
notion of motion is not absolute but relative to the frame of reference in which it is described.

11.1 - Copernicus referential

It is the frame of reference whose origin is at the barycentre Of the solar system and whose axes point
towards the distant stars known as the "fixed stars".
11.2 - Galilean reference frame
The Galilean reference frames are the reference frames with uniform rectilinear motion relative to
Copernicus' reference frame.

1
In the Galilean reference frame, there are several reference points. One Of these is the Cartesian
reference frame.

The Cartesian reference frame consists Of an origin O and three Orthogonal vectors Of unit norm
(orthonormal) which are non-collinear —i, 9). The three vectors determine the three usual directions
in space ( OX, OY, OZ).

Ill- Material point

In physics, a point generally refers to an Object that has no size or shape and is represented by a
single coordinate or location in space. It is used as a basic concept in geometry and can be used to
describe the position Of an Object in space by three coordinates (x, y, z) (in three-dimensional space).

x = abscissa, y = ordinate, z = coast

IV- Physical quantities and units

IV.I - International System of Units (SI)

Internationally known by the abbreviation SI (abbreviated SI (from its French name Systeme
International and popularly known as the metric system) is the world's most widely used system Of
measurement. It is established and maintained by the General Conference on Weights and Measures
(CGPM).

2
- MKSA system
The MKS system Of units is a physical system Of measurement that uses the meter, kilogram, and
second (MKS) as base units, The MKS system with the ampere as a fourth base unit is sometimes
referred to as the MKSA system. This system was extended by adding the Kelvin and candela as base
units in 1960, thus forming the International System Of Units. The mole was added as a seventh base
unit in 1971.

Table 1: SI base units.

Quantity Name Symbol
Time second
s
meter

Mass kilogram kg
Electric current ampere

Temperature kelvin

Amount of substance mole

Luminous intensity candela cd

- CGS system of units
The centimeter—gram—second system of units (abbreviated CGS or cgs) is a variant of the metric
system based On the centimeter as the unit Of length, the gram as the unit Of mass, and the second
the unit of time.

IV.2- Derived units

Derived units are associated with derived quantities; for example, velocity is a quantity that is derived
from the base quantities of time and length, and thus the SI derived unit is metre per second
(symbol m/s).
Table 2: SI derived units with special names and symbols.
Name mbol antit n SI base In other SI units
units
radian rad lane an le

hertz Hz f uenc

newton N force, wei ht

3
 ascal Pa ressure, stress

oule ner , work. heat

J
watt W ower radiant flux

coulomb C electric char e

volt V electric tential volta e emf k WIA = J/C

farad ca acitance sistance im edance

Ohm
F reactance k VIA =
Q
siemens S electrical conductance
weber Wb a etic flux
tesla T ma netic flux densit
hen H •nductance Wb/A

de ree Celsius tem rature relative to 273.15 K

IV.3- Dimensional analysis

In engineering and science, dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different
physical quantities by identifying their base quantities (such as length, mass, time, and electric
current) and units Of measurement (such as meters and grams) and tracking these dimensions as
calculations or comparisons are performed. It can be used to evaluate scientific formulae. The units
included in the set are presented in the following table:
Quantity Unit Dimension symbol

Length metre (m)

ILI
Time second (s)

Mass kilogram (kg)

Current amp (A)

Temperature Kelvin (K)

Any derived quantity G can be expressed as a function of the fundamental quantities M, L, T and I
according to the expression:

[Gl = [Li b. l/l d

Where a, b, c, d are the dimensional exponents.

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Example

- Velocity = length/ time

IL] [TEI

- Force = mass x acceleration = masse x length jtime2

V- Vector

A vector (n) is represented by a directed segment (an anow) with a starting point (tail) (A) and an end
point (head or tip) (B).

End point; Head (or Tip)

Starting point:Tail

A vector is defined by:

- a length (a magnitude): IIÄÉII ,

- a support: the straight line (AB),

- a direction (orientation): from A to B.

