Teaching Student-Centered Mathematics

Teaching Student-Centered Mathematics:
Developmentally Appropriate Instruction

for Grades Pre-K-2 (V1) Second Edition
Van de Walle Lovin Karp Bay-Williams
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P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y
Table of Contents
1. Teaching Mathematics for Understanding

John Van de Walle/Lou Ann H. Lovin/Karen H Karp/Jennifer M. Bay Williams 1
2. Teaching Mathematics through Problem Solving
3. Differentiating Instruction
4. Assessing for Learning
5. Planning, Teaching, and Assessing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children
6. Planning, Teaching, and Assessing Children with Exceptionalities
7. Collaborating with Families, Community, and Principals
8. Developing Early Number Concepts and Number Sense
9. Developing Meanings for the Operations
10. Helping Children Master the Basic Facts
11. Developing Whole‐Number Place‐Value Concepts
12. Building Strategies for Whole‐Number Computation
13. Promoting Algebraic Reasoning
I
14. Exploring Early Fraction Concepts
15. Building Measurement Concepts
16. Developing Geometric Reasoning and Concepts
17. Helping Children Use Data
Common Core State Standards - Standards for Mathematical Practice
Common Core State Standards - Grades K–2 Critical Content Areas and Overviews
A Guide to the Blackline Masters
Index 403
II
Teaching Mathematics
for Understanding
Teachers generally agree that teaching for understanding is a good

An understanding can thing. But this statement begs the question: What is understanding?
never be “covered” if it Understanding is being able to think and act flexibly with a topic or
concept. It goes beyond knowing; it is more than a collection of in-
is to be understood. formation, facts, or data. It is more than being able to follow steps in a
procedure. One hallmark of mathematical understanding is a student’s
Wiggins and McTighe ability to justify why a given mathematical claim or answer is true or
why a mathematical rule makes sense (Council of Chief State School
(2005, p. 229) Officers, 2010). Although children might know their basic multiplica-
tion facts and be able to give you quick answers to questions about these
facts, they might not understand multiplication. They might not be able
to justify how they know an answer is correct or provide an example of
when it would make sense to use this basic fact. These tasks go beyond
simply knowing mathematical facts and procedures. Understanding
must be a primary goal for all of the mathematics you teach.
Understanding and Doing Mathematics

Procedural proficiency—a main focus of mathematics instruction in
the past—remains important today, but conceptual understanding is an
equally important goal (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,
2000; National Research Council, 2001; CCSSO, 2010). Numerous re-
ports and standards emphasize the need to address skills and under-
standing in an integrated manner; among these are the Common Core
State Standards (CCSSO, 2010), a state‐led effort coordinated by the
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Cen-
ter) and CCSSO that has been adopted by nearly every state and the
District of Columbia. This effort has resulted in attention to how math-
ematics is taught, not just what is taught.
From Chapter 1 of Teaching Student‐Centered Mathematics, Developmentally Appropriate Instruction for Grades Pre‐K–2, Second Edition.
John A. Van de Walle, LouAnn H. Lovin, Karen S. Karp, Jennifer M. Bay‐Williams. Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
1
Teaching Mathematics for Understanding
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) identifies the pro-
cess standards of problem solving, reasoning and proof, representation, communication, and
connections as ways to think about how children should engage in learning the content as
they develop both procedural fluency and conceptual understanding. Children engaged in
the process of problem solving build mathematical knowledge and understanding by grap-
pling with and solving genuine problems, as opposed to completing routine exercises. They
use reasoning and proof to make sense of mathematical tasks and concepts and to develop,
justify, and evaluate mathematical arguments and solutions. Children create and use repre-
sentations (e.g., diagrams, graphs, symbols, and manipulatives) to reason through problems.
They also engage in communication as they explain their ideas and reasoning verbally, in
writing, and through representations. Children develop and use connections between math-
ematical ideas as they learn new mathematical concepts and procedures. They also build con-
nections between mathematics and other disciplines by applying mathematics to real‐world
situations. By engaging in these processes, children learn mathematics by doing mathematics.
Consequently, the process standards should not be taught separately from but in conjunc-
tion with mathematics as ways of learning mathematics.
Adding It Up (National Research Council, 2001), an influential research review on how
children learn mathematics, identifies the following five strands of mathematical proficiency
as indicators that someone understands (and can do) mathematics.
• Conceptual understanding: Comprehension of
mathematical concepts, operations, and relations
Figure 1 • Procedural fluency: Skill in carrying out procedures
Interrelated and intertwined strands of mathematical flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately
proficiency.
• Strategic competence: Ability to formulate, repre-
sent, and solve mathematical problems
• Adaptive reasoning: Capacity for logical thought,
Conceptual understanding:
comprehension of mathematical reflection, explanation, and justification
concepts, operations, and
Strategic competence: relations • Productive disposition: Habitual inclination to see
ability to formulate, mathematics as sensible, useful, and worthwhile,
represent, and solve
mathematics problems coupled with a belief in diligence and one’s own effi-
Procedural fluency:
skill in carrying out cacy (Reprinted with permission from p. 116 of Add-
procedures flexibly, ing It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics, 2001,
accurately, efficiently, by the National Academy of Sciences, Courtesy of
and appropriately
the National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.)
Adaptive reasoning:
capacity for logical This report maintains that the strands of mathematical
Productive disposition:
thought, reflection, habitual inclination to
proficiency are interwoven and interdependent—that is,
explanation, and see mathematics as the development of one strand aids the development of
justification sensible, useful, and others (Figure 1).
worthwhile, coupled
with a belief in diligence Building on the NCTM process standards and the
and one’s own efficacy five strands of mathematical proficiency, the Common
Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) outline the fol-
lowing eight Standards for Mathematical Practice as
ways in which children can develop and demonstrate
a deep understanding of and capacity to do math-
ematics. Keep in mind that you, as a teacher, have a
Source: Reprinted with permission from Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., &
responsibility to help children develop these practices.
Findell, B. (Eds.), Adding It Up: Helping Children Learn Mathematics.
Copyright 2001 by the National Academy of Sciences. Courtesy of the Here we provide a brief discussion about each mathemat-
National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. ical practice.
2
1. Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them. To make sense of problems,
children need to learn how to analyze the given information, parameters, and relationships
in a problem so that they can understand the situation and identify possible ways to solve
it. Encourage younger students to use concrete materials or bar diagrams to investigate and
solve the problem. Once children learn strategies for making sense of problems, encourage
them to remain committed to solving them. As they learn to monitor and assess their
progress and change course as needed, they will solve the problems they set out to solve!
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively. This practice involves children reasoning
with quantities and their relationships in problem situations. You can support children’s
development of this practice by helping them create representations that correspond to
the meanings of the quantities and the units involved. When appropriate, children should
also learn to represent and manipulate the situation symbolically. Encourage children to
find connections between the abstract symbols and the representation that illustrates the
quantities and their relationships. For example, when children use drawings to show that
they made 5 bears from 3 red bears and 2 yellow bears, encourage them to connect their
representation to the number sentence 5 = 3 + 2. Ultimately, children should be able to
move flexibly between the symbols and other representations.
3. Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others. This practice
emphasizes the importance of children using mathematical reasoning to justify their ideas
and solutions, including being able to recognize and use counterexamples. Encourage
children to examine each others’ arguments to determine whether they make sense
and to identify ways to clarify or improve the arguments. This practice emphasizes that
mathematics is based on reasoning and should be examined in a community—not carried
out in isolation.
4. Model with mathematics. This practice encourages children to use the mathematics
they know to solve problems in everyday life. For younger students this could mean writing
an addition or a subtraction equation to represent a given situation or using their number
sense to determine whether there are enough plates for all the children in their class. Be
sure to encourage children to determine whether their mathematical results make sense in
the context of the given situation.
5. Use appropriate tools strategically. Children should become familiar with a variety of
problem‐solving tools that can be used to solve a problem and they should learn to choose
which ones are most appropriate for a given situation. For example, second graders should
experience using the following tools for computation: pencil and paper, manipulatives,
calculator, hundreds chart, and a number line. Then in a situation when an estimate is
needed for the sum of 23 and 52, some second graders might consider paper and pencil,
manipulatives, and a calculator as tools that would slow down the process and would select a
hundreds chart to quickly move from 50 down two rows (20 spaces) to get to 70.
6. Attend to precision. In communicating ideas to
others, it is imperative that children learn to be explicit
about their reasoning. For example, they need to be clear
Research suggests that children, in particular girls, may tend
about the meanings of the operations and symbols they use,
to continue to use the same tools because they feel comfort-
to indicate the units involved in a problem, and to clearly
able with the tools and are afraid to take risks (Ambrose,
label the diagrams they provide in their explanations. As
2002). Look for children who tend to use the same tool or
children share their ideas, make this expectation clear and
strategy every time they work on tasks. Encourage all chil-
ask clarifying questions that help make the details of their
dren to take risks and try new tools and strategies.
reasoning more apparent. Teachers can further encourage
3
children’s attention to precision by introducing, highlighting, and encouraging the use of

accurate mathematical terminology in explanations and diagrams.
7. Look for and make use of structure. Children who look for and recognize a pattern or
structure can experience a shift in their perspective or understanding. Therefore, set the
expectation that children will look for patterns and structure and help them reflect on their
significance. For example, look for opportunities to help children notice that the order in which
they add two numbers does not change the sum—they can add 4 + 7 or 7 + 4 to get 11. Once
they recognize this pattern with other examples, they will have a new understanding and the use
of a powerful property of our number system, the commutative property of addition.
8. Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning. Encourage children to step back
and reflect on any regularity that occurs in an effort to help them develop a general idea or
method or identify shortcuts. For example, as children begin adding numbers together, they
will encounter situations in which zero is added to a number. Over time, help children reflect
on the results of adding zero to any number. Eventually they should be able to express that
when they add or subtract zero to any number, the number is unaffected.
Like the process standards, the Standards for Mathematical Practice should not be
taught separately from the mathematics but should instead be incorporated as ways for
children to learn and do mathematics. Children who learn to use these eight mathemati-
cal practices as they engage with mathematical concepts and skills have a greater chance
of developing conceptual understanding. Note that learning these mathematical practices
and, consequently, developing understanding takes time. So the common notion of simply
and quickly “covering the material” is problematic. The opening quotation states it well:
“An understanding can never be ‘covered’ if it is to be understood” (Wiggins & McTighe,
2005, p. 229). Understanding is an end goal—that is, it is developed over time by incorpo-
rating the process standards and mathematical practices and striving toward mathematical
proficiency.
How Do Children Learn?

Let’s look at a couple of research‐based theories that can illustrate how children learn in gen-
eral: constructivism and sociocultural theory. Although one theory focuses on the individual
learner whereas the other emphasizes the social and cultural aspects of the classroom, these
theories are not competing; they are actually compatible (Norton & D’Ambrosio, 2008).
Constructivism
At the heart of constructivism is the notion that learners are not blank slates but rather
creators (constructors) of their own learning. All people, all of the time, construct or give
meaning to things they think about or perceive. Whether you are listening passively to a
lecture or actively engaging in synthesizing findings in a project, your brain is applying prior
knowledge (existing schemas) to make sense of new information.
Constructing something in the physical world requires tools, materials, and effort. The
tools you use to build understanding are your existing ideas and knowledge. Your materials
might be things you see, hear, or touch, or they might be your own thoughts and ideas. The
effort required to construct knowledge and understanding is reflective thought.
Through reflective thought people connect existing ideas to new information and in
this way modify their existing schemas or background knowledge to incorporate new ideas.
Making these connections can happen in either of two ways—assimilation or accommodation.
4
Assimilation occurs when a new concept “fits” with prior knowledge and the new Figure 2
information expands an existing mental network. Accommodation takes place when
How someone constructs
the new concept does not “fit” with the existing network, thus creating a cogni- a new idea.
tive conflict or state of confusion that causes what theorists call disequilibrium. As an
example, consider what happens when children start learning about numbers and
counting. They make sense of a number by counting a quantity of objects by ones.
With larger numbers, such as two‐digit numbers, they continue to use this approach
to give meaning to the number (assimilation). Eventually, counting large amounts of
objects becomes cumbersome and, at the same time, they are likely learning about
grouping in tens. Over time they begin to view two‐digit numbers differently—
as groups of tens and ones—and they no longer have to count to give a number
meaning (accommodation). It is through the struggle to resolve the disequilibrium
that the brain modifies or replaces the existing schema so that the new concept fits
and makes sense, resulting in a revision of thought and a deepening of the learner’s
understanding.
For an illustration of what it means to construct an idea, consider Figure 2. The
gray and white dots represent ideas, and the lines joining the ideas represent the
logical connections or relationships that develop between ideas. The white dot is an
emerging idea, one that is being constructed. Whatever existing ideas (gray dots) are used in
the construction are connected to the new idea (white dot) because those are the ideas that
give meaning to the new idea. The more existing ideas that are used to give meaning to the
new one, the more connections will be made.
Each child’s unique collection of ideas is connected in different ways. Some ideas are
well understood and well formed (i.e., connected), others less so as they emerge and build
connections. Children’s experiences help them develop connections and ideas about what-
ever they are learning.
Understanding exists along a continuum (Figure 3) from an instrumental understanding—
knowing something by rote or without meaning (Skemp, 1978)—to a relational understanding—
knowing what to do and why. Instrumental understanding, at the left end of the continuum,
shows that ideas (e.g., concepts and procedures) are learned, but in isolation (or nearly so)
to other ideas. Here you find ideas that have been memorized. Due to their isolation, poorly
understood ideas are easily forgotten and are unlikely to be useful for constructing new
ideas. At the right end of the continuum is relational understanding. Relational understand-
ing means that each new concept or procedure (white dot) is not only learned, but is also
connected to many existing ideas (gray dots), so there is a rich set of connections.
A primary goal of teaching for understanding is to help children develop a relational
understanding of mathematical ideas. Because relational understanding develops over time
and becomes more complex as a person makes more connections between ideas, teaching
for this kind of understanding takes time and must be a goal of daily instruction.
Figure 3
Continuum of understanding.
Instrumental Relational
Understanding Understanding
5
Sociocultural Theory
Like constructivism, sociocultural theory not only positions the learner as actively engaged
in seeking meaning during the learning process, but it also suggests that the learner can
be assisted by working with others who are “more knowledgeable.” Sociocultural theory
proposes that learners have their own zone of proximal development, which is a range of
knowledge that may be out of reach for individuals to learn on their own but is accessible if
learners have the support of peers or more knowledgeable others (Vygotsky, 1978). For ex-
ample, when young children are learning to measure length, they do not necessarily recog-
nize the significance of placing measurement units end to end. As children measure objects,
they may leave gaps between units or overlap units. A more knowledgeable person (a peer or
teacher) can draw their attention to this critical idea in measurement.
The best learning for any given child will occur when the conversation of the classroom
is within his or her zone of proximal development. Targeting that zone helps teachers pro-
vide children with the right amount of challenge, while avoiding boredom on the one hand
and anxiety on the other when the challenge is beyond the child’s current capability. Conse-
quently, classroom discussions based on children’s own ideas and solutions to problems are
absolutely “foundational to children’s learning” (Wood & Turner‐Vorbeck, 2001, p. 186).
Teaching for Understanding

Teaching toward Relational Understanding
To explore the notion of understanding further, let’s look into a learner‐centered second‐
grade classroom. In learner‐centered classrooms, teachers begin where the children are—with
the children’s ideas. Children are allowed to solve problems or to approach tasks in ways that
make sense to them. They develop their understanding of mathematics because they are at
the center of explaining, providing evidence or justification, finding or creating examples,
generalizing, analyzing, making predictions, applying concepts, representing ideas in differ-
ent ways, and articulating connections or relationships between the given topic and other
ideas.
For example, in this second‐grade classroom, the children have done numerous activi-
ties with the hundreds chart and an open number line. They have counted collections of
objects and made many measurements of things in the room. In their counting and measur-
ing, they often count groups of objects instead of counting by ones. Counting by tens has
become a popular method for most but not all children. The class has taken big numbers
apart in different ways to emphasize relationships between numbers and place value. In
many of these activities, the children have used combinations of tens to make numbers. The
children in the class have not been taught the typical procedures for addition or subtraction.
The teacher sets the following instructional objectives for the students:
1. Use number relationships (e.g., place‐value ideas, such as 36 is 3 groups of
10 and 6 ones; 36 is 4 away from 40; etc.) to add two‐digit numbers.
2. Apply flexible methods of addition.
As is often the case, this class begins with a story problem and the children set to work.
When Carla was at the zoo, she saw the monkeys eating bananas. She asked the zookeeper
how many bananas the monkeys usually ate in one day. The zookeeper said that yesterday
they ate 36 bananas but today they ate only 25 bananas. How many bananas did the mon-
keys eat in those two days?
6
Stop and Reflect

Before reading further, see how many different ways you can think of to solve this problem
(36 + 25). Then check to see if your ways are alike or different from those that follow. ■
Some children use counters and count by ones. Some use the hundreds chart or base‐ten
models and others use mental strategies or an open number line. All are expected to use
words and numbers and, if they wish, drawings to show what they did and how they thought
about the problem. After about 20 minutes, the teacher begins a discussion by having chil-
dren share their ideas. As the children report, the teacher records their ideas on the board so
everyone can see them. Sometimes the teacher asks questions to help clarify ideas but makes
no evaluative comments. The teacher asks the children who are listening if they understand
or have any questions to ask the presenters. The following solution strategies are common
in classrooms where children are regularly asked to generate their own approaches.
Avery: I know that 25 and 25 is 50—like two quarters. And 35 is ten more so that is 60.
And then one more is 61.
Teacher: What do you mean when you say “35 is ten more”?
Avery: Well, I used 25 of the 36 and 25 and ten more is 35.
Sasha: I did 30 and 20 is 50 and then 6 + 5 more. Five and five is ten and so 6 + 5 is 11.
And then 50 and 11 is 61.
Juan: I counted on using the hundreds chart. I started at 36 and then I had to go 20
from there and so that was 46 and then 56. And then I went five more: 57, 58,
59, 60, 61.
Marie: I used an open number to help me. I started at 36 and went up 4 to 40. Then I
went up a jump of 20 and then one more to get to 61. (Figure 4)
Teacher: Where is the “25” in your strategy?
Marie: It’s above the jumps. 4 + 20 + 1 is the same as 25.
Stop and Reflect

What ideas did you learn from those shared in this example? Try using some of these new ideas
to find the sum of 64 and 27. ■
This vignette illustrates that when children are encouraged to solve a problem in their own
way (using their own particular set of gray dots or ideas), they are able to make sense of their
solution strategies and explain their reasoning. This is evidence of their development of
mathematical proficiency.
During the discussion periods in classes such as this one, ideas
continue to grow. The children may hear and immediately under- Figure 4
stand a clever strategy that they could have used but that did not A child uses an open number line to solve
occur to them. Others may begin to create new ideas to use that 36 + 25 by starting at 36 and then adding 4,
build from thinking about their classmates’ strategies over multiple 20, and 1. The child wrote the numbers on the
discussions. Some in the class may hear excellent ideas from their number line as the numbers move from 36 to 61.
peers that do not make sense to them. These children are simply not
4 20 1
ready or do not have the prerequisite concepts (gray dots) to under-
stand these new ideas. On subsequent days there will be similar op-
portunities for all children to grow at their own pace based on their
36 40 60 61
own understandings.
7
Teaching toward Instrumental Understanding

In contrast to the lesson just described, in which children are developing concepts (under-
standing of place value) and procedures (ability to flexibly add) and seeing the relationship
between these ideas, let’s consider how a lesson with the same basic objective (addition using
place‐value concepts) might look if the focus is on instrumental understanding.
In this classroom, the teacher introduces only one way to solve multidigit addition
problems—by modeling how to add numbers using base‐ten materials. The teacher distrib-
utes base‐ten blocks so that pairs of children have enough materials to solve any problem.
The teacher reads to the class the same monkeys and bananas problem that was used earlier.
The class quickly agrees that they need to add the two numbers in the problem. Using a
projector to demonstrate, the teacher directs the children to make the two numbers on their
place‐value mats. Care is taken that the 25 is shown with the base‐ten blocks beneath the
base‐ten blocks for 36. The children are directed to begin combining the pieces in the ones
place. A series of questions guides them through each step in the standard algorithm.
1. How many ones are there all together?
2. What do we need to do with the 11 ones? (regroup, make a ten)
3. Where do we put the ten?
4. How many tens are there?
5. What is the answer?
Next, the children are given five similar problems to solve using the base‐ten blocks. They
work in pairs and record answers on their papers. The teacher circulates and helps any-
one having difficulty by guiding them through the same steps indicated by the preceding
questions.
In this lesson the teacher and children are using manipulatives to illustrate regrouping
in addition problems. After engaging in several similar lessons, most children are likely to re-
member and possibly understand how to add with regrouping using the standard algorithm.
Using manipulatives to illustrate why regrouping is needed does build a relational under-
standing, connecting place value to addition; however, because all children are instructed on
one way to solve the problem, the lesson provides fewer opportunities to build connections
between mathematical concepts. For example, students are not provided opportunities to
use mental counting strategies, the hundreds chart, or the number line to add the numbers.
Seeing that all of these methods work helps children build connections between mathemati-
cal ideas and across representations—fundamental characteristics of relational understand-
ing. It is important to note that this lesson on the standard algorithm, in combination with
other lessons that reinforce other approaches, can build a relational understanding, as it adds
to children’s repertoire of strategies. But if this lesson represents the sole approach to add-
ing, then children are more likely to develop an instrumental understanding of mathematics.
The Importance of Children’s Ideas

Let’s take a minute to compare these two classrooms. By examining them more closely,
you can see several important differences. These differences affect what is learned and who
learns. Let’s consider the first difference: Who determines the procedure to use?
In the first classroom, the children look at the numbers in the problem, think about the
relationships between the numbers, and then choose a computational strategy that fits these
ideas. They have developed several different strategies to solve addition problems by explor-
ing numbers and various representations, such as the open number line and the hundreds
chart. Consequently, they are relating addition to various representations and employing
8
number relationships in their addition strategies (taking numbers apart and putting them
together differently). The children in the first classroom are being taught mathematics for
understanding—relational understanding—and are developing the kinds of mathematical
proficiency described earlier.
In the second classroom, the teacher provides one strategy for how to add—the stan-
dard algorithm. Although the standard algorithm is a valid strategy, the entire focus of the
lesson is on the steps and procedures that the teacher has outlined. The teacher solicits no
ideas from individual children about how to combine the numbers and instead is only able
to find out who has and who has not been able to follow directions.
When children have more choice in determining which strategies to use, as in the first
classroom, they can learn more content and make more connections. In addition, if teachers
do not seek out and value children’s ideas, children may come to believe that mathematics
is a body of rules and procedures that are learned by waiting for the teacher to tell them
what to do. This view of mathematics—and what is involved in learning it—is inconsistent
with mathematics as a discipline and with the learning theories described previously. There-
fore, it is a worthwhile goal to transform your classroom into a mathematical community of
learners who interact with each other and with the teacher as they share ideas and results,
compare and evaluate strategies, challenge results, determine the validity of answers, and
negotiate ideas. The rich interaction in such a classroom increases opportunities for pro-
ductive engagement and reflective thinking about relevant mathematical ideas, resulting in
children developing a relational understanding of mathematics.
A second difference between the two classrooms is the learning goals. Both teachers
might write “understand two‐digit addition” as the objective for the day. However, what is
captured in “understand” is very different in each setting. In the first classroom, the teacher’s
goals are for children to connect addition to what they already know and to see that two
numbers can be combined in many different ways. In the second classroom, understanding
is connected to being able to carry out the standard algorithm. The learning goals, and more
specifically, how the teacher interprets the meaning behind the learning goals, affect what
children learned.
These lessons also differ in terms of how accessible they are—and this, in turn, affects
who learns the mathematics. The first lesson is differentiated in that it meets children where
they are in their current understanding. When a task is presented as “solve this in your own
way,” it has multiple entry points, meaning it can be approached in a variety of ways. Con-
sequently, children with different prior knowledge or learning strategies can figure out a
way to solve the problem. This makes the task accessible to more learners. Then, as children
observe strategies that are more efficient than their own, they develop new and better ways
to solve the problem.
In the second classroom, everyone has to do the problem in the same way. Children do
not have the opportunity to apply their own ideas or to see that there are numerous ways
to solve the problem. This may deprive children who need to continue working on the de-
velopment of basic ideas of tens and ones as well as children who could easily find one or
more ways to do the problem if only they were asked to do so. The children in the second
classroom are also likely to use the same method to add all numbers instead of looking for
more efficient ways to add based on the relationships between numbers. For example, they
are likely to add 29 + 29 using the standard algorithm instead of thinking 30 + 30 and then
take away 2. Recall in the discussion of learning theory the importance of building on prior
knowledge and learning from others. Student‐generated strategies, multiple approaches,
and discussion about the problem in the first classroom represent the kinds of strategies that
enhance learning for a range of learners.
Children in both classrooms will eventually succeed at finding sums, but what they
learn about addition—and about doing mathematics—is quite different. Understanding
9
and doing mathematics involves generating strategies for solving problems, applying those
approaches, seeing if they lead to solutions, and checking to see whether answers make
sense. These activities were all present in the first classroom but not in the second. Conse-
quently, children in the first classroom, in addition to successfully finding sums, will develop
richer mathematical understanding, become more flexible thinkers and better problem solv-
ers, remain more engaged in learning, and develop more positive attitudes toward learning
mathematics.
Mathematics Classrooms That

Promote Understanding
Three of the most common types of teaching are direct instruction, facilitative methods
(also called a constructivist approach), and coaching (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). With direct
instruction, the teacher usually demonstrates or models, lectures, and asks questions that
are convergent or closed‐ended in nature. With facilitative methods, the teacher might use
investigations and inquiry, cooperative learning, discussion, and questions that are more
open‐ended. In coaching, the teacher provides children with guided practice and feedback
that highlight ways to improve their performances.
You might be wondering which type of teaching is most appropriate if the goal is to
teach mathematics for understanding. Unfortunately, there is no definitive answer because
there are times when it is appropriate to engage in each of these types of teaching, depend-
ing on your instructional goals, the learners, and the situation. Some people believe that
all direct instruction is ineffective because it ignores the learner’s ideas and removes the
productive struggle or opportunity to learn. This is not necessarily true. A teacher who
is striving to teach for understanding can share information via direct instruction as long
as that information does not remove the need for children to reflect on and productively
struggle with the situation at hand. In other words, regardless of instructional design, the
teacher should not be doing the thinking, reasoning, and connection building—it must be
the children who are engaged in these activities.
Regarding facilitative or constructivist methods, remember that constructivism is a
theory of learning, not a theory of teaching. Constructivism helps explain how children
learn—by developing and modifying ideas (schemas) and by making connections between
these ideas. Children can learn as a result of different kinds of instruction. The instructional
approach chosen should depend on the ideas and relationships children have already con-
structed. Sometimes children readily make connections by listening to a lecture (direct in-
struction). Sometimes they need time to investigate a situation so they can become aware of
the different ideas at play and how those ideas relate to one another (facilitative). Sometimes
they need to practice a skill and receive feedback on their performance to become more
accurate (coaching). No matter which type of teaching is used, constructivism and sociocul-
tural theories remind us as teachers to continually wonder whether our children have truly
developed the given concept or skill, connecting it to what they already know. By shedding
light on what and how our children understand, assessment can help us determine which
teaching approach may be the most appropriate at a given time.
The essence of developing relational understanding is to keep the children’s ideas at the
forefront of classroom activities by emphasizing the process standards, mathematical profi-
ciencies, and the Standards for Mathematical Practice. This requires that the teacher create
a classroom culture in which children can learn from one another. Consider the following
features of a mathematics classroom that promote understanding (Chapin, O’Conner, &
Anderson, 2009; Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema, Fuson, Wearne, Murray, Olivier, & Human,
10
1997; Hoffman, Breyfogle, & Dressler, 2009). In particular, notice who is doing the think-
ing, the talking, and the mathematics—the children.
• Children’s ideas are key. Mathematical ideas expressed
by children are important and have the potential to
contribute to everyone’s learning. Learning math-
ematics is about coming to understand the ideas of the Listen carefully to children as they talk about what they are
mathematical community. thinking and doing as they engage in a mathematical task.
If they respond in an unexpected way, try to avoid imposing
• Opportunities for children to talk about mathematics your ideas onto their ideas. Ask clarifying questions to try to
are common. Learning is enhanced when children are make sense of the sense your children are making!
engaged with others who are working on the same
ideas. Encouraging student‐to‐student dialogue can
help children think of themselves as capable of making sense of mathematics. Children
are also more likely to question each other’s ideas than the teacher’s ideas.
• Multiple approaches are encouraged. Children must recognize that there is often a
variety of methods that will lead to a solution. Respect for the ideas shared by others is
critical if real discussion is to take place.
• Mistakes are good opportunities for learning. Children must come to realize that er-
rors provide opportunities for growth as they are uncovered and explained. Trust must
be established with an understanding that it is okay to make mistakes. Without this
trust, many ideas will never be shared.
• Math makes sense. Children must come to understand that mathematics makes sense.
Teachers should resist always evaluating children’s answers. In fact, when teachers rou-
tinely respond with “Yes, that’s correct,” or “No, that’s wrong,” children will stop trying
to make sense of ideas in the classroom and discussion and learning will be curtailed.
To create a climate that encourages mathematics understanding, teachers must first
provide explicit instruction on the ground rules for classroom discussions. Second, teach-
ers may need to model the type of questioning and interaction that they expect from their
children. Direct instruction would be appropriate in such a situation. The crucial point in
teaching for understanding is to highlight and use children’s ideas to promote mathematical
proficiency.
Most people go into teaching because they want to help children learn. It is hard to
think of allowing—much less planning for—the children in your classroom to struggle. Not
showing them a solution when they are experiencing difficulty seems almost counterintui-
tive. If our goal is relational understanding, however, the struggle is part of the learning, and
teaching becomes less about the teacher and more about what the children are doing and
thinking.
Keep in mind that you too are a learner. Some ideas in this text may make more sense
to you than others. Others may even create dissonance for you. Embrace this feeling of
disequilibrium and unease as an opportunity to learn—to revise your perspectives on math-
ematics and on the teaching and learning of mathematics as you deepen your understanding
so that you can help your children deepen theirs.
Stop and Reflect

Look back at the chapter and identify any ideas that make you uncomfortable or that challenge
your current thinking about mathematics or about teaching and learning mathematics. Try to
determine why these ideas challenge you or make you uncomfortable. Write these ideas down
and revisit them later as you read and reflect further. ■
11
References
Ambrose, R. (2002). Are we overemphasizing should multiple solution methods be introduced?
manipulatives in the primary grades to the detriment Paper presented at the Annual Conference of
of girls? Teaching Children Mathematics, 9(1), 16–21. the American Educational Research Association,
Denver, CO.
Hoffman, B. L., Breyfogle, M. L., & Dressler, J. A.
(2009). The power of incorrect answers. Mathematics Skemp, R. (1978). Relational understanding and
Teaching in the Middle School, 15(4), 232–238. instrumental understanding. Arithmetic Teacher,
26(3), 9–15.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
(2000). Principles and standards for school Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society. Cambridge,
mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. MA: Harvard University Press.
National Research Council. (2001). Adding it up: Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding
Helping children learn mathematics. J. Kilpatrick, by design (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for
J. Swafford, & B. Findell (Eds.). Washington, DC: Supervision and Curriculum Development.
National Academies Press.
Wood, T., & Turner‐Vorbeck, T. (2001). Extending
Norton, A., & D’Ambrosio, B. S. (2008). ZPC and the conception of mathematics teaching. In T. Wood,
ZPD: Zones of teaching and learning. Journal for B. S. Nelson, & J. Warfield (Eds.), Beyond classical
Research in Mathematics Education, 39(3), 220–246. pedagogy: Teaching elementary school mathematics (pp.
185–208). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rittle‐Johnson, B., Star, J. R., & Durkin, K. (2010,
April). Developing procedural flexibility: When
12
through Problem Solving
13
through Problem Solving
Teaching mathematics through problem solving is a method of teaching

By inviting young mathematics that helps children develop relational understanding. With
children to solve prob- this approach, problem solving is completely interwoven with learning.
As children do mathematics—make sense of cognitively demanding tasks,
lems in their own ways, provide evidence or justification for strategies and solutions, find exam-
ples and connections, and receive and provide feedback about ideas—they
we are initiating them are simultaneously engaged in the activities of problem solving and learn-
ing. Teaching mathematics through problem solving requires you to think
into the community of about the types of tasks you pose to children, how you facilitate discourse
in your classroom, and how you support children’s use of a variety of rep-
mathematicians who en- resentations as tools for problem solving, reasoning, and communication.
gage in structuring and
modeling their “lived Teaching through Problem Solving:
worlds” mathematically. An Upside-Down Approach
For many years and continuing today, mathematics has been taught
Fosnot and Jacob using a teaching-for-problem-solving approach: The teacher presents the
(2007, p. 25) mathematics, the children practice the skill, and, finally, the children solve
word problems that require using that skill. Unfortunately, this “do-as-I-
show-you” approach to mathematics teaching has not been successful for
many children in helping them to understand or remember mathematics
concepts (e.g., Pesek & Kirshner, 2002; Philipp & Vincent, 2003).
Teaching mathematics through problem solving generally means
that children solve problems to learn new mathematics, not just to
apply mathematics after it has been learned. Children learn mathemat-
ics through real contexts, problems, situations, and models that allow
them to build meaning for the concepts (Hiebert, Carpenter, Fennema,
Fuson, Wearne, Murray, Olivier, & Human, 1997). So teaching through
14
Teaching Mathematics through Problem Solving
problem solving might be described as “upside down” from the traditional approach of
teaching for problem solving because the problem is presented at the beginning of a les-
son and skills and ideas emerge from working with the problem. An example of teaching
through problem solving might have children explore the following situation before they
are taught the basic facts related to five (e.g., 0 + 5; 1 + 4; 2 + 3, and so on).
Tatyana’s mother is decorating a cake for Tatyana’s fifth birthday but she only has green and
blue candles. If she wants to use exactly 5 candles on the cake, how many green and blue
candles could she use?
The teacher would explain to the class that there is more than one correct solution to
this problem and that they are to find as many different solutions as they can. As children
work on the problem, they may use green and blue counters, they may choose to draw the
candles, or they may simply use numbers to capture their ideas.
Stop and Reflect

Find all the possible combinations of blue and green candles. How do you know you have
found all the combinations? What is the significance of using two colors of candles? ■
Through this context and exploration, children could grapple with the commutative prop-
erty of addition as they compare combinations such as 2 (green) + 3 (blue) and 3 (green)
+ 2 (blue). This problem also generates opportunities for children to investigate 0 as they
consider whether they can have 5 green candles and 0 blue candles or vice versa.
Teaching through problem solving requires a paradigm shift, which means that teachers
are doing more than just tweaking a few things about their teaching; they are changing their
philosophy of how they think children learn best and how they can best help them learn.
At first glance, it may seem that the teacher’s role is less demanding because the children
are doing the mathematics, but the teacher’s role is actually more demanding in such class-
rooms. Here are some of the important teacher responsibilities:
• Select high-quality tasks that allow children to learn the content by figuring out their
own strategies and solutions.
• Ask high-quality questions that allow children to verify and relate their strategies.
• Listen to children’s responses and examine their work, determining in the moment how
to extend and formalize their thinking through targeted feedback.
There is no doubt that teaching mathematics through problem solving can be challeng-
ing, but the results are worth the effort! It promises to be a better approach if our ultimate
goal is deep (relational) understanding because teaching through problem solving accom-
plishes these goals:
• Focuses children’s attention on ideas and sense making. When solving problems, children
are necessarily reflecting on the concepts inherent in the problems. Emerging concepts
are more likely to be integrated with existing ones, thereby improving understanding.
• Emphasizes mathematical processes and practices. Children who are solving problems
will engage in all five of the processes of doing mathematics—problem solving, reason-
ing, communication, connections, and representation (NCTM, 2000), as well as the
eight mathematical practices outlined in the Common Core State Standards, resulting in
mathematics that is more accessible, more interesting, and more meaningful. Note that
15
the first Standard for Mathematical Practice is “Make sense of problems and persevere
in solving them” (CCSSO, 2010).
• Develops children’s confidence and identities. Every time teachers pose a problem-
based task and expect a solution, they implicitly say to children, “I believe you can do
this.” When children are engaged in problem solving and discourse in which the cor-
rectness of the solution lies in the justification of the process, they begin to see them-
selves as capable of doing mathematics and that mathematics makes sense.
• Provides a context to help children build meaning for the concept. Using a context
facilitates mathematical understanding, especially when the context is grounded in an
experience familiar to children and when the context uses purposeful constraints that
potentially highlight the significant mathematical ideas (Fosnot & Dolk, 2001).
• Allows entry and exit points for a wide range of children. Good problem-based tasks
have multiple paths to the solution, so each child can make sense of and solve the task by
using his or her own ideas. Furthermore, children expand their ideas and grow in their
understanding as they hear, critique, and reflect on the solution strategies of others.
• Allows for extensions and elaborations. Extensions and “what if” questions can moti-
vate advanced learners or quick finishers, resulting in increased learning and enthusiasm
for doing mathematics.
• Engages children so that there are fewer discipline problems. Many discipline issues in
a classroom are the result of children becoming bored, not understanding the teacher
directions, or simply finding little relevance in the task. Most children like to be chal-
lenged and enjoy being permitted to solve problems in ways that make sense to them,
giving them less reason to act out or cause trouble.
• Provides formative assessment data. As children discuss ideas, draw diagrams, or use
manipulatives, defend their solutions and evaluate those of others, and write reports or
explanations, they provide the teacher with a steady stream of valuable information that
can be used to inform subsequent instruction.
• Is a lot of fun! Children enjoy the creative process of problem solving and sharing how
they figured something out. After seeing the surprising and inventive ways that children
think and how engaged children become in mathematics, very few teachers stop using a
teaching-through-problem-solving approach.
Using Problems to Teach