We can define a vector AB as follows: llÄÉllü

ii is the unit vector with norm I (llüll —l) and the same direction as

Noted that: AB — (Xh — — za)Ä

 llABll
Remarks:

1- The vector BA is the opposite vector to the AB (same length, same support, but opposite direction)

2- The vector and is the zero vectors.

3- The vectors and CD are equal or equipollent if they have the same length, the same direction,
the same support or parallel supports.

4- Colinear (or linearly dependent) vectors are vectors carried by parallel lines.

VI- Types of vectors

VI.I - Free vector

It is a vector with a non-specific support.

VI.2 - Sliding vector

A vector is called a "sliding vector" ifwe impose its support Example: The vectors AB and CD are
representatives of the sliding vector V.

VI.3 - Linked vector

A vector is called a "linked vector" if we fix the point of application A. The position of the vector is
completely defined on the support (A).

VII- Vector operations

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VILI- Addition of two vectors
The sum of two vectors is a vector.

ZB)Æ

= 3i-2j

so:

To ach yectcgs, place tre tail ot the

Secon:i veCtCr on the tp dthe first and

Commutative law: + +
Associative law: Ä+ (j + d) = (Ä
Distributive law: A (Ä + j) -FA

V11.2- Subtraction
To subtract one vector from another, we add the first vector to the opposite of the second vector
that needs to be subtracted.

— XB)i + (YA — YB)j+ (ZA — ZB)k

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Example:

so: & = Ä-j= -2i+6j

Subtraction is not commutative: — * —

Distributive law; (Ä — j) = .RÄ —A i

VII.3- Scalar product (or the Dot Product)

The scalar product Of two vectors Ä and j (denoted scalar E)) is defined as the product Of the
magnitude Of and by the cosine Of the angle between the two vectors :

Ä.É -A. B. coso

Remarks

1- The product and not a vector.

2- The scalar product satisfies the following laws:

2.a- 7. i. Ä (the scalar product is commutative).

2.b- 7. (i + Ä. i+ Ä. (the scalar product is distributive).
2.c- A (Ä.É) = ( AÄ) . Ä. (A Éj Ais a scalar value.

3- If 7. and if andä are zero vectors, then are perpendicular.

4- The orthogonal unit vectors (i, j, rc) which form the Cartesian basis satisfy :

5- The analytical expression for the scalar product is:

Ä. = (XA. i + YA.i+ ZA. ü). (XB.i+ i + + ZA.ZB

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VII.4- The vector product (or the Cross Product)
The vector product of two vectors et (denoted A vectorial j)) is a Vector . It is defined as the product
of the moduli of .Ä and by the sine of the angle between the two vectors :

Ä = (A. B. Sino).

where ii is a unit vector indicating the direction Of Ä which is perpendicular to the plane formed by
and i. Noted that i, and (or d) form a direct trihedron (i.e., a corkscrew that which turns from to
advances in the direction of (or ).

Note that:

l- If and are parallel, Ä A

2- The orthogonal unit vectors (i,j, Z) form a direct trihedron, they satisfy.

i Aj=rc, j APC = i, A i = j (circular permutation)

3- The analytical expression of the vector product:

= GA. i + YA.j+ ZA.rc) A i + YB.j+ rc) Ä =(

— ZA. YB)i + ( ZA.XB — xA.zB)j+ ( XA.YB — YA.XB)k

Or, by using the detenninant:

ÄAä—¯ XA YA
XB YB ZB

ÄAä= YB
IYA YB ZB I

= (YA.ZB — zA.YB)i + (ZA.XB —XA.ZB)j+ (XA.YB - YA.XB)k

4-The vector product is not commutative: A = —É Ä.

5-The vector product is distributive: E) = .Ä A + A 6- The double

vector product : .Ä A A E) = i. (i . d. (Ä . i)
7- A is the area of a parallelogram with sides and j.

VIIS- The mixed product

A mixed product of three vectors (Ä, and ö)is defined by :

9
 XA YA ZA

This mixed product represents the volume of a parallelepiped with sides Ä, and d.

We also have Ä. (j A C) = j. (d A Äj = d. (Ä A E) (circular permutation).

VII.6- Derivatives of vectors

Let be Ä(t) the vector function in terms Of time (t):

Ä(t) =
The first derivative of with respect to t is defined by.

dÄ(t) dx(t) dy(t) dz(t) dt dt dt dt

The second derivative is :

d2Ä(t) d dÄ(t) d2X(t) d2y(t)_ d2z(t)
dt2 ¯ dt dt dt2 dt2 J + dt2

So if (t) is a scalar function and if and are vectors, then

dÄ
d di-

VII.7- Vector integrals

Let the vector Ä(t) = + which is a vector function Of t. We define an integral Of Ä(t) by:

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VIII- Error in a function of several variables
The error in a function of several variables is approximately the sum of the absolute values of all the
partial derivatives, each multiplied by the corresponding errors. Let f(x,y,z) function Of three
variables (x, y and z) and Ax, Ay, Az the accuracy (the measurement errors) of the devices that
measured x, y and z. We can estimate the absolute error Af (x, y, z) by moving from the differential
df(x,y,z)totheerror

df(x,y,z)

dz

Bf(x.y.z)
is the partial derivative Of f(x, y, z) with respect to x.

so, the absolute error Af(x, y, z) is:

Of(x, y, Ax +
z)

Az

The relative error is the quotient:

This number is expressed in%.

Example

dy
d/(x, y) = y dx + x dy
= lyl Ax + dy

2) A runner travels the distance x in certain time t:

50.0±0.1 m t= 6.OO
± 0.01 s.

So, the velocity of runner is: V —4 — = 8.3333 m/s

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So V is function of x and t.

dt

1 50
AV(x , t) 0.1 0.01 = 0 03
6

So, we write: V: (8.33+0.03)

The relative error is: 0.03
= o.
0036
v 8.33

The relative error is therefore 0.36 0/0.

Chapter Il: Kinematics of the material point

I-Introduction
Kinematics is a subfield of physics, developed in classical mechanics. Kinematics is the study Of the
motion of objects without reference to the forces that caused the motion.

II- characteristics of the motion

In kinematics, the two fundamental concepts are space and time, because the motion takes place in
space as a function of time. Mathematically solving kinematics problems in physics will involve
understanding, calculating, and measuring several physical quantities:

- Position vector (0M): determines the Object's physical location in space relative to an origin in a
defined coordinate system.

- Velocity vector which determines the variation in magnitude and position of the position

- Acceleration vector which determines the variation in magnitude and position of the velocity vector.

Il .1- Position vector

The position of an object 0M is given by its displacement relative to O. It changes with time

12
(Fig.l).

x
Fig.l

i, j and unit vectors.

x, y and z: point coordinates.
11.1.a- Path of motion
The path followed by the object is the set of successive positions or line along which point P moves m
space.
Parametric equation of the path: After removing time, we get the relations between the x, y, z
coordinates.

11.2- Velocity vector

Velocity vector is vector quantity that characterizes the rate Of change in the position Of a body in
space (IV] =m/s). The direction of velocity is the same as the direction of motion.