When teachers teach mathematics through problem solving, children learn the desired con-
tent through problems (tasks or activities). A problem is defined here as any task or activity
for which children have no prescribed or memorized rules or methods, and for which they
do not have a perception that there is a specific “correct” solution method (Hiebert et al.,
1997). In other words, the task or activity is a genuine problem.
Features of a Problem
Problems that can serve as effective tasks or activities for children to solve have common
features. Use the following points as a guide to assess whether a task or an activity has the
potential to be a genuine problem.
• The problem should engage children where they are in their current understanding.
Children should have the appropriate ideas to begin engaging with the problem and to
solve the problem, and yet still find it challenging and interesting.
16
• The problematic or engaging aspect of the problem must be a result of the mathemat-
ics that the children are to learn. In solving the problem or doing the activity, children
should be concerned primarily with making sense of and developing their understand-
ing of the mathematics involved. Any context or external constraints used should not
overshadow the mathematics to be learned.
• The problem must require justifications and explanations for answers and methods.
In a high-quality problem, neither the process nor the answer is straightforward, so
justification is central to the task. Children should understand that the responsibility
for determining whether answers are correct and why they are correct rests on their
mathematical reasoning, not on the teacher telling them that they are correct.
Examples of Problems
Problems can be used to develop both concepts and procedures, as well as the connection
between concepts and procedures. In the following examples, the first two problems focus
on concepts and the third problem focuses on a procedure.
CONCEPTS: Cardinality (how many), Decomposition of numbers

Four friends are playing in a playhouse at a park. The playhouse has two floors. Draw a pic-
ture to show how many friends might be on each floor. Can you find more than one way?
How many ways do you think there are? Why?
CONCEPT: Equality
3 + 6 = 1 + ____
Find a number for the blank so that the equation is true. Is there more than one number
that will make the equation true? Why or why not? Can you find more than one way to find
a number for the blank so that the equation is true?
Note that a task in the form of a story problem does not automatically make the task a
problem. A story problem can be “routine” if children read it and know right away that it is
a subtraction problem and subtract to answer it. Conversely, an equation with no words, as
in the second example above, is not necessarily routine and can actually be a rich problem
to investigate.
PROCEDURE: Subtracting two-digit whole numbers

Solve this problem in two different ways: 32 - 17 = _____
For each way, explain how you solved it.
The third example, although focused on a procedure, is a problem because children must
figure out how they are going to approach the task (assuming they have not been taught the
standard algorithm at this point). Children are also challenged to find more than one way to
solve the problem. Implicit is the challenge to determine how the two solution strategies are
different. The third example is important because it illustrates that virtually all mathematics—
concepts and procedures—can be taught through problem solving.
Selecting Worthwhile Tasks

As noted earlier in the three features of a problem, a task must engage children where
they currently are in their understanding and simultaneously must be problematic for the
17
children. In selecting such a task, consider the level of cognitive demand, the potential of the
task to have multiple entry and exit points, and the relevancy of the task to children.
Level of Cognitive Demand

Research supports the practice of engaging children in productive struggle to develop un-
derstanding (Bay-Williams, 2010; Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). Both words in the phrase
“productive struggle” are important. Children must have the tools and prior knowledge
to solve a problem and not be given a problem that is out of reach, because otherwise they
will struggle without being productive; however, children should not be given tasks that
are straightforward and trivial because they will not struggle with mathematical ideas and
further develop their understanding. When children (even very young children) know that
struggle is an expected part of the process of doing mathematics, they embrace the struggle
and feel success when they reach a solution (Carter, 2008).
Figure 1 shows a useful framework for determining whether a task has the potential to
challenge children (Smith & Stein, 1998). The framework distinguishes between tasks that
require low levels and high levels of cognitive demand. Tasks that have low-level cognitive
demand are routine and straightforward and do not engage children in productive struggle.
Tasks with high-level cognitive demand not only engage children in productive struggle, but
also challenge children to make connections between concepts and to other relevant knowl-
edge. Although there are appropriate times to use low-level cognitive demand tasks, a heavy
or sole emphasis on tasks of this type will not lead to relational understanding of mathemat-
ics. As an example of different levels of tasks, consider the degree of reasoning required when
asking children to find the sum of three given numbers versus asking them to find three
numbers whose sum is 35. The first task only requires children to add three numbers. The
Figure 1 Levels of cognitive demand.
Low-Level Cognitive Demand Tasks High-Level Cognitive Demand Tasks

Memorization Procedures with Connections
• Involve producing previously learned facts, • Focus children’s attention on the use of procedures for the purpose of
rules, formulas, or definitions or memorizing developing deeper levels of understanding of mathematical concepts
• Are routine in that they involve exact and ideas
reproduction of previously learned procedures • Suggest general procedures that have close connections to underlying
• Have no connection to related concepts conceptual ideas
• Are usually represented in multiple ways (e.g., visuals, manipulatives,
symbols, problem situations)
• Require that children engage with the conceptual ideas that underlie
the procedures in order to successfully complete the task
Procedures without Connections Doing Mathematics

• Use procedures specifically called for • Require complex and nonalgorithmic thinking (i.e., nonroutine—without
• Are straightforward with little ambiguity about a predictable, known approach)
what needs to be done and how to do it • Require children to explore and to understand the nature of mathematical
• Have no connection to related concepts concepts, processes, or relationships
• Are focused on producing correct answers rather • Demand self-monitoring or self-regulation of children’s own cognitive
than developing mathematical understanding processes
• Require no explanations or explanations • Require children to access relevant knowledge in working through the task
that focus on the procedure only • Require children to analyze the task and actively examine task constraints
• Require considerable cognitive effort
Source: Adapted with permission from Stein, M., Smith, M., Henningsen, E., & Silver, E. (2009). Implementing Standards-Based Mathematics
Instruction: A Case for Professional Development, copyright 2009 by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. All rights reserved.
18
second task requires them to use number sense to generate three reasonable numbers that
will result in a given sum. As a consequence of working on this second task, children have
potential opportunities to think about and use number relationships while they work on
their computational skills for adding.
Multiple Entry and Exit Points

A problem or task that has multiple entry points has varying degrees of challenge within it
or it can be approached in a variety of ways. One of the advantages of a problem-based ap-
proach is that it can help accommodate the diversity of learners in every classroom because
children are encouraged to use a strategy that makes sense to them instead of using a pre-
determined strategy that they may or may not be ready to use successfully. Some children
may initially use less efficient approaches, such as guess and check or counting, but they
will develop more advanced strategies through effective questioning by the teacher and by
reflecting on other children’s approaches. For example, for the task of finding three numbers
whose sum is 35, one child may use a guess-and-check approach, listing three numbers and
adding them to see if their sum is 35, whereas another child may use a more systematic ap-
proach, such as splitting 35 into 30 and 5 and then splitting 30 or 5 into two addends. Still
other children may choose two numbers they estimate will sum to an amount less than 35
and then subtract that sum from 35 to find the third number.
Tasks should also have multiple exit points, or various ways that children can demonstrate
an understanding of the learning goals. For example, children might draw a diagram, write an
equation, use manipulatives, or act out a problem to demonstrate their understanding.
Consider the opportunities for multiple entry and exit points in the following tasks.
Both tasks use an everyday classroom routine to provide children an opportunity to work on
skills related to counting.
TASK 1:
(The teacher places snacks on a table.) Do we have enough snacks for everyone in the class?
TASK 2:
(The teacher gives each child a sheet of paper with a picture of the snack item copied in
rows a certain number of times.) Do we have enough snacks for everyone in the class?
Source: Adapted with permission from Young Mathematicians at Work: Constructing Number Sense, Ad-
dition, and Subtraction by Catherine Twomey Fostnot and Maarten Dolk. Copyright © 2001 by Catherine
Twomey Fosnot and Maarten Dolk. Published by Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH. All rights reserved.
19
Stop and Reflect

To what degree do these tasks offer opportunities for multiple entry and exit points? ■
If the snacks are readily available, as in the first task, the children will most likely pass
them out to see if there are enough snacks and will miss any opportunity to think deeply
about the situation. The second task offers more opportunity for children to engage with
the task in a variety of ways, which also offers the teacher more information about each
child’s level of understanding. For example, how children organize their count of the pic-
tured snacks is informative. Do they start at the top and count across the rows? Or do they
haphazardly count and miss or double-count? Do they count by ones? Do they count from
one or do they count on from a recognized amount? Once they know how many snacks are
on the sheet, can they automatically state whether there are enough snacks for everyone? Or
do they need to represent each child in the class, say, with a counter, and match a counter
with a pictured snack? Clearly, the second task offers many more opportunities for all chil-
dren to engage in the task in a variety of ways.
Relevant and Well-Designed Contexts

One of the most powerful aspects of teaching through
problem solving is that the problem that begins the les-
Before giving a selected task to your class, anticipate sev- son can get children excited about learning mathematics.
eral possible responses to the task, including possible mis- Compare the following two first-grade introductory tasks
conceptions, and think about how you might address these on counting in groups. Which one do you think would be
responses. Anticipating the responses gives you time to con- more interesting to children?
sider how you will respond to various approaches and it also
helps you to quickly recognize different strategies and mis- Classroom A: “Today we are going to use straws
conceptions when children are working on the task. to show the day of the month. We will bundle the
straws into as many groups of ten as we can and
then leave the leftovers loose.”
Classroom B: “You all have been busy ordering seeds so we can plant a garden out-
side our classroom. One of the seed companies sends the seeds in multiple enve-
lopes. In each envelope the seeds are taped in two groups of five onto a card. We
are going to figure out how many envelopes we should expect to receive depending
on how many seeds we order from this company.” (Adapted with permission from
Young Mathematicians at Work: Constructing Number Sense, Addition, and Subtraction
by Catherine Twomey Fostnot and Maarten Dolk. Copyright © 2001 by Catherine
Twomey Fosnot and Maarten Dolk. Published by Heinemann, Portsmouth, NH. All
rights reserved.)
Familiar and interesting contexts increase children’s engagement. Your goal as a teacher
is to design problems that provide specific parameters, constraints, or structure that will
support the development of the mathematical ideas you want children to learn. In the con-
text used in Classroom B above, the situation involves seeds that are arranged in two groups
of five. The teacher is aware that some of the children still need to count by ones, but the
constraint that each card has two groups of five will require that they group their seeds into
two groups of five, very likely after drawing and counting by ones. This constraint begins to
incrementally move these children toward more efficient ways of counting. For those chil-
dren who are already counting by fives, the two groups of five move them toward working
with groups of ten. For children already working with groups of 10, they might not draw
seeds at all and instead draw a rectangle to represent each envelope and label it with “10.”
By building in such constraints, parameters, or structure, teachers can support children in
20
developing more sophisticated strategies that honor where the children currently are in
their understanding (Fosnot & Dolk, 2001).
Orchestrating Classroom Discourse

Classroom discourse refers to the interactions among all the participants that occur through-
out a lesson—in a whole-class setting, in small groups, between pairs of children, and with
the teacher. The purpose of discourse is not for children to state their answers and get
validation from the teacher, but to engage all learners and keep the cognitive demand high
(Breyfogle & Williams, 2008/2009; Kilic, Cross, Ersoz, Mewborn, Swanagan, & Kim, 2010;
Smith, Hughes, Engle, & Stein, 2009).
Classroom Discussions
The value of student talk throughout a mathematics lesson cannot be overemphasized. As
children describe and evaluate solutions to tasks, share approaches, and make conjectures,
learning will occur in ways that are otherwise unlikely to take place. As they listen to other
children’s ideas, they come to see the varied approaches in how problems can be solved and
see mathematics as something that they can do. Questions such as those that ask children
if they would do it differently next time, which strategy made sense to them (and why), and
what caused problems for them (and how they overcame them) are critical in developing
mathematically proficient children. Orchestrating discourse after children have worked on
problems is particularly important because it is this type of discussion that helps children
connect the problem to more general or formal mathematics and make connections to other
ideas.
Implementing effective discourse in the classroom can be challenging. Finding ways to
encourage children to share their ideas and to engage with others about their ideas is es-
sential to productive discussions. Consider the following research-based recommendations
that can be useful in a whole-class setting, in small groups, and in peer-to-peer discussions
(Chapin, O’Connor, & Anderson, 2009; Rasmussen, Yackel, & King, 2003; Stephan & Whit-
enack, 2003; Wood, Williams, & McNeal, 2006; Yackel & Cobb, 1996).
• Clarify children’s ideas in a variety of ways. You can restate children’s ideas as ques-
tions in order to verify what they did as well as what they meant to confirm what you’ve
heard or observed. You can also apply precise language and make significant ideas more
apparent. Paying attention to children’s ideas sends the message that their ideas are valued
and, therefore, is a key step to encouraging participation of individual children. In addition,
modeling how to ask clarifying questions demonstrates to children that it is okay to be un-
sure and that asking questions is appropriate. It is important to keep in mind that although
you may understand a child’s ideas and reasoning, there may be children in the class who do
not. Therefore, look for opportunities to ask clarifying questions even if you do not need
clarification. You can also ask children to restate someone else’s ideas in their own words in
order to ensure that ideas are stated in a variety of ways and to encourage children to listen
to one another. This strategy of clarification is important for English language learners
(ELLs) because it reinforces language and enhances comprehension.
• Emphasize reasoning. Ask follow-up questions whether the answer is right or wrong
to place an emphasis on the reasoning process. Your role is to understand children’s thinking
(not to lead them to the correct answer and move on). Therefore, follow up with probes to
learn more about their answer and their reasoning. Sometimes you will find that what you
21
assumed they were thinking is not correct. Also, if you only follow up on wrong answers,
children quickly figure this out and get nervous when you ask them to explain their thinking.
In addition, move children to more conceptually based explanations when appropriate. For
example, if a child says that he knows 5 + 3 is the same as 3 + 5, ask him (or another child)
to explain why this makes sense. Also ask children what they think of the idea proposed by
another child, or ask if they see a connection between two classmates’ ideas or between a
classmate’s idea and a concept previously discussed.
• Encourage student–student dialogue. You want children to think of themselves as ca-
pable of making sense of mathematics so that they do not always rely on the teacher to ver-
ify the correctness of their ideas. Encouraging student-to-student dialogue can help build
this sense of self. Children are also more likely to question one another’s ideas than the
teacher’s ideas. When children have different solutions, ask them to discuss one another’s
solutions. Or ask someone to rephrase another child’s ideas or to add something further to
someone else’s ideas. Provide opportunities that allow children to share their ideas in small
groups or with a peer. This will ensure that all children are able to participate in sharing
because not all children will be able to share during every whole-class discussion. Before
a whole-class discussion, children can practice their explanations with a peer, which is one
way to support ELLs and other children with special needs during mathematical discus-
sions. Figure 2 offers examples of teacher prompts that can support classroom discussions.
Be sure to explain to children that after they hear a question or a prompt they will have
time to think so that silence in the classroom does not feel uncomfortable. For example,
you can say, “This question is important. Let’s take some time to think about it.” There will
be times when no one responds to your question or prompt. If the situation gets awkward,
make sure children understand the question or prompt, then ask them to talk with a partner
and try the discussion again.
Figure 2 Examples of teacher prompts for supporting classroom discussions.

Clarify Children’s Ideas “You used the hundreds chart and counted on?”
“So, first you recorded your measurements in a table?”
“What parts of your drawing relate to the numbers from
the story problem?”
“Who can share what Ricardo just said, but using your
own words?”
Emphasize Reasoning “Why does it make sense to start with that particular
number?”
“Explain how you know that your answer is
correct.”
“Can you give an example?”
“Do you see a connection between Julio’s idea and
Rhonda’s idea?”
“What if …?”
“Do you agree or disagree with Johanna? Why?”
Encourage Student–Student Dialogue “Who has a question for Vivian?”

“Turn to your partner and explain why you agree or
disagree with Edwin.”
“Talk with Yerin about how your strategy relates to hers.”
22
How Much to Tell and Not to Tell

When teachers teach mathematics through problem solving, one of the most perplexing dilem-
mas is how much, if anything, to tell. On one hand, telling can diminish what is learned and
lower the level of challenge in a lesson. On the other hand, telling too little can sometimes leave
children floundering, or not productively struggling. Following are suggestions about three
things that you need to tell children:
• Introduce mathematical conventions. Symbols, such as + and =, are conventions. Ter-
minology is also a convention. As a rule of thumb, symbolism and terminology should be
introduced after concepts have been developed and then specifically as a means of expressing
or labeling ideas.
• Discuss alternative methods. If an important strategy does not emerge naturally from
the children, then you should propose the strategy, being careful to identify it as “another”
way, not the only or the preferred way.
• Clarify children’s methods and make connections. Help children clarify or interpret
their ideas and point out related concepts. A child may add 38 and 5 by noting that 38 and
2 more is 40 with 3 more making 43. This strategy can be related to the Make 10 strategy
used to add 8 + 5. The selection of 40 as a temporary target in this child’s strategy is an im-
portant place-value concept. Drawing everyone’s attention to this connection can help other
children see the connection while also building the confidence of the child who originally
proposed the strategy (Hiebert et al., 1997).
Representations: Tools for Problem Solving,

Reasoning, and Communication
A representation can be thought of as a kind of tool, such as a diagram, graph, symbol, or
manipulative, that expresses a mathematical idea or concept. Representations are not ends
in themselves to be learned for the sake of learning, but are valuable tools in problem solv-
ing, reasoning, and communicating about mathematical ideas. Representations can help you
think through a problem and better communicate your ideas to another person. How you
represent the ideas in the problem will likely influence your solution process. In fact, the
representations that children choose to use can provide valuable insight into their ways of
interpreting and thinking about the mathematical ideas at hand.
Representations can be conventional or commonly used, such as a “+” to represent
addition, or they can be created by children as they solve problems and investigate math-
ematical ideas. For example, a first grader, not having been introduced to the conventional
notation for negative numbers, might create a representation by using the numeral with a
slash through it (e.g., 3). The slash will remind him that he still needs to take that amount
away. He created this representation as a way to record his ideas and share his thinking
with others.
Models or representations, whether they are conventional or not, give learners some-
thing with which they can explore, reason, and communicate as they engage in problem-
based tasks. The goal of using representations is that children be able to manipulate ideas,
not manipulate symbols in a rote manner. By using personally meaningful representations
to manipulate and communicate about mathematical ideas, children will make connec-
tions among mathematical ideas (relational understanding) and move toward mathematical
proficiency.
23
Tips for Using Representations in the Classroom

Because different representations can illuminate different aspects of a mathematical idea,
multiple representations should be explored and encouraged. The more ways children are
given to think about and test an emerging idea, the better they will correctly form and inte-
grate it into a rich web of concepts and thereby develop a relational understanding. Figure 3
illustrates various representations for demonstrating an understanding of any topic. Chil-
dren who have difficulty translating a concept from one representation to another also have
difficulty solving problems and understanding computations (Clement, 2004; Lesh, Cramer,
Doerr, Post, & Zawojewski, 2003; NCTM, 2000). Strengthening the ability to move be-
tween and among representations improves children’s understanding and retention of ideas.
The following are rules of thumb for using representations in the classroom:
• Introduce new representations or tools by showing how they can represent the ideas for
which they are intended. But keep in mind that, because the representations are not the
concepts, some children may not “see” what you see.
• Allow children (in most instances) to select freely from available tools to use in solving
problems.
• Encourage children to create their own representations.
Look for opportunities to connect these student-created
representations to more conventional representations.
Pay attention to children’s choices of representations and • Encourage the use of a particular representation when
use those representations as starting points for dialogues you believe it would be helpful to a child having difficulty.
with them about their thinking. What they find important
• Ask children to use representations, such as diagrams
may be surprising and informative at the same time.
and manipulatives, when they explain their thinking.
Figure 3
Mathematical understanding can be demonstrated through these different representations
of mathematical ideas. Translations between each can help children develop new concepts
and demonstrate a richer understanding.
Give a context
(real-life
example)
Explain
Create a
meaning in
graph
words
Ways to
demonstrate
mathematical Illustrate with
Display data understanding physical tools
in a table
(manipulatives)
Draw a Write using

diagram symbols
24
This will help you gather information about children’s understanding of the idea and
also their understanding of the representations that have been used in the classroom. It
can also be helpful to other children in the classroom who may be struggling with the
idea or the explanation being offered.
• In creating tasks and when facilitating classroom discussions, focus on making con-
nections among the different representations used (and make sure each is understood).
Helping children make these connections is very important to their learning.
Manipulatives
Let’s turn to one kind of representation that is commonly used to support children’s learn-
ing of mathematics: manipulatives or concrete objects. Used wisely, they can be a positive
factor in children’s learning, but just using manipulatives—particularly in a rote manner—
does not ensure children will understand. It is important to consider how manipulatives can
help, or fail to help, children construct mathematical knowledge.
First of all, manipulatives alone have no inherent meaning. A person has to impose
meaning onto them. The manipulative is not the concept. Figure 4 shows three blocks
commonly used to represent ones, tens, and hundreds. If a child is able to identify the
rod as the “ten” piece and the large square block as the “hundred” piece, does this mean
he has constructed the concepts of ten and hundred? No, all you know for sure is that he
has learned the names typically assigned to the manipulatives. The mathematical concept
of a ten is that a ten is the same as ten ones. This concept is the relationship between the
rod and the small cube. This relationship called “ten” must be created by children in their
own minds and imposed on the manipulative or the model used to represent the concept.
For a child who does not yet understand the relationship, the model does not illustrate the
concept for that individual. Through discussions that explicitly focus on the mathematical
concepts over time, the connections between manipula-
tives and related concepts are developed.
It is incorrect to say that a manipulative or object “illustrates”
Second, the most widespread misuse of manipulatives
or shows a concept. Manipulatives can help children visualize
occurs when teachers tell children, “Do exactly as I do.”
the relationships and talk about them, but what they see are
There is a natural temptation to get out the materials and
the manipulatives, not concepts.
show children exactly how to use them. Children mimic the
teacher’s directions, and it may even look as if they under-
stand, but they could be just following what they see.
A rote procedure with a manipulative is still just that, a Figure 4
rote procedure. Objects and names of objects are not the same as
A third and related misuse of manipulatives occurs mathematical ideas and relationships between objects.
when teachers always tell children which manipulative
to use for a given problem. Children need opportuni- Names Models Relationships
ties to choose their own representations to use when
reasoning through a problem (Mathematical Practice Ten “ones”
“One”
5: Use appropriate tools strategically) and when com- is the same as
municating their ideas to others. “Ten” one “ten”
“Hundred” Ten “tens”

is the same as
Visuals and Other Tools one “hundred”
There are other ways for children to represent and

illustrate mathematical concepts. Drawings are one
option and are important for a number of reasons.
First, when children draw, you learn more about
what they do or do not understand. For example, if
25
Figure 5 children are showing 12 with their own drawings, you can
observe whether they understand that each half must be
A kindergartner shows her thinking about
ways to make 5. the same size. Second, manipulatives can sometimes restrict
how children can model a problem, whereas a drawing al-
How many ways can five people be on two stories of a house? lows children to use any strategy they want. Plus, because
children enter school with a limited ability to express their
ideas in writing, a drawing may be the most appropriate way
for them to express their ideas. Figure 5 shows an example
of one kindergartner’s solution for ways to make 5. Children
should eventually be encouraged to connect their drawings
to symbols, but they should not be forced to do so too soon.
Some children will take longer than others to make this
connection and that difference should be honored. Look
for opportunities to use children’s representations during
classroom discussions to help them make sense of the more
abstract mathematical symbols. Furthermore, as children
use different representations to solve a problem, have them compare and contrast the vari-
ous ways.
Representations generated and manipulated through technology can also support
children as they reason about and communicate their mathematical ideas. In particular,
virtual manipulatives often mirror the mental actions you want children to learn better
than physical manipulatives do (Clements & Sarama, 2009). For example, with comput-
erized base-ten blocks, children can break the blocks into ones using a hammer-like tool
(decomposition) or they can glue or lasso ones together to form tens (composition) (see,
for example, www.ejad.best.vwh.net/java/b10blocks/b10blocks.html). These actions can
be done more quickly using a computer than using physical base-ten blocks, leaving
more time for exploration. Plus, virtual manipulatives can help children link manipula-
tives to symbols. For example, at some websites a number representing the computerized
base-ten blocks is displayed and changes as the base-ten blocks change, so children can
see the results of the actions they take on the virtual manipulatives (e.g., go to http://
nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/category_g_2_t_1.html and select “Base Blocks,” “Base Blocks Ad-
dition,” or “Base Blocks Subtraction”). This dynamic link between these two representa-
tions helps children make sense of their activity as well as the numbers. An added bonus
with technology is that sometimes the language displayed on the computer program can
be changed for ELLs.
But don’t forget about using real objects. Young children are better able to relate to a
context when they work with real objects. Consider the example of the classroom in which
children were ordering seeds to plant in their school garden. Part of the power of using
contexts is to be able to use real objects for children to manipulate, organize, and count in
ways that make sense to them.
A Three-Phase Lesson Format

A three-phase lesson format (Before, During, After) provides a structure for teaching math-
ematics through problem solving (see Table 1). Before refers to the time before the children
start work on the problem. During refers to the time during which the children work on the
problem, and After refers to the discussion that takes place after children work on the prob-
lem. The lesson may take one or more math sessions, but the three-phase structure can also
be applied to shorter tasks, resulting in a 10- to 20-minute minilesson.
26
Table 1 Teaching Mathematics through Problem Solving Lends Itself to a Three-Phase Structure for Lessons
Lesson Phase Teacher Actions in a Teaching Mathematics through Problem-Solving Lesson

Before Activate prior Begin with a simple version of the task; connect to children’s experiences; brainstorm
knowledge. approaches or solution strategies; estimate or predict if tasks involve a single computation or
are aimed at the development of a computational procedure.
Be sure the Have children explain to you what the problem is asking. Go over vocabulary that may be
problem is troubling. Caution: This does not mean that you are explaining how to do the problem—just
understood. that children should understand what the problem is about.
Establish clear Tell children whether they will work individually, in pairs, or in small groups, or if they will
expectations. have a choice.
Tell them how they will share their solutions and reasoning.
During Let go! Although it is tempting to want to step in and “help,” hold back and enjoy observing and
learning from the children.
Notice children’s Base your questions on the children’s work and their responses to you. Use questions like “Tell
mathematical me what you are doing”; “I see you have started to [add] these numbers. Can you tell me
thinking. why you are [adding]?” [substitute any process/strategy]; “Can you tell me more about . . . ?”;
“Why did you . . . ?”; “How does your diagram connect to the problem?”
Provide appropriate Look for ways to support children’s thinking and avoid telling them how to solve the
support. problem. Ensure that the children understand the problem (e.g., “What do you know about
the problem?”); ask the children what they have already tried (e.g., “Where did you get
stuck?”); suggest to the children that they use a different strategy (e.g., “Can you draw a
diagram?”; “What if you used cubes to act out this problem?”; “Is this like another problem
we have solved?”); create a parallel problem with simpler values (Jacobs & Ambrose, 2008).
Provide worthwhile Challenge early finishers in some manner that is related to the problem just solved. Possible
extensions. questions to ask are “I see you found one way to do this. Are there any other solutions? Are
any of the solutions different or more interesting than others?” Some good questions for
extending thinking are “What if . . . ?” or “Would that same idea work for . . . ?”
After Promote a You must teach children about your expectations for this time and how to interact respectfully
community of with their peers. Role-play appropriate (and inappropriate) ways of responding to each other.
learners. The “Orchestrating Classroom Discourse” section provides strategies and recommendations
for how to facilitate discussions that help create a community of learners.
Listen actively The goal here is noticing children’s mathematical thinking and making that thinking visible to
without evaluation. other children. Avoid judging the correctness of an answer so that children are more willing
to share their ideas. Support children’s thinking without evaluation by simply asking what
others think about a child’s response.
Summarize main Formalize the main ideas of the lesson, helping to highlight connections among strategies
ideas and identify or different mathematical ideas. In addition, this is the time to reinforce appropriate
future problems. terminology, definitions, and symbols. You may also want to lay the groundwork for future
tasks and activities.
Before
In the Before phase of the lesson you are preparing children to work on the problem. As you
plan for the Before part of the lesson, analyze the problem you will give to children in order
to anticipate children’s approaches and possible misinterpretations or misconceptions (Wal-
lace, 2007). This can inform the questions you ask in the Before phase of the lesson to clarify
children’s understanding of the problem (i.e., knowing what it means rather than how they
will solve it).
27
During
In the During phase of the lesson children explore the problem (alone, with partners, or in
small groups). This is one of two opportunities you will get in the lesson to find out what
the children know, how they think, and how they are approaching the task you have given
them (the other is in the discussion period of the After phase). You want to convey a genuine
interest in what the children are doing and thinking. This is not the time to evaluate or to
tell children how to solve the problem. When asking whether a result or method is correct,
ask children, “How can you decide?” or “Why do you think that might be right?” or “How
can we tell if that makes sense?” Use this time in the During phase to identify different rep-
resentations and strategies children used, interesting solutions, and any misconceptions that
arise that you will highlight and address during the After phase of the lesson.
After
In the After phase of the lesson your children will work as a community of learners, discuss-
ing, justifying, and challenging various solutions to the problem that they have just worked
on. It is critical to plan for and save ample time for this part of the lesson. Twenty minutes
is not at all unreasonable for a good class discussion and sharing of ideas. It is not neces-
sary to wait for every child to finish. Here is where much of the learning will occur as chil-
dren reflect individually and collectively on the ideas they have explored. This is the time
to reinforce precise terminology, definitions, or symbols. After children have shared their
ideas, formalize the main ideas of the lesson, highlighting connections between strategies or
different mathematical ideas.
What Do I Do When a Task Doesn’t Work?

Sometimes children may not know what to do with a problem you pose, no matter how
many hints and suggestions you offer. Do not give in to the temptation to “tell them.” When
you sense that a task is not moving forward, don’t spend days just hoping that something
wonderful may happen. You may need to regroup and offer children a simpler but related
task that gets them prepared for the one that proved too difficult. If that does not work,
set it aside for the moment. Ask yourself why it didn’t work well. Did the children have
the prior knowledge they needed? Was the task too advanced? Consider what might be a
way to step back or step forward in the content in order to support and challenge the class.
Nonetheless, trust that teaching mathematics through problem solving offers children the
productive struggle that will allow them to develop understanding and become mathemati-
cally proficient.
Stop and Reflect

Describe in your own words what is meant by “teaching mathematics through problem
solving.” What do you foresee to be some opportunities and challenges to implementing
problem-based mathematics tasks effectively in your classroom? ■
28
References
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Designing and implementing worthwhile tasks. Zawojewski, J. (2003). Model development sequences.
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A models and modeling perspective on mathematics
Carter, S. (2008). Disequilibrium and questioning
teaching, learning, and problem solving (pp. 35–58).
in the primary classroom: Establishing routines
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
that help students learn. Teaching Children
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instrumental instruction in subsequent relational
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(2010). Common core state standards. Retrieved from
Lessons learned from research (pp. 101–107).
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Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of
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Differentiating Instruction
31
All first graders do not learn the same thing in the same way and at
[Differentiation] moves the same rate. In fact, every classroom at every grade level contains
us away from seeing a range of children with varying abilities and backgrounds. Perhaps
the most important work of teachers today is to be able to plan (and
and teaching students as teach) lessons that support and challenge all children to learn impor-
tant mathematics.
a unit toward reflect-
ing on and responding Differentiation and Teaching
to them as individuals. Mathematics through Problem Solving
Sousa and Tomlinson Teachers have for some time embraced the notion that children vary in
(2011, p. 9) reading ability, but the idea that children can and do vary in mathemati-
cal development may be new. Mathematics education research reveals
a great deal of evidence demonstrating that children can vary in their
understanding of specific mathematical ideas. Attending to these differ-
ences in children’s mathematical development is key to differentiating
mathematics instruction for your children.
Interestingly, the problem‐based approach to teaching is the best
way to teach mathematics while attending to the range of children in
your classroom. In a traditional, highly directed lesson, it is often as-
sumed that all children will understand and use the same approach and
the same ideas as determined by the teacher. Children not ready to un-
derstand the ideas presented by the teacher must focus their attention
on following rules or directions without developing a conceptual or re-
lational understanding (Skemp, 1978). This, of course, leads to endless
difficulties and can leave children with misunderstandings or in need
of significant remediation. In contrast, in a problem‐based classroom,
children are expected to approach problems in a variety of ways that
make sense to them, bringing to each problem the skills and ideas that
they own. So, with a problem‐based approach to teaching mathematics,
differentiation is already built in to some degree.
32
Figure 1 How many dogs are there? Nora’s solution: 3 and 3 is 6.
How many dogs are there? How many dogs are there?
(a) (b)
To illustrate, let’s consider a first‐grade classroom in which the teacher provided the
children with a picture of six dogs as shown in Figure 1(a). She asked the children to deter-
mine how many dogs are in the picture and to be ready to explain how they know. Following
are some of the children’s explanations:
Carmen: I counted them and got 6. (Points to each dog and counts by ones.)
Sam: I counted them, too. But I counted by twos. (Puts two fingers over two dogs
at a time and says, “Two, four, six.”)
Edwin: I saw a pattern. I recognized the five, like on a die. I knew one more is six.
Nora: I also saw a pattern. But I saw a group of 3 and 3—that is 6. (See Figure 1(b).)
Some children are still counting by ones while others have begun skip counting or even
recognizing the number of objects without counting. If the teacher had expected all children
to count the dogs by ones, then many of the children may have been using less-efficient
methods than they would have independently used. Also, the cognitive demand of the task
would have been lowered! If the teacher had expected all the children to recognize the num-
ber of objects without counting, then some children may have been confused because they
still need to count objects by ones to determine how many. Instead, the teacher allowed the
children to use their own ideas to determine how many dogs are in the picture. This expec-
tation and the recognition that different children will approach and solve the same problem
in various ways honors children’s varying mathematical development and sets the stage for
differentiated mathematics instruction. In addition, by listening to how different children
approach the task, the teacher has acquired important information that can be used to plan
subsequent instruction that meets a variety of children’s needs.
The Nuts and Bolts of Differentiating Instruction

Differentiation is an instructional approach that requires a shift from focusing on the “middle‐
of‐the‐road” child to attending to all children. As overwhelming as this may sound, dif-
ferentiation does not require a teacher to create individualized lessons for each and every
33
child in the classroom. Rather, it requires emphasizing three basic ideas (Sousa & Tomlin-
son, 2011):
• Planning lessons around meaningful content, grounded in authenticity
• Recognizing each child’s readiness, interest, and approach to learning
• Connecting content and learners by modifying content, process, product, and the learn-
ing environment
Planning Meaningful Content, Grounded

in Authenticity
Before you begin to think about differentiation, you first need to know where you want your
students to “be” at the end of the learning experience. You must be explicitly aware of the
content that children should know, understand, and be able to do after engaging in a given
lesson or sequence of lessons. This awareness enables you to effectively guide children’s
learning by varying or differentiating instruction. If you do not have a clear idea about the
specific learning outcomes, identifying how and when to differentiate can be difficult. In
fact, Tomlinson (1999) claims that “If the ‘stuff’ [content] is ill conceived, the ‘how’ [differ-
entiation] is doomed” (p. 16).
Note that the content must be authentic and grounded in important mathematics that
emphasize the big ideas in ways that require children to develop relational understanding.
Authentic content engages children in the heart of mathematics by requiring them to be
problem solvers and creators of knowledge. Through this kind of engagement, children
also develop a productive disposition toward mathematics and see it as sensible, useful, and
worthwhile.
Recognizing Children as Learners

Knowing each child in the context of learning requires finding out who he or she is as
an individual on traits such as readiness, interests, and learning profile. Readiness refers to
a child’s proficiency with the knowledge, understanding, and skills embedded in specific
learning goals. Interest means a child’s attraction to particular topics, ideas, and events.
Using contexts that are interesting and familiar to children enhances their attention and
motivation to engage and achieve (Sousa & Tomlinson, 2011). A learning profile identi-
fies how a child approaches learning—how each child prefers to learn (e.g., in groups,
alone); process and reason about information (e.g., by listening, observing, participat-
ing, or through talking; by thinking about details first and then the big picture or vice
versa; by doing one task at a time or multitasking); and use or demonstrate what has been
learned (e.g., writing, verbalizing, drawing). By using children’s preferences for learning to
structure the environment, tasks, and assessments, you are greatly facilitating the learning
process.
Information about your children’s traits can inform how you might modify differ-
ent elements of the classroom (e.g., Sousa & Tomlinson, 2011; Tomlinson, 2003). You can
gather information pertaining to children’s readiness by using preassessments several days
before a given unit so that you have time to analyze the evidence and assess each child’s
readiness for the unit. You can also use surveys, typically at the beginning and midpoint
of the year, to gather information about children’s interests and learning profiles. Interest
surveys give children opportunities to share personal interests (e.g., what they like to do
34
Figure 2 Learning profile inventory.

When working, When learning When sharing
When working on I like to I like the room When working, about new ideas, information,
a task, I like to . . . work . . . to be . . . I like . . . I like to . . . I like to . . .
n sit at my desk n with a partner n warm n quiet n hear about it n talk
n sit somewhere other n in a small n cool n noise n read about it n show

than my desk group
n darker, lights off n music n see visuals about it n write
n stand n alone
n bright n other n use materials to n other
n lie on the floor n other explore
n other
n other n talk about it
n other
after school, on the weekends, and during the summer; what school subjects they find most
interesting and why) and information about pets, siblings, and extracurricular activities.
Increase your children’s motivation and engagement by using their interests to provide
contexts for the mathematics they are learning. Learning profile surveys or questionnaires
also help children think about what helps them learn and what does not, such as preferring
to work in pairs versus alone, being able to work with background noise, and needing to
process ideas verbally (Figure 2). For younger children, use icons or images on the survey
that they can circle to indicate their choice or conduct a quick informal interview using a
checklist. Teacher observation can also provide valuable insights. By recording children’s
information on index cards, you can quickly refresh your memory by looking through the
cards as you plan lessons. You can also sort the cards to help you create groups based on
interests or learning profiles.
Connecting Content and Learners

A critical component of differentiated lesson planning is determining how to modify
four classroom elements to help the learner better connect with the content (Tomlinson,
2003). These four classroom elements are content, process, product, and the learning
environment.
Content: What You Want Each Child to Learn

Generally, what is learned (the big ideas) should be relatively the same for all children.
However, content can still be differentiated in terms of depth (level of complexity) and
breadth (connecting across different topics) (Murray & Jorgensen, 2007; Small, 2009). Chil-
dren’s readiness typically informs the level of complexity or depth at which the content is
initially presented for different groups of children. Interest and learning profiles tend to
inform differentiation geared toward breadth.
An example of a depth adaptation for developing understanding and skill with organiz-
ing, representing, and interpreting data is a minilesson in which all children organize and
35
represent data and answer questions based on the data. However, some children may have
a smaller set of data to deal with, or they may be asked to answer given questions about
the data, while others, who are ready for more sophisticated content, are asked to gener-
ate their own questions about the data. An example of a breadth adaptation for the same
objective is to allow children a choice in terms of the kind of data with which to work. For
example, based on their interests, children might choose to work with data pertaining to
sports, books, science, or pets. By working with data from various contexts, children not only
learn something about those contexts but also can begin to see the broader applications of
organizing, representing, and interpreting data.
Process: How Children Engage in Thinking about Content

Although the big ideas of a learning experience remain relatively stable when differentiating,
how children engage with and make sense of the content—the process—changes. Tomlin-
son (1999) described the process as children “taking different roads to the same destination”
(p. 12). You can use different strategies or encourage children to take different “roads” to
increase access to the essential information, ideas, and skills embedded in a lesson (Cassone,
2009; Tomlinson, 2003). For example, the use of manipulatives, games, and relevant and
interesting contextual problems provides different ways for children to process their ideas
while engaging with content.
The mathematical process standards (NCTM, 2000), which served as a basis for the
Standards for Mathematical Practice in the Common Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010),
lend themselves well to differentiating how children engage with and make sense of
content. In particular, the process standard of representation
emphasizes the need to think about and use different ways
Be sure that the tasks you ask children to do are closely to represent mathematical ideas, which can help children
aligned with the learning objectives of the lesson. make connections between concepts and skills. With the
process standard of communication, children can use verbal
or written communication as they share their reasoning, depending on their strengths.
In addition, the process standard of problem solving allows for differentiation because of the
myriad of strategies that children can use—from drawing a diagram or using manipulatives
to solving a simpler problem and looking for patterns.
Because of different levels of readiness, it is imperative that children be allowed to use
a variety of strategies and representations that are grounded in their own ideas to solve
problems. You can facilitate children’s engagement in thinking about the content through a
variety of methods. For example, teachers may
• Use visuals or graphic organizers to help children connect ideas and build a structure
for the information in the lesson.
• Provide manipulatives to support children’s development of a concept.
• Provide different manipulatives than those previously used with the same content.
• Use an appropriate context that helps children build meaning for the concept and
that employs purposeful constraints that can highlight the significant mathematical
ideas.
• Share examples and nonexamples to help children develop a better understanding of a
concept.
• Gather a small group of children to develop foundational knowledge for a new concept.
• Provide text or supplementary material in a child’s native language to aid understanding
of materials written or delivered in English.
36
• Set up learning centers or a tiered lesson (a lesson that offers learners different path-
ways to reach a specific learning goal).
Product: How Children Demonstrate What They Know, Understand,

and Are Able to Do after the Lesson Is Over
The term product can refer to what a child produces as a result of completing a single task
or to a major assessment after an extended learning experience. The products related to a
single task would be consistent with the ways children share their ideas in the After portion
of a lesson, which could include children explaining their ideas with manipulatives, through
a drawing, in writing, or simply verbally. The products related to an extended experience
can take the form of a project, portfolio, test, write‐up of solutions to several problem‐based
inquiries, and so on. An important feature of any product is that it allows a variety of ways
for children to demonstrate their understanding of essential content.
Learning Environment: The Logistics, Physical Configuration, and

Tone of the Classroom
Consider how the physical learning environment might be adapted to meet children’s needs.
Do you have a child who prefers to work alone? Who prefers to work in a group? Who can
or cannot work with background noise? Who prefers to work in a setting with brighter or
dimmer lighting? Attending to these children’s needs can affect the seating arrangement,
specific grouping strategies, access to materials, and other aspects of the classroom environ-
ment. In addition to the physical learning space, establishing a classroom culture in which
children’s ideas and solutions are respected as they explain and justify them is an important
aspect of a differentiated classroom.
Examples of Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated Tasks for Whole‐Class Instruction
One challenge of differentiation is planning a task focused on a target mathematical concept
or skill that can be used for whole‐class instruction while meeting a variety of children’s
needs. Let’s consider two different kinds of tasks that can meet this challenge: parallel tasks
and open questions (Murray & Jorgensen, 2007; Small, 2009).
Parallel Tasks
Parallel tasks are two or three tasks that focus on the same big idea but offer different levels
of difficulty. The tasks should be created so that all children can meaningfully participate in
a follow‐up discussion with the whole class. You can assign tasks to children based on their
readiness, or children can choose which task to work on. If they choose a task that is too
difficult, they can always move to another task. Consider how the following parallel tasks
emphasize the big idea of subtraction, but at different levels of difficulty.
TASK 1:
There are 38 second graders on the playground; 22 of them come in for lunch. How many
children are left on the playground?
37
TASK 2:
There are 108 second graders in our school; 29 of them leave on a field trip. How many sec-
ond graders are left in the school?
Stop and Reflect

Which of the two tasks do you think would be more difficult, and why? ■
Both tasks provide opportunities for children to work with subtraction, but the numbers in
the second task increase the level of difficulty regardless of the strategy a child uses. First,
the numbers in the second task, 29 and 108, are further apart than the numbers in the first
task, 22 and 38. In the second task, if children use a counting‐up strategy to determine the
difference, they will need to move across multiple decades while keeping track of the count.
Plus, crossing over the 100 mark can also be difficult for children. Even if children use the
typical procedure for multidigit subtraction, the second task requires regrouping whereas
the first task does not.
You can facilitate a whole-class discussion by asking questions that are relevant to both
tasks. For example, with respect to the previous two tasks, you could ask the following ques-
tions of the whole class:
• How did you determine how many children were left?
• Some of you indicated that you added to find your answer. Why does adding make
sense?
• Suppose one more child left. How would that change your answer?
• Suppose there had been one more child to begin with. How would that change your
answer?
Although children work on different tasks, because the tasks are focused on the same big
idea, these questions allow them to extend their thinking as they hear others’ strategies and
ideas.
For many problems involving computation, you can simply insert multiple sets of num-
bers to vary the difficulty. In the following problem, children are permitted to select the
first, second, or third number in each set of brackets. Giving a choice increases motivation
and helps children become more self‐directed learners (Bray, 2009; Gilbert & Musu, 2008).
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Represent and solve problems involving addition. (Grade 1)

Mark had [9, 16, 43] stickers. Natalie gave him [5, 7, 15] more stickers. How many stickers
does Mark have now?
The following parallel tasks for kindergarten focus on the big idea of cardinality or counting
to tell the number of objects (see Figure 3).
TASK 1:
How many circles are there? (Circles are in a scattered configuration.)
TASK 2:
How many stars are there? (Stars are arranged in a rectangular array.)
38
With the first task, the teacher provides a task for children who are ready Figure 3
to find ways to organize their count. The parallel task still offers an oppor-
Parallel tasks for telling how many
tunity for children to count but provides a built‐in structure that can help objects.
children keep track of their count.
In thinking about how to create parallel tasks, once you have identi- Task 1: How many circles are there?
fied the big idea you wish to focus on, consider how children might dif-
fer in reasoning about that idea. The size of the numbers involved, the
operations children can use, and the type of measurement with which
children are most familiar are just a few differences to consider. Start
with a task from your textbook and then modify it to make it suitable for
a different developmental level. The original task and the modified task Task 2: How many stars are there?
will serve as the parallel tasks offered simultaneously to your children. If
you number the parallel tasks and allow children to choose the task they
will work on, sometimes let the first task be the more difficult task. This
randomness will ensure that children consider both options before they
choose their task.
Open Questions
A question is open when it can be solved in a variety of ways or when it can have different an-
swers. Following are two examples of open questions. Both questions can have different answers
and can also be solved in a variety of ways.
• I measured an object in the classroom and found that it was 8 inches long. What could
the object be?
• The sum of three numbers is 25. What could the three numbers be?
Stop and Reflect

How would you solve each of these tasks? Can you think of at least two different strategies or
answers for each task? ■
Open questions have a high level of cognitive demand, because children must use more
than recall or do more than merely follow steps in a procedure. As such, there are ample
opportunities for them to approach the problems at their own level, which means open
questions automatically accommodate for student readiness. Consequently, when given an
open question, most children can find something appropriate to contribute, which helps
to increase their confidence in doing mathematics and can inform you of their level of
understanding.
A variety of strategies you can use to create open questions (Small, 2009; Sullivan &
Lilburn, 2002) include the following:
• Give the answer and ask for the problem.
• Replace a number in a given problem with a blank or a question mark.
• Offer two situations or examples and ask for similarities and differences.
• Create a question in which children have to make choices.
The two preceding examples illustrate the first strategy of giving an answer and asking for
the problem. The following are examples that show how to use the other strategies to con-
vert standard questions to open questions.
39
Strategy Standard Question Open Question

Replace a number in a given 23 + 68 = ?3 + 6? =
problem with a blank or a
question mark.
Offer two situations or examples Draw a triangle. How are these triangles the same
and ask for similarities and and how are they different?
differences.
Create a question so that What number is 10 more A number is 10 greater than

children have to make choices. than 25? another number. What could the
numbers be?
Facilitating follow‐up discussions is also important when you use open questions. While
children work on an open question, walk around and observe the variety of strategies and
answers children are finding. During this time, plan which children you will ask to share
their ideas during the follow‐up discussion to ensure that multiple strategies and answers
are examined. During the discussion, look for opportunities to help children make connec-
tions between different ideas that are shared. For example, in the preceding task in which
children are finding two numbers that are 10 apart from each other, suppose some children
identified 45 and 55 as their two numbers. One child might explain that to find the two
numbers she used the hundreds chart, started at 45, and then moved down a row to 55. An-
other child might say that he started at 45 and counted 10 more using his fingers. Ask the
class how the strategy of counting on your fingers could be shown on the hundreds chart
or how moving down one row on the hundreds chart is the same as counting 10 on your
fingers. Asking questions that help children build connections can support those who need
additional help and can also challenge children to extend their understanding.
Learning Centers
Sometimes a mathematical concept or topic can be explored by having children work on
different tasks at various classroom locations called learning centers. Children can work on
concepts or topics in learning centers as an initial introduction, as a midway exploration, or
as a follow‐up task that provides practice or allows extension. Because you can decide which
children will be assigned to which centers, you can differentiate the content at each center.
For example, each center can use a different representation of the concept, require children
to use a different approach to solve a problem, or vary in terms of the difficulty of the task
(e.g., different centers can use different numbers that change the level of difficulty).
A good task for a learning center is one that can be repeated multiple times during one
visit. This allows children to remain engaged until you are ready for them to transition to an-
other center or activity. For example, at one center children might play a “game” in which
they take turns covering part of a known number of counters while the other child names
the amount in the covered part. Technology‐enhanced tasks on the computer or interac-
tive whiteboard that can be repeated can provide the focus of a center, but these tasks must
be carefully selected. Among other aspects, you will want to choose technology‐based tasks
that require children to engage in reflective thought. For example, “Hiding Ladybug” in the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics online resources (www.nctm.org/standards
/content.aspx?id=25009) offers children opportunities to plan and check a path for a ladybug to
take so it can hide under a leaf. They can quickly check to see whether their plan works, make
changes based on the results, and check the revised plan. As they engage in this interactive
40
environment, they are enhancing their understanding of location and movement in space. Once
they have successfully created a path, they can move the leaf and start the challenge again.
You may want children to work at centers in small groups or individually. Therefore, for
a given topic, you might prepare four to eight different activities (you can also use the same
activity at two different learning centers). However, be sure to keep the centers focused on
the same topic or concept so that you can help children build connections across the cen-
ters. Using centers that focus on a variety of topics will more likely result in a disconnected
learning experience for children.
To ensure greater student success at the centers, review with your whole class any in-
structions you have provided at each center on cards. For younger children or children who
have difficulty reading, provide audio‐recorded directions at each center. If necessary, model
or teach again any necessary skills. After children have had time to work in several centers,
follow up with individual or class discussions to ensure that children are learning the essen-
tial ideas and connections that the centers are meant to elicit.
Tiered Lessons
In a tiered lesson, you set the same learning goals for all children, but different pathways
are provided to reach those learning goals, thereby creating the various tiers. First, you need
to decide which category you wish to tier: content, process, or product. If you are new to
preparing tiered lessons, tier only one category until you become more comfortable with
the process. Once you decide which category to tier, determine the challenge of each of
the defined tiers based on student readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles (Kingore,
2006; Murray & Jorgensen, 2007; Tomlinson, 1999). Murray and Jorgensen (2007) sug-
gest starting by creating three tiers to make the process more manageable: a regular tier or
lesson, an extension tier that provides extra challenge, and a scaffolding tier that provides
more background or support. Once you have this framework, you can design as many tiers
as needed to meet your children’s needs. All tiered experiences should have the following
characteristics (Sousa & Tomlinson, 2011):
• Address the same learning goals
• Require children to use reasoning
• Be equally interesting to children
We have already considered some ways to tier the content Figure 4 Problem‐solving cue sheet.
by using parallel tasks and open questions. However, varying
the degree of challenge is not just about the content. You Ways to help
5+7=
me think about
can also tier lessons using any of the following four aspects the problem
(Kingore, 2006):
Counting chips
• Degree of assistance. If some children need additional
support, you can partner children, provide examples,
Ten-frame
help them brainstorm ideas, or provide a cue sheet (Fig-
ure 4).
• Structure of the task. Some children, such as children
with disabilities, benefit from highly structured tasks. Finger counting
However, gifted children often benefit from a more

open‐ended structure. Drawing
• Complexity of the task. Make tasks more concrete or
Other
more abstract and include more difficult problems or
applications.
41
• Complexity of the process. As you think about your learners, ask yourself these ques-
tions: How quickly should I pace this lesson? How many instructions should I give at
one time? How many higher‐level thinking questions are included as part of the task(s)?
Consider how the following original task is modified in the adapted task to change the level
of challenge:
ORIGINAL TASK:
Elliot had 9 toy cars. Sasha came over to play and brought 8 cars. How many cars do Elliot
and Sasha have together? Explain how you know.
The teacher has distributed cubes to children to model the problem and paper and pencil to
illustrate and record how they solved the problem. He asks them to model the problem and
be ready to explain their solution.
ADAPTED TASK:
Elliott had some toy cars. Sasha came over to play and brought her cars. How many cars do
Elliott and Sasha have together? Explain how you know.
The teacher asks children what is happening in this problem, how they might solve the prob-
lem, and what tools might help them solve the problem. Then the teacher distributes task
cards that tell how many cars Elliot and Sasha have. The teacher has varied the difficulty of
the numbers, giving children who are struggling sums that are less than 10 and the more
advanced children sums greater than 20.
Card 1 (easier)
Elliot has 5 cars and

Sasha has 3 cars.
Card 2 (middle)

Sasha has 8 cars.
42
Card 3 (advanced)

Sasha has 16 cars.
In each case, children must use words, pictures, models, or numbers to show how they fig-
ured out the solution. Various tools are provided (connecting cubes, counters, number line,
and hundreds chart) for children’s use.
Stop and Reflect

Which of the four aspects that change the challenge of tiered lessons was addressed in the
adapted task? ■
You would preassess your children to determine the best ways to use these task cards. One
option is to give children only one card, based on their current academic readiness (e.g., easy
cards to those who have not yet mastered addition of single‐digit numbers). A second option
is to give out cards 1 and 2 based on readiness, then use card 2 as an extension for those who
successfully complete card 1, and card 3 as an extension for those who successfully complete
card 2. In each of these cases, you will need to record at the end of the lesson which children
were able to model and explain the various levels of the problems so that the next lesson can
be planned appropriately. Notice that this tiered lesson addresses both the complexity of the
task (difficulty of different cards) and the process (instructions are broken down by starting
with the no‐numbers scenario).
The following example illustrates how to tier a lesson based on structure. Notice that the
different tasks vary in how open‐ended the work is, yet all tasks focus on the same learning
goal of analyzing and comparing two‐dimensional shapes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Analyze and compare two‐dimensional shapes, in dif-

ferent sizes and orientations, using informal language to describe how they
are the same and how they are different, or parts (e.g., number of sides and
vertices/“corners”). (Grade K)
Children are given a collection of two‐dimensional shapes (e.g., squares, a variety of triangles,
nonsquare rectangles, hexagons). Some children may be given collections that have fewer
shapes and fewer varieties of shapes in each category. The tasks are distributed to different
groups based on their learning needs and prior knowledge of two‐dimensional shapes.
• Group A: Explore the set of shapes. For each kind of shape, what do you notice about
the shape? Make a list of the ideas that you think are true for each kind of shape. [open‐
ended]
43
• Group B: Explore the set of shapes. For each kind of shape, what do you notice about
the number of sides and the number of corners (vertices)? [slightly structured]
• Group C: First, sort the shapes into like shapes. Count the number of sides and the num-
ber of corners (vertices) of each shape. Use the following table to record your findings.
What do you notice about the number of sides and the number of corners (vertices) for
each kind of shape? [most structured]
Number of Sides Number of Corners
Triangles
Squares
Rectangles
Hexagons
The three tiers in this lesson reflect different degrees of

difficulty in terms of task structure. However, all children
are working on the same learning objective and they all
Make sure children understand the vocabulary used in tasks must engage in reasoning about the shapes to complete
before they begin working independently. For instance, two their tasks.
of the tasks in the tiered lesson example use the words sides Response to intervention (RtI) is a multitier student‐
and corners. Before they start the tasks, have a group dis- support system that offers struggling children increasing
cussion with children who are assigned these tasks about the levels of intervention. We want to distinguish between the
meaning of the terms. tiers in RtI and tiered lessons used in differentiation. In RtI
the tiers refer to the different degrees of intervention of-
fered to children as needed—from the first tier, which occurs in a general education setting
and involves the core instruction for all children based on high‐quality mathematics cur-
riculum and instructional practices, to the upper tier, which could involve one‐on‐one in-
struction with a special education teacher. Tiered lessons used in differentiation would be an
avenue to offer high‐quality core instruction for all children in the first tier or level of RtI.
Flexible Grouping
Allowing children to collaborate on tasks supports and challenges their thinking and in-
creases their opportunities to communicate about mathematics and build understanding. In
addition, many children feel that working in groups improves their confidence, engagement,
and understanding (Nebesniak & Heaton, 2010). Even children who prefer to work alone
need to learn the life skill of collaboration and should be provided opportunities to work
with others.
Determining how to place children in groups is an important decision. Avoid continu-
ally grouping by ability. This kind of grouping, although well‐intentioned, perpetuates low
levels of learning and actually increases the gap between more and less dependent children.
Instead, consider using flexible grouping, in which the size and makeup of small groups vary
in a purposeful and strategic manner (Murray & Jorgensen, 2007). When coupled with the
use of differentiation strategies, flexible grouping gives all children the chance to work suc-
cessfully in groups.
Flexible groups can vary based on children’s readiness, interests, language proficiency,
and learning profiles, as well as the nature of the tasks. For example, sometimes children can
44
work with a partner because the nature of the task best suits two people working together.
At other times, flexible groups might be created with four children because their assigned
task has enough components or roles to warrant a larger team. Note that it can be effective
to periodically place struggling learners with more capable children who are likely to be
helpful. However, constantly pairing struggling learners with more capable children is not
helpful for either group. The idea behind flexible grouping is that groups can and do easily
change in response to all children’s readiness, interests, and learning profiles and the nature
of the task they will be doing.
Regardless of how you group your children, the first key to successful grouping is indi-
vidual accountability. While the group is working together on a product, individuals must
be able to explain the content, the process, and the product. Second, and equally important,
is building a sense of shared responsibility within a group. At the start of the year, it is im-
portant to engage children in team‐building activities and to set expectations that all group
members will participate in the assigned group task(s) and that all group members will be
responsible for ensuring that the entire group understands the concept.
Reinforcing individual accountability and shared responsibility may create a shift in
your role as the teacher. When a member of a small group asks you a question, pose the
question to the whole group to find out what the other members think. Children will soon
learn that they must use teammates as their first resource and seek teacher help only when
the whole group needs help. Also, when you are observing groups, rather than asking a child
what she is doing, ask another child in the group to explain what the first child is doing.
Having all children participate in the oral report to the whole class also builds individual
accountability. Letting children know that you may call on any member to explain what
the group did is a good way to ensure that all group members understand what they did.
Additionally, having children individually write and record their strategies and solutions is
important. Using these techniques will increase the effectiveness of grouping, which in turn
will help children learn mathematical concepts more successfully.
Stop and Reflect

Why is teaching mathematics through problem solving (i.e., a problem‐based approach) a good
way to differentiate instruction and reach all children in a classroom? ■
References
Bray, W. S. (2009). The power of choice. Teaching Kingore, B. (2006, Winter). Tiered instruction:
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Cassone, J. D. (2009). Differentiating mathematics Murray, M., & Jorgensen, J. (2007). The differentiated
by using task difficulty. In D. Y. White & J. S. Spitzer math classroom: A guide for teachers, K–8. Portsmouth,
(Eds.), Mathematics for every student: Responding NH: Heinemann.
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Skemp, R. (1978). Relational understanding and
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Sousa, D., & Tomlinson, C. (2011). Differentiation Tomlinson, C. (1999). Mapping a route towards
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Tomlinson, C. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of
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46
Assessing for Learning
I realize how valuable a Assessment That Supports Instruction
well‐designed, research‐ In a problem‐based approach, teachers often ask, “How do I assess?”
based probe can be in The assessment principle in Principles and Standards for School Mathe-
matics (NCTM, 2000) stresses two main ideas: (1) Assessment should
finding evidence of student enhance children’s learning, and (2) assessment is a valuable tool for
making instructional decisions.
understanding. Also how Assessment is not separate from instruction and in fact should in-
clude the critical mathematical practices (CCSSO, 2010) and processes
this awareness of children’s (NCTM, 2000) that occur in the course of effective problem‐based in-
structional approaches. The typical approach of an end‐of‐chapter test
thinking helped me decide of skills may have value but rarely reveals the type of data that can fine‐
what they (students) ac- tune instruction so that it is tailored to improving the performance of in-
dividual children. In fact, Daro, Mosher, and Corcoran (2011) state that
tually knew versus what “the starting point is the mathematics and thinking the student brings
to the lesson, not the deficit of mathematics they do not bring” (p. 48).
I thought they knew. Stiggins (2009) goes further to suggest that children should be informed
partners in understanding their progress in learning and how to enhance
A teacher from the Vermont their growth. They should begin to use their own assessment results to
Mathematics Partnership* move forward as learners as they see that “success is always within reach”
(p. 420). Using carefully selected assessment tasks allows you to integrate
assessment into instruction and make it part of the learning process.
Assessments usually fall into one of two major categories: summa-
tive or formative. A summative assessment is a cumulative evaluation
that may generate a single score, such as an end‐of‐unit test or a stan-
dardized test that is used in your state or school district. Although the
scores are important for schools and teachers, used individually they
often do not help shape teaching decisions on particular topics or iden-
tify misunderstandings that may hinder children’s future growth.
A formative assessment is used to determine the point‐in‐time status
of children’s understanding, to preassess, or to attempt to identify chil-
dren’s naïve understandings or misconceptions so that the information
*Reprinted with permission from Formative Assessment in Elementary School

Mathematics, copyright 2010, by the National Council of Teachers of Math-
ematics. All rights reserved.
47
is interpreted and used to provide feedback and make decisions about the next instructional
steps (Wiliam, 2010). Wiliam (2010) goes on to note three key processes in formative assess-
ment: “1) Establishing where the learners are in their learning, 2) establishing where they are
going and 3) working out how to get there” (p. 45). As Wiliam (2010) states, “To be formative,
assessment must include a recipe for future action” (slide 41).
For example, a formative assessment to see whether first graders can find a missing
addend could be the following word problem: “If Lindy has 6 shells in her collection, how
many more does she need to get 13?” The teacher observes one child taking out connecting
cubes, counting out 6 and then adding more until she reaches 13. Then she goes back and
takes out 6 and counts the remaining cubes, stating “seven.” Another child places her hands
on the table with fingers stretched out and, if observed carefully, shows signs that she is
“counting on” from 6 by pressing 7 fingers down one at a time until she reaches 13. A differ-
ent child just calls out 7 almost immediately. When asked how he arrived at that answer, he
says that 6 + 6 = 12, so 6 + 7 = 13. The information gathered from observing these children
reveals very different “paths” for next steps. This teacher is at the first step in Wiliam’s three
key processes, noting where children are in their learning. Moving into the second step, the
teacher notes that one child should move to more challenging tasks while two children need
to move closer to the standard of using addition and subtraction within 20 to solve a variety
of word problems through more targeted instruction (CCSSO, 2010).
If summative assessment could be described as a digital snapshot, formative assess-
ment is like streaming video. One is a picture of what a child knows captured in a single
moment of time and the other is a moving picture demonstrating the child’s active think-
ing and reasoning. In the following pages, various approaches are presented including
Piaget’s three broad categories of formative assessments: observations, interviews, and tasks
(Piaget, 1976).
Observations
All teachers learn useful bits of information about their children every day. When the three‐
phase lesson format (Before, During, and After phases) is followed, the flow of evidence about
children’s performance increases dramatically, especially in the During and After portions
of lessons. If you have a systematic plan for gathering this information while observing and
listening to children, at least two very valuable results occur. First, information that may have
gone unnoticed is suddenly visible and important. Second, observation data gathered system-
atically can be combined with other data and used in planning lessons, providing feedback to
children, conducting parent conferences, and determining grades.
Depending on the information you are trying to gather, several days to two weeks may
be required to complete a single observation of how every child in a class is progressing on a
standard. Shorter periods of observation will focus on a particular cluster of concepts or skills
or on particular children. Over longer periods, you can note growth in mathematical processes
or practices, such as the development of problem solving, representation, or reasoning. To use
observation effectively, you should take seriously the following maxim: Only try to collect data
on a reasonable number of children in a single class period.
Anecdotal Notes
One system for recording observations is to write short notes either during or immediately
after a lesson in a brief narrative. One possibility is to have a card for each child taped to a
clipboard (see Figure 1). Another option is to write anecdotal notes on an electronic tablet
and store them in a spreadsheet. In either case, focus your observations on approximately
five children a day. The children selected may be members of one or two cooperative groups
or a group previously identified as needing additional support.
48
Checklists
To cut down on writing and to help focus your attention, a checklist duplicated for each
child with several specific processes or content objectives can be devised (see Figure 2). As
you build your checklist, include a place for comments. These comments should focus on
big ideas and conceptual understanding rather than small skills. For example, you will prob-
ably find the comment “is beginning to see how addition facts can be related—such as using
6 + 6 to think about 6 + 16” more helpful than “knows the easy addition facts but not harder
addition problems.”
Another format involves listing all children in a class on a single page (see Figure 3).
Across the top of the page are specific abilities or common misconceptions to look for
(based on learning progressions or trajectories). Pluses and minuses, checks, or codes can be
entered in the grid. A full‐class checklist is more likely to be used for long‐term objectives.
Topics that might be appropriate for this format include mathematical practices and such
skill areas as basic addition and subtraction fact fluency. Dating entries or noting specific
observed performance is also helpful.
Figure 1 Figure 2
Preprinted cards for observation notes can be taped A focused checklist and rubric can be printed for
to a clipboard or folder for quick access. each child.
NAME: Sharon V.
NOT THERE YET
ABOVE AND
COMMENTS
ON TARGET
BEYOND
PLACE VALUE
Connie Rico Skip counts by
tens
Jeanine Gretchen Skip counts by Took out hundreds

pieces while skip
hundreds counting
Marti Fran Understands 100
equals ten tens
Bridget Deron Reads and writes

numbers to 1000
Robin Chip Compares three- Showing

Nov. greater
8- digit numbers reasonableness
to ad Exp
Matt d 48Mattlained 2
Show + 25 ways MATHEMATICAL PRACTICES
ing m +
Terik o
ia st re flexibi
Makes sense of Stated
Abdul at lity. problems and problem in
was ed th own words
prou at sh perseveres
d of e
Terik hers Models with
ia elf. Reluctant to use
Michael mathematics abstract models
Uses appropriate
tools
49
Figure 3
A full‐class observation checklist can be used for long‐term objectives or for several days to cover a short‐term
objective.
Topic: Not There Yet On Target Above and Beyond Comments
Addition with sums to 20 Can’t do Has at least Uses different

mentally one strategy methods with
different numbers
Names
3-18-2013
Lalie 3-21-2013
Difficulty with addends
Pete 3-20-2013 3-24-2013 of 8 and 9
Sid + Flexible approaches
3-20-2013 used
Lakeshia Count up and over ten
George
Beginning to look for
Pam ways to make ten
Maria Use a counting on strategy
3-24-2013 from the highest addend
Questioning
Observations do not have to be silent. Probing into children’s thinking through the use of
questions can provide better data and more insights to inform instruction. As you circulate
around the classroom, your use of questions is one of the most important ways to forma-
tively assess and evaluate children’s understanding in each lesson phase. Keep the following
questions in mind (or on a clipboard, index card, or bookmark) as you move about the class-
room to prompt and probe into children’s thinking:
• What can you tell me about [today’s topic]?
• How can you put the problem in your own words?
• Tell me how your picture fits with the story?
• Was there something in this problem that reminded you of another problem we’ve
done?
• How did you decide what to do?
• How did you decide whether your answer was right?
• Did you try something that didn’t work? How did you figure out that it was not going
to work?
Getting the children used to responding to these questions (as well as getting accustomed to
asking questions about their thinking and the thinking of others) will help prepare them for
the more intensive questioning used in diagnostic interviews.
Diagnostic Interviews
A diagnostic interview uses what we know about children’s cognition to design an assess-
ment (Huff & Goodman, 2007). The interview is usually a one‐on‐one investigation of a
child’s thinking about a particular concept or the processes that are being used to solve
problems. The interview usually lasts from three to ten minutes. The challenge of diag-
nostic interviews is to remember that they are assessment opportunities and not teaching
50
opportunities. It is hard to listen when children are making errors and not respond immedi-
ately. Instead, the interviews are used to listen and probe to discover strengths as well as gaps
in children’s understanding, which will lead to more targeted instruction.
Tasks should be aligned to recent work or your attempts to pinpoint underlying foun-
dational gaps in understanding. Primary diagnostic interviews might include tasks such as
counting a group of objects and writing down the number on paper, or asking children to
solve a missing addend problem such as 4 + n = 12. As the child solves the task, the teacher
is able to watch and listen.
Diagnostic interviews have the potential to provide information that you simply cannot get
in any other way. Think of interviews as a formative assessment tool to be used for only a few
selected children at a time—not for every child in the class. You can briefly interview a single
child while the rest of the class is working on a task. Some teachers work with the child at an
interactive whiteboard and record the whole conversation and written work.
The most obvious reason to consider conducting an interview is that you need more in-
formation concerning a particular child and how he or she is constructing concepts or using
a procedure. In fact, these dialogues can be considered intense error analysis. Remediation
will be more successful if you can pinpoint why a child is having difficulty before you try to
fix the problem.
A second reason for conducting an interview is to gather information to plan your next
instructional steps or to assess the effectiveness of your instruction. In an examination of hun-
dreds of research studies, Hattie (2009) found the feedback that teachers received from children
on what they knew and did not know was critical in improving children’s performance. That is
precisely what diagnostic interviews are designed to do!
For example, are you sure that your children have a good understanding of place value,
or are they just doing the exercises according to rote procedures? Let’s look at an actual
classroom situation.
A teacher was working with a child who was displaying difficulty with calculating
subtraction problems. To get the child to reveal where her thinking was in terms of
what she understood and where some gaps might be, the teacher planned a diag- Figure 4
nostic interview. Using an adaptation of a task (Philipp, Cabral, & Schappell, 2012), A child’s work on a
she showed the child a problem (see Figure 4) and asked the child to talk about diagnostic interview
her thinking as she answered. The child said, “Four from zero is four and five from task.
eight is three, so my answer is 34.” Although base‐ten materials were on the table,
they went untouched. The teacher resisted the temptation to immediately correct
the child, as is necessary in these interviews, and instead probed further by asking
the child if she could show the same problem using the base‐ten materials. Showing
fluency with the values of base‐ten materials, the child took out the correct amounts
and placed them on the table. She used the 54 that she took out as a reference and
touched the other materials (in the group of 80) to show how many she would be
taking away. This time she got 26 as the answer. The confusion was evident but
when asked which answer was correct, she pointed back to her original calculation.
She even redid the algorithm and repeated her mistaken “four from zero is four.”
The child quietly pondered and then pointed again to the answer of 34.
Although this interview revealed that the child had a good grasp of the value of the
base‐ten materials, it also revealed that the child was not seeing the need to regroup and
may not fully understand place‐value concepts. The child also referred to the numbers in
the tens column as “8” and “5” rather than 80 and 50. Notice that the teacher linked the
assessment to the classroom instruction through the use of concrete materials. This connec-
tion provided a way for the child to think about the numbers rather than just the individual
digits. Additionally, the cognitive dissonance caused by the difference in the two numerical
outcomes, one responding to the procedure alone and the other with concrete materials,
51
enabled the possibility for more connected ideas to emerge. Then planning for future in-
struction based on actual evidence could begin.
There is no one right way to plan or structure a diagnostic interview. In fact, flexibility
is a key ingredient. You should, however, have an overall plan that includes an easier task and
a more challenging task in case you have misjudged your starting point. Also, did you notice
that the teacher in the vignette had instructional materials ready for the child to use? Be
sure you have materials available that match those that the child has used during instruction
and that will provide insights into what the child understands.
Begin by asking the child to complete the first task you’ve planned. When the opening
task has been completed, ask the child to explain what was done. “How would you explain
this to a kindergartner (or your younger sister)?” “What does this (point to something on
the paper) stand for?” “Tell me why you did this that way.” You may want to ask, “Can you
show me what you are thinking with the materials?” If a child gets two different answers, as
in the preceding scenario, ask “Why do you think you got two different answers? Which one
do you think is correct? If you tried to do this problem again, which approach would you try
first?” In each case it is important to explore if the child can connect actions using models to
what he or she wrote or explained earlier.
Consider the following suggestions as you implement your diagnostic interview:
• Avoid revealing whether the answer is right or wrong. Often your facial expressions,
tone of voice, or body language can give children clues that the answer they gave is cor-
rect or incorrect. Instead, use a response such as “Can you tell me more?” or “I think
I know what you are thinking.” If a child asks whether the answer is right, you can say
“That’s fine” or “I see what you are doing.”
• Avoid asking leading questions. Comments such as “Are you sure about that?” or “Wait.
Is that what you mean?” may indicate to children that they have made a mistake and
cause them to reconsider their answer. This can hinder your ability to discover what
they know and understand.
• Wait silently for the child to give an answer. Give ample time to allow the child to
think and respond. Only then should you move to rephrase the question or probe for a
better understanding of the child’s thoughts. After the child gives a response (whether it
is accurate or not), wait again! This second wait time is even more important because it
encourages the child to elaborate on his or her initial thought and provide more infor-
mation. Waiting can also provide you with more time to think about the direction you
want the interview to take.
• Remember that you should not interject clues or teach. The temptation to do this is some-
times overwhelming. Watch and listen. Your goal is to use the interview not to teach but to
find out where the child is in terms of conceptual understanding and procedural fluency.
• Let children share their thinking freely without interruption. Encourage children to
use their own words and ways of recording. Interjecting questions or correcting lan-
guage can be distracting to the flow of children’s thinking and explanations.
• Ask children to demonstrate their understanding in multiple ways. For example, ask
“Can you show me that with the materials? Can you draw a picture to help think about
this problem? Can you write a word problem to go with that equation?” or “Can you
explain what you just did?”
The benefits of the diagnostic interview become evident as you plan instruction that capital-
izes on children’s strengths while recognizing possible weaknesses and confusion. Also, un-
like large‐scale testing, you can always ask another question to find out more when children
take an incorrect or unexpected path. These insights are invaluable in moving children to
mathematical proficiency.
52
Tasks
The category of tasks refers to written products and can include performance‐based tasks,
writing (e.g., journal entries, children’s self‐assessments), and tests. Good assessment tasks
for either instructional or formative assessment purposes should permit every child in the
class, regardless of mathematical ability, to demonstrate his or her knowledge, skill, or
understanding.
Problem‐Based Tasks
When problem‐based tasks are used for assessment and evaluation, the intent is to find what
children do know rather than only identifying what they do not know (e.g., he can’t count
and state how many he has—cardinality). The result is a broad description of the ideas and
skills that children possess—for example, “Adam can identify triangles given a selection of
three‐sided figures, but he is challenged to select squares as rectangles when asked to find
rectangles in a large group of four‐sided figures.”
Problem‐based tasks have several critical components that make them good tasks for
assessment, such as the following:
• Focus on a central mathematics concept or skill aligned to valued learning targets
• Stimulate the connection of content a child knows to new content
• Allow for multiple solution methods or approaches using a variety of tools
• Offer opportunities along the way for children to correct themselves
• Confront common misconceptions
• Encourage children to use reasoning and explain their thinking
• Create opportunities for observing children’s use of mathematical processes and practices
• Generate data for instructional decision making as you “listen” to your children’s thinking
Notice that the following examples of performance‐based tasks are not elaborate, yet
when followed by a discussion, each task could engage children for a large part of the les-
son. What mathematical ideas and practices are required to successfully respond to each
of these tasks? Will the task help you determine how well children understand these ideas?
SHARES (GRADES K–2)