11.2.1- Average velocity vector

The average velocity vector between Ml and M2 (or between two times tl and t2) is defined as the
ratio of the displacement = OM2 — OMI to the time interval At = t2 — (Fig. 2). That is:
0Mz-OMt
t2—t, t2¯t1
avg

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 z

11.2.2- Instantaneous velocity vector

The instantaneous velocity is defined as the limiting value of the ratio — as At approaches zero.
Mathematically, can be expressed as:

lim dÖÄ7
At—.o At dt
11.3- Acceleration vector
The acceleration vector is vector quantity that characterizes the variation of the velocity vector with
respect to time

11.3.1- Average acceleration vector

=
The average acceleration Gat,g is defined as the ratio Of the change in velocity to
the time interval dt = t2 — q. That is:

äavg _ ¯ v;-iGta¯tl _

11.3.2- Instantaneous acceleration vector

Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limiting value Of the ratio — when at approaches zero. It
is defined as follows:

dZOM
dt ¯ dtZ

Ill- Motions in various coordinate systems and bases

In mechanics, before studying the motion Of a system, it is necessary to indicate the coordinate
system in which the motion will be describe. We will explain the motion in different coordinate

14
systems and bases, i.e. the set of three vectors on which we will give the expressions Of the position
vector, velocity vector and acceleration vector. The elementary surface area and volume will also be
given.

111.1- Cartesian coordinate system

The Cartesian coordinates System is Orthonormal and it consists Of three axes (OX, OY, OZ). The
directions Of (OX, OY, OZ) are determined by three unit vectors (i,j, i) which are fixed in the
observation frame of reference (neither the norm, nor the support, nor the direction of these vectors
change with time).

Each point M is marked by its coordinates (x, y, z) in the base (i,j, re)
The position vector is defined by the origin point O and the coordinates (x,y,z):

0M yj+

0M Y
llöMll = 0M

= llöMllü

ii is the unit vector. ii =

- The elementary displacement Of M: = dxi + dyj +

- The elementary surface: ds = dxdy (or: ds = dydz, or: ds = dzdx).
- The elementary volume dv = dxdydz.
dOM
The velocity vector: — = % +

- The acceleration vector:

lläll = a = ( + +
111.2- Polar coordinates system
The polar reference frame is orthonormal. It consists Of two unit vectors (iip, üø) which move with

Each point M is identified by its coordinates (p, 9) in the base (üp, üe) (Fig. 3).

is the angle between 0M and i.

üe is perpendicular to üp.

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Each point M is identified by its coordinates (p, O) in the base (iip, ü6) :

0M
C)
llöÄ711 -0M = p

In the Cartesian reference frame: 0M — So

we have:
x = pcos9

arctgø = ,

= cosOi+ Sino;
ile = —sinei + cosej

Noted that: iie = doup

- The elementary displacement Of M: = dpiip + pdeüe

- The elementary surface: p dpdg

d(püp)
The velocity vector: + p—uo + p9üo

v= "2 +
(pÖ)2
d(piip
The acceleration vector: —= dt dt düp dp db düo
up + dt (—)Öüo dt + p—niio + pÖ—

16
 ä=ijüp + D büo + pÖüo + pÖüø - pe•2üp
— pÖ2 )üp + (2" b +
pä)üe

(p — pÖ2)2 + (2" b + pÖ)2

1113- Cylindrical coordinates system
The cylindrical reference frame is orthonormal. It consists Of three unit vectors (tip, iiO k) which the

two vectors (üp,üe) varies with time while rc is invariable (Fig.4).

Each point M is identified by its coordinates (p, O,z) in the base (iip, iio,k) (Fig. 4). O
is the angle between 0M and i . M' is the projection Of M in the plane (xoy).
The position vector is defined from the origin point O and the coordinates (p, O, z):

0M = 0M' + M'M—OM püp+Zk

llölill = 0M =
In the Cartesian reference frame: = xi+ y; + zæ So
we have :

17
 x = pcos0

arctgØ =

- The elementary displacement of M: dM = dpüp + pd0ü6+dzk

- The elementary surface: ds —p dodz
- The elementary volume: dv dpdOdz

The velocity vector : + Diip + pÖüo+2k

- The acceleration vector: a:: — dt = dt

ü=püp + + pÖüO + pÖü0 — pff2üp+2i

— pÖ2 )üp + (2DÖ + pfj)iio+2

2
= a = (D — pÖZ) + (2b b + på)2
+22

111.4- Spherical coordinates system

The spherical reference frame is orthonormal. It consists Of three unit vectors (ür, iio,üo) which vary

with time.