Learning Targets: (1) Solve problems involving the operations. (2) Use manipulatives and
words to describe a solution.
Leila has 6 gumdrops, Darlene has 2, and Melissa has 4. They want to share them equally.
How will they do it? Draw a picture to help explain your answer.
At second grade, the numbers in the “Shares” task should be larger. What additional
concepts would be involved if the task were about sharing cookies and the total number of
cookies, 34, was given?
ONE UP, ONE DOWN (GRADES 1–2)

Learning Targets: (1) Work with addition equations. (2) Look for and make use of structure.
When you add 7 + 7, you get 14. When you make the first number 1 more and the second
number 1 less, you get the same answer. Does this work any time the numbers are the same?
Does it work when the addends are not the same?
53
PARTITIONING (GRADES K–1)

Learning Targets: (1) Decompose numbers in a problem situation. (2) Use reasoning and
regularity of patterns to make sense of quantities and the relationships of quantities.
Six bowls of cereal are placed at two different tables. Draw a picture to show a way that six
bowls might be placed at two tables. Can you find more than one way? How many ways do
you think there are?
Translation Tasks
One important option is referred to as a translation task. Using the seven representations for
concepts, children are asked to use more than one representation (e.g., words, tools, and
numbers) to demonstrate understanding of a single problem. As children move between
these representations, there is a better chance they will form the concept correctly and inte-
grate it into a rich web of ideas.
So what is a good way of structuring a translation task? Using an adaptation of a tem-
plate for assessing concept mastery from Frayer, Fredrick, and Klauseier (1969) (Figure 5),
children can be given a computational equation and be asked to
• Tell a story to match an equation.
• Illustrate the equation with materials or drawings.
• Draw a picture and write an equation to represent a story.
In particular, children’s ability to communicate how they solved a problem is critical for
responding to open‐response questions on state assessments (Parker & Breyfogle, 2011).
Translation tasks can be used for whole-class lessons or for individual or small-group
diagnosis. For example, second‐grade children may be given an equation such as 36 + 49 = ?
(see Figure 5). Their task could be to draw a model, say, of base‐ten materials, in the “Manip-
ulatives/Illustration” area (younger children could just show a manipulative), describe a real‐
world situation in which that addition is used in the “Real‐World Story or Word Problem”
area, and explain to another person in writing (or scripted or audio recorded by the teacher
for younger children) how they solved the addition in the fourth area marked “Explanation.”
Think about using translation tasks when you want to find out more about children’s
thinking. If children represent ideas in various forms and can explain why these representa-
tions are similar or different, you can use this valuable information to recognize miscon-
ceptions they may have and then identify the type of activity you can provide children to
Figure 5 Translation task template with example task.

Numbers/Equation Real‐World Story or Word Problem
36 + 49 =
Manipulatives/Illustration Explanation
54
advance their learning. Here are two other options for tasks that can be used with the trans-
lation template to assess children’s understanding. Remember that a translation task may
start off in any quadrant of the template and the children proceed to fill in the other three
sections. Consider the following two “starters.”
• Start with this word problem in the section labeled “Real‐World Story or Word Problem”:
Jack was at the pet store. A group of puppies came over and sat on Jack’s lap. Two of the
puppies jumped off. Now Jack has three puppies on his lap. How many puppies did Jack
have on his lap in the beginning?
Then children create the equation that corresponds with the problem, make a matching
drawing, and explain how they came to their answer in the last of the four sections.
• In the “Manipulatives/Illustration” section show two groups of coins in two circles. In
one circle show an illustration of 2 quarters and 2 pennies (you can use a coin stamp) and in
the other circle show 3 dimes, 1 nickel, and 3 pennies with the question, “How much money
do you have?” Then children should write a corresponding equation to show the combining
of both groups of coins, write a word problem, and in the last section explain to a friend how
to approach this problem.
In some instances, the real value of a task is in what it can reveal about children’s un-
derstanding, which will come primarily through discussion in the After phase of your lesson.
It is important that you help children develop the habit of adding justifications to their an-
swers and listening to and evaluating the explanations of others. Importantly, as illustrated
here, do not always start with the same section—sometimes children can translate one way
but not in reverse.
Writing for Early Learners

If you are working with pre‐K–1 children, the writing prompts presented may sound too
advanced; it may be difficult for prewriters and beginning writers to express ideas like those
suggested. To begin the development of the writing‐in‐mathematics process in these early
grades, use a language experience approach. After an activity, you can write the words “Giant
Journal” and a topic or prompt on a large chart or interactive whiteboard. As children re-
spond to the prompt verbally, the teacher writes down their thoughts, including the con-
tributor’s name and even drawings when appropriate, as in Figure 6.
All children can draw pictures of some sort to describe what they have done. Dots can
represent counters or blocks. Shapes and figures can be cut out from duplicated sheets and
pasted onto journal pages.
Rubrics and Their Uses

Appropriate assessment tasks yield an enormous amount of information that must be evalu-
ated by examining more than a simple count of correct answers. A rubric is a scale based on
predetermined criteria with two important functions: (1) It permits the children to see what
is central to excellent performance, and (2) it provides the teacher with scoring guidelines
that support analysis of children’s work. In teaching through a problem‐solving approach,
you will often want to include criteria and performance indicators that measure whether
children have accomplished the following:
• Solved the problem(s) accurately and effectively
• Explained strategies they used or justified their answer
55
Figure 6 • Used logical reasoning

A journal in kindergarten may be a class product on • Expressed a grasp of numerical relationships and
a flipchart. structure
• Incorporated multiple representations and/or mul-
tiple strategies
• Demonstrated an ability to select and use tools and
manipulatives
• Communicated using precise language and accurate
rnal
GianttJh oI duiscovered units
a
Today in m eoboards • Identified general patterns of ideas that repeat, mak-
G
ing connections from one big idea to another
You can stretch
s can make the rubber band Rubrics are usually built from the highest possible score.
Two square angle. ) and make the
a rect gan By describing what an outstanding performance would be
(Me same shape
bigger! on a given standard or learning target, you are then able
.
ake a circle (Kayleigh) to set the benchmarks for the other levels.
You can’t m
ake a (Kameron)
gles can m
Two trian . (Patrick
)
re
squa n
You ca ictures
Generic Rubrics
p
es make ifferent
le touch with d s. Generic rubrics identify general categories of perfor-
A triangegs. (Bryan)
three p shape (Dan) mance instead of specific criteria for a particular task
and, therefore, can fit multiple assignments. The ge-
neric rubric allows a teacher to score performances by
first sorting them into two broad categories, as illus-
trated in the four‐point rubric shown in Figure 7. The
scale then allows you to separate each category into two
additional levels. Note that a rating of 0 is given for no
response or effort or for responses that are completely
off task. The advantage of the four‐point scale is that
it is relatively easy to use when initially sorting per-
formances into the two groupings “Got It” and “Not
For very young children you many want to use three simple There Yet.”
headings with visuals, such as “Yes, Got It!,” “On Track,” and Another possibility is using a three‐ or four‐point ge-
“Need Help.” neric rubric on a reusable form, as in Figure 8. Include
space for content‐specific indicators and a column to jot
down names of children. A quick note or comment may
be added to a name. This method is especially useful for
planning purposes.
Task‐Specific Rubrics
Task‐specific rubrics include specific statements, also
known as indicators, that describe what performance
looks like at each level of the rubric. In so doing, they
establish criteria for acceptable performance. Initially, when you create a task‐specific ru-
bric, it may be difficult to predict what children’s performances at different levels will or
should look like. One important part of setting performance levels is predicting children’s
common misconceptions or the expected thinking or approaches to the same or similar
problems.
56
Figure 7
With a four‐point rubric, performances are first sorted into two categories. Then each performance is considered
again and assigned to a point on the scale.
Scoring with a Four-Point Rubric
Got It Not There Yet

Evidence shows that the student Student shows evidence of major
essentially has the target concept misunderstanding, incorrect concept or
or idea. procedure, or failure to engage the task.
4 3 2 1
Excellent: Full Proficient: Substantial Marginal: Partial Unsatisfactory: Little
Accomplishment Accomplishment Accomplishment Accomplishment
Strategy and execution meet Could work to full accomplish- Part of the task is accom- The task is attempted
the content, processes, and ment with minimal feedback. plished, but there is lack of and some mathematical
qualitative demands of the Errors are minor, so teacher evidence of understanding effort is made. There
task. Communication is is confident that understand- or evidence of not under- may be fragments of
judged by effectiveness, not ing is adequate to accomplish standing. Direct input or accomplishment but little
length. May have minor the objective. further teaching is required. or no success.
errors.
Stop and Reflect

Consider the preceding problem titled “Shares.” Assume you are teaching first grade and wish
to write performance indicators using a four‐point rubric. What task‐specific indicators would
you use for level 3 and level 4 performances? Start with a level 3 performance, and then think
about level 4. Try this before reading further. ■
Prior to teaching the lesson, write out indicators of “proficient” or “on target” perfor-
mances. This excellent self‐check will ensure that the task is likely to accomplish the purpose
for which you selected it in the first place. Think about how children are likely to approach
the activity. If you find yourself writing performance in-
dicators in terms of the number of correct responses, you
are most likely looking at drill or practice exercises and not
performance‐based tasks for which a rubric is appropriate.
Determining performance indicators is always a subjec- When you return papers, review the indicators with the chil-
tive process based on your professional judgment. Here is dren, including examples of correct answers and success-
one possible set of indicators for the “Shares” task: ful responses. This will help children understand how they
may have done better. Often it is useful to show work from
Level 3: Determines the correct answer or uses an ap-
classmates (anonymously) or from a prior class. Let children
proach that would yield a correct answer if not for minor
decide on the scores for these children. Children need to see
errors. The picture drawn or the explanation does not
models of what a level 4 performance looks like.
fully explain the combining and sharing process.
57
Figure 8 Level 4: Determines the total number of gumdrops

and the amount of each equal share using words, pic-
A rubric used over several days in a first‐grade class
tures, and numbers to explain and justify the result
during an activity on partitioning regions.
and how it was obtained.
Observation Rubric What about level 1 and level 2 performances? Here are
Partition Regions into Equal Shares 3/17 suggestions for the same task:
Above and Beyond Level 2: Uses only two numbers in addition instead
Clear understanding. Communi- of three and, therefore, fails to come up with the
cates concept in multiple repre- Sally correct amount to share or adds correctly but does
sentations. Shows evidence of
using idea without prompting. not carry out the division. The child shows some
Latania
evidence of knowledge of addition but explana-
Can partition rectangles and Greg Zal tions and drawings are not properly aligned with the
circles into two, four, and eight
equal shares. Explains that situation.
partitioning the same wholes into
more shares makes smaller shares.
Level 1: Shows some effort but little or no under-
standing of addition or how to make equal shares.
On Target Unexpected methods and solutions happen. Don’t limit your
Understands or is developing Lavant Tanisha
well. Uses designated models.
children by expecting them to demonstrate their understand-
Julie Lee ing only as you thought or hoped they would when there is
Can partition regions into evidence that they are accomplishing your objectives in dif-
George J.B.
equal shares and describes
as “halves” and “fourths.” May ferent ways. Such occurrences can help you revise or refine
Maria John H.
need prompt to compare your rubric for future use.
halves and fourths.
Not There Yet Self‐Assessment with Rubrics

Some confusion or misunder-
standing. Only models idea In the beginning of the year, post your rubric prominently
John S. Mary
with help. and discuss it with the class. Many teachers use the same ru-
Needs help to do bric for all subjects; others prefer to use a specialized rubric
activity. No confidence. for mathematics. In your discussion, let children know that
as they do activities and solve problems, you will sometimes
look at their work and listen to their explanations and provide
them with feedback in the form of a rubric rather than as a
letter grade.
Make it a habit to discuss children’s performance on tasks in terms of the rubric. You
may also have children use the rubric to self‐assess their work and give reasons for the rat-
ing. You can have class discussions about a completed task by talking about what might
constitute “on target” and “above and beyond” performances. Also share student work from
anonymous children as a way to highlight excellent responses as well as responses that need
more detail or work shown. Use these work samples to get children to talk about what could
make an answer stronger and better aligned with the rubric. This process of critiquing oth-
ers’ work is one of the Common Core Standards for Mathematical Practice and therefore is
recognized as an essential element to becoming mathematically proficient.
A rubric is much more than a grade. It is a meaningful way to communicate feedback to
children (and parents). It should let children know how well they are doing and encourage
them to work harder by giving specific areas for improvement. When their performance is
not progressing satisfactorily, children should understand that there are specific things they
can work on. Your task is to target the follow‐up instruction in response to their gaps and
misunderstandings as well as their identified strengths.
You do not need to use rubrics with every task. Nor is it necessary to reserve rubrics for
assessments that you want to grade. If you are using the four‐point rubric just described, the
58
language of the rubric can be used informally with your children. “Maggie, the rubric states
that to get a 4 you need to solve the problem using two different methods and explain your
thinking. Is that what you did?”
The rubric scale can also be used in recording observations of student performance. If
you describe the task across the top of a class checklist and list the children’s names down
the left side, then it is useful to record a 1, 2, 3, or 4 next to each name. You may want to
leave space for writing detailed comments for some children so that they can be grouped for
follow‐up instruction according to common misunderstandings.
Plan for Assessment

“An assessment system designed to help steer the instruction system must give good infor-
mation about direction as well as distance to travel. A system that keeps telling us we are
not there yet is like a kid in the back seat whining ‘are we there yet?’” (Daro, Mosher, &
Corcoran, 2011, p. 51). Instead we need a system in which teachers do the following
(Wiliam, 2010):
• Establish where children are in their learning
• Identify the learning destination
• Carefully plan a route
• Begin the learning journey
• Make regular checks of progress along the way
• Make adjustments to the course as conditions dictate
Then assessments can more easily translate into tools that inform instruction and support
children’s growth.
Stop and Reflect

How can sharing samples of children’s work (both strong and weak responses) support all
children’s ability to generate more in‐depth responses? ■
59
References
CCSSO (Council of Chief State School Officers). assessment for education: Theory and applications (pp.
(2010). Common core state standards. Retrieved from 19–60). New York, NY: Cambridge.
Parker, R., & Breyfogle, L. (2011). Learning
Daro, P., Mosher, F., & Corcoran, T. (2011). to write about mathematics. Teaching Children
Learning trajectories in mathematics: A foundation Mathematics, 18(2), 90–99.
for standards, curriculum assessment and instruction.
Philipp, R., Cabral, C., & Schappell, B. (2012).
Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research
IMAP integrating mathematics and pedagogy.
in Education.
New York, NY: Pearson.
Frayer, D. A., Fredrick, W. C., & Klausmeier, H. J.
(April, 1969). A schema for testing the level of concept Piaget, J. (1976). The child’s conception of the world.
mastery (Working Paper No. 16). University of Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams.
Wisconsin Center for Educational Research. Stiggins, R. (2009). Assessment for learning in
Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over upper elementary grades. Phi Delta Kappan, 90(6),
800 meta‐analyses relating to achievement. New York, 419–421.
NY: Routledge. Wiliam, D. (2010). Practical techniques for formative
Huff, K., & Goodman, D. P. (2007). The demand assessment. Presentation given in Boras, Sweden,
for cognitive diagnostic assessment. In J. P. September 2010. Retrieved June 11, 2011, from
Leighton & M. J. Gierl (Eds.), Cognitive diagnostic www.slideshare.net/BLoPP/dylan‐wiliam‐bors‐2010
60
Planning, Teaching, and
Assessing Culturally and
Linguistically Diverse
Children
61
Planning, Teaching, and
Assessing Culturally and
Linguistically Diverse Children
One of the aims of schools
should be to produce citizens
who treat one another Culturally and Linguistically
Diverse Children
with respect, who value
We are lucky to be in a country in which people from all over the
the contributions of those world bring us rich diversity in cultural practices and languages.
Children’s native languages are an important part of their cultural
with whom they interact heritage, and students also think, communicate, and learn in their
irrespective of race, class, or native languages. Since 1980, the number of school‐aged children
who speak a language other than English at home has risen from
gender, and who act with 4.7 million to 11.2 million (National Center for Education Statistics,
2011).
a sense of social justice. Jo Boaler’s quote captures the essence of the equity principle
from Principles and Standards for School Mathematics: “Excellence in
Boaler (2006, p. 74) mathematics education requires equity—high expectations and strong
support for all students” (National Council of Teachers of Mathemat-
ics, 2000, p. 12). Teaching for equity is much more than providing
children with an equal opportunity to learn mathematics. Attention
to language and culture, two interrelated and critical considerations,
is important in planning, teaching, and assessing children from di-
verse backgrounds. Children who are given instructional tasks that
are well supported and thought provoking—rather than low‐level
tasks with short‐term gains—can reach higher levels of mathematics
proficiency.
2
62
Planning, Teaching, and Assessing Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children
Funds of Knowledge
Children from different countries, regions, or experiences, including those who speak dif-
ferent languages, are often viewed as challenges to a teacher or school. Rather, children’s
varied languages and backgrounds should be seen as a resource in teaching (Gutiérrez,
2009). Valuing a person’s cultural background is more than a belief statement; it is a
set of intentional actions that communicates to the child, “I want to know about you, I
want you to see mathematics as part of your life, and I expect that you can do high‐level
mathematics.” In getting to know these children, we access their funds of knowledge (the
essential knowledge or information children use to survive and thrive) (Gonzáles, Moll,
& Amanti, 2005). Instead of teaching English language learners (ELLs) from a deficit
model (lack of knowledge and experience), we can connect their experiences from home
and family to that of the mathematics classroom. The more we enhance learning for
all children, regardless of their places of birth, the more enriched the opportunities for
learning become.
Mathematics as a Language
Mathematics is commonly referred to as a “universal language,” but this is not entirely
true. Conceptual knowledge (e.g., what division is) is universal. Procedures (e.g., how you
add) and symbols are culturally determined and are not universal. Treating mathematics as
universally the same can lead to inequities in the classroom. For example, the subtraction
process varies from country to country in how it is notated and the language that is used
to describe the process. Table 1 illustrates three ways to subtract, along with the countries
that teach that process (Perkins & Flores, 2002; Secada, 1983). Commas and periods are
sometimes used in reverse, for example, 1,400 meaning 1.400 as written in the United
States. Numerals are sometimes written differently. For example, in many countries the
numeral 1 is written more like a 7 with a sharper angle (1), and the 7 has a horizontal line
through it to distinguish it from the one (7 ) (Secada, 1983). If these and other differences
are not recognized, children from other cultures may not understand the symbols and
processes being used in their class and, therefore, not be able to participate and learn.
How we do mathematics is also influenced by culture. For example, mental math-
ematics is highly valued in many countries, whereas in the United States recording every
step is valued. Look again at the three strategies shared in Table 1, but imagine no “tick
marks” recorded and no explanation provided. Could you follow what the first child did?
Each represents different, yet equally efficient and effective, strategies for solving subtrac-
tion problems. The critical equity question, though, is not just whether you can follow an
alternative approach, but how you will respond when you encounter children using such
an approach.
• Will you require children to show their steps (disregarding the way they learned it)?
• Will you ask children to elaborate on how they did it?
• Will you have these children show other children their way of thinking?
The latter two responses communicate to children that you are interested in their way of
knowing mathematics and that there are many ways in which different people and different
cultures approach mathematics. Supporting invented strategies for algorithms is an impor-
tant way to show that you value children as individuals and a good way to gain insights into
useful and interesting culturally influenced strategies.
63
Table 1 Subtraction Algorithms from Around the World
Step in the Algorithm Explanation or Think Aloud for the Step
Missing Addend Approach (used in France, Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Mexico, Latin America,
and other places)
52 (Done mentally) What number do I add to get from 7 to 12? 5. [Since

–17 10 is added to the 2 (ones), 10 is also added to the lower number, so
mentally the lower number is now 27.] What number do I add to get
from 2 to 5? 3 (tens). The answer: 35.
52 [Because 10 is added to the 2 (ones), 10 is also added to the lower
–11 7 number, so mentally the lower number is now 27.]
5
52 What number do I add to get from 2 to 5? 3 (tens). The answer: 35.

–11 7
35
Equal Addition Subtraction (used in Latin America and the United States, less common)
52 (Done mentally) I can’t take 7 from 2, but I can add 3 to the 7 to get 0 (0
–17 can be taken away from any number). If I add 3 to the bottom number, I
must also add it to the top number.
5
Note: This is notated for the reader but is often done mentally in actual
52 practice.
–11 0 2 from 5 is 3 (tens). The answer is 35.
35
Negative Numbers to Subtract (used in Eastern Europe, Russia, Latvia, Ukraine, and other
places)
52 7 from 2 is –5.
–17
52 1 from 5 is 4.
–17
–5
5 12 40 minus 5 is 35.
–1 7
4 –5
3 5
Culturally Responsive Instruction

Culture and language are interwoven and interrelated.
Instead of requiring children to write all their steps, ask Therefore, teaching strategies that support diverse learn-
them to think aloud as they solve a problem or ask how they ers often support both cultural diversity and language. For
did it in their head. example, if you invite children to talk to a partner before
sharing with the whole class, you not only provide ELLs
with an additional speaking opportunity to support language, but you also distribute the
sharing, listening, and teaching, so you are sharing power within the classroom community.
Culturally responsive mathematics instruction is not just for recent immigrants; it is
for all children, including children from different ethnic groups, different socioeconomic
levels, and so on. It includes consideration for content, relationships, cultural knowledge,
64
flexibility in approaches, use of accessible learning contexts, a responsive learning

community, and working in cross‐cultural partnerships (Averill, Anderson, Easton, Te Maro,
Smith, & Hynds, 2009). Differentiation can be accomplished by adapting the content, pro-
cess, product, and the classroom environment (Tomlinson, 2003). Following are four strate-
gies for differentiating that address the specific needs of linguistically and culturally diverse
children. These ideas are also presented in an at‐a‐glance format in Table 2.
Focus on Important Mathematics

Too often, our first attempt to help ELLs is to simplify the mathematics and/or remove the
language from the lesson. Simplifying or removing language can take away opportunities to
learn. Culturally responsive instruction stays focused on the big ideas of mathematics (i.e.,
based on standards such as the Common Core State Standards) and helps children engage in
Table 2 An At‐a‐Glance Focus on Culturally Relevant Mathematics Instruction
Aspect of Culturally Reflection Questions to Guide

Relevant Instruction Teaching and Assessing
Communicate high Does the content include a balance of procedures and concepts?
expectations. Are children expected to engage in problem solving and generate
their own approaches to problems?
Are connections made between mathematics topics?
Make content relevant. In what ways is the content related to familiar aspects of
children’s lives?
In what ways is prior knowledge elicited or reviewed so that all
children can participate in the lesson?
To what extent are children asked to make connections between
school mathematics and mathematics in their own lives?
How are children’s interests (events, issues, literature, or pop
culture) used to build interest and mathematical meaning?
Communicate the value In what ways are children invited to include their own experiences
of children’s identities. within a lesson?
Are story problems generated from children and teachers? Do
stories reflect the real experiences of children?
Are individual children’s approaches presented and showcased
so that children see their ideas as important to the teacher and
their peers?
Are alternative algorithms shared as a point of excitement and
pride (as appropriate)?
Are multiple modes to demonstrate knowledge (e.g., visuals,
explanations, models) valued?
Model shared power. Are children (rather than just the teacher) justifying the
correctness of solutions?
Are children invited to (expected to) engage in whole‐class
discussions in which children share ideas and respond to each
other’s ideas?
In what ways are roles assigned so that all children feel that they
contribute to and learn from other members of the class?
Are children given a choice in how they solve a problem? In how
they demonstrate knowledge of the concept?
65
and stay focused on those big ideas. For example, a critical area in grades 1 and 2 is addition,
which includes moving between stories and equations. The stories can be carefully selected
to use contexts that are familiar to ELLs and that lend themselves to using visuals (such as
cars). Rather than having a new context for every story, the stories can focus on the same
theme (and connect to the English that children are learning in their ESL instruction, if
possible). This provides a context for the mathematics without adding unnecessary linguistic
demands. The teacher can incorporate opportunities for children to share their approaches
to adding and illustrate (with the visuals) how they thought about it. In this way, ELLs are
able to learn the important content and engage in classroom discourse.
Make Content Relevant

There are really two components to making content relevant. One is to think about the
mathematics: “Is the mathematics itself presented meaningfully and is it connected to other
content?” The second is to contextualize the content so that it is grounded in familiarity.
Mathematical Connections. Helping children see that mathematical ideas are inter-
related will fill in or deepen their understanding of and connections to previously taught con-
tent. For example, consider the following first‐grade problem:
Edwin has some trains. He gives 2 to Marta. Edwin now has 6 trains. How many did Edwin
have before he gave some away?
You may recognize that this task connects addition and subtraction, and that the initial value
(how many trains Edwin had before he gave any away) is the unknown amount. Although the
mathematics is already presented in a conceptual and meaningful manner, it is important to con-
nect addition and subtraction, as well as to connect the symbols to the situation. For example,
one child might use a think-addition approach: “I know that he has 6 now and plus the 2 from
Marta means he had 8.” Another child might think: “I thought ‘what minus 2 is 6 and I know
that is 8.” The symbols for each child’s thinking are 6 + 2 = ? and ? - 2 = 6, respectively.
Having children connect the symbols back to their thinking and to the story helps build strong
mathematical connections and understanding of addition and subtraction.
Context Connections. Making content relevant is also about contexts. If the “trains”
context is familiar, it can ground children’s thinking so they can focus on reasoning about
the mathematical relationships. Using problems that connect children to developmentally
appropriate social or peer connections is one way to contextualize learning. Another is to
make connections to historical or cultural contexts. Seeing mathematics from various cul-
tures provides opportunities for children to “put faces” on mathematical contributions. For
example, you can introduce the Mayan place‐value system as a way to think about how we
write numerals (grade K) and to think about our place‐value (base‐ten) system (grade 2).
You can also have children create freedom quilts, which tell stories about the Underground
Railroad (Neumann, 2005), or other geometric art patterns
can be used to develop standards content such as partition-
ing circles or rectangles into halves and fourths (grade 1) or
Teachers can adapt the way children consider each other’s into halves, fourths, and thirds (grade 2).
ideas so that all members of the class feel comfortable
participating in a discussion by asking specific prompts such Incorporate Children’s Identities
as, “Which strategy would you use if the numbers were more
Incorporating children’s identities in the mathematics
difficult? Why? Talk to your partner and then we will share as
they do overlaps with the previous category, but it mer-
a whole class.”
its its own discussion. Children should see themselves in
66
mathematics and see that mathematics is a part of their culture. The classroom environment
should incorporate children’s cultural practices. For example, children from some countries
may not feel comfortable challenging an approach used by other children in a classroom
discussion.
Both researchers and teachers have found that telling stories about their own lives, or
asking children to tell stories, makes the mathematics relevant to children and can raise
student achievement (Turner, Celedón‐Pattichis, Marshall, & Tennison, 2009). Table 3 pro-
vides ideas for making mathematics relevant to a child’s home and community.
The following teacher’s story illustrates one way to incorporate family history and
culture by reading The Hundred Penny Box (Mathis, 1986). In Mathis’s story, a 100‐year‐
old woman remembers an important event in every year of her life as she turns over each
of her 100 pennies. Each penny is more than a piece of money; it is a “memory trigger”
for her life.
Taking a cue from the book, I asked each child to collect one penny from each year
they were alive starting from the year of their birth and not missing a year. Children
were encouraged to bring in additional pennies their classmates might need. Then
the children consulted with family members to create a penny time line of impor-
tant events in their lives. Using information gathered at home, they started with the
year they were born, listing their birthday and then recording first steps, accidents,
vacations, pets, births of siblings, and so on.
Children in grades K–2 can prepare a time line of their key events too, determining when
between 0 (i.e., the day they were born) and their current age a memorable event happened.
The number line is an important model to use in counting, adding, and subtracting, and
this context helps children better understand the number line, which is abstract and more
challenging than using set models (e.g., counters). For example, you can ask children “How
Table 3 Where to Find Mathematics in Children’s Homes and Communities
What You Might Ask Children to Record

and Share (and Mathematics That Can
Where to Look Be Explored)
Grocery store or marketplace Cost of an item of which they bought more than one
(repeated addition or multiplication)
Cost of an item that came with a quantity (e.g., dozen
eggs) (division)
Better buy of two different‐sized items (division)
Shapes of different containers (geometry)
Different types/brands of foods they select, such as what
kind of bread (data)
Photographs A person they admire (data)

A favorite scene (geometry, measurement)
2‐D and 3‐D shapes in their home or neighborhood
(geometry)
A flower (multiplication with number of petals, algebraic
thinking)
Artifact (game or measuring device) A game that naturally involves mathematics
from their culture or that is a Measuring devices (nonstandard and standard measures)
favorite for length and volume
67
many years between [these two events]?” and “How many years ago was [this event]?” These
questions focus on subtraction as difference, rather than as take‐away, an important and
underemphasized subtraction situation.
Ensure Shared Power

When we think about creating a positive classroom environment, one in which all children
feel as if they can participate and learn, we are addressing considerations related to power.
The teacher plays a major role in establishing and distributing power, whether it is inten-
tional or not. In many classrooms, the teacher has the power—telling children whether
answers are right or wrong (rather than having children determine correctness through
reasoning), demonstrating processes for how to solve problems (rather than giving choices
for how children will engage in the problem), and determining who will solve which prob-
lems (rather than allowing flexibility and choice for children). The way that you assign
groups, seat children, and call on children sends clear messages about who has power in the
classroom.
Teaching Culturally and Linguistically

Diverse Children
Creating effective learning opportunities for ELLs involves integrating the principles of
bilingual education with those of standards‐based mathematics instruction. When learn-
ing about mathematics, children may be learning content in English for which they do not
know the words in their native language. For example, words such as hexagons, cylinders, and
prisms may be entirely new terminology.
In addition, story problems are difficult for ELLs not
only due to the language but also to the fact that sentences
in story problems are often structured differently from
Any one of the categories in Table 4 could be the focus of sentences in conversational English (Janzen, 2008). Teach-
a lesson study, discussion with colleagues, or the basis for ers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL),
individual reflection. The importance lies not in the specific a professional organization focused on the needs of ELLs,
suggestions but in the concept of having an eye on language argues that ELLs need to use both English and their na-
development and mathematics content. tive language to read, write, listen, and speak as they
learn appropriate content—a position similarly addressed
in NCTM standards documents and position statements. The strategies discussed in this
section are the ones that appear most frequently in the literature as critical to increasing
the academic achievement of ELLs in mathematics classrooms (e.g., Celedón‐Pattichis &
Ramirez, 2012; Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2008). Table 4 offers reflective questions related
to instructional planning for and the teaching of English language learners.
Focus on Academic Vocabulary

ELLs enter the mathematics classroom from homes in which English is not the primary lan-
guage of communication. Although a person may develop conversational English language
skills in a few years, it takes as many as seven years to learn “academic language,” which is
the language specific to a content area such as mathematics (Cummins, 1994). Academic
language is harder to learn because it is not used in a child’s everyday world. There are also
unique features of the language of mathematics that make it difficult for many children, in
particular those who are learning English. Teaching the academic language of mathematics
evolves over time and requires thoughtful and reflective instructional planning.
68
Table 4 Reflective Questions for Planning and Teaching Mathematics Lessons for ELLs
Mathematics Content
Process Considerations Language Considerations
Reflective Questions for Planning
1. Determine the • What mathematical concepts • What language objectives might I add (e.g., include
mathematics. (aligned to grade-level reading, writing, speaking, and listening)?
standards) am I teaching? • What visuals or words will I use to communicate
• What child-friendly learning the content and language objectives?
objectives will I post?
• How does this mathematics
concept connect to other
concepts children have learned?
2. Consider children’s • How can I connect the content to be • What context or models might I select that are a good
needs. taught to content that children have match to children’s social/cultural backgrounds and previ-
learned? Or how will I fill in the gaps ously learned vocabulary?
if children don’t have prerequisite
content needed for the lesson?
3. Select, design, or • What task can I use that • What context might I use that is meaningful
adapt a task. addresses the content identified to children’s cultures and backgrounds?
in item 1 and the needs of my • What language pitfalls does the task have? Which of these
children identified in item 2? will I eliminate and which of these need explicit attention?
• How might I adapt a task so that • Which words or phrases, even if familiar to children, take on
it has multiple entry and exit new meaning in a mathematics context (e.g., homonyms,
points (i.e., is challenging and homophones, and words such as mean, similar, find)?
accessible to a range of children)?
Reflective Questions for Teaching
1. Introduce the task • How will I introduce the task in a • How can I connect the task to children’s
(the Before phase). way that elicits prior mathematics experiences and to familiar contexts?
knowledge needed for the task? • What key vocabulary do I want to introduce so that
• Is a similar task needed to build the words will be used throughout the lesson?
background related to the (Post key vocabulary in a prominent location.)
content (or would such a preview • What visuals and real objects can I use that
take away from the purpose bring meaning to the selected task?
or challenge of the task)? • How can I present the task in visual,
written, and oral formats?
• How will I be sure that children understand
what they are to do in the During phase?
2. Work on the task • What hints or assists might I • Have I grouped children for both
(the During phase). give as children work to help academic and language support?
them focus without taking • Have I encouraged children to draw pictures,
away from their thinking? make diagrams, and/or use manipulatives?
• What extensions or challenges • Have I used strategies to reduce the linguistic demands
will I offer for children who without hindering the problem solving (e.g., using a
successfully solve the task? graphic organizer, sentence starters such as “I solved the
• What questions will I pose to problem by . . . ,” recording tables, and concept maps)?
push the mathematics identified
in the learning goals?
(continued )
69
Table 4 (Continued )
Mathematics Content
Process Considerations Language Considerations
Reflective Questions for Planning
3. Debrief and discuss • How will children report • What ways can I maximize language use in
the task and the their findings? nonthreatening ways (e.g., think‐pair‐share)?
mathematics (the • How will I format the • How can I encourage and reinforce different
After phase). discussion of the task? formats (multiple exit points) for demonstrating
• What questions will I pose to understanding of the lesson content?
push the mathematics identified • How might I provide advance notice, language
in the learning goals? support, or rehearsal to ELLs so that they will
be comfortable speaking to their peers?
• Am I using appropriate “wait time”?
Formative Assessment
Throughout lesson • What questions will I ask during • What words will I use in my questions to be
and unit the lesson or what will I look sure the questions are understood? How might
for in the children’s work as I use a translator to assist in assessing?
evidence of learning the objectives • If a child is not succeeding, how might I diagnose whether
(During and After phases)? the problem is with language, content, or both?
• What follow‐up might I provide to • What accommodations can I provide to be sure
children who are not demonstrating I am accessing what the children know?
understanding of the mathematics?
Honor Use of Native Language

Valuing children’s native language is one of the ways you value their cultural heritage. In a
mathematics classroom, children can communicate in their native language while continu-
ing their English language development (Haas & Gort, 2009; Moschkovich, 2009; Setati,
2005). For example, a good strategy for children working individually or in small groups is
having children think about and discuss the problem in their preferred language. If a child
knows enough English, then the presentation in the After phase can be shared in Eng-
lish. If the child knows little or no English and does not have access to a peer who shares
his or her native language, then a translator or a self‐made mathematics‐focused picture
dictionary can be a strong support. Teachers can look up the essential terms in children’s
native languages to assist. Bilingual children will often code‐switch, moving between two
languages. Research indicates that this practice of code‐switching supports mathematical
reasoning because children select the language in which they can best express their ideas
(Moschkovich, 2009).
Certain native languages can support learning mathematics words. Because English,
Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Italian all have their roots in Latin, many mathematics
words are similar across languages (Celedón‐Pattichis, 2009; Gómez, 2010). For example,
aequus (Latin), equal (English), and igual (Spanish) are cognates. See if you can figure out the
English mathematics terms for the following Spanish words: número, diferencia, hexágano,
ángulo, triángulo, quadra, and cubo. Children may not make this connection if you do not
point it out, so it is important to explicitly teach children to look for cognates.
Use Content and Language Objectives

If children know the purpose of a lesson, they are better able to make sense of the details
when they are challenged by some of the oral or written explanations. When language
70
expectations are explicitly included, children will know that they will be responsible for
reaching certain language goals alongside mathematical goals and will be more likely to
attempt to learn those skills or words. Here are two examples of dual objectives:
1. Children will determine the defining attributes of a triangle (mathematics).
2. Children will describe in writing and orally characteristics that are true for any
triangle (e.g., three angles) and which characteristics do not define a triangle
(e.g., color, size) (language and mathematics).
Explicitly Teach Vocabulary

Intentional vocabulary instruction must be part of mathematics instruction for all children.
This includes attention to terms within a lesson and additional opportunities to develop
academic language. These additional opportunities can reinforce understanding as they help
children learn the terminology. Examples include the following:
• Picture dictionaries, linking concepts and terms with drawings, or cut‐out pictures
• Foldables of key words for a topic
• Games focused on vocabulary development (e.g., Pictionary or Concentration)
• Interactive word walls, including visuals and translations
In addition, many websites provide translations; children
Not all vocabulary should be “previewed,” because the term
can create cards with terms and their translations and build
(and its concept) can sometimes be better understood after
personal mathematics dictionaries (Kersaint, Thompson,
some exploration.
& Petkova, 2009).
All children benefit from an increased focus on lan-
guage; however, too much emphasis on vocabulary can diminish the focus on mathematics.
It is important that the language support be connected to the mathematics and the selected
task or activity.
As you analyze a lesson, you must identify terms related to the mathematics and to the
context that may need explicit attention. Consider the following kindergarten question:
MacKenna and Sydney pick red and yellow apples from the apple orchard. Sydney picks 5
apples to take home. How many of each kind of apple might she take?
In order for children to engage in this task, the contextual terms pick, apples, and
orchard must be understood. The phrase how many of each must be understood, as it may
not be clear that this means to have some apples of each color so that the total is five
apples. In first and second grades, children could be asked to list all the combinations
in a table.
Stop and Reflect

Table is among hundreds of words whose meanings in mathematics are different from
everyday usage. Other such terms include difference, foot, multiple, partition, side, and
angle. Can you name five others? ■
Lesson Considerations
Support for academic language use is a significant part of lesson considerations. In addition,
facilitating discourse that provides access to ELLs is critical. This includes efforts to ensure
71
ELLs understand and have the background for engaging in the focus task(s) and the need to
put structures in place for participation throughout the lesson.
Build Background
Similar to building on prior knowledge, building background also takes into consideration
native language and culture, as well as content (Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2008). If possible,
use appropriate visuals and context to help children understand the problem you want them
to solve. This nonthreatening, engaging activity helps children make connections between
what they have learned and what they need to learn.
Some aspects of English and mathematics are particularly challenging to ELLs (Whit-
eford, 2009/2010). For example, teen numbers sound a lot like their decade number—if you
say sixteen and sixty out loud, you can hear how similar they are. Emphasizing the n sound
helps ELLs hear the difference. For example, in a lesson on the teen numbers and place
value, a teacher may have children partner and have one say the place‐value words and the
partner say the actual teen name (emphasizing the n):
Partner A: Ten and four
Partner B: Fourteen
And the teacher can help children see the connection between ten and teen.
Remember, too, that the U.S. measurement system may be unfamiliar to ELLs. When
encountering content that may be unfamiliar or difficult for ELLs, devote additional time to
build background so that children can engage in the mathematical tasks without also having
to navigate language and background knowledge.
Use Comprehensible Input

Comprehensible input means that the message you are communicating is understandable
to children. Modifications include simplifying sentence structures and limiting the use of
nonessential or confusing vocabulary (Echevarria, Short, & Vogt, 2008). Note that these
modifications do not lower expectations for the lesson. Sometimes teachers put many un-
necessary words and phrases into questions, making them less clear to nonnative speakers.
Compare the two sets of teachers’ instructions:
NOT MODIFIED:
You have a worksheet in front of you that I just gave out. For every story problem, I want you to
draw a picture and write an equation. You will be working with your partner, but each of you
needs to record your answers on your own paper. If you get stuck on a problem, raise your hand.
MODIFIED:
Please look at your paper. (Holds paper and points to the first story, which now has a picture
next to it). Let’s read together. (Everyone reads.) What is this story about? (Waits) What
words tell us what the story is about (points to story itself)? (Notes context‐related words
on board, as well as words that indicate the action in the problem, so they can be used for
reference.) Talk to your partner about how to find the answer. (Points to mouth and then to
a pair of children as she says this.) Write your answers. (Makes a writing motion over paper.)
Notice that four things have been done differently in the teacher talk: Sentences have been
shortened, confusing words have been removed, attention is drawn to making meaning
of the first example, and related gestures and motions have been added to the oral direc-
tives. Also notice the visuals that were added and the wait time the teacher gives. It is very
72
important to provide extra time after posing a question or giving instructions to allow ELLs
time to translate, make sense of the request, and then participate.
Another way to provide comprehensible input is to use a variety of tools to help chil-
dren visualize and understand what is verbalized. In the preceding example, the teacher
models the instructions and adds pictures to the stories. Real objects, manipulatives, and
drawings that fit the context can be used to bring meaning to the problem and are important
in helping the child think through and solve the problem. Effective tools include manipula-
tives, real objects, pictures, visuals, multimedia, demonstrations, and children’s books (Eche-
varria, Vogt, & Short, 2008). Children should be expected to include various representations
of their understandings, such as drawing and writing to explain what they have done. Doing
so helps to develop children’s understanding and language, and also gives the teacher a bet-
ter idea of what they do and do not understand.
Engage Children in Discourse That Reflects

Language Needs
Discourse, or the use of classroom discussion, is essential for the learning of all children, but
is particularly important for ELLs who need to engage in productive language (writing and
speaking) as well as receptive language (listening and reading). As noted in the Application of
Common Core State Standards for English Learners:
ELLs are capable of participating in mathematical discussions as they learn Eng-

lish. Mathematics instruction for ELL students should draw on multiple resources
and modes available in classrooms—such as objects, drawings, inscriptions, and
gestures—as well as home languages and mathematical experiences outside of
school. Mathematical instruction should address mathematical discourse and aca-
demic language. (CCSSO, 2011, p. 2)
There are strategies you can use in classroom discourse that help ELLs understand and
participate. As described in the preceding quote, the use of gestures and visuals is critical to
learning English and mathematics. For example, revoicing is a research‐based strategy that
helps ELLs hear an idea more than once and hear it restated with the appropriate language
applied to concepts. But, because ELLs cannot always explain their ideas fully, don’t rush to
call on someone else; instead, patiently press for details. Pressing for details is not done just
so the teacher can decide whether the idea makes sense; it also allows other children to make
sense of the idea (Maldonado, Turner, Dominguez, & Empson, 2009). Because practicing
language is important for ELLs, offering opportunities for children to practice phrases or
words through pair‐share or choral response also is effec-
tive. Finally, children from other countries often solve or il-
lustrate problems differently, so allowing time for them to Making the strategies of ELLs public and connecting these
explain or show their way can involve students in discourse strategies to others is interesting and supports the learning
while introducing a novel approach to other children. of all children, while building the confidence of ELLs.
Plan Cooperative/Interdependent Groups to Support Language

The use of cooperative groups is a valuable way to differentiate instruction. For ELLs, groups
provide the opportunity to use language, but only if the groups are carefully formed in a way
that considers children’s language skills. Placing an ELL with two English‐speaking children
may result in the ELL being left out. On the other hand, grouping all Spanish speakers together
prevents these children from having the opportunity to hear and participate in mathematics in
English. Consider placing a bilingual child in a group with a child with limited English, or place
children that have the same first language together with native speakers so that they can help
each other understand and participate (Garrison, 1997; Khisty, 1997).
73
Implementing Strategies for ELLs

The strategies just described are subtle moves in teaching. As you read the following
vignette, look for strategies that the teacher applies to provide support for ELLs while keep-
ing expectations high.
Ms. Cruz is teaching a second‐grade lesson that involves the standard units for mea-
suring length (in feet). The lesson begins with nonstandard units, and then moves
to measuring in feet. Ms. Cruz has four English language learners in her class in-
cluding a child from Korea, who knows very little English, and three children from
Mexico, who speak English to varying degrees; all are recent arrivals in the United
States. These children are not familiar with U.S. measurements and may or may
not have had other experiences in measuring. Ms. Cruz knows she needs to build
background to ensure they can participate in the lesson.
The lesson begins by asking children to count how many thumbs to get from one
side of their desk to the other. Ms. Cruz motions using the length of her thumb as a
unit on a child’s desk as she asks the question. She asks children to write their num-
ber of thumbs on a Post‐it note and then stick the note on the board (using motions
to illustrate instructions). After the answers are posted, she brings children up to the
carpet. She states, “You measured your desk with your thumbs. What does measure
mean?” After hearing responses and examples, she says, “Look at the answers when
you measured. Can they all be right?” As children suggest that the thumb length
might matter, she calls up pairs of children and has them compare their thumbs.
She has the class state in full sentences whose is “longer” and “shorter” (e.g., Annie’s
thumb is longer than Eun’s thumb). Ms. Cruz says that the big idea today is to figure
out how we can measure so we all agree on how long something (like our desk) is.
She then pulls out her book How Big Is a Foot? and begins to read, showing and
pointing at pictures as she reads. When the bed turns out to be too small, she stops
and asks, “What happened—any ideas?” She waits and then asks them to share with
a partner before sharing with the group. One child explains that her foot is much
smaller than Ms. Cruz’s foot and gets up to show the difference.
Ms. Cruz finishes the book and asks, “How is the king’s problem with the bed
like our thumb measures?” She then suggests that we all agree on one thumb length
to use and to re‐measure our desks to see if we agree on how many thumbs it is.
She hands out thumb cut‐outs and asks children to use this second grader’s thumb
to measure. She will see how they do in iterating the unit (not overlapping, end‐to‐
end) and then bridge to measuring the carpet with a standard foot, being sure to talk
about the meaning of the word foot.
Stop and Reflect

What specific strategies to support English language learners can you identify? ■
There are a number of strategies in the vignette that provide support for ELLs: rec-
ognizing the potential language support for measure and later for foot, as well as lack of
familiarity with measuring, which was supported by having an opportunity to measure prior
to hearing the story (building background). Ms. Cruz has children saying in full sentences
whose thumb is longer and shorter. She employs the think‐pair‐share technique, concrete
models (the thumb cut‐out), the story, and the children’s own measures to build meaning
and scaffold to measuring with a foot. Most importantly, Ms. Cruz did not diminish the chal-
lenge of the task with these strategies. If she had altered the task, for example, not expecting
the ELLs to explain why their measures turned out differently or what they predicted would
happen in the story, they would not be learning what they needed to learn. Conversely, if she
74
had simply asked children to begin measuring in feet, she might have kept her expectations
high but failed to provide the support that would enable her children to succeed.
Assessment Considerations
Throughout the discussion of strategies for supporting ELLs are opportunities for assess-
ment. Formative assessment is embedded in instruction and informs instructional decisions.
For example, the use of visuals and gestures is important in helping ELLs to
• Understand the instructions and mathematical ideas (comprehensible input)
• Participate in the lesson (small groups or discussion)
• Communicate their own understanding (formative assessment)
The use of native language is also important for assessment. Research shows that ELLs
perform better when a test is given in their native language (Robinson, 2010). If a teacher
wants to understand what a child knows about mathematics, then the child should be able to
communicate that understanding in a way that is best for the child, even if the teacher may
need a translation.
Several strategies can assist teachers in using formative assessments with ELLs, includ-
ing tasks with multiple entry and exit points, diagnostic interviews, tasks that limit linguistic
load, accommodations, and self‐assessments.
Select Tasks with Multiple Entry and Exit Points

An aspect of teaching mathematics through problem solving that is important, particularly
for ELLs, is to select tasks carefully. If a problem can be solved in multiple ways, an ELL is
more likely to be able to design a strategy that makes sense and then illustrate that strategy.
Inviting children to show and/or explain their strategies provides options for ELLs to use
words and pictures to communicate their thinking.
Use Diagnostic Interviews

Diagnostic interviews are critical for ELLs because of the insights they can provide related
to language and mathematical understanding. When ELLs do not get a correct answer or
cannot explain a response, teachers tend to think it is a lack of mathematical understanding
rather than a language issue. This is particularly true with ELLs who have a pretty strong
ability to communicate in everyday English (as opposed to academic English). Before draw-
ing conclusions about what mathematics a child does and does not understand, it is impor-
tant to observe whether it is content or language that is causing a problem. Consider the
following task that could be part of a diagnostic interview focused on place value (grade 2):
If you have 2 dimes and 3 pennies, how many cents do you have?
Stop and Reflect

If a child missed this problem, what do you think might be the reason? ■
There are numerous reasons children might have struggled with this problem, includ-
ing a lack of understanding the mathematical concept of place value or the values of the coins.
Or it could be due to vocabulary, such as not knowing what the word cents means. It also
75
could be because of the sentence structure. Diagnostic interviews have found that the word
if, and the implied “If . . . then” sentence structure common to mathematics but not in other
reading, can prevent children from comprehending what the sentence is asking (a challenge
for native English speakers as well) (Fernandez, Anhalt, & Civil, 2009). The fact that there
are many possible reasons why a child might not be able to solve a task, some related to lan-
guage and others to mathematics, is a strong argument for using diagnostic interviews. If we
misdiagnose the reason for a child’s struggles, our interventions will be misguided.
Diagnostic interviews also can be used prior to instruction in order to assess the math-
ematical and language needs of children. Hearing an English language learner’s interpre-
tation of a problem and seeing how the child approaches the problem provide valuable
insights that you can incorporate into your planning and teaching. For example, a child
might say “Forty‐seven from one hundred eighty” rather than “One hundred eighty minus
forty‐seven,” which indicates the way the child talks about subtraction in his or her home.
Using and connecting both ways of talking about subtraction will strengthen everyone’s
understanding.
Limit Linguistic Load

If you are trying to assess understanding, look for language that can interfere with children’s
understanding the situation (e.g., unneeded elaboration in a story, difficult or unfamiliar vo-
cabulary). Removing pronouns such as they, this, that, his, and her and using actual names can
assist ELLs in understanding some problems. For example, a typical story problem follows:
Jacob has 9 comic books. For his birthday, his grandpa gives him some more for his collec-
tion. If he has 13 now, how many did he get for this birthday?
Rewritten, it might read:
Jacob has 9 comic books. Jacob’s grandpa gave Jacob some more comic books. If he has 13
comic books now, how many comic books did Jacob get from his grandpa?
Notice that it is not only reducing unnecessary language (e.g., birthday), but also adding
specific referents that make the meaning of the story more clear. Of course, this particular
problem could be adapted further by using illustrations or actual comic books.
Another way to reduce the linguistic load is to pick a context and stay with it for an en-
tire lesson or series of lessons. This allows children to focus their thinking on the mathemat-
ics without getting bogged down in the various contexts that might be on an assessment. For
example, children need opportunities to interpret story problems in which different parts
are missing (the starting part, the part being added, and the whole). In this example, the part
being added is what was missing. A collection of stories can be created with different parts
missing (and different values used). Using the comic book context but changing the problem
type reduces the linguistic load while keeping the mathematical challenge high.
Provide Accommodations
In assessing, providing accommodations refers to strategies for making sure that the as-
sessment itself is accessible to children. This might mean being able to hear the question
(children often can understand spoken English better than written English), shortening the
assessment, or extending the time (Kersaint, Thompson, & Petkova, 2009). In addition, you
can provide sentence starters so that the child knows what type of response you want. For
example, “My equation fits the story because. . . .”
76
Incorporate Self‐Assessment
It may take time to help children learn what it means to self‐assess, but creating a list of con-
tent from a unit and asking children to rate how well they know it can be one way to gather
information on what children know. Similarly, after a lesson or problem, children can rate
or describe how hard they thought the lesson or problem was (and why). This is valuable
not only for you in the formative assessment process but also for children as they learn to
self‐monitor and look for ways to measure their own improvement.
Stop and Reflect

The goal of equity is to offer all children access to important mathematics. What might you
have on the list of things to do (and things not to do) that provide culturally and linguistically
diverse children with the opportunity to learn mathematics? ■
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78
Planning, Teaching,
and Assessing Children
with Exceptionalities
79
Planning, Teaching,
and Assessing Children
with Exceptionalities
Most low achievers in mathematics are probably “instructionally
disabled,” not cognitively or “learning disabled.”
Baroody (2011, p. 31)
Talented [mathematics] students need teachers who can move beyond the traditional “teacher role”
of a dispenser of information to that of a role model who is passionate about learning, able to
translate that passion into action, aggressively curious, and comfortable with this change of role.
Greenes, Teuscher, and Regis (2010, p. 80)*
Instructional Principles
for Diverse Learners
The NCTM Principles and Standards for School Mathematics states, “All
students, regardless of their personal characteristics, backgrounds, or
physical challenges must have opportunities to study—and support to
learn—mathematics” (NCTM, 2000, p. 12). Within the same docu-
ment, the equity principle states, “Excellence in mathematics education
requires equity—high expectations and strong support for all students”
(NCTM, 2000, p. 12). We know that teaching for equity is much more
than providing children with an equal opportunity to learn mathematics;
instead, it attempts to attain equal outcomes for all children by being
sensitive to individual differences.
*Reprinted with permission from Preparing Teachers for Mathematically Talented
Middle School Students, p. 80. Copyright 2010 by the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics. All rights reserved.
80
Planning, Teaching, and Assessing Children with Exceptionalities
Many achievement gaps are actually instructional gaps or expectation gaps. It is not helpful
when teachers establish low expectations for children, as when they say, “I just cannot put
this class into groups to work; they are too unruly” or “My children with disabilities can’t
solve word problems—they don’t have the reading skills.” Operating under the belief that
some children cannot “do mathematics” ensures that they don’t have ample opportunities to
prove otherwise. Instead, we suggest you consider Storeygard’s (2010) mantra for teachers
that proclaims “My kids can!”
As can be gleaned from the opening quotations, there is a spectrum of learners who
need to be considered if we intend to have equity in our instruction. Figuring out how you
will maintain equal outcomes (high expectations) while providing for individual differences
(strong support) can be challenging. Equipping yourself with an ever-growing collection of
instructional strategies for a variety of children is critical. A strategy that works for one child
may be completely ineffective with another, even a child who has the same exceptionality.
Addressing the needs of all means providing access and opportunity for
• Children who are identified as struggling or having a disability
• Children who are mathematically gifted
• Children who are unmotivated or need to build resilience
You may think, “I do not need to read the section on mathematically gifted children because
they will be pulled out for math enrichment.” Children who are mathematically talented
need to be challenged in the daily core instruction, not just when they are participating in a
program for gifted children.
The goal of equity is to offer all children access to important mathematics during
their regular classroom instruction. Yet inequities exist, even if unintentionally. For ex-
ample, if teachers do not build in opportunities for student‐to‐student interaction in a
lesson, they may not be addressing the needs of girls, who are often social learners, or
English language learners, who need opportunities to speak, listen, and write in small‐
group situations. It takes more than just wanting to be fair or equitable; it takes knowing
the strategies that accommodate each type of learner and making every effort to incor-
porate those strategies into your teaching. “Equity does not mean that every student
should receive identical instruction; instead, it demands that reasonable and appropriate
accommodations be made as needed to promote access and attainment for all children”
(NCTM, 2000, p. 12).
Across the wonderful and myriad diversities of your children, all of them learn math-
ematics in essentially the same way (Fuson, 2003). The authors of Adding It Up (National
Research Council, 2001) conclude that all children are best served when you give attention
to the following three principles:
1. Learning with understanding is based on connecting and organizing knowledge
around big conceptual ideas.
2. Learning builds on what children already know.
3. Instruction in school should take advantage of children’s informal knowledge of
mathematics.
These principles, also reflected in the tenets of constructivist theory, apply to all learners and,
therefore, are essential in making decisions about how you can adapt instruction to meet an
individual learner’s needs through accommodations and modifications. An accommodation is a
response to the needs of the environment or the learner; it does not alter the task. For example,
you might write down directions for a child instead of just presenting them orally. A modifica-
tion changes the task, making it more accessible to the child. For example, if kindergartners are
asked to try to use simple shapes to form larger shapes, you might show the outlines of the two
81
smaller shapes for the children to find and place directly on the outline, then also give them
the outline of the larger shape they will form. Subsequent shapes can be attempted without the
modification. When modifications result in an easier or less demanding task, expectations are
lowered. Modifications should be made in a way that leads back to the original task, providing
scaffolding or support for learners who may need it. In the sections in this chapter, we share
research‐based strategies that reflect these principles while providing appropriate accommoda-
tions and modifications for the wide range of children in your classroom.
Multitiered Systems of Support

In many areas, a systematic process for achieving higher levels of performance for all chil-
dren often includes a multitiered system of support sometimes called response to intervention
(RtI). This approach commonly emphasizes ways for struggling children to get immediate
assistance and support rather than waiting for them to fail before they receive help. This
same multitiered support system can also be used to identify children who are far exceeding
standards and need additional challenges. Multitiered models are basically centered on three
interwoven elements: high‐quality curriculum, instructional
Figure 1 support (interventions), and formative assessments that cap-
Multitiered systems of support—using effective ture children’s strengths and weaknesses. These systems of
strategies to support all children. support were initially designed to determine whether low
achievement is due to a lack of high‐quality mathematics
1–5% (i.e., “teacher‐disabled children”) (Baroody, 2011; Ysseldyke,
Tier 3 (individual
students)
2002) or due to an actual learning disability. However, they
can also help determine more intensive instructional options
5–10%
Tier 2 (small groups)
for children who need to catch up or who may need to have
additional advanced mathematical challenges beyond what
other children study.
Response to Intervention
RtI is a multitiered student support system that is frequently
80–90%
Tier 1 (all students) represented in a three‐tier triangular format. As you move
up the tiers, the number of children involved decreases, the
teacher–child ratio decreases, and the level of intervention
increases. As you might guess, there is a variety of RtI models
in use as states and districts structure their unique approaches
to meet local needs. Each tier in the triangle represents a level
of intervention with corresponding monitoring of results and
outcomes, as shown in Figure 1. The foundational and largest
Common Features across Tiers portion of the triangle (tier 1) represents the core instruction
• Research-Based Practices: Prevention begins with for all children based on a high‐quality mathematics
practices based on students’ best chances for success. curriculum and instructional practices (i.e., manipulatives,
• Data-Driven: All decisions are based on clear objectives conceptual emphasis, etc.), and progress‐monitoring
and formative data collection.
assessments. For example, if using a graphic organizer in tier
• Instructional: Prevention and intervention involve 1 core instruction, the following high‐quality practices would
effective instruction, prompts, cues, practice, and
environmental arrangements. be expected in the three phases of the lesson—Before, During,
• Context-Specific: All strategies and measures are and After:
selected to fit individual schools, classrooms, or students.
• Before. States purpose, introduces new vocabulary,
clarifies concepts from the prior knowledge in a visual
Source: Based on Scott, T., & Lane, H. (2001). Multi‐Tiered Interven-
tions in Academic and Social Contexts. Unpublished manuscript, organizer, and defines tasks of group members if groups
University of Florida, Gainesville. are being used
82
• During. Displays directions in a chart, poster, or list; provides a set of guiding questions
in a chart with blank spaces for responses
• After. Facilitates a discussion to highlight or make more explicit the significant concepts
or skills and then presents a summary and list of important concepts as they relate to one
another
Tier 2 represents children who did not reach the level of achievement expected during tier
1 instructional activities. Children in tier 2 should receive supplemental targeted instruction
(interventions) outside the core mathematics lessons that uses more explicit strategies with
systematic teaching of critical skills and concepts, more intensive and frequent instructional
opportunities, and more supportive and precise prompts (Torgesen, 2002). The position state-
ment of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics on interventions (NCTM, 2011a)
states, “Although we do not specifically state the precise interventions, we endorse the use of
increasingly intensive and effective instructional interventions for children who struggle with
mathematics.” Interventions are “reserved for disorders that prove resistant to lower levels of
prevention and require more heroic action to preclude serious complications” (Fuchs & Fuchs,
2001, p. 86).
Identifying and using these supplemental interventions is a flexible process that can be
adapted or tailored based on how children respond. If further assessments, such as diagnostic
interviews, reveal favorable progress, the children are weaned from the extra intervention ses-
sions. However, if difficulties and struggles remain, the interventions can be adjusted in inten-
sity, and in rare cases, children are referred to the next tier of support. Tier 3 is for children who
need more intensive periods of instruction, sometimes with one‐on‐one attention, which may
include comprehensive mathematics instruction or a referral for special education evaluation
or special education services. Instructional strategies for the three tiers are outlined in Table 1.
Progress Monitoring
A key to the multitiered system of support is monitoring children’s progress. One way to
collect evidence of children’s knowledge of concepts is through the use of diagnostic in-
terviews. Another approach is to assess children’s growth toward fluency in basic facts, an
area that is a well‐documented barrier for children with learning disabilities (Mazzocco,
Devlin, & McKenney, 2008). Combining instruction with short daily assessments to moni-
tor children’s knowledge of number combinations that were already taught proved that
the children with disabilities were better not only at remembering but also at generalizing
to other facts (Woodward, 2006). The collection of information gathered from these as-
sessments reveals whether children are making the progress expected or if more intensive
instructional approaches need to be put into place.
Planning, Teaching, and Assessing Children

with Learning Disabilities
Because each child has specific learning needs, strategies that work for one child may not
work for another. Yet there are some general ideas that can help as you plan instruction for
children with learning disabilities. The following questions should guide your planning:
1. What organizational, behavioral, and cognitive skills are necessary for the children with
disabilities to derive meaning from this activity?
2. Which children have known weaknesses in any of these skills or concepts?
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3. How can I provide additional support in these areas of weakness so that children with
learning disabilities can focus on the conceptual task in the activity? (Karp & Howell,
2004, p. 119).
Each phase of the lesson evokes specific planning considerations for children with dis-
abilities. Some strategies apply throughout a lesson. The following discussion is not exhaus-
tive, but it should provide you with specific suggestions for offering support to children
throughout the lesson while you maintain the challenge.
Table 1 Interventions for Teaching Mathematics in a Multitiered System of Support
Tiers Interventions
Tier 1 A highly qualified regular classroom teacher

• Incorporates high‐quality rigorous curriculum and has expectations for all children to be challenged
• Builds in Common Core State Standards Mathematical Practices and NCTM Mathematical process standards
• Commits to teaching the curriculum as defined
• Supports children’s use of multiple representations such as manipulatives, visual models, and symbols
• Monitors progress to identify struggling children and children who excel at high levels
• Uses flexible grouping of children
• Fosters active involvement of children
• Communicates high expectations
• Uses graphic organizers in the Before, During, and After stages of the lesson
• Before. States purpose, introduces new vocabulary, clarifies concepts from the prior knowledge in a visual
organizer, defines tasks of group members if using groups
• During. Lays out the directions in a chart, poster, or list; provides a set of guiding questions in a chart with
blank spaces for responses
• After. Facilitates discussion of various student strategies and presents a summary and a list of important
concepts as they relate to one another
Tier 2 A highly qualified regular classroom teacher with possible collaboration from a highly qualified special education
teacher
• Works with children (commonly in small groups) in supplemental sessions outside of the core instruction
• Conducts individual diagnostic interviews to target strengths and weaknesses
• Collaborates with special education, gifted, or English language learner (ELL) teachers
• Creates lessons that emphasize the big ideas (focal points) or themes
• Incorporates the CSA (concrete/semi-concrete/abstract) model
• Shares thinking in a think‐aloud to show children how to make problem‐solving decisions
• Incorporates explicit systematic strategy instruction (summarizes key points and reviews key vocabulary
or concepts before the lesson)
• Models specific behaviors and strategies, such as how to handle measuring materials
• Uses mnemonics or steps written on cards or posters to help children follow problem‐solving steps
• Uses peer‐assisted learning in which another child can provide help to a child in need
• Supplies families with additional support materials to use at home
• Encourages children’s use of self‐regulation and self‐instructional strategies, such as revising notes,
writing summaries, and identifying main ideas
• Teaches test‐taking strategies (e.g., allows children to use a highlighter on tests to emphasize
important information)
• Slices back (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2001) to material from a previous grade level to ramp back up
Tier 3 A highly qualified special education teacher

• Works one‐on‐one with a child
• Uses tailored instruction based on specific areas of weakness
• Modifies instructional methods, motivates children, and further adapts curricula
• Uses explicit contextualization of skills‐based instruction
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1. Structure the environment

• Centralize attention. Move the child close to the board or teacher. Face the children
when you speak to them and use gestures. Where possible remove competing stimuli.
• Avoid confusion. Word directions carefully and ask the child to repeat them. Give one
direction at a time. Use the same language for consistency. For example, talk about
base‐ten materials as ones, tens, and hundreds rather than interchanging those names
with “flats,” “rods,” and other words about their shape rather than their value.
• Create smooth transitions. Ensure that transitions between activities have clear directions
and that there are limited chances to get “off task.”
2. Identify and remove potential barriers
• Find ways to help children remember. Recognize that
memory is often not a strong suit for children with
disabilities and develop mnemonics (memory aids) Note that searching the word problem for important infor-
for familiar steps or write directions that can be re- mation is different from identifying “key words,” because
ferred to throughout the lesson. For example, STAR the use of a “key word approach” is not effective.
is a mnemonic for problem solving: Search the word
problem for important information; Translate the
words into models, pictures, or symbols; Answer the problem; Review your solution
for reasonableness (Gagnon & Maccini, 2001).
• Provide vocabulary and concept support. Give explicit attention to vocabulary and sym-
bols throughout the lesson. Preview essential terms and related prior knowledge/
concepts, create a “math wall” of words and symbols to provide visual cues, and con-
nect symbols to their precise meanings.
• Use “friendly” numbers. Instead of using $6.13, use $6.00 to emphasize conceptual
understanding rather than mixing computation and conceptual goals. Incorporate
this technique when computation and operation skills are not the lesson objective.
• Vary the task size. Children with learning disabilities can become frustrated by the
enormity of the task. One way to address this problem is to assign children with
disabilities fewer problems to solve.
• Adjust the visual display. Design assessments and tasks so that there is not too much
on a single page. The density of words, illustrations, and numbers on a page can be
overwhelming for children with disabilities. Find ways to put only one problem on
a page, increase the font size, or reduce the visual display. Be sure the visual displays
support the meaning of the problem (rather than just unrelated clip art).
3. Provide clarity
• Reiterate the timeframe. Give children additional reminders about the time left for
exploring materials, completing tasks, or finishing assessments. This helps children
with time management.
• Ask children to share their thinking. Use the think‐aloud method or think‐pair‐share
strategy.
• Emphasize connections. Provide concrete representations, pictorial representations, and
numerical representations. Have children connect them through carefully phrased
questions. Also connect visuals, meanings, and words. For example, as you count a
series of items, point out that you touch each item, say the number name in sequence,
and write the last number said as the total amount.
• Adapt delivery modes. Incorporate a variety of materials, images, examples, and models
for visual learners. Some children may need to have the problem or assessment read
to them or generated with voice creation software. Provide written instructions in
addition to oral instructions.
• Emphasize the relevant points. Some children with disabilities may inappropriately fo-
cus on the color of a cube instead of the quantity of cubes.
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• Use methods for organizing written work. Provide tools and templates so that children
can focus on the mathematics rather than on the creation of a table or chart. Also use
graphic organizers, picture‐based models, and paper with columns or grids.
• Provide examples and nonexamples. To define triangles, give examples of triangles as
well as shapes that are not triangles. Help children focus on the characteristics that
differentiate the examples from the nonexamples.
4. Consider alternative assessments
• Propose alternative products. Provide options for how to demonstrate understanding
(e.g., a verbal response that is written by someone else, voice recorded, or modeled
with a manipulative). Use voice recognition software or word prediction software
that can generate a whole menu of word choices when children type a few letters.
• Encourage self‐monitoring and self‐assessment. Children with learning disabilities often
are not good at self‐reflection. Asking them to review an assignment or assessment to
explain what was difficult and what they think they got right can help them be more
independent and take greater responsibility for their learning.
• Consider feedback charts. Help children monitor their growth by charting progress
over time.
5. Emphasize practice and summary
• Help children bring ideas together. Create study guides that summarize the key
mathematics concepts and support students as they review key concepts. Older
children can begin to develop class study guides to transition into creating their own
study guides by identifying, summarizing, and coordinating the big ideas.
• Provide extra practice. Use carefully selected problems (not a large number) and allow
the use of familiar physical models.
Not all of these strategies will apply to every lesson and to every child with special
needs, but as you are thinking about a particular lesson and certain children in your class,
you will find that many of these will apply and will allow your children to engage in the task
and accomplish the learning goals of the lesson.
Implementing Interventions
NCTM (2007) has gathered a set of effective, research‐based approaches for teaching chil-
dren with difficulties in mathematics (such as children needing interventions in tier 2 or tier
3 of a support system such as RtI), highlighting the use of several key strategies that are also
suggested by Gersten, Beckmann, Clarke, Foegen, Marsh, Star, and Witzel (2009). These
strategies include systematic and explicit instruction, think‐alouds, concrete and visual rep-
resentations of problems, peer‐assisted learning activities, and formative assessment data
provided to children and teachers. These interventions, proven to be effective for children
with disabilities, may represent principles quite different from those at tier 1. The strate-
gies described here are interventions for use with the small subset of children for whom the
initial core instruction was ineffective.
Explicit Strategy Instruction