Each point M is identified by its coordinates (r, 9, Q) in the base (iir, (Fig. 5).

18
 x
0 = (027M), = (ox, 0M')
The position vector is defined from the origin point O and the coordinates (r, 0,

0M = rü,.

0M O , (OSØ S 2Tt) and(OSO S Tt)

llöMll = 0M = r
= öii} + M'M

Obi' = r' (cosØi + sinØj) r'—

r sin O
0M' = rsin + sin Øj) = rsin OcosØi + rsin Osin
M'M= rcos Ok

SO : = rsin Ocos@i + rsin Osin Øj+ rcos Ok

In the Cartesian reference frame: = xi + yj + zi We

deduce that:

= rsin OcosØ
Y = sin Osin
z rcos

= rsin ecos@i+ rsin Osin rcos r(sin 9cosØi + sin 9sin@j+cos orc) = rü,.

—0M = riir

19
 ii,. = sin ecosØi + sin esin •j+ cos 9k; iir is the radial unit vector.
aiir
= iiø= cos OcosØi + cos Osin Oj- sin Ok
iie is the ortho — radial vector.
1 aile 1 iiø=—cosO —z —sinØi
+ cos Oj
Sino

- The elementary displacement of M: drür + rdür drür + re-} d 9 + d 4')

= drür + r( dB iie + sine dfio)

- The elementary surface: r2 sine de dØ
- The elementary volume dv=r2dr sine de dØ .
dür _
- The velocity vector : — döii — —d(rür)
_ dr dt dt
dt

+ r(Öüe + •sinffü.)
+ r2ÖZ +
=V=

- The acceleration vector:

ecos9
2rÖOcos0
a.
2

llall = a = ar2 + a02 + a.2

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111.5- Intrinsic coordinate system (Frenet system)

The intrinsic coordinate system for each point of the trajectory is defined as a system Of reference
formed by two axes (iG , iiÆ) (Fig.6):

Tangent axis: its direction is tangent to the trajectory and is positive in the same direction than the
velocity at that point. It is defined by the unit vector Wr
- Normal axis: it is perpendicular to the trajectory and is positive toward the center of curvature of
the trajectory. It is defined by the unit vector uN

Fig.6

- Curvilinear abscissa
In this frame Of reference. we define the curvilinear abscissa S Of the point M along the trajectory as
being equal to the length Of the arc MM . Noting that:

is the radius Of curvature.

The velocity vector: = V V=

The acceleration vector:

dV d(Vüi) dV
dt

diiT diiT da da
dt ¯ dt
düT = uNda

dS = Ytda

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 düT

diiT diiT dS dt dS
diiT
diiT

düT
dt dt

= — ; tangential acceleration

; normal acceleration ar2 +

aNZ

IV- Study of motions

IV.1- Rectilinear motion

A rectilinear (Linear) motion is one-dimensional motion along a straight line. It can be described
mathematically using Only One spatial dimension.

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IV.1.1- Uniform rectilinear motion
It is characterized by constant velocity (zero acceleration) : a = O and V = Cte
V Vo = — Vodt dx = % dt

— x xo+Vot

If V O, the Object is stationary.

a (m/s2)
X(m)

Fig.7

IV.1.2- Non-uniform linear motion

It can be uniformly accelerated (Or retarded) rectilinear motion. It is characterised by variable
velocity (non-zero acceleration).

a = ao = — aodt dV = Jot aodt V-Vo=aot

V=— dx = fot(VO + aot)dt x-xo=Vot +

x— äaot2 + Vot+ xo (equation of a parabola)

If acceleration and velocity are in the same direction (V. > O)the movement is accelerated.
If acceleration and speed are in opposite directions (V. < O ), the movement is retarded.