Explicit instruction is often characterized by highly structured, teacher‐led instruction on
a specific strategy. When engaging in this explicit instruction, you do not merely model
the strategy and have children practice it; instead you try to illuminate your decision
making—a process that may be troublesome for these particular learners. In this
instructional strategy, after you assess the children so that you know what to model, you
use a tightly scripted sequence that goes from modeling to prompting children through the
model to practice. Your instruction is highly organized in a step‐by‐step format and involves
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teacher‐led explanations of concepts and strategies, including the critical connection build-
ing and meaning making that help learners relate new knowledge with concepts they know.
Let’s look at a classroom teacher who is using explicit instruction:
As you enter Mr. Logan’s classroom, you see a small group of children seated at
a table listening to the teacher’s detailed explanation and watching his demon-
stration of addition concepts. The children are using manipulatives, as prescribed
by Mr. Logan, and moving through carefully selected tasks. He tells the children
to take out three cubes and asks them then to take out five more cubes. He asks
the children, “Now how many do you have?” Mr. Logan asks, “Is add a word you
know?” Then, to make sure they don’t overcount, he asks them to talk about their
reasoning process with the question, “What are some things you need to keep in
mind as you put the two groups together?” Mr. Logan writes their responses on the
adjacent board along with 3 + 5 = 8. Then he asks them to talk about how many
more they have than when they started with the three cubes and records their re-
sponses. The children take turns answering these questions out loud. During the
lesson, Mr. Logan frequently stops the group, interjects points of clarification, and
directly highlights critical components of the task. For example, he asks, “Can you
count from three by adding the five cubes on?” and “Would it be better to count
on from the five? Why?” Vocabulary words, such as combine and equals, are written
on the “math word wall” nearby and the definitions of these terms are reviewed and
reinforced throughout the lesson. At the completion of the lesson, the children are
given several similar examples of the kind of combinations discussed in the lesson
as independent practice.
A number of aspects of explicit instruction can be seen in Mr. Logan’s approach to teaching
addition concepts. He employs a teacher‐directed teaching format, carefully describes the
use of manipulatives, and incorporates a model‐prompt‐practice sequence. This sequence
starts with verbal instructions and careful demonstrations with concrete models, followed
by prompting, questioning, and then independent practice. The children are deriving math-
ematical knowledge from the teacher’s oral, written, and visual clues.
As children with disabilities solve problems, explicit strategy instruction can help guide
them in carrying out tasks. First ask the children to read and restate the problem; draw a
picture; develop a plan by linking this problem to previous problems; write the problem
in a mathematical sentence; break the problem into smaller pieces; carry out operations;
and check answers with a calculator, hundreds chart, or other appropriate tools. These
self‐instructive prompts, or self‐questions, structure the entire learning process from begin-
ning to end. Unlike during more inquiry‐based instruction, the teacher models these steps
and explains the components with terminology that is easily understood by children with
disabilities—children who did not discover them independently through initial tier 1 or tier
2 activities. Yet, consistent with what we know about how all children learn, children are still
developing an understanding of the meaning of addition and are engaged in problem solv-
ing (not just in skill development).
Concrete models can support explicit strategy instruction. For example, when you dem-
onstrate the properties of two‐dimensional shapes, you might say, “Watch me. Now make a
rectangle with these four toothpicks that looks just like mine.” In contrast, a teacher with a
more inquiry‐oriented approach might say, “Using toothpicks, how can you show me a rect-
angle?” Although initially more structured, the use of concrete models will provide access to
more abstract concepts and can eventually lead to generalizations.
There are a number of possible advantages to using explicit strategy instruction for
children with disabilities. This approach helps you make more explicit for these children the
covert thinking strategies that others use in mathematical problem solving at a slower pace.
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Although these students hear other children’s thinking strategies in the After phase of each
lesson, they frequently cannot keep up with the rapid pace of the sharing. Without extra
time to reprocess the conversation, children with disabilities may not have access to these
strategies. More explicit approaches are also less dependent on the children’s ability to draw
ideas from past experience or to operate in a self‐directed manner.
Explicit strategy instruction can also have distinct disadvantages for children with dis-
abilities. Some aspects of this approach rely on memorizing, which can be one of their
weakest skills. Taking a known weakness and building a learning strategy around it is not
productive. There is also the concern that highly teacher‐controlled approaches promote
long‐term dependency on teacher assistance. This is of particular concern for children with
disabilities because many are described as passive learners.
Children learn what they have the opportunity to practice. Children who are never
given opportunities to engage in self‐directed learning (based on the assumption that this
is not an area of strength) will be deprived of the opportunity to develop skills in this area.
In fact, the best explicit instruction is scaffolded, meaning it moves from a highly struc-
tured, single‐strategy approach toward multiple models, including examples and nonexam-
ples. It also includes immediate error correction followed by the fading of prompts to help
children move to independence. Explicit instruction, to be effective, must include making
mathematical relationships explicit (so that children, rather than only learning how to do
that day’s mathematics, make connections to other mathematical ideas). Because making
connections is a major component in how children learn, it must be central to instructional
strategies for children with disabilities.
Concrete, Semi‐Concrete, Abstract (CSA)

The CSA (concrete, semi‐concrete, abstract) intervention has been used in mathematics
education in a variety of forms for years (Heddens, 1964; Witzel, 2005). Based on the rea-
soning theory of Bruner (1966), this model reflects a sequence that begins with an instruc-
tional focus on concrete representations (manipulative materials) and tools, then moves to
semi‐concrete representations (drawings or pictures) and abstraction (using only numerals
or mentally solving problems) over time. Built into this approach is the return to visual
models and concrete representations as children need them or as they begin to explore
new concepts or extensions of concepts learned previously. As children share reasoning that
shows they are beginning to understand the mathematical concept, there can be a shift to
semi‐concrete representations. This is not to say that CSA is a rigid approach that moves to
abstraction only after the other phases. Instead, it is essential that there be parallel modeling
of number symbols throughout this approach to explicitly relate concrete models and visual
representations to their corresponding numerals and equations.
CSA also includes modeling the mental conversations that go on in your mind as you
help children articulate their own thinking. Again, as you articulate your thought processes
using an appropriate model for a child, your choice of a reasoning strategy and model
should be based on evidence from the child’s performance on targeted assessments. In the
last component of CSA, children are capable of working with abstract aspects of the con-
cepts without an emphasis on concrete or semi‐concrete images.
Peer‐Assisted Learning
Children with special needs also benefit from other children’s modeling and support (Fuchs,
Fuchs, Yazdian, & Powell, 2002). The basic notion is that children learn best when they are
placed in the role of an apprentice working with a more skilled peer or “expert.” Although
the peer‐assisted learning approach shares some of the characteristics of the explicit strategy
instruction model, it is different because knowledge is presented on an “as‐needed” basis as
opposed to a predetermined sequence. The children can be paired with older children or
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peers who have a more sophisticated understanding of a concept. At other times, tutors and
tutees can reverse roles during the tasks. Having children with disabilities “teach” others is
an important part of the learning process, so giving children with special needs a chance to
explain concepts to another child is valuable.
Think‐Alouds
When you use a think‐aloud as an instructional strategy, you demonstrate the steps to ac-
complish a task while verbalizing the thinking process and reasoning that accompany the
steps. Remember, don’t start where your thinking is—assess and start where the child’s
thinking is. The child follows this instruction by imitating your process of “talking through”
a solution on a different but parallel task. This is similar to the model in which “expert”
learners share strategies with “novice” learners.
Consider a problem in which first graders are given the task of determining which child
is taller by lying on the floor. Rather than merely demonstrating, for example, how to use a
ruler to measure the children, the think‐aloud strategy would involve talking through the
steps and identifying the reasons for each step while measuring each child with connecting
cubes and comparing the difference between the children’s heights. As you place a mark
on the floor to indicate where the cubes start, you might state, “I used this line to mark off
where Rebecca’s foot ends. How should I use this line as I measure Rebecca? I know I have
to add on cubes, but how do I know when to stop?” “How can I use both lines of cubes to
figure out if Rebecca is taller than Emma?” All of this dialogue occurs prior to placing the
ruler for a second measurement. Often teachers share alternatives about how else they could
have carried out the task. When you use this metacognitive strategy, try to talk about and
model possible approaches (and the reasons behind these approaches) in an effort to make
your invisible thinking processes visible to the children.
Although you can choose any of these strategies as needed, your goal is always to work
toward a high level of student responsibility for learning. Movement to higher levels of content
understanding can be likened to the need to move to a higher level on a hill. For some, formal
stair steps with support along the way are necessary (explicit strategy instruction); for others
ramps with encouragement at the top of the hill will work (peer‐assisted learning). Others can
find a path up the hill on their own with some guidance from visual representations (CSA ap-
proach). All people can relate to the need to have different support during different times of
their lives or under different circumstances, and it is no different for children with special needs
(see Table 2). Yet these children must eventually learn to create a path to new learning on their
own, as that is what will be required in the real world after formal education ends. Leaving chil-
dren knowing only how to climb steps with support and face hills with constant assistance and
encouragement from others will not help them attain their life goals.
Adapting for Children with Moderate

or Severe Disabilities
Children with moderate/severe disabilities often need extensive modifications and individu-
alized supports to learn mathematics. This population of children may include those with
severe autism, sensory disorders, limitations affecting movement, cerebral palsy, processing
disorders such as intellectual disabilities, and combinations of multiple disabilities.
Originally, the curriculum for children with severe disabilities was called “functional,”
in that it often focused on life skills such as managing money, telling time, using a calculator,
measuring, and matching numbers to complete such tasks as entering a telephone number
or identifying a house number. Now directives and assessments have broadened the cur-
riculum to address the content strands that were specifically delineated by grade level in the
Common Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010).
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Table 2 Common Stumbling Blocks for Children with Disabilities
Stumbling Blocks What Will I Notice? What Should I Do?
Child has trouble • Can’t interpret a number line • Use larger versions of the
forming mental • Has difficulty identifying a representation (e.g., number
representations triangle when the top of line) so that children can move
of mathematical the triangle points down to or interact with the model
concepts • Explicitly teach the representation—
for example, exactly how to
draw a triangle while identifying
the critical properties
Child has difficulty • Has difficulty with basic • Explicitly teach multiple ways of
accessing numerical facts; for example, doesn’t representing a number showing the
meanings from recognize that 3 + 5 is the variations at exactly the same time
symbols (issues with same as 5 + 3, or that 5 + 1 • Use a number balance to support
number sense) is the same as the next understanding of the equal sign
counting number after 5 • Use multiple representations
• Does not understand the for a single problem to show
meaning of the equal sign how it would be carried out in a
• Can’t interpret whether variety of ways (base‐ten blocks,
an answer is reasonable illustrations, and numbers) rather
than using multiple problems
Child is challenged • Loses counts of objects • Use ten‐frames or

to keep numbers • Gets confused when other organizational mats to help
and information in children share multiple the child organize counts
working memory strategies during the After • Explicitly model using counters or
portion of the lesson how to use skip counting to count
• Forgets how to start the • Record (in writing) the ideas of
problem‐solving process other children during discussions
• Incorporate a chart that lists
the main steps in problem
solving as an independent
guide or make bookmarks with
questions the children can ask
themselves as self‐prompts
Child lacks • Misses steps in a process • Use routines as often as possible or

organizational skills • Writes computations in provide self‐monitoring checklists
and the ability to self‐ a way that is random to prompt steps along the way
regulate and hard to follow • Use graph paper to record
problems or numbers
• Create math word walls for reference
Child misapplies rules • Applies rules such as “Always • Always give examples as well as
or overgeneralizes subtract the smaller from the counterexamples to show how
larger” too literally, resulting and when “rules” should be used
in errors such as 25 - 9 = 24 and when they should not
• Tie all rules into conceptual
understanding; don’t
emphasize memorizing rote
procedures or practices
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At a beginning level, children work on identifying numbers by holding up fingers or select-

ing an amount on a picture. To develop number sense, counting up can be linked to counting
daily tasks to be accomplished, and counting down can mark a period of cleanup after an activ-
ity or to complete self‐care routines (brushing teeth). Children with moderate or severe dis-
abilities should have opportunities to use measuring tools, compare graphs, explore place‐value
concepts (sometimes linked to money use), use the number line, and compare quantities. When
possible, the content should be connected to life skills and features of jobs—shopping skills and
activities in which food is prepared are both options for mathematical problem solving. At other
times, you can link mathematical learning objectives to everyday events in a practical way. For
example, when the operation of addition is studied, figuring how many forks are needed for two
groups would be appropriate. Children can also undertake a small project such as making a
placemat for lunch as a way to explore shapes and measurements.
Do not believe that all basic addition and subtraction facts must be mastered before chil-
dren with moderate or severe disabilities can move forward in the curriculum; children can
learn geometric or measuring concepts without having mastered all basic facts. Geometry for
children with moderate or severe disabilities is more than merely identifying shapes; it is critical
for being oriented in the real world through interpreting street signs in the local area. Children
who learn to count bus stops and judge time can be helped to navigate their world successfully.
Table 3 offers ideas across the curriculum that are appropriate for teaching children
with moderate to severe disabilities.
Planning for Children Who

Are Mathematically Gifted
Children who are mathematically gifted include those who have a high level of ability or
interest. Some may be gifted with an intuitive knowledge of mathematical concepts, whereas
others have a passion for the subject even though they may have to work hard to learn it.
Many children’s giftedness becomes apparent to parents and teachers when they grasp and
articulate mathematics concepts at an age earlier than expected. They are often found to
make connections between topics of study easily and frequently are unable to explain how
they quickly got an answer (Rotigel & Fello, 2005). Many teachers have a keen ability to
spot talent when they note children who have strong number sense or visual/spatial sense
(Gavin & Sheffield, 2010). Note that these teachers are not pointing to children who are fast
and speedy with their basic addition and subtraction facts but to those who have the ability
to reason and make sense of mathematics.
Do not wait for children to demonstrate their mathematical talent; instead develop it
through a challenging set of tasks and inquiry‐based instruction (VanTassel‐Baska & Brown,
2007). Generally, as previously described in the RtI model, high‐quality core instruction is
able to respond to the varying needs of diverse learners, including the talented and gifted.
Yet for some of your gifted children, the core instruction proves not to be enough of a
challenge. The curriculum for these advanced learners should be adapted to consider level,
complexity, breadth, depth, and pace (Assouline & Lupkowski‐Shoplik, 2011; Renzulli,
Gubbins, McMillen, Eckert, & Little, 2009; Saul, Assouline, & Sheffield, 2010).
There are four basic categories for adapting mathematics content for gifted mathemat-
ics children: acceleration, enrichment (depth), sophistication (complexity), and novelty (Gallagher
& Gallagher, 1994; Ravenna, 2008). In each category, your children should apply rather than
just acquire information. The emphasis on implementing and extending ideas must over-
shadow the mental collection of facts and concepts.
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Table 3 Activities for Children with Moderate or Severe Disabilities
Content Area Activity
Number and operations • Count out a variety of items for general classroom activities.
• Create a list of supplies that need to be ordered for the
classroom or a particular event and calculate cost.
• Calculate the number of calories in a given meal.
• Compare the cost of two meals on menus from local
restaurants.
Algebra • Show a cumulating allowance on a chart to show growth

over time.
• Write an equation to show how much allowance the
child will earn in a month.
Geometry • Use spatial relationships to identify a path between two

locations on a map.
• Use tangrams to put shapes together or fill a space.
This activity can develop important workplace skills such
as packing boxes or organizing supplies on shelves.
Measurement • Fill differently shaped items with water, sand, or rice to

assess volume, ordering the containers from least to most.
• Take body temperature and use an enlarged thermometer
to show comparison to outside temperatures.
• Calculate the amount of border needed to decorate the
bottom edge of the bulletin board.
• Identify the time for lunch.
Data analysis and probability • Survey children on favorite games and use the top five
as choices for the class. Make a bar graph to represent
and compare the results.
• Tally the number of children ordering school lunch.
• Examine the outside temperatures for the past week and
estimate the temperatures for the next two days.
Acceleration
Acceleration recognizes that your children may already understand the mathematics con-
tent that you plan to teach. Some teachers use “curriculum compacting” (Reis & Renzulli,
2005) to give a short overview of the content and assess the children’s ability to respond to
mathematics tasks that would demonstrate their proficiency. Another option is to reduce the
amount of time these children spend on aspects of the topic or moving to more advanced
content at the next grade level or beyond. Allowing children to increase the pace of their
own learning can give them access to curriculum different from their grade level while
demanding more independent study. However, moving children to higher mathematics (by
moving them up a grade, for example) will not succeed in engaging them as learners if the
instruction is still at a slow pace. Research reveals that when gifted children are accelerated
through the curriculum, they become more likely to explore STEM (science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics) fields (Sadler & Tai, 2007).
Enrichment
Enrichment activities go beyond the topic of study to content that is not specifically a
part of your grade‐level curriculum but is an extension of the original mathematical tasks.
For example, while studying place value, mathematically gifted children can stretch their
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knowledge to study other bases, such as base five. This provides an extended view of how
our base‐ten numeration system fits within the broader system. Other times the format of
enrichment can involve studying the same topic as the rest of the class while differing on the
means and outcomes of the work. Examples include group investigations, solving real prob-
lems in the community, writing letters to outside audiences, and identifying applications of
the mathematics learned.
Sophistication
Another strategy is to increase the sophistication of a topic by raising the level of complexity
or pursuing greater depth of content possibly outside of the regular curriculum or by con-
necting mathematics to other subject areas. Frequently gifted children explore topics similar
to those of their classmates but focus on higher‐level thinking and more complex or abstract
ideas. This can mean exploring a larger set of ideas in which a mathematics topic exists. For
example, while studying a unit on place value, mathematically gifted children can deepen
their knowledge to study other numeration systems such as Roman, Mayan, Egyptian, and
Babylonian. This study provides a multicultural view of how our numeration system fits
within the historical number systems (Mack, 2011).
Novelty
Novelty introduces completely different material from the regular curriculum and frequently
occurs in after‐school clubs, out‐of‐class projects, or collaborative school experiences. In
collaborative experiences, children from a variety of grades and classes may volunteer for
special mathematics projects with a classroom teacher, principal, or resource teacher taking
the lead. The novelty category includes having children explore topics that are within their
developmental grasp but outside the curriculum. For example, children may explore how to
build structures with toothpicks and gumdrops or Styrofoam peanuts and then use the char-
acteristics of the successful constructions to decide which designs are stable and which are
not, sorting the structures using an “in or out” reasoning approach. They may also explore
a large‐scale investigation of the amount of food thrown away at lunchtime or the amount
of water flushed in the school’s bathroom. Another aspect of the novelty approach provides
different options for children in culminating performances of their understanding, such as
demonstrating their knowledge through inventions, experiments, simulations, dramatiza-
tions, visual displays, and oral presentations.
Strategies to Avoid
There are a number of ineffective approaches for gifted children that find their way into
classrooms. Following are five common ones:
1. Assigning more of the same work. This is the least appropriate way to respond to
mathematically gifted children and the most likely to result in children eventually
hiding their abilities. This approach is described by Persis Herold as “all scales
and no music” (quoted in Tobias, 1995, p. 168).
2. Giving free time to early finishers. Although children may find this rewarding, it does
not maximize their intellectual growth and can lead to hurrying to finish a task.
3. Assigning gifted children to help struggling learners. Routinely assigning gifted children to
teach other children who have not achieved what the gifted students have mastered does
not stimulate their intellectual growth and can place them in a socially uncomfortable
and undesirable situation. Consistently using this approach puts mathematically
talented children in a constant position of tutoring rather than allowing them to
create deeper and more complex levels of understanding.
4. Providing gifted pull‐out opportunities. Unfortunately, generalized gifted programs are
often unrelated to the regular mathematics curriculum (Assouline & Lupkowski‐Shoplik,
93
2011). Although it can benefit students, add‐on experiences are not enough.
Gifted students need adaptations to the instruction in their mathematics classroom.
Learners with a high level of ability can’t get one‐stop shopping in a gifted program
that focuses on all academic subjects; they need individual attention to develop
depth and more complex understanding of mathematics.
5. Offering independent enrichment on the computer. This practice often does not engage
children with mathematics in a way that will enhance conceptual understanding
and support their ability to justify their thinking to others. However, there are some
excellent enrichment opportunities on the Internet that provide these kinds of
experiences.
Sheffield (1999) writes that gifted children should be introduced to the “joys and frustra-
tions of thinking deeply about a wide range of original, open‐ended, or complex problems
that encourage them to respond creatively in ways that are original, fluent, flexible and
elegant” (p. 46). Accommodations, modifications, and interventions for mathematically
gifted children must strive for this goal.
Stop and Reflect

How is equity in the classroom different from teaching all children equitably? ■
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95
Collaborating with Families,
Community, and Principals
With students, parents Parental and Community Support

and teachers all on the for Mathematics
Teaching mathematics developmentally, addressing the increased con-
same page and working tent demands articulated in the Common Core State Standards Initia-
together for shared tive (CCSSO, 2010), and ensuring that children are mathematically
proficient requires everyone’s commitment. Numerous studies have
goals, we can ensure that found a positive relationship between the level of parental involvement
and their child’s achievement in school (e.g., Aspiazu, Bauer, & Spillett,
students make progress 1998; Henderson et al., 2002).
We often hear educators make statements such as “You must have
each year and graduate the principal’s support” and “You need to get parents on board,” and
we nod our heads in agreement. But knowing what administrative and
from school prepared to parental support looks like and recognizing how to get it are less clear.
In this chapter, we discuss ideas for developing a collaborative commu-
succeed in college and nity that understands and is able to support high‐quality mathematics
in a modern workforce. teaching and learning for every student.
Parents know the importance of mathematics for their child’s fu-
ture. They participate in their child’s learning by supporting homework,
CCSSO (2010) volunteering at school, and meeting with teachers, even if they may
recall unpleasant experiences or difficulties with school mathematics
from their own schooling. Understanding that memories of mathemat-
ics classes are not always pleasant for parents and appreciating parental
support will prepare us to suitably identify for parents the mathematics
goals that children should be experiencing in the twenty‐first century.
Communication with parents is key to encouraging their support and
involves using one‐way, two‐way, and three‐way communication strate-
gies (see Figure 1).
97
Collaborating with Families, Community, and Principals
Figure 1 Ways to communicate with families.
Letters sharing the Websites where Newsletters

goals of a unit resources and
One‐Way Communica- curriculum information
tion Strategies are posted
Log of student work PTA meetings, open One‐on‐one meet-

(signed or commented house ings, class or home
on by parent) visits
Two‐Way Communica-
tion Strategies
Family math night Conferences Log or journal of

(with parent and child) student learning
with input from
child, parent, and
Three‐Way (or More)
teacher
Communication
Strategies
Communicating Mathematics Goals

Every year, parents need opportunities to get information directly from the school leaders
and teachers about their child’s mathematics program, including the kind of instruction that
might differ from what they experienced in their own schooling. For example, even if your
school has been engaged in implementing a mathematics program for a decade that reflects
the NCTM Principles and Standards for School Mathematics and now the Common Core State
Standards, the program will still be new to the parents of your children. Changes to the
mathematics curriculum—new textbooks, new technologies, new philosophies—are all per-
fect reasons for communicating with parents. This interaction is one of the most important
components of successfully implementing a standards-based mathematics curriculum (Bay,
Reys, & Reys, 1999). Without such opportunities, parents may draw their own conclusions
about the effectiveness of the mathematics curriculum, develop frustrations and negative
opinions about what is happening in their child’s classroom or school, and communicate this
apprehension to other parents. Table 1 highlights questions parents commonly ask about
standards‐based mathematics programs.
Providing a forum for parents around mathematics highlights the importance of the
subject and gives parents confidence that your school is a great place for preparing their
children for upper elementary school and beyond.
Be proactive! Don’t wait for concerns or questions to percolate. Some early action strat-
egies include engaging parents in family and community math nights, positive homework
practices and parent coaching sessions, and sharing where to find mathematics‐related re-
sources for their children (e.g., websites and manipulatives). Let’s discuss each.
Family and Community Math Nights

There are many ways to conduct a family or community mathematics event, such as in-
cluding a mathematics component in a back‐to‐school night, a PTA meeting, or hosting a
showcase for a new mathematics program. Critical to this
plan is to provide opportunities for parents to be learn-
A back-to-school night is a great time to have parent–child
ers of mathematics so they experience what it means to do
teams experience working together on mathematics tasks.
mathematics (just like their children).
98
Table 1 Categories of Parent Questions Related to Standards‐Based Mathematics
Category Types of Questions
Pedagogy • Why isn’t the teacher teaching? (And what is the point of reinventing
the wheel?)
• Are children doing their own work when they are in groups? Is my child
having to do the work of children who don’t understand the work?
• Why is there so much reading and writing in math class?
• Why is my child struggling more than before?
Content • Is my child learning the basic skills?

• Why is my child learning different ways (than I learned) for doing the operations?
• Will my child be on track for Algebra I in eighth grade? Ninth grade?
• Where are the math topics I am used to seeing and why are there topics
I never learned?
• Is my child learning mathematics or just doing activities?
Evidence • Is there any evidence that this approach or curriculum is effective?

• Will my child do better on state/national standardized tests with this new
approach?
• Will this prepare my child for middle school, high school, college,
and beyond?
Understanding • Why is mathematics teaching changing?

• How can I help my child [with homework; to be successful]?
• Where can I learn more about the Common Core State Standards?
Source: Adapted from Bay‐Williams, J. M., & Meyer, M. R. (2003). What Parents Want to Know about
Standards‐Based Mathematics Curricula. Principal Leadership, 3(7), 54–60. Copyright 2003, National
Association of Secondary School Principals. For more information on NASSP products and services to
promote excellence in middle-level and high school leadership, visit www.nassp.org.
When choosing mathematical tasks to use with parents, be sure the tasks focus on
content that really matters to them and relates to what they already know is a part of the
elementary curriculum (e.g., addition and subtraction, including basic facts, as well as
place value are good ideas in grades K–2). There are tasks throughout this text that are
ideal for a math night. Figure 2 contrasts two examples of first‐grade problems for learn-
ing about combinations (sums) that make 6—one that is a teaching‐by‐telling (traditional)
experience (solve the problems as modeled by the teacher using counters) and one that is
designed for a teaching‐through‐problem‐solving experience (explore and find different
combinations).
Stop and Reflect

What distinctions do you notice between the two tasks? What is valued as “doing
mathematics” in both of the problems? ■
The contrasting addition problems are perfect for discussing with parents what it means
to do mathematics because they (1) address critical areas in the Common Core State Standards
and focal points in the Curriculum Focal Points, (2) involve using manipulatives (color tiles or
counters), (3) connect the mathematical ideas of partitioning and addition, and (4) (in the
latter example) have multiple solution strategies.
99
Figure 2 Problems to explore at a parent or community night.
Problem Set 1: Find the answers to these equations. Use counters or draw pictures to show your work.
1 + 5 = ________ 0 + 6 = __________
3 + 3 = __________ 2 + 4 = __________
Problem Set 2: The parking lot has only blue and red cars. There are 6 cars parked. How many blue
and how many red cars might be in the parking lot? Use counters to find as many ways as you can.
Draw a picture and write an equation for each answer.
Extensions: Can you find all of the ways to have 6 red and blue cars in the parking lot? How many
ways can you find to have a total of 5 cars? How many ways can you find to have a total of 7 cars?
Do you see a pattern?
The potential each of these problems has to support and challenge children in making
sense of mathematics should be made explicit during a discussion with parents. After giving
parents time to do both tasks and discuss solution strategies (as you would with children),
connect the learning experience to their questions and concerns. Ask participants to consider
the learning opportunities in the two contrasting tasks. Ask questions such as the following:
• What skills are being developed in each problem?
• Which problem gives more opportunity to make connections between mathematics and
the real world?
• Which task would your child be more motivated to solve? Why?
Help parents identify the depth of the mathematics in the teaching-through-problem-
solving task. In grades K–2 children are building important foundations of number and
operations through algebraic reasoning—looking for patterns, reasoning, and generalizing.
Help parents see these aspects in the car combination problem. Share the CCSSO and or
the NCTM standards (in parent‐friendly language), and focus on the goal of having chil-
dren becoming mathematically proficient as described in those standards. Ask “Where do
you see these proficiencies being supported in the two tasks we did?”
Another good choice for family math nights is basic fact strategies, as addition and
subtraction facts are a central part of the curriculum in
Provide copies of the appropriate Common Core State grades 1–2, and developing reasoning strategies is essential
Standards Introduction and Overview pages (the first two to learning the facts well. (Parents may only know flash
pages for each grade) and allow parents time to think about cards or other memorization activities.)
each “Critical Area.” Address any or all of the questions in Table 1 that apply
to your setting. One way to do this is to have parents write
their questions on note cards and collect them so you can identify common questions and decide
the order in which to discuss each question. The sections that follow provide possible responses
to questions that parents (or community members) commonly ask.
Pedagogy
When parents ask questions that point to their belief that mathematics is best learned
through direct instruction (just as they learned it), remind them of the experiences they had
in doing mathematics with the car combination task. Point to the difference between being
shown how to do something (e.g., “This is how you add; now practice this”) and developing
an understanding of something (e.g., “How many ways can you partition 6? How do you
know if you have found all the ways?”). You can help parents identify the skills and concepts
100
that are developed through these two experiences. Ask, “In what ways are children learning
about addition? About subtraction? How do the different ways support eventual mastery of
the basic facts?” Point out that skills are still important, and children benefit by generating
their own procedures. Explicitly promote the fact that a developmental approach to learn-
ing mathematics provides the means for children to (1) use prior knowledge, (2) make con-
nections, (3) use alternative strategies and reasoning, (4) apply mathematical ideas to new
situations, and (5) develop positive dispositions about being able to do mathematics. Share
example tasks such as these:
9+6 6 + 28 57 + 26
Ask parents to partition 6 to solve these problems mentally. Connect to the meaning of
“procedural fluency” and the benefit in having children generate their own procedures, and
connect those procedures to a strong understanding of number and operations.
Role of the Teacher

Similarly, address the role of the teacher as organizer (organizes a worthwhile mathematical
task), facilitator (facilitates student interaction), and questioner (asks questions to help chil-
dren make connections or to deepen their understanding). Remind parents that just because
the teacher is not telling their child what to do does not mean that the teacher is not teach-
ing. The teacher is orchestrating the class so that each child develops the ability to solve
problems independently.
Cooperative Groups
Parents may also wonder about the frequency of their children working in cooperative
groups because it may differ from their own mathematics learning experiences. Help par-
ents see the role of others in their learning as they solved the problems and as they heard
solutions from those who were working at other tables. Connect that experience to the value
of cooperative learning. You can do this in a variety of ways:
1. Include a feature in your parent newsletter. Early in the year you can feature cooperative
learning, addressing its importance across content areas. In mathematics this can include
the following benefits: hearing different strategies, building meaning, designing solution
strategies, and justifying approaches—all essential to building a strong understanding of
mathematics and important life skills.
2. Send home letters introducing mathematics units of study. If you are about to teach a unit
on adding and subtracting two‐digit numbers, a letter can help parents know the important
aspects of the content. This is a great time to mention that children will work in groups so
that they can see different ways to add or subtract two numbers.
3. Do a cooperative learning mathematics activity at a family math night or back‐to‐school event.
Use a task that involves assigning roles to different members of the group and that won’t
take long to solve. Have parents work with two to three others to solve the task.
4. Invite parents to assist in a mathematics group assignment. Seeing firsthand the dialogue and
thinking that happens in cooperative groups can go a long way in illustrating how valuable
cooperative groups can be!
Parents may worry that children working in groups are
simply copying from others and not learning. Share strate-
Being proactive about communicating the benefits of
gies you use to build in individual accountability and shared
cooperative learning, as well as how you build in individual
responsibility. For example, teachers may ask each child to
accountability and shared responsibility, will go a long way
record explanations in his or her notebook. At other times,
toward converting parent concerns into parent support.
you may assign specific roles to each member of the group.
101
Use of Technology
Parents may be avid users of technology yet still have concerns about their child using
calculators and computers in grades pre‐K–2, when they haven’t yet mastered their basic
facts for addition and subtraction. Even though research overwhelmingly finds that children
using calculators achieve at least as much as those not using calculators, the calculator is
widely blamed for children’s lack of reasoning and sense making. Reassure parents that chil-
dren will learn the basic facts and procedures and the calculator can support that learning.
Consider sharing or doing any of the following activities:
1. Type in 5 + 5 = . Continue to push the = key (most calculators continue to add 5 every time
you push =). What patterns do you notice as you count by fives?
2. Broken Key. Suppose the following keys do not work on your calculator: 5 and 8. Figure
out another way to add or subtract these numbers using the calculator:
6+5 15 - 6 35 + 28
Debrief with parents about the ways in which the calcula-

tor can be used as a learning tool. Mastery of facts should
Families need to see specific ways to use the calculator to not be a prerequisite to using a calculator. Instead, chil-
support learning of numbers and operations. Sharing or post- dren and teachers should be making good decisions about
ing calculator activities is one way to help them understand whether a calculator supports or detracts from doing the
the role calculators can play in young children’s learning. problem at hand.
Practice and Problem Solving

Parents may also wonder why there are fewer skill/practice problems (and more story prob-
lems). Effective mathematics learning environments are rich in language. Real mathematics
involves more “word” problems and far fewer “naked number” skill problems. Especially with
young children, it is the context or story that provides the concrete experiences they need in
order to reason about and understand the abstract numbers and symbols they are using. In con-
Figure 3 trast to when the parents went to school, computational skills are now less needed
Share with parents how in the workplace because of available technology, but the importance of number
you support reading and sense, reasoning, and being able to solve real problems has increased. Because
problem solving. some children struggle with reading and/or writing, share with parents strategies
you use to help children understand and solve story problems (see Figure 3).
Reading Strategies for Math Problems Parents may worry when they see their child struggle with a single mathemat-
• Read math story problem aloud ics problem because they may believe that fast means successful. But faster isn’t
(whole class) smarter! Cathy Seeley’s book with this same title (Seeley, 2009) is a great read on
• Read a math story problem with a this topic written for families, educators, and policy makers. Seeley offers 41 brief
friend messages, many of which can address parent questions about mathematics (e.g.,
• Say or write the question in the
“A Math Message to Families: Helping Students Prepare for the Future,” “Put-
problem
ting Calculators in Their Place: The Role of Calculators and Computation in the
• Draw a picture of the problem
Classroom,” and “Do It in Your Head: The Power of Mental Math”). Explain that
• Act out the problem
engaging children in productive struggle is one of the two most effective ways
• Use a graphic organizer (record-
teachers can help children develop conceptual understanding (the other being to
ing page with problem-solving
make connections between mathematical ideas) (Bay‐Williams, 2010; Hiebert &
prompts)
Grouws, 2007). Rather than presenting a series of simpler problems for children
• Discuss math vocabulary
• Play math vocabulary games
to practice, standards‐based curriculum characteristically focuses on fewer tasks,
each of which provides children with an opportunity for higher‐level thinking,
multiple‐strategy solutions, and more time focused on mathematics learning.
102
Figure 4 Standard 1 from Standards for Mathematical Practice (CCSSO, 2010).
1. Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Mathematically proficient students start by explaining to themselves the meaning of a problem and
looking for entry points to its solution. They analyze givens, constraints, relationships, and goals. They
make conjectures about the form and meaning of the solution and plan a solution pathway rather
than simply jumping into a solution attempt. They consider analogous problems, and try special cases
and simpler forms of the original problem in order to gain insight into its solution. They monitor and
evaluate their progress and change course if necessary. Older students might, depending on the con-
text of the problem, transform algebraic expressions or change the viewing window on their graphing
calculator to get the information they need. Mathematically proficient students can explain correspon-
dences between equations, verbal descriptions, tables, and graphs or draw diagrams of important
features and relationships, graph data, and search for regularity or trends. Younger students might
rely on using concrete objects or pictures to help conceptualize and solve a problem. Mathematically
proficient students check their answers to problems using a different method, and they continually
ask themselves, “Does this make sense?” They can understand the approaches of others to solving
complex problems and identify correspondences between different approaches.
Source: CCSSO (Council of Chief State School Officers). (2010). Common Core State Standards, p. 6. Retrieved
from http://corestandards.org. The Common Core State Standards are © Copyright 2010. National Governors
Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.
Share the first Standard for Mathematical Practice (see Figure 4) and ask the parents
what they notice. Focus on the importance of perseverance. This is true in mathematics and
in life. Reassure parents that some tasks take longer because of the nature of the task, not
because their child lacks understanding. Mathematics is not nearly as much about speed
and memorization as it is about being able to grapple with a novel problem, try various ap-
proaches from a variety of options, and finally reach an accurate answer.
Mathematics Content
A common concern of parents is that their children are not learning their basic facts and
standard algorithms. You must address (at least) two points related to these issues. First, the
skills that parents are looking for (e.g., U.S. standard algorithm for subtraction) are still
there—they just look different because they are presented in a way based on understanding
rather than memorization. Standard algorithms are still taught, but they are taught along
with invented strategies that build on children’s number sense and reasoning. Let parents
experience that both invented and standard algorithms are important in being mathemati-
cally proficient by inviting them to solve the following problems.
69 + 47 = _________ 309 - 288 = _________
487 + 345 = _________ + 355
Ask for volunteers to share the ways that they thought about the problems. For the
subtraction problem, for example, the following might be shared:
• 300 take away 288 is 12, then add the 9 back on to get 21.
• 288 up to 300 is 12 and up 9 more is 21.
• 309 to 300 is 9, then down to 290 is 10 more (19), and then to 288 is 2 more (21).
These invented strategies, over numerous problems, reinforce place‐value concepts and
the relationship between addition and subtraction. Noticing that these values are both near
103
300 helps the problem solver to select a strategy. This bird’s‐eye view of the problem is im-
portant in doing mathematics rather than always doing the same thing no matter what the
numbers. This is very evident in the third example, which can be solved without computa-
tion if the relationship between the numbers is noticed first.
Second, what is “basic” in the twenty‐first century is much more than computation.
Many topics in the elementary curriculum were not a part of the curriculum a generation
ago (e.g., connections of algebra to the operations). Looking together through the essential
concepts in the Common Core State Standards or the NCTM Curriculum Focal Points helps
parents see that the curriculum is not just an idea generated at their child’s school but the
national consensus on what students need to learn as well.
Student Achievement
At the heart of parents’ interest in school mathematics is wanting their child to be
successful, not only in the current classroom but also at the next level of school and
later on in high‐stakes assessments like the ACT or SAT for college entrance. If your
state has implemented the Common Core State Standards, you can share that the stan-
dards are for K–12 and are designed to prepare students for college and future careers.
The Common Core State Standards website (http://corestandards.org) has an increasing
number of resources for parents to help them ensure their child is college and career
ready.
Another approach to inform parents about student achievement is to share research on
the ineffectiveness of the traditional U.S. approach to mathematics. The Trends in Interna-
tional Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), an international study conducted regularly
and including many countries, continues to find that U.S. students achieve at an average
level in fourth grade and then score lower in mathematics than international students from
that point on. Discuss the implications of unpreparedness for students who want to seek
higher‐paying jobs on what is now an international playing field.
Parents may be more interested in how your specific school is doing in preparing chil-
dren for the future. Share evidence from your school of mathematics success, including
stories about an individual child (no name given) or the success of a particular classroom,
like the following one received by a principal:
I was worried at the start of the year because my son didn’t have a lot of confidence
in math and he was coming home with problems that he was supposed to figure out
his own way to solve. I wondered why the teacher hadn’t shown him how to add
or subtract. But now I can really see his number sense—he has all kinds of ways he
adds numbers and can do it in his head. And he is really good at solving and writing
his own story problems! As an aside, I am also learning a lot—I didn’t learn this way,
but I am finding the homework problems are really interesting as we figure them
out. I am just curious if this is something he will get to do again in second grade, or
if this is just the way first‐grade teachers introduce the ideas.
Such communications help parents see that there is a transition period and that in the end
a standards‐based approach helps engage children and build their understanding over time.
Homework Practices and Parent Coaching

The way in which parents are involved in homework can make a difference in children’s atti-
tudes and learning, particularly at the elementary level (Cooper, 2007; Else‐Quest, Hyde, &
Hejmadi, 2008; Patall, Cooper, & Robinson, 2008). For example, children perform better
when parents provide a quiet environment and establish rules about homework completion.
Also, a parent’s emotions are connected to the child’s emotions, and positive emotions are
104
connected to better performance (Else‐Quest, Hyde, & Hejmadi, 2008). Therefore, parents
who exhibit positive interest, humor, and pride in their child’s homework support their
child’s mathematics learning.
You may have heard parents say, “I am not good at math” or “I don’t like solving math prob-
lems.” Parents may feel this way and, given the research just described, it is particularly important
to redirect parents to portray mathematics in a positive light. For example, “Even though math
can be hard, stick with it and you will figure it out.” Teaching parents how to help their children
has also been found to make a difference in supporting student achievement (Cooper, 2007).
How do you effectively encourage children and their families to support mathematics
learning at home? Here we break down the many possible ways into four categories: parents’
participation, homework support, resources for parents, and beyond‐homework experiences.
Parents’ Participation
If parents can witness firsthand your questioning and the many ways that problems can
be solved, they will have a vision of how they can support learning at home. For example,
they may notice that you encourage children to select their own strategy and explain how
they know it works. They will also pick up on the language that you are using and will
be able to reinforce that language at home. You can even provide a note‐taking template
that includes categories such as the following: What is the big idea of the lesson? What il-
lustrations or tools are being used to help children understand? What are some questions
the teacher is asking that I could also ask? What does the teacher do when a child is stuck?
Homework Support
Homework can be a positive experience for children, families, and the teacher. Take the fol-
lowing recommendations into consideration when thinking about the homework that you
will assign to your children.
1. Mimic the three‐phase lesson model. Complete a brief version of the Before phase of a
lesson to be sure the children understand the homework task before they go home. At home,
children complete the During phase. When they return with the work completed, apply
the sharing techniques of the After phase of the homework. Children can even practice the
After phase with their family if this is encouraged through communications to parents or
guardians. Some form of written work must be required so that children are held responsible
for the task and are prepared for the class discussion.
2. Use a distributed‐content approach. Homework can address content that has been taught
earlier in the year as practice, that day’s content as reinforcement, or upcoming content as
groundwork. Interestingly, research has found that distributed homework (homework that
combines all three components) is more effective in supporting student learning (Cooper,
2007). The exception is children with learning disabilities, who perform better when
homework focuses on reinforcement of skills and current class lessons.
3. Promote an “ask‐before‐tell” approach with parents. Parents may not know how best to
support their child when he or she is stuck or has gotten a wrong answer. One important
thing you can do is to ask parents to implement an “ask‐before‐tell” approach (Kliman,
1999). This means that before parents explain something they should ask their child to
explain how he or she did it. The child may self‐correct (a life skill) and, if not, at least
the parents can use what they heard from their child to
provide targeted assistance.
Providing specific guidance to families makes a big differ-
4. Provide good questioning prompts for parents. Providing
ence in what they do (and do not do) to help their children
guiding questions for parents or guardians supports a
learn mathematics and to be confident in doing mathematics.
problem‐based approach to instruction as they help their
105
children. Figure 5 offers some guiding

Figure 5 questions that can be included in the
Questions for families to help their children with homework.
children’s notebooks and shared with families.
These guiding questions are designed to help your child think through their Translating questions for parents who are not
mathematics homework problems. When they get stuck, ask the following: native speakers of English is important. (Often,
• What do you need to figure out? What is the problem about? a child can help you with this task.)
• What words are confusing? What words are familiar?
Homework of this nature communi-
• Did you solve problems like this one in class today?
cates to families the problem‐based or sense‐
• What have you tried so far? What else can you try?
making nature of your classroom and might
• Can you make a drawing to help you think about the problem?
help them see the value in this approach. A
• Does your answer make sense?
• Is there more than one answer?
final note: A little bit goes a long way—for
• What words or pictures do you use in your class? example, about 10 minutes of homework a
night is a good target for young children. If
students are to spend time solving meaning-
ful problems, then just a few engaging problems a night can accomplish more than a long
set of practice problems.
Resources for Families

Parents will be better able to help their child if they know
Don’t forget the value of your own website as the first site where to find resources. The Internet can provide a wealth
for parents to visit for support. Post your unit letters to fami- of information, but it can also be an overwhelming distrac-
lies, newsletters, access to homework assignments, possible tion. Help families locate good places to find mathemat-
strategies for doing the homework, and even successful stu- ics support. First, check whether your textbook provides
dent solutions. websites with online resources for homework including
tutorials, video tutoring, videos, connections to careers and
real‐world applications, multilingual glossaries, audio podcasts, and more. Second, post web-
sites that are good general resources. Here are some examples:
• National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (www.nctm.org/resources
/families.aspx). This frequently updated site connects families with help on homework,
current trends in mathematics, and resources.
• Math Forum (http://mathforum.org/parents.citizens.html). This site includes many fea-
tures for teachers and families. Parents may want to read or participate in Math Dis-
cussion Groups, read about Key Issues for the Mathematics Community, or download
some of the very interesting problems posted here.
• National Library of Virtual Manipulatives (http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html).
This site has many applets and virtual tools for learning about many mathematics topics.
There are also great websites for specific content. For example, Thinking Blocks has excel-
lent applets for exploring addition and subtraction.
Beyond Homework: Seeing Mathematics

in the Home
In the same way that families support literacy by reading books with their children or point-
ing out letters of the alphabet when they encounter them, families can and should support
numeracy. Since this has not been the practice in many homes, it means that you, as the
teacher, have the responsibility to help parents see the connection between literacy and nu-
meracy and everyday life. In her article, “Beyond Helping with Homework,” Kliman (1999)
offers some excellent suggestions, which include asking parents to share anecdotes, find
mathematics in the books they read, do scavenger hunts, and create opportunities during
household chores. Figure 6 provides a sample letter to send home that suggests these four
ideas to parents.
106
Figure 6
Sample letter home to parents regarding ways to infuse mathematics into their
interactions with their child.
Making Math Moments Matter (M4)

Dear Families:
As a second grader, your child is increasingly aware of what is going on in the world. In that world is a lot of math!
In our class this year we are working on place value, as well as learning about standard units of measurement,
describing and analyzing shapes, and addition and subtraction of three-digit numbers. It will really help your
child to understand and see the importance of math if you find ways to talk about “math moments” (on any
math topic, but especially these four critical areas). We call it Making Math Moments Matter (M4 for short).
Here are some ways to have fun with M4 at home.
Share stories. Share a math moment at dinner (or in the car).

When have you used math today (shopping, laundry, budgets, etc.)?
Think of the many things you might have estimated—how long it will take to get to work,
or to run a series of errands. Take turns sharing stories. We will share family
math moments in class!
Connecting to reading. As they tell you about the book

they are reading, ask quantity-type questions: How many
shapes do you see in that picture? How many more
Chores. Yes, chores! If it takes 45 minutes pages do we have to finish the book? How long (in
to do a load of laundry, how long will 3 inches or centimeters) do you think that animal is?
loads take? If you walk the dog for 10
minutes twice each day, how many hours
is the dog walked in 10 days? 100 days? If
you earn $5 an hour walking dogs, what
might you earn in a week?
Scavenger hunts. Riding in the car can be more
interesting if there are things to look for. Consider
challenging your child to look for numbers on signs
and to say them correctly. Search for as many
shapes as you can (e.g., a train car is a rectangular
solid, a trash can is a cylinder, etc.).
Adults constantly use estimation and computation in doing everyday tasks. If you get
parents to talk about these instances with their children, imagine how much it can help chil-
dren learn about mathematics and its importance as a life skill.
Involving All Families

Some families are at all school events and conferences, while others rarely participate. How-
ever, all families want their children to be successful in school. Parents who do not come
to school events may have anxiety related to their own school experiences or they may feel
complete confidence that the school and its teachers are doing well by their child and that
they do not need to participate. In some cultures, questioning a teacher may be perceived as
107
disrespectful. Rodríguez‐Brown (2010), a researcher on Hispanic families, writes, “It is not

that Latino parents do not want to support their children’s learning . . . [They] believe that
it is disrespectful to usurp the teacher’s role” (p. 352).
Try to find ways to build a strong rapport with all families. Some strategies to consider
include the following:
1. Honor different strategies for doing mathematics. While this is a recommendation in
standards documents, it is particularly important for children from other countries, because
they may have learned different ways to do the operations (Civil & Planas, 2010).
2. Communicate with positive notes and phone calls. Be sure to find a way to compliment
each child’s mathematical thinking (not just a good score on a quiz) at some point early
in the school year.
3. Host informal gatherings to discuss mathematics teaching and learning. Having regular
opportunities to meet with the parents allows for the development of rapport and trust.
Consider hosting events in out‐of‐school facilities. Schools in high‐poverty communities
have found that having parent events at a community center or religious institution brings
in families who are reluctant to come into a school.
4. Incorporate homework that involves the family. When a child brings in homework that tells
about his or her family and you provide positive feedback or a personal comment, then you
are establishing a two‐way communication with the family via homework.
5. Translate letters that are sent home. If you are doing a class newsletter (for families)
or a letter describing the next mathematics unit, make an effort to translate the letter
to the native language of the families represented in your class. If you teach older
children, consider having the first class session include a component in which children
write to their families about what they are about to do. Ask them to write in their
parents’ first language and to include visuals to support their writing. Ask parents to
respond (in their language of choice). This is a great practice for helping children know
what they need to learn and communicates to families that they are an important part
of that learning.
6. Post homework on your webpage. For parents who are not native speakers of English, posting
problems on your site makes it easier for them to take advantage of online translations.
Although these translations may not be perfectly accurate, they can aid in helping parents
and children understand the language in the problems.
For more suggestions on ensuring that your mathematics tasks and homework are meet-
ing the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse children, read the NCTM research brief
titled “Involving Latino and Latina Parents in Their Children’s Mathematics Education”
(Civil & Menéndez, 2010).
Principal Engagement and Support

Teachers cite a supportive principal as one of the most essential components in successfully
implementing a standards‐based curriculum (Bay, Reys, & Reys, 1999). Therefore, a prin-
cipal plays a pivotal role in establishing a shared vision for a problem‐based mathematics
program. Principals, who have many competing priorities, often cannot take time to attend
the professional development workshops that are designed for teachers who will be teaching
108
the mathematics program. And what they need to know is qualitatively different from what
a classroom teacher needs to know.
Since the launch of the Common Core State Standards, school administrators, parents,
and community members are more aware than ever about mathematics standards. If your
state has not adopted the Common Core State Standards, there are still state‐level standards
that are the focus of mathematics goals and assessments. So, while it may seem that the need
to communicate with administrators is something to simply check off your list, it must be a
top priority.
Even though principals are hearing more about mathematics standards, higher stan-
dards, and the need to ensure that all children are successful, it does not mean they un-
derstand what standards‐based mathematics curriculum is in terms of the content or the
related CCSS Standards for Mathematical Practice or NCTM Process Standards. The
principal is likely to get bombarded with broad or specific questions from parents: “Is
New Math back? Why isn’t the teacher teaching the procedure for adding and subtract-
ing? What are the Standards for Mathematical Practice?” When principals are asked these
questions, they need a convincing response that is both accurate and addresses the heart of
the parents’ concerns (that their child is going to get a good, sound, research‐based math-
ematics experience).
Meyer and Arbaugh (2008) suggest professional development specifically for principals.
While their focus is on the adoption of standards‐based textbooks, the plan they outline
applies to all principals who are seeking to be knowledgeable and effective advocates for
implementing new standards or mathematics curricula. The following ideas are adapted
from their suggested professional development to focus on one‐on‐one conversations.
1. Contrast old and new curriculum. As a first step, it is important to know what is new and
different in the mathematics program. One way to start is to provide a set of materials that
represents typical Common Core State Standards–aligned tasks alongside of what has been
the previous curriculum. Point out the noticeable similarities and differences or the key
features of the curriculum. (Note: It is important to focus on both similarities and
differences—not everything is getting replaced and this is an important message.)
2. Discuss how parents and children will respond. Anticipate what will be noticed by parents (or
their children). Which changes might be welcomed? Which changes might be worrisome?
How will the welcome aspects be promoted and the worrisome aspects be explained?
3. Experience the curriculum. Invite the principal to visit your classroom or other classrooms
where the Standards for Mathematical Practice or the NCTM Process Standards are being
infused. Ask the principal to join a group of children and listen to their discussion of how
they are solving a problem. Or organize a lesson in which the children actually present their
solutions to the principal in the After phase. For example, in a kindergarten class, ask children
to take pictures (or draw pictures) representing the two‐dimensional shapes in the school.
If possible, ask the principal to solve one of the problems children are doing and share
his or her strategy with the class. This firsthand experience can provide the principal with
a wonderful story to share with parents and insights that won’t be gained from reviewing
standards documents.
4. Discuss emerging issues. Plan a regular time to meet with the principal to discuss what he
or she has heard from families about the mathematics program. Discuss what you might do
to respond to questions (some of their anticipated issues may already have been described
in the preceding section on parents’ concerns).
109
Finally, keep your principal apprised of successes and breakthroughs. These stories pro-
vide the principal with evidence to share when being pressed by parents or community
members. Principals are very often your strongest advocate and are in the position to serve
as buffers between school mathematics and the community.
Communicating with Stakeholders

A final and critical point is to be careful in how we communicate with stakeholders (e.g., par-
ents, district administrators, other teachers, community partners). Without knowing we are
doing it, we sometimes say things that, although well‐intentioned, increase concerns of stake-
holders rather than help to ease stakeholder anxiety. Table 2 provides three such examples.
Stop and Reflect

Place your hand over the second and third columns in Table 2 and ask yourself how a parent
might respond if they heard this statement. What might the parent misinterpret? How
might my principal respond? Then read the responses in the table to see if they represent
stakeholders like those in your setting. As a rule, it is a good idea to filter your statements
through these questions. ■
Initially, the statements may not seem harmful, but they can set off alarms for the stake-
holder. Consider these reactions, and then review the shifted language in the third column,
which communicates a stronger (and less potentially disconcerting) message. Along these
lines, it is very important to convey to parents an excitement for and pride in your mathe-
matics program. Being tentative, reserved, vague, or silent on the mathematics program can
Table 2 Statements and Possible (Unintended) Interpretations of the Statements
What a Parent or Administrator A Stronger, Carefully Composed

Original Statement Might Think Statement
“The [mathematics program] still addresses “Why are they bringing skills up? They “The skills in the [mathematics program] are
skills, but it also includes concepts.” must be taking those away. My child/ expanding from what we once learned and
U.S. kids have to know basics. How can now include . . .”
I put a stop to this?”
“It is important for children to learn from “The teacher is not teaching? My child “In our classroom, we learn from one
one another, so I will be more in the role does better when things are explained another. I give carefully selected tasks for
of facilitator.” clearly. When I come see you teach, children to discuss and then we talk about
what am I looking for if you are just them together so that everyone has a chance
letting the kids learn on their own?” to learn the mathematics we are doing, and
that approach gives me the chance to work
one‐on‐one as needed.”
“This year we are doing a whole new “My worst nightmare—an experiment “We are doing some new things in order to
mathematics program that the state has of something new during the years my make sure your child is well prepared for . . .
adopted.” child is in elementary school. This will [or that our program is the best available]. You
cause problems for the rest of his life.” might have noticed that last year we [added
writing as a component to our mathematics
program]. This year, here are the big things we
hope to accomplish. . . .”
110
only raise concerns in the community. Help parents and administrators to understand that
the mathematics program children are experiencing aligns with best practices in education,
represents what they need to know in today’s world, and prepares them for mathematics at
the next level as well as the mathematics they need for everyday life.
Stop and Reflect

What do you think the parents of your children would most value about teaching mathematics
through problem solving? How will you use your response to this question to build strong
family support and engagement? [Repeat the question for other stakeholders, such as your
principal.] ■
References
Aspiazu, G. G., Bauer, S. C., & Spillett, M. D. Henderson, A. T., Mapp, K. L., Jordan, C., Orozco, E.,
(1998). Improving the academic performance of Averett, A., Donnelly, D., Buttram, J., Wood, L.,
Hispanic youth: A community education model. Fowler, M., & Myers, M. (2002). A new wave of evidence:
Bilingual Research Journal, 22(2), 1–20. The impact of school, family, and community connections
on student achievement. Austin, TX: Southwest
Bay, J. M., Reys, B. J., & Reys, R. E. (1999). The
Education Development Laboratory.
top 10 elements that must be in place to implement
standards‐based mathematics curricula. Phi Delta Hiebert, J., & Grouws, D. A. (2007). The effects
Kappan, 80(7), 503–506. of classroom mathematics teaching on students’
learning. In F. K. Lester (Ed.), Second handbook of
Bay‐Williams, J. (2010). Influences on student
research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 371–
outcomes: Teachers’ classroom practices. In
404). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
D. Lambdin (Ed.), Teaching and learning
mathematics: Translating research to the classroom (pp. Kliman, M. (1999). Beyond helping with
31–36). Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers homework: Parents and children doing mathematics
of Mathematics. at home. Teaching Children Mathematics, 6(3),
140–146.
Bay‐Williams, J. M., & Meyer, M. R. (2003). What
parents want to know about standards‐based Meyer, M., & Arbaugh, F. (2008). Professional
mathematics curricula. Principal Leadership, 3(7), development for administrators: What they need
54–60. to know to support curriculum adoption and
implementation. In M. Meyer, C. Langrall,
F. Arbaugh, D. Webb, & M. Hoover (Eds.), A decade
of middle school mathematics curriculum implementation:
Lessons learned from the Show‐Me Project (pp. 201–
Civil, M., & Menendez, J. M. (2010). NCTM research 210). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
brief: Involving Latino and Latina parents in their
Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008).
children’s mathematics education. Retrieved from www
Parent involvement in homework: A research
.nctm.org/uploadedFiles/Research_News_and_
synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 78(4),
Advocacy/Research/Clips_and_Briefs/Research_
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brief_17‐civil.pdf
Rodríguez‐Brown, F. V. (2010). Latino families:
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Culture and schooling. In E. G. Murillo, Jr., S. A.
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Villenas, R. T. Galván, J. S. Muñoz, C. Martínez, &
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diversity, and education (pp. 130–150). New York,
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Developing Early Number
Concepts and Number Sense
113
Developing Early Number
Concepts and Number Sense
BigIDEAS To many adults number may seem like a simple idea. But
number is actually a complex and multifaceted concept.
1 Counting tells how many things are in a set. A complete and rich understanding of number involves
When counting a set of objects, the last word in the many different ideas, relationships, and skills. Although
counting sequence names the quantity for that set. children may come to school with many ideas about
2 Numbers are related to each other through number, it takes time and lots of experiences for them to
a variety of number relationships. The number 7, develop a full understanding that will enhance all of the
for example, is three more than 4, two less than 9, number‐related concepts they will encounter in future
composed of 3 and 4 as well as 2 and 5, is three away years.
from 10, and can be quickly recognized in several The emphasis that number and number sense receive
patterned arrangements of dots. These ideas further in the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics’
extend to an understanding of 17, 57, and 370. Curriculum Focal Points (NCTM, 2006) and the Common
3 Number concepts are intimately tied to the Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) speaks to their im-
world around us. Application of number relationships to portance in the early childhood curriculum. This chapter
the real world marks the beginning of making sense of looks at the development of number ideas for numbers up
the world in a mathematical manner. to about 20. These foundational ideas can all be extended
4 Having number sense means that you can think to larger numbers, operations, basic facts, and computation.
about and use numbers and their relationships in many
different ways.
Early Counting and Number

Families help children as young as 2 or 3 years of age
count their fingers, toys, people at the table, and other
small sets of objects, asking questions such as “Who has
more?” or “Are there enough?” Considerable evidence
indicates that when children have such experiences, they
begin to develop understanding of the concepts of num-
ber and counting (Clements & Sarama, 2009). But even
2
114
Developing Early Number Concepts and Number Sense
with these experiences, there is variability in how different children learn to count and de-
velop number relationships. Much of this variability results from differences in opportuni-
ties to count and work with numbers and their relationships (National Research Council
Committee, 2009).
Early Counting
No matter what prior experiences children have had before coming to school, we need to
strive to help all children develop the following four interrelated aspects of early numerical
knowledge (Clements & Sarama, 2009):
1. Number sequence. The names and the ordered list of number words
2. One‐to‐one correspondence. Counting objects by saying number words in
a one‐to‐one correspondence with the objects
3. Cardinality. Understanding that the last number word said when counting
tells how many objects have been counted
4. Subitizing. Quickly recognizing and naming how many objects are in a small group
without counting. Young children can recognize and name quantities of objects
that are less than four without counting (Clements & Sarama, 2007).
Children must construct these ideas through a variety of experiences and activities.
They cannot be forced. As children work on each of these aspects of early counting, their
understanding about counting is continually refined. For example, children will learn how
to count (matching counting words with objects) before they understand that the last count
word indicates the amount of the set or the cardinality of the set. A teacher can at the same
time use subitizing to emphasize the notion of cardinality and to help emphasize the notion
that counting tells “how many.”
Formative Assessment Note

To determine whether a young child understands cardinality, listen to how the child responds when you discuss
counting tasks with him or her. After counting a set of objects you can ask, “How many are here?” If the child
recounts the set, hesitates, or points to the last object counted, it’s likely the child has not constructed the idea
of cardinality of a set. Children with an understanding of cardinality are apt to emphasize the last count, will
explain that there are nine “because I just counted them,” and can use counting to find a matching set.
Although learning the number sequence may be considered a rote procedure, effort should
be given to help children build the number sequence in a meaningful way, especially numbers Standards for
in the teens. One recommendation is to connect English words with number words translated Mathematical Practice
from other languages that are more explicit about the structure of the numbers. For example,
7 Look for and make
map 11 to “ten and one,” 12 to “ten and two,” and so on. You can use a vertical number line ◀
use of structure
to help children visualize how numbers change as they begin writing two‐digit numbers (see
Figure 1). A vertical number line is also more intuitive than a typical horizontal number line
because it is consistent with the notion that as numbers become larger they go up the number
line as opposed to moving to the right.
Although the forward number sequence is relatively
familiar to most young children, mastering the backward
When learning the number sequence, some children do not
number sequence or counting back can be difficult. Pro-
realize that each number word represents a separate num-
vide children frequent opportunities to practice both the
ber, so they may touch two objects as they say two‐syllable
forward and backward number sequences through short
counting words such as “se‐ven” or “thir‐teen.”
and engaging activities such as the following.
115
Figure 1 Activity 1 COUNTING UP AND BACK

A vertical number
line can help children -La
nguag
Counting up to and back from a target number in a rhythmic fashion is an important
nglish
e Lerane
visualize patterns in counting exercise. For example, line up five children and five chairs in front of the
rE
fo rs
our written numbers. class. As the whole class counts from 1 to 5, the children sit down one at a time. When the
target number, 5, is reached, it is repeated; the child who sat on 5 now stands, and the count
25
24 goes back to 1. As the count goes back, the children stand up one at a time, and so on, “1, 2,
23 3, 4, 5, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 1, 2, . . . .” Children find exercises such as this both fun and challenging.
22 Any rhythmic movement (clapping, turning around, doing jumping jacks) can be used as the
21 count goes up and back. You can modify the activity by varying the range of numbers. For
20 example, use 15 to 20 if the class is working on the teen numbers and use something like 55
19
to 65 if the class is ready to move to larger numbers (both of these ranges fit with kindergar-
18
17 ten expectations in CCSS). To modify this activity for English language learners, give each child
16 who is in front of the class one card from a set of cards with the target numerals (e.g., 1 to 5,
15 15 to 20, or 55 to 65) and the corresponding number
Numerals
14 word. These cards will provide a visual to help children
repeat
13
connect the written numeral and number word to the
12 1
11 2 number being said.
3 Another option involves having children stand in a
10 one
9 two circle and count around the circle to a target number.
three
8 One child starts the count at number 1; the next child
7 says the next number in the sequence, and so on, until
6
a child says the target number. That child sits down and
5
4 the next child starts the count again at number 1. The activity continues until one child is left
3 standing. You can vary the activity by using shorter or longer sequences, by starting the count
2 at a number other than 1, or by having the children count backward. Challenge children by
1 asking them to predict who will sit down next or who will say a particular number.
0
Activity 2 LINE THEM UP!
To prepare for this activity, stretch a clothesline across a space in the classroom at a level
where children can reach it. You can stretch it across a bulletin board or to the side of the
room. Prepare a set of numeral cards that represents the sequence of numbers you want
the children to work with, say, 1 through 15 for kindergarten. (You could also start at 0.)
There should be one numeral on each card. Shuffle the cards so that they are in a random
order and place the cards face down in a pile. Ask a child to take the top card from the
pile and use a clothespin to place the card on the clothesline. Have a second child take
the next card off the pile and place that card on the clothesline in what the child thinks
is the appropriate position. As children place their numeral cards, ask questions such as
“Is your number before or after . . .” and “Does your number go on the left or the right
of . . .?” Continue placing the cards until all the cards are placed on the clothesline in a
sequence. Once all the cards are placed, have the children read the sequence forward
as well as backward. If any number is out of sequence, see if the children can determine
how to correct the arrangement of cards. You can modify this activity by using shorter or
longer sequences and by using number sequences that start at different numbers.
The last two activities are designed only to help children become fluent with the number
words in both forward and reverse order and to begin counting with numbers other than 1.
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To develop their understanding of counting, engage children in almost any game or activity
in which they have to purposefully count objects and make comparisons between counts.
The following is a simple suggestion.
Activity 3 FILL THE TOWERS
Create a game board with four “towers.” Each tower is a column of twelve 1‐inch
squares with a star at the top. Children take turns rolling a die and collecting the
indicated number of counters. They then place these counters on one of the towers. The
object is to fill all of the towers with counters. As an option, require that the towers be
filled exactly so that a roll of 5 cannot be used to fill four empty spaces. To modify this
activity for a child with disabilities or for any child who is struggling with counting, use a
die with only two or three dots on each side. Using a larger‐sized die also makes it easier
for the child to count the dots. You can increase the number choices on the die when you
have evidence that the child is counting accurately. A good accommodation for gifted
children is to have them use a die with larger numbers and a different game board to
allow for the larger numbers.
This game provides opportunities for you to talk with children about number and assess
their thinking. Watch how the children count the dots on the die. Ask the children, “How
do you know you have the right number of counters?” and “How many counters did you put
in the tower? How many more do you need to fill the tower?” Fill the Towers
Activity 4 HOW MANY ARE THERE?
Place wooden cubes numbered 1 to 10 in a box. In pairs, children pull out a cube and then
collect that number of objects from a designated area in the classroom. The objects could be
books, pencils, cubes, crayons, counting bears, and so on. They place their numbered cube
and the collected objects in a container. Have pairs go around and check the other children’s
collections to make sure they have the correct number of objects. You can vary this activity
by changing the range of possible numbers to either a smaller range (2–5) or a larger range
(5–20) or by having each pair collect the same number of objects. Initially you may want chil-
dren to collect the same kind of object, but eventually have them collect a mix of objects to
reinforce the idea you can count different kinds of objects in a collection. For example, they
can collect two crayons, one cube, and one pencil for the number 4.
Regular classroom activities, such as counting how many napkins or snacks are needed at
snack time, how many materials are needed for an activity, how many children plan to eat the
school lunch, or even simply taking attendance, are additional opportunities for children to
engage in purposeful counting and to learn more about number and for teachers to listen to
children’s ideas. But make sure these activities involve more than the children simply following
the teacher’s count. Look for ways to make these situations into real problems.
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Learning Trajectory for Counting

Research on children’s counting schemes has identified a developmental progression of
counting that varies in terms of mathematical sophistication (Steffe & Cobb, 1988; Wright,
Stanger, Stafford, & Martland, 2006). To consider this framework, let’s suppose a child is
asked to determine “how many” items are in two sets of objects, say, one set of 6 objects and
one set of 7 objects. Children will respond to this type of task in one of the following ways,
depending on which type of counter they are:
• Emergent counter. The child is unable to count the collection of objects. The child may
be unable to coordinate one number word with one object when counting or may not
know the correct number sequence.
• Perceptual counter. The child can count the collection of objects only if the objects can be
seen. A perceptual counter will count all objects by counting from the number 1.
• Figurative counter. The child can count the collection of objects even if the objects are
blocked from view. The child is able to imagine or visualize the objects. A figurative
counter will count all imagined objects by counting from the number 1.
• Counting‐on counter. A counting‐on counter is a child who can start counting from a
given number other than 1 and who does not need to see the objects to count.
• Non‐count‐by‐ones counter. A child who does not use counting by ones but partitions and
combines the numbers involved is a non‐count‐by‐ones counter. For example, the child
may reason that 7 is 3 from 10, so partition the 6 into a 3 and 3. Combine 7 and 3 to get
10. Then combine 10 and 3 to get 13.
Teachers who are aware of this learning trajectory for counting are better able to design in-
structional tasks that are purposefully targeted at moving children from one level to the next.
Figure 2 Let’s consider two activities that are designed to help figurative counters move to counting on.
Counting on: “Hide
four. Count, starting Activity 5 COUNTING ON WITH COUNTERS
from the number of
counters hidden.”
Give each child a collection of 10 or 12 small counters that the
children line up left to right on their desks. Tell them to count
four counters and push them under their left hands (see Figure 2).
Then say, “Point to your hand. How many are there?” (Four.) “So
let’s count like this: f‐o‐u‐r (pointing to their hand), five, six,. . . . ”
Repeat with other numbers of counters under the hand.
Four—five, six, . . .
The following activity addresses the same concept in a more
problem‐based manner.
Activity 6 REAL COUNTING ON
This game for two children requires a deck of cards (numbers 1 to 7), a die, a paper
cup, and counters. The first player turns over the top number card and places the
indicated number of counters in the cup. The card is placed next to the cup as a reminder
of how many are inside. The second player rolls the die and places that many counters next
to the cup. (See Figure 3.) Together they decide how many counters in all. A record
sheet with columns for “In the Cup,” “On the Side,” and “In All” will support children’s
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organization. Increase the highest number in the card deck when children have
mastered the smaller numbers. For children with disabilities, keep the number of Figure 3
counters in the cup constant (say, 3) and have them count on from that number How many in all? How do
until they are fluent with that number. children count to tell the
total? Dump the counters?
Count up from 1 without
Observe how children determine the total amounts in the preceding activity.
dumping the counters?
Children who are not yet counting on may want to empty the counters from the cup Count on?
or will count up from 1 without emptying out the counters. Be sure to permit these
strategies. As children continue to play, they will eventually use counting on as that
strategy becomes meaningful and useful.
Initial Number Relationships: More, Less, and Same 4

The concepts of “more,” “less,” and “same” are basic relationships contributing to chil-
dren’s overall understanding of number. Almost any child entering kindergarten can
choose the set that is more if presented with two sets that are quite obviously different in
number. Classroom activities should help children build on and refine this basic notion.
Though the concept of less is logically related to the concept of more (selecting the
set with more is the same as not selecting the set with less), the word less proves to be more
difficult for children than the word more. A possible explanation is that children have many
opportunities to use the word more but have limited exposure to the word less. To help chil-
dren with the concept of less, frequently pair it with more and make a conscious effort to
ask “Which is less?” questions as well as “Which is more?” questions. For example, suppose
that your class has correctly selected the set that has more from the two sets that are given.
Immediately follow with the question “Which is less?” In this way, the concept is connected
with the better‐known idea and the term less becomes familiar.
For all three concepts (more/greater than, less/less than, and same/equal to), children
should construct sets using counters as well as make comparisons or choices between two
given sets. The following activities should be conducted in a spirit of inquiry with requests
for explanations: “Can you show me how you know this group has less?”
Activity 7 MAKE SETS OF MORE/LESS/SAME Figure 4

Making sets that are more, less, and the same.
At a workstation, provide about eight cards with pictures
of sets of 4 to 12 objects (or use large dot cards); a set of
small counters; word cards labeled More, Less, and Same; and
paper plates or low boxes to support children with disabilities by
defining the work space. Next to each picture card have children
make three collections of counters: a set that is more than the
amount in the picture, one that is less, and one that is the same.
They then place the appropriate word cards (More, Less, Same) on
the sets (see Figure 4). Have children with disabilities begin by
creating a collection that matches the picture. Once they are
s e
consistently successful with creating a set that matches, move to Les Same Mor
creating sets with more and then to sets with less.
Initially when young children begin comparing sets, they may be easily confused by
perceptual cues such as the length of the row of counters or the spacing of counters in one set
119
Figure 5 versus another set. So you may need to encourage some

Dot cards can be made using Blackline Masters. children to use matching or counting to compare sets. You
can suggest in Activity 7 that they stack counters on top
of the images to match the sets. As they create a set with
counters, they have the opportunity to reflect on the sets
and adjust them as they work. The next activity is done
without counters. Although it addresses the same basic
ideas, it provides a different problem situation.
Activity 8 FIND THE SAME AMOUNT
Give children a collection of cards with pictures

of sets on them. Dot cards are one possibility (see
Figure 5; see also Blackline Masters 3–8). Have the
children pick up any card in the collection and then find
another card with the same amount to form a pair. Con-
tinue to find other pairs. Some children with disabilities
may need a set of counters with a blank ten‐frame to
help them “make” a pair instead of find-
ing a pair.
BLM Activity 8 can be altered to have
children find dot cards that are “less”
or “more.”