a (m/s2) X(m)

23
 x
IV.1.2-Projectil (2 dimensions)
Any object that is thrown into the air is called a projectile.
Let us assume that at t = 0 the projectile leaves the origin (i.e. xo = YO = O) with initial velocity Vo
that makes an angle 00 with the positive x direction as in Fig. 9

Fig.9

ax = O and ax = g vxoi+Vyj , vo coseo

, vyo = vo sinoo

We decompose the horizontal motion and vertical motion as described below:

ax = O — Vx = vxo = Vo cosOo —x = Vxo t —X = (Vo cos 00) t

ax —g —g = vo sin —g t (vo sin 00) t — ig t2
- Calculus of the horizontal range R (the distance traveled by the projectile when it returns to y —
O) after time t —T
Set x = R at time t and y
R = (Vo coseo) T y =
(Vo sin 00) T--g T2 = O
2 vo sinoo

2 vo sinoo
R = (Vo coseo) R = (VO COS 90) , 2 sin 00 cos = sin 2

24
 vo sin 200

- Calculus Of maximum height H:

we set Vy —0
Vo sin 90
vo sin
vo sin90 1 vo sineo 2 H = (Vo
sin 90)

Equation of the Trajectory:

= (Vo cos 00) t t=

Y= sin + ( tg 90) x
VO COS 90 2 VO coseo wo cos2eo

This can be written in the form y = ax 2 + bx, which is the equation of a parabola that passes through
the origin.

IV.2- Curvilinear movement

IV.2.1- Circular movement
In this case, the trajectory is not a straight line, but a circle of radius R (R is constant) (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10

Using polar coordinates: 0M = piip

25
 —döBi d(Rüp) — dR-niip + R
—üede The velocity vector dt

RÖüo

Ilill = V = RÖ (Ö=w the angular velocity)

d(RÖüe)
The acceleration vector: —= dt
dt

diio dt
ä=RÖüo - RffZüp
+ öiio)

Zi + aiio) (b = a angular accleration)

lläll = a = R (öz) 2 + (a)2

- Using intrinsic coordinates ii = iio =iiT

V=RÖür

RÖ2
The acceleration vector:

= R (radius Of curvature = radius Of the circle)

The curvilinear abscissa:

dt dt Rde —S -SO = - go)

—S = — 90) + so

26
IV.2.1.1- Uniform circular motion b =
cte,

— = Wot

Wot 00

In polar coordinates : V: Rwoüo

+ —Rw0 2 Tip

In intrinsic coordinates: Rwour

Rwo

The curvilinear abscissa: s = R (9— + R (woo + so

IV.2.1.2- Accelerated uniform circular motion

ao=W — = ao dw = fot aodt W-Wo= aot

w aot+WO

de Jot(aot + wo)dt

+ Wot +

RÖür= RwüT4 R(aot+Wo)

iiT

27
 ar — — = Rao dt ax
= — — — — ¯— R(aot +
wo)2

S= — 00) + + woo +so

IV.2.1.3- Angular rotation velocity vector

Let the plane of motion be the (xoy) plane and (oz) the axis of rotation.

The angular velocity vector of rotation, or simply vector rotation is :

V:: Rwüe= Rw (i A A Rii

0M = Rüp Oji

Fig.ll

IV.3- Harmonic motion (rectilinear sinusoidal)

The motion of a solid is said to be rectilinear and sinusoidal if its time law is written in the form: x(t)
= Xm sin (ot + 00)

x: is also called the elongation Of the solid at time t (m).

28
xo, : is the amplitude of the movement (m).
= (ot + 90) is the phase at time t (rad).
(PO : initial phase, at t = O (rad).
a): is the pulsation of the movement (rads-I ).

Rectilinear motion is periodic and sinusoidal with period T = E- (s) and a frequency = — (Hz)

V— dt = wxo cos(ot + q,)

d x
— -w2xo + 00) -w2x
dt

29