Observe children as they do this task. Children whose number ideas are completely tied to counting and
nothing more will select cards at random and count each dot. Others will begin by selecting a card that
appears to have about the same number of dots. This shows a significantly higher level of understanding.
Also observe how the dots are counted. Are the counts made accurately? Is each counted only once? A
significant milestone for children occurs when they begin recognizing small patterned sets without count-
ing (subitizing).
You can also have children play Okta’s Rescue (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=219),

which is an interactive activity that requires children to gather a given number of animals either by counting
by ones or by grouping the animals. The activity is timed to provide that additional push to move children
beyond counting by ones.
Helping children relate numerals to number words and to quantities is important. Consider using a comput-
erized version of the game Concentration that offers options to limit the numbers between 1 and 6 or be-
tween 1 and 10 (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=73). Children can play individually
or with another player. You can also reduce the level of difficulty by selecting the option to have all the
numerals, numbers, and quantities visible so that the child can focus on moving back and forth between the
representations without having the added difficulty of remembering the locations of specific cards.
120
Developing Number Sense by Building

Number Relationships
Number sense is not a set of skills that children can develop in a short period of time. It is
something that grows and develops over time. Howden (1989) described number sense as a
“good intuition about numbers and their relationships. It develops gradually as a result of
exploring numbers, visualizing them in a variety of contexts, and relating them in ways that
are not limited by traditional algorithms” (p. 11).
In the remainder of this chapter we look at the kinds of
relationships and connections children should be making about
smaller numbers up to about 20. But “good intuition about Figure 6
numbers” does not end with these smaller whole numbers. Four relationships to be developed involving small numbers.
Children continue to develop number sense as they begin to
use numbers in operations, build an understanding of place
value, devise flexible methods of computing, and make esti- Spatial Relationships
mates involving large numbers. Flexible, intuitive reasoning
with numbers—number sense—should continue to be devel-
oped throughout the school years as fractions, decimals, and
percentages are added to children’s repertoire of number ideas.
Five Six Seven

Relationships between Numbers (learned pattern) (3 and 3) (6 and 1 more)
1 through 10
One More / Two More / One Less / Two Less
Once children have acquired a concept of cardinality and
can meaningfully use their counting skills, little more can
1 MORE 2 MORE
be gained from the kinds of counting activities described so
far. But too often teachers move directly from the beginning
ideas of counting to addition and subtraction, leaving chil- 6 7 9
dren with a very limited collection of ideas about number to
1 LESS 2 LESS
bring to these new topics. The result is often that children
continue to count by ones to solve simple story problems and
have difficulty mastering basic facts. Emphasizing number
Anchors to 5 and 10
relationships is key to helping children fully develop number
sense. Figure 6 illustrates the four different types of relation-
ships that children can and should develop with numbers:
• Spatial relationships. Children can learn to recognize
sets of objects in patterned arrangements and tell how
many without counting. For most numbers, there are Five and three more Two away
several common patterns. Patterns can also be made from ten
from two or more easier patterns of smaller numbers.

• One and two more, one and two less. The two‐more‐than Part-Part-Whole
and two‐less‐than relationships involve more than just
the ability to count on two more or count back by two.
Children should know that 7, for example, is 1 more
than 6 and also 2 less than 9.
• Anchors or “benchmarks” of 5 and 10. Since the number
10 plays such a large role in our numeration system “Six and three is nine.”
and because two fives make up 10, it is very useful to
develop relationships for the numbers 1 to 10 to the
important anchors of 5 and 10.
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• Part–part–whole relationships. To conceptualize a number as being made up of two or

more parts is the most important relationship that can be developed about numbers.
For example, 7 can be thought of as a set of 3 and a set of 4 or a set of 2 and a set of 5.
The principal tool that young children will use as they construct these relationships is the
one number tool they possess: counting. Initially, then, you will notice a lot of counting, and
you may wonder if you are making progress. Have patience! Counting will become less and
Figure 7 less necessary as children construct new relationships and begin to use more powerful ideas.
A collection of dot
patterns for “dot
plates.” Spatial Patterns:
Patterned Set Recognition
Many children learn to recognize the dot arrangements on stan-
0 dard dice due to the many games they have played that use dice.
Similar instant recognition can be developed for other patterns
1 as well. This instant and intuitive recognition of quantities up to
four or five, that ability to “just see it,” is called subitizing and
is one of the four interrelated aspects of early numerical knowl-
2
edge described earlier in the chapter. While some children seem
to automatically use subitizing, others need more support to do
3
so. There are also times when a child is able to instantly recognize
even larger amounts without counting. In these cases, the child
4 sees and uses small groups within the larger amount to quickly de-
termine how many. For example, a child can mentally break apart
5 dots in a pattern of eight by seeing four in one row and mentally
doubling it to get a total of eight. The activities suggested here en-
courage reflective thinking about the patterns so that the relation-
6
ships will be constructed to support the development and use of
subitizing. This can aid in counting on (from a known patterned
7
set) or learning combinations of numbers (seeing a pattern of two
known smaller patterns).
8 A good set of materials to use in pattern recognition activities is
a set of dot plates. These can be made using small paper plates and
9 the peel‐off dots commonly available in office supply stores. A rea-
sonable collection of patterns is shown in Figure 7. Note that some
patterns are combinations of two smaller patterns or a pattern with
10
one or two additional dots. These should be made in two colors.
Keep the patterns compact. If the dots are spread out, the patterns
are hard to see.
Activity 9 LEARNING PATTERNS

Standards for
Mathematical Practice
To introduce the patterns, provide each child with about 10 counters and a piece of
7 Look for and make ◀ cardstock or paper plate as a mat. Hold up a dot plate for about 5 seconds and say,
use of structure “Make the pattern you saw on the plate using the counters on the mat. How many dots
did you see? What did the pattern look like?” Spend some time discussing the configura-
tion of the pattern and the number of dots. Then show the plate so they can self‐check.
Do this with a few new patterns each day. One way to modify this activity for a child with
disabilities is to show a small selection of plates and, instead of the child creating a given
pattern with counters, have the child find the plate that matches a given pattern.
122
The next activity displays images quickly so that children do not have time to count
the dots one by one. Consequently, they are challenged to find another way to determine
how many. Dot plates that have three to five dots are useful in helping children work on
subitizing. Dot plates that have more than five dots are useful
in helping children work on advanced subitizing or decom-
Use quick images to encourage children to move beyond
position where they quickly see and use small groups within
counting by ones.
the larger amount to quickly determine how many.
Activity 10 DOT PLATE FLASH
Hold up a dot plate for only 1 to 3 seconds and say, “How many dots do you see? What
did the pattern look like?” Include easy patterns first and then add more dots as chil-
dren’s confidence builds. Initially you may need to show a plate a second time so that
children can get a second look. Children like to see how quickly they can recognize and
say how many dots. Children can also flash dot plates to each other as a workstation
activity.
The instant recognition activities with the plates are exciting and can be done in 5
minutes at any time of day or between lessons. There is value in using them at any primary
grade level and at any time of year.
In addition to dot plates, a good set of materials is a set of dot‐pattern dominoes. Make
a set of dominoes out of cardstock and put a dot pattern on each end. The size of the domi-
noes can be about 2 inches by 4 inches. The same patterns can appear on lots of dominoes
with different pairs of patterns making up each one. Let the children play dominoes in the
regular way, matching up the ends. As a speed activity, spread out all of the dominoes and see
how fast the children play all of the dominoes or play until no more can be played. Regular
dominoes could also be used, but there are not as many patterns.
Speedy Pictures (www.fi.uu.nl/toepassingen/00204/toepassing_rekenweb.xml?style=rekenweb&language

=en&use=game) is an interactive website where children can work on identifying amounts using quick
images. They can select from a variety of images such as dice, arithmetic racks (a rack with one or two rows
of 10 beads in two colors), egg cartons, and finger patterns. You can set a timer that ranges from about
10 seconds to 40 seconds.
One and Two More, One and Two Less

When children count, they have no reason to reflect on the way one number is related
to another. The goal is only to match number words with objects until they reach the
end of the count. To learn that 6 and 8 are related by the twin relationships of “two
more than” and “two less than” requires reflection on these ideas within tasks that per-
mit counting. Counting on (or back) one or two counts is a useful tool in constructing
these ideas.
123
The following activities are named for one of the more-than/less-than relationships,
but each activity can be done for any of these relationships.
Activity 11 ONE‐LESS‐THAN DOMINOES
Use the dot‐pattern dominoes or a standard set to play “one‐less‐than” dominoes. Play
in the usual way, but instead of matching ends, a new domino can be added if it has an
end that is one less than the end on the board. A similar game can be played for two less,
one more, or two more.
Activity 12 MAKE A TWO‐MORE‐THAN SET
Provide children with about six dot cards. For each card, their task is to display a set of
counters that is two more than the set shown on the card. Similarly, spread out eight to
ten dot cards and, for each card, find a card that is two less than it. (Omit the 1 and 2
cards for two less than, and so on.)
In activities in which children find a set or make a set, they can select the appropriate
numeral card (a small card with a number written on it) that identifies the quantity in the
set. They can also be encouraged to take turns reading a number sentence to their partner.
If, for example, a set has been made that is two more than a set of four, the child can read
this by saying the number sentence “Two more than four is six.”
Anchoring Numbers to 5 and 10

Here again, we want to help children relate a given number to other numbers, specifically 5 and 10.
These relationships are especially useful in thinking about various combinations of numbers.
Stop and Reflect

Consider the role that 5 and 10 play in helping to think about tasks such as these: 8 + 7, 8 - 2,
8 - 3, 8 - 4, 13 - ■
BLM The knowledge of 8 as “5 and 3 more” and as “2 away from 10” can play a role in how
a child thinks about these examples. Later, similar relationships can be used in the develop-
ment of mental computation skills on larger numbers such as 68 + 7.
Figure 8 The most common models to help children anchor numbers to 5 and 10 are five‐
Ten‐frames. frames and ten‐frames. The ten‐frame is a 2 * 5 array in which counters or dots are placed
to illustrate numbers (see Figure 8). Ten‐frames can be simply
drawn on a full sheet of cardstock (or use Blackline Master 1).
Nothing fancy is required, and each child can have one. The ten‐
frame is now a popular representation found in standard text-
books for children.
For children in pre‐kindergarten or kindergarten who have
not yet explored a ten‐frame, it is a good idea to begin with a
five‐frame. This row of five sections can also be drawn on a sheet
of cardstock (or use Blackline Master 2). Provide children with
about 10 counters that will fit in the five‐frame sections and con-
duct the following activity.
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Activity 13 FIVE‐FRAME TELL‐ABOUT
Explain that only one counter is permitted in each section of the five‐frame. No
other counters are allowed on the five‐frame mat. Have the children show 3 on
their five‐frame. “What can you tell us about 3 from looking at your mat?” After
hearing from several children, try other numbers from 0 to 5. Children initially Standards for
may place their counters on the five‐frame in any manner. What they observe will
differ a great deal from child to child. For example, with four counters, a child 3 Construct
with two on each end may say, “It has a space in the middle” or “It’s two and ◀ viable arguments
and critique the
two.” There are no wrong answers. Focus attention on how many more counters
reasoning of others
are needed to make 5 or how far away from 5 a number is. Next try numbers
between 5 and 10. The rule of one counter per section still holds. As shown in
Figure 9, numbers greater than 5 are shown with a full five‐frame and additional
counters on the mat but not in the frame. In discussion, focus attention on these
Figure 9
larger numbers as 5 and some more: “Eight is five and three more.” A five‐frame focuses on the 5
anchor. Counters are placed one
to a section, and children tell how
Notice that the five‐frame really focuses on the relationship to 5 as an anchor for they see their number in the frame.
numbers but does not anchor numbers to 10. After five‐frames have been used for a
week or so, introduce ten‐frames. You may want to play a ten‐frame version of a “Five‐
Frame Tell‐About” but soon introduce the following rule for showing numbers on the
ten‐frame: Fill the top row first, starting on the left, the same way you read. When the
top row is full, counters can be placed in the bottom row, also from the left. This rule
will help children see the significance of a full row in the ten‐frame—in particular, if
the row is full, they do not need to count because it will always be 5. This observation
needs to come from the children, not the teacher. So look for opportunities to draw
children’s attention to this characteristic of the ten‐frame. Filling the ten‐frame in this
fashion also provides a visualization of numbers as 5 and some more, as can be seen in
Figure 8. Make sure to spend time asking questions such as “What are you looking at
in the ten‐frame to help you find how many?” and “How does knowing you have a full
row help you determine how many?”
For a while, many children will count every counter on their ten‐frame. When making a
new number, some children will remove all the counters from the ten‐frame and begin from
a blank frame. Others will soon learn to adjust numbers by adding on or taking off only what
is required, often capitalizing on a row of five without counting. Do not pressure children to
use one approach or another. With continued practice, all children will grow. How they are
using the ten‐frame provides insight into children’s current number concept development.
You can find virtual five‐ and ten‐frames at http://illuminations.nctm.org/Activity
Detail.aspx?ID=74 and http://illuminations.nctm.org/activitydetail.aspx?id=75, respectively.
These versions can be used not only with the whole class or small groups but also with
individual children because these activities feature a computerized voice that asks the chil-
dren questions. These versions allow children to build target numbers and include an option
that asks children to determine how many counters are displayed as well as how many empty
spaces are in a given frame.
Activity 14 NUMBER MEDLEY
First, have all children show the same number on their ten‐frame. Then call out random num-
bers between 0 and 10. After each number, the children change their ten‐frames to show
the new number. Children can also do this activity independently by using a prepared list of
about 15 random numbers. One child plays “teacher” while the rest use the ten‐frames.
125
“Number Medley” is much more of a problem‐solving situation than it first appears. How
do you decide how to change your ten‐frame to make the new number? Some children will
clear off the entire frame and start over with each new number. Others will have learned what
each number looks like. To add another dimension, have the children tell, before changing their
ten‐frames, how many more counters need to be added (“plus”) or removed (“minus”). They
then call out plus or minus whatever amount is appropriate. If, for example, the frames showed
six, and the teacher called out “Four,” the children would respond “Minus two!” and then
change their ten‐frames accordingly. A discussion of how they know what to do is valuable.
Ten‐frame flash cards are an important variation of ten‐frames. Make cards from cardstock
about the size of a small index card with a ten‐frame on each and dots drawn in the frames. A set
BLM of 20 cards consists of a 0 card, a 10 card, and two each of the numbers 1 to 9. The cards allow
for simple practice activities to reinforce the 5 and 10 anchors (see Blackline Masters 17 and 18).
Activity 15 TEN‐FRAME FLASH CARDS
Flash ten‐frame cards to the class or group and see how quickly the children can tell how
many dots are shown. This fast‐paced activity takes only a few minutes, can be done at
any time, and is a lot of fun.
Important variations of “Ten‐Frame Flash Cards” include

• Saying the number of empty spaces on the card instead of the number of dots
• Saying one more than the number of dots (or two more and also less than)
• Saying the “ten fact”—for example, “Six and four make ten”
Ten‐frame tasks are surprisingly challenging for children. Children must reflect on the
two rows of five, the spaces remaining, and how a particular number is more or less than
5 and how far away from 10. The earlier discussions about how children can describe how
they see numbers on the five‐frames or ten‐frames are examples of brief discussions that can
take place in the After portion of the lesson, in which children learn from one another.
Another model for benchmarks of 5 and 10 is an arithmetic rack. An arithmetic rack
can have one row of 10 beads or two rows of 10 beads. Each row has 5 beads of one color
and 5 beads of another color (see Figure 10). Arithmetic racks are available commercially or
you can make an arithmetic rack with cardstock, pipe cleaners, and small plastic beads. You
Standards for can also find an electronic version of an arithmetic rack at http://maine.edc.org/file.php/1
Mathematical Practice /AssessmentResources/ArithmeticRack132_L.html, where you can set the rack as a single row
7 Look for and make
of 10 or as a double row of 10, depending on the readiness of your children.
◀
use of structure The different colors and embedded five structure of the arithmetic rack help children
build mental images of numbers. Children can be asked to name the number displayed on an
arithmetic rack—and if flashed quickly as with the ten‐frame, children can be asked how they
Figure 10 know how many beads are displayed. They can also be asked to show a
An arithmetic rack provides a visual model particular number using the arithmetic rack. The class can then share the
of the benchmarks of 5 and 10. different ways that the same number was displayed.
Part–Part–Whole Relationships
Stop and Reflect

Before reading on, get some counters or coins. Count out
12 can be seen as 10 and 2 a set of eight counters in front of you as if you were a
or 7 and 5 or 5, 5, and 2. kindergartner. ■
126
Any child who has learned how to count meaningfully can count out eight objects as
you just did. What is significant about the experience is what it did not cause you to think
about. Nothing in counting a set of eight objects will cause a child to focus on the fact that
it could be made of two parts. For example, separate the counters you just set out into two
piles and reflect on the combination. It might be 2 and 6 or 7 and 1 or 4 and 4. Make a
change in your two piles of counters and say the new combination to yourself. Focusing on
a quantity in terms of its parts has important implications for developing number sense. The
ability to think about a number in terms of parts is a major milestone in the development
of number sense. Of the four number relationships we have discussed, part–whole ideas are
easily the most important.
Most part–part–whole activities focus on a single number for the entire activity.
Kindergarteners can usually begin these activities working on the number 4 or 5. As con-
cepts develop, the children can extend their work to numbers 6 to 12. It is not unusual
to find children in the second grade who have not developed firm part–part–whole con-
structs for the numbers 7 through 12, even though by that time they should be adding
up to 100. Figure 11
The following activity and its variations may be considered the “basic” part–part–whole
Assorted materials for
activity. building parts of 6.
Activity 16 BUILD IT IN PARTS
Provide children with one type of material, such as

Connecting
connecting cubes or squares of colored paper. The task cubes
is to see how many different combinations for a par-
ticular number they can make using two parts. (If you “Five and one” “Two and two and two”
wish, you can allow for more than two parts.) Each dif- Painted lima beans
ferent combination can be displayed on a small mat,

such as a quarter‐sheet of cardstock. Here are just a
few ideas, each of which is illustrated in Figure 11.
• Use two‐color counters such as lima beans spray‐ Two column strips
painted on one side (also available in plastic).
• Make bars of connecting cubes. Make each bar
with two colors. Keep the colors together.
• Make combinations using two dot strips—strips
“Five and one” “Three and three”
of cardstock about 1 inch wide with stick‐on dots.
Dot strips
(Make lots of strips with one to four dots and fewer
strips with five to ten dots.)
• Make combinations of “two‐column strips.” These
are cut from cardstock ruled in 1‐inch squares. All Five and one
pieces except the single squares are cut from two
columns of the cardstock.
• Color rows of squares on 1‐inch grid paper. “One and three and two”
• Use arithmetic racks that have 10 beads in two Arithmetic rack
Grid paper
rows.
Standards for
As you observe children working on the “Build It in Parts” activity, ask them to
“read” or write a number sentence to go with each of their representations. Reading ◀ 4 Model with
or writing the combinations serves as a means of encouraging reflective thought fo- mathematics
cused on the part–whole relationship. Writing can be in the form of drawings, numbers
127
Figure 12 Representations for 6. written in blanks ( and ), or

addition equations if these have been introduced (3 +
5 = 8). There is a clear connection between part–part–
Wooden Cubes Toothpicks whole concepts and addition and subtraction ideas.
In the “Build It in Parts” activity, the children
are focusing on the combinations. To add some
interest, vary the activity by adding a design compo-
nent. Rather than creating a two‐part illustration for a
4 and 2 3 and 3
4 and 2 5 and 1 number, children create an interesting design with an
or assigned number of elements. For each design, they
3 and 3 are then challenged to see and read the design in two
parts. Here are some ideas.
1 and 2 and 3
or 3 and 3 2 and 2 and 2
• Make arrangements of wooden cubes.
• Make designs with pattern blocks. It is a good
Pattern Blocks Squares idea to use only one or two shapes at a time.
• Make designs with flat toothpicks. These can be
dipped in white glue and placed on small squares
3 and 3 of cardstock to create a permanent record.
• Make designs with touching squares or triangles.
Cut a large supply of small squares or triangles
4 and 2
or out of cardstock. These can also be pasted down.
2 and 4
2 and 2 and 2
1 and 3 and 2 or It is both fun and useful to challenge children to
3 and 3
or see their designs in different ways, producing differ-
1 and 5
ent number combinations. In Figure 12, notice how
children look at the designs to get the combinations
listed under each.
You can also use ten‐frames to help children build and visualize numbers in parts.
When most of your children know that there are 5 in a full row, allow them to fill in the
ten‐frame without filling the top row first. For example, you could show 7 as 4 and 3 or
6 and 1, using different colored counters to emphasize the different parts (see Figure 13).
Again, take time to draw children’s attention to the empty spaces in the ten‐frame to build
parts of 10. Virtual five‐ and ten‐frames available at http://maine.edc.org/file.php/1/Assess
mentResources/5Frame10Frame32_L.html allow you to display counters in two colors so
Figure 13 that you can highlight two parts of the target number.
Using ten‐frames to show
A special and important variation of part–part–whole activities is referred to as
part–part–whole
missing‐part activities. In a missing‐part activity, children are given the whole amount
relationships.
and they use their already-developed knowledge of the parts of that whole to try to
tell what the covered or hidden part is. If they do not know or are unsure, they simply
uncover the unknown part and say the full combination as they would normally. Miss-
ing‐part activities can be challenging for children not only because the missing part
increases the difficulty level but also because they encourage children to continue to
reflect on the combinations for a number. They also serve as the forerunner to subtrac-
tion concepts. With a whole of 8 but with only 3 showing, the child can later learn to
write “8 - 3 = 5.”
Missing‐part activities require some way for a part of the whole to be hidden or
unknown. Usually this is done with two children working together or in a teacher‐directed
manner with the class. The next four activities illustrate variations of this important idea of
a missing part.
128
Activity 17 COVERED PARTS
A set of counters equal to the target amount is counted out, and the rest are put aside.
One child places the counters under a margarine tub or piece of cardstock. The child then
pulls some out into view. (This amount could be none, all, or any amount in between.)
For example, if 6 is the whole and 4 are showing, the other child says, “Four and two is
six.” If there is hesitation or if the hidden part is unknown, the hidden part is immediately
shown (see Figure 14).
Figure 14
Missing‐part activities.
Activity 18 MISSING‐PART CARDS

covered parts
For each number from 4 to 10, make missing‐part

cards using strips of cardstock measuring 3 * 9 inches.
Each card has a numeral for the whole and two dot
sets with one set covered by a flap. For the number
“Four and two (under the tub) is six.”
8, you need nine cards with the visible part ranging
from 0 to 8 dots. Children use the cards as in “Covered missing-part cards
Parts,” saying, “Four and two is six” for a card show-

6 ?
ing four dots and hiding two (see Figure 14).
“Six minus four is two” or “Four and two is six.”
Activity 19 I WISH I HAD Flip the flap

on a
missing-part card.
Hold out a bar of connecting cubes, a dot strip, a two‐
column strip, or a dot plate showing 6 or less and say, 6
“I wish I had six.” The children respond with the part
that is needed to make 6. Counting on can be used to “I Wish I Had 6.”
check. The game can focus on a single number (a good
starting point for children with disabilities), or the “I
I have I have
wish I had” number can change each time (see Figure
14). Consider adding a familiar context, such as “I wish
(You need 3 more.) (You need 1 more.)
I had six books to read.” (See the Expanded Lesson
based on “I Wish I Had” at the end of this chapter.)
You can also use a virtual format for any of the preceding activities by using the part–
part–whole model found at http://maine.edc.org/file.php/1/AssessmentResources/Add
Models_PPW‐NumLine32_L.html. Counters are dragged into the boxes that represent the
parts. The whole and either part can be hidden from view as well as the corresponding numerals.
Activity 20 NUMBER SANDWICHES
Select a number between 5 and 12 and partner children to find combinations of two
dot cards totaling that number (see Blackline Masters 3–8). Children make a “sandwich” BLM
with the two cards by placing them back‐to‐back with the dot sides out. When they have
found at least 10 pairs, the next challenge is for the partner to name the number on the
other side. The cards are turned over to confirm. The same sandwiches can then be used
again to name the other hidden part.
129
Constructing Number Relationships through Story Problems

Children often construct number relationships as they work to solve story problems prior to
their mastery of basic facts. Consider the following problem:
Standards for
Mathematical Practice Molly has 2 more toy cars than Jack has. Jack has 5 cars. How many cars does Molly have?
1 Make sense
◀ In solving this problem, children might
of problems and
persevere in
solving them • Use counters for each set.
• Use counters for Molly’s cars starting with 5 and adding 2 more.
• Count on from 5.
Each of these possibilities can contribute to the development of the two‐more‐than
relationship between 5 and 7. Problems that involve 5 and 10 as one of the numbers are useful
for developing those numbers as reference points. Use problems, such as the following, that
involve separation of a number into two parts to promote missing‐part thinking:
Doug has a pocketful of pennies and nickels. He has 9 coins in all. He has 3 pennies. How
many nickels does Doug have?
Research has demonstrated that when kindergarten and first‐grade children are
regularly asked to solve word problems, not only do they develop a collection of number
relationships, but they also learn addition and subtraction facts based on these relationships.
The key is to allow them to figure out ways to solve the problems. Simply telling them
to solve the problems in a particular way robs them of the opportunities to build number
relationships.

The four types of number relationships (spatial representations, one and two more or less than, 5 and 10
anchors, and part–whole relationships) provide an excellent reference for assessing where your children
are relative to number concepts. If you have station activities for these relationships, careful observations
alone will tell a lot about children’s number concepts. For a more careful assessment, each relationship can
be assessed separately in a one‐on‐one interview, taking only a few minutes.
With a set of dot plates and a set of ten‐frame cards you can quickly check which dot patterns
children recognize without counting and whether they recognize quantities on ten‐frames. To check their
grasp of relationships involving one and two more or less than, simply write a few numbers on a sheet of
Figure 15 paper. Point to a number and have the child tell you the number that is “two less than this number,”
A missing‐part number varying the specific request with different numbers. It is not necessary to check every possibility.
assessment. Eight in For part–whole relationships, use a missing‐part assessment similar to Activity 17 (“Covered Parts”).
all. “How many are
Begin with a number you believe the child has “mastered,” such as 5. Have the child count out that many
hidden?”
counters into your open hand. Close your hand around the counters and confirm that child knows how
many are hidden there. Then remove some and show them in the palm of your other hand. (See Figure
15.) Ask the child, “How many are hidden?” Repeat with different amounts removed, although it is only
necessary to check three or four missing parts for each number. If the child responds quickly and correctly
and is clearly not counting in any way, call that a “mastered number.” If a number is mastered, repeat the
entire process with the next higher number. Continue until the child begins to stumble. In early kinder-
garten you will find a range of mastered numbers from 4 to 7 or 8. By the end of kindergarten, children
should have mastered numbers up to 10 (CCSSO, 2010).
130
Relationships for Numbers 10 to 20

Even though pre‐kindergartners to second graders experience daily numbers up to 20 and
beyond, it should not be assumed that they will automatically extend the set of relationships
they have developed with smaller numbers to numbers beyond 10. And yet these numbers
play a big part in many simple counting activities, in basic facts, and in much of what we
do with mental computation. Relationships with these numbers are just as important as
relationships involving the numbers through 10. In fact, an emerging approach to num-
ber instruction is to expose children to numbers beyond 10
and even beyond 20 as soon as possible—even before for- Children do not have to have formal place‐value instruction
mal place‐value instruction (Fosnot & Dolk, 2001; Wright, before working with numbers beyond 10.
Stranger, Stafford, & Martland, 2006). Although children
may count by ones to count sets beyond 10, the experiences of counting and grouping help
children build important initial place‐value knowledge. The emphasis should be on helping
children learn the number words and numerals beyond 10 rather than the traditional no-
tions of place value (e.g., names of places). That will come in time as children develop strate-
gies to add and subtract two‐digit numbers.
A Pre–Place‐Value Relationship with 10
Stop and Reflect

Say to yourself, “One ten.” Now think about that from the perspective of a
child just learning to count to 20! What could one ten possibly mean when ten
tells me how many fingers I have and is the number that comes after nine?
How can it be one? ■
Wright and his colleagues (2006) outlined a progression of three levels in children’s under-
standing of ten:
1. An initial concept of ten. The child understands ten as ten ones and does not see ten as a
unit. When children at this level work on a task involving tens, they will count by ones.
2. An intermediate concept of ten. The child understands ten as a unit composed of ten
ones but relies on materials or representations to help complete tasks involving tens.
3. A facile concept of ten. The child can solve tasks involving tens and ones without using
materials or representations. At this level children can mentally think about
two‐digit numbers as groups of tens and ones.
In order to help children begin to think about counting in ways that can move their un-
derstanding of “ten” forward, consider providing lots of purposeful opportunities for them
to count and group objects. For example, Fosnot and Dolk (2001) describe a K–1 teacher
who used the context of making necklaces using five beads of one color, then five beads of
another color, and then repeating these groups of five. Children could count by ones if they
needed to, but the teacher built in the constraint of creating necklaces with a five structure
to encourage the children to begin to count by fives. Eventually she introduced the idea of
selling the necklaces as a school fundraiser and suggested charging a penny per bead. Since
the beads are in groups of five, the children begin to work with nickels and dimes, further
Standards for
encouraging the children to begin to see five and ten as units. Mathematical Practice
Building from the idea mentioned earlier, mapping the teens number names to a ten
and one structure is an important idea (i.e., matching thirteen to “ten and three”). The ◀ 7 Look for and
activity that follows provides a way to help children visualize and reinforce the meaning of make use of structure
multidigit numbers.
131
Activity 21 BUILD THE NUMBER
Figure 16 From cardstock create a set of cards so that the tens card is twice as long as the ones card
and the hundreds card is three times as long as the ones card (see Figure 16). To start, chil-
Building numbers with
dren use the cards to create two‐digit numbers. Write a two‐digit number, say, 26, where
a set of cards.
children can see it. Children are to find the two cards that can
be used to make 26 (a 20 and a 6). Select children to demon-
strate to the class how to make the given number. Point out
600 that you can still see the 20 hiding under the overlay of the 6.
30 Repeat the activity with different two‐digit numbers. When

children are ready, you can extend the activity to three‐digit
4 05007 2 numbers. You can also have children model the numbers with
materials, such as base‐ten materials or ten‐frames.
Given that their understanding of “ten” is likely to be at an initial concept level, the idea
of a single ten can be strange for a kindergarten or early first‐grade child to grasp. The dif-
ficulty of discussing “one ten and six ones” (what’s a one?) does not mean that a set of ten
should not figure prominently in the discussion of the teen numbers. The following activity
illustrates this idea.
Activity 22 TEN AND SOME MORE
Using a simple two‐part mat, have children count out ten counters onto one side. Next
have them put five counters on the other side. Together count all of the counters by ones.
Chorus the combination: “Ten and five is fifteen.” Turn the mat around: “Five and ten
is fifteen.” Repeat with other numbers in a random order but without changing the ten
side of the mat.
Activity 22 is designed to teach new number names and, thus, requires a certain amount
of directed teaching. Following this activity, explore numbers to 20 in a more open‐ended
manner. Provide each child with two ten‐frames drawn one under the other on a cardstock
BLM mat, or use Blackline Master 14. In random order, have children show numbers to 20 on their
mats. There is no preferred way to do this as long as the number of counters is correct.

It is interesting to discuss how the counters can be placed on the mat so that it is easy to see how many
are there. Have children share their ideas. Not every child will use a full set of 10, but as this idea becomes
more popular, the notion that 10 and some more is a teen amount will soon be developed. Do not forget
to include numbers less than 10 as well. As you listen to your children, you may want to begin challenging
them to find ways to show larger amounts, such as 26 counters or even more.
Extending More and Less Relationships

Standards for
Mathematical Practice The relationships of one more than, two more than, one less than, and two less than are
important for all numbers. However, these ideas are built on or connected to the same con-
8 Look for and ◀
cepts for numbers less than 10. The fact that 17 is one less than 18 is connected to the idea
express regularity in
that 7 is one less than 8. Children may need help in making this connection.
repeated reasoning
132
Activity 23 MORE AND LESS

Figure 17 Extending relationships to the teens.
EXTENDED
On a projector, show seven counters, and ask what is two
more, or one less, and so on. Now add a filled ten‐frame
to the display (or 10 in any pattern) and repeat the ques-
tions. Pair up questions by covering and uncovering the
ten‐frame as illustrated in Figure 17.
How many? How many?
What is one more? What is one more?
Two less? Two less?
Numbers to 100: Early

Introductions
According to the Common Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010), kindergartners are expected
to be able to count to 100 by the end of the school year. Therefore, early exposure to num- Figure 18
bers to 100 is important even in kindergarten. Although it is extremely unlikely that children A hundreds chart.
in kindergarten or first grade will have a facile under-
standing of tens and ones or place value, they can learn
much about the sequence of numbers to 100, if not be- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
yond. Most important at this early level is for children
to become familiar with the counting patterns to 100. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
The hundreds chart (Figure 18) is an essential tool
for every K–2 classroom. An extremely useful version 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
of the chart is made of transparent pockets into which
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
each of the 100 numeral cards can be inserted. You can
hide a number by inserting a blank card in front of a 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
number in the pocket. You can insert colored pieces of
paper in the slots to highlight various number patterns. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
And you can remove some or all of the number cards
and have children replace them in their correct slots. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
A hundreds chart displayed using a projection
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
device is almost as flexible as the pocket chart version.
Numbers can be hidden by placing opaque counters 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
on them. Patterns can be marked with a pen or with
transparent counters. A blank 10 * 10 grid serves as an 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
empty hundreds chart on which you can write numbers.
These charts can be made from Blackline Masters 9–10
and are also available commercially. Computerized
versions are also available online. A particular version found at www.nctm.org/standards/
content.aspx?id=25013 uses a calculator and hundreds chart together so that children can BLM
visually see the patterns generated by the calculator.
There are many useful hundreds‐chart activities for the K−2 level. If nothing else,
children should orally count to 100 as you or a child points to each number on the
chart. Whenever collections of things are counted, a good idea is to pause long
enough to find the number on the chart. This can help put numbers for large quantities
in perspective. Point out, for example, that 87 is a big number that is close to 100. The
number 35 is also big but is closer to 20 than 100 and is far away from 87. Consider the
following activities.
133
Activity 24 PATTERNS ON A HUNDREDS CHART
Have children work in pairs to find patterns on the hundreds chart. Solicit ideas orally
from the class. Have children explain patterns found by others to be sure that all under-
stand the ideas that are being suggested.
There are many different patterns on the hundreds chart. In a discussion, different chil-
dren will describe the same pattern in several ways. Accept all ideas. Here are some of the
patterns they may point out:
• The numbers in a column all end with the same number, which is the same as the
number at the top.
• In a row, one number “counts” (the ones digit goes 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9, 0); the “second”
number (ones digit) goes up by ones, but the first number (tens digit) stays the same.
• In a column, the first number (tens digit) “counts” or goes up by ones.
• You can count by tens going down the right‐hand column.
• If you count by fives, you get two columns: the 5 column and the last column.
For children, these patterns are not at all obvious or trivial. For example, one child may
notice the pattern in the column under the 4—every number ends in a 4. Two minutes later
another child will “discover” the parallel pattern in the column headed by 7. That there is a
pattern like this in every column may not be completely obvious.
Although not essential, skip‐count patterns can also be explored at an early level. Skip
counts by twos, fives, and tens are the easiest and the most important. Help children see the
column patterns that these counts make.
Activity 25 MISSING NUMBERS
Provide children with a hundreds chart on which some of the number cards have been
removed. (You can use a classroom pocket chart.) The children’s task is to replace the
missing numbers in the chart. Beginning versions of this activity have only a random
selection of individual numbers removed. Later, remove sequences of several numbers
from three or four different rows. Finally, remove all but one or two rows or columns.
Eventually, challenge children to replace all of the numbers in a blank chart.
The “Missing Numbers” activity can also be done with the full class. Use cardstock tabs
to cover numbers on the chart. Have children write the missing numbers as you point to
them. You may think that the adjacent numbers are too much of a clue, but the clue is itself
a help in learning the number sequence.

Replacing the number cards or tiles from a blank chart is a good learning center activity for two children to
work on together. By listening to how children go about finding the correct locations for numbers, you can
learn a lot about how well they have constructed an understanding of the 1‐to‐100 sequence.
134
Number Sense and the Real World

Here we examine ways to broaden early knowledge of numbers. Relationships of numbers
to real‐world quantities and measures and the use of numbers in simple estimations can help
children develop flexible, intuitive ideas about numbers.
Calendar Activities
There are significant issues with calendar activities being considered the kind of mathemat-
ics instruction that will support young learners in reaching mathematical literacy.
Although the calendar may be helpful in developing a sense of time, the National
Research Council Committee (2009) has stated that “using the calendar does not emphasize
foundational mathematics” (p. 241) and has pointed out that the calendar does not support
the development of key mathematical relationships related to 10 because the calendar is
based on groups of seven. The committee concludes, “Doing the calendar is not a substitute
for teaching foundational mathematics” (p. 241). Therefore, doing calendar mathematics
should be thought of as an “add on” and should not take time away from developing essen-
tial pre-K–2 mathematics concepts.
Estimation and Measurement

One of the best ways for children to think of real quantities is to associate numbers with
measures of things. In the early grades, measures of length, weight, and time are good places
to begin. Just measuring and recording results will not be very effective, however, because
there is no reason for children to be interested in or to think about the result. To help
children think or reflect a bit on the numbers and what they mean, ask them to first write
down or tell you an estimate. To produce an estimate is, however, a very difficult task for
young children. They do not understand the concept of “estimate” or “about.” For example,
suppose that you cut out of cardstock an ample supply of very large footprints all the same
size, say, about 18 inches long each. You would ask the class, “About how many footprints
will it take to measure across the rug in our reading corner?” The key word here is about,
and it is one that you will need to spend a lot of time helping children understand. To this
end, the request for an estimate can be made in ways that help develop the concept of about.
For example, rather than asking children for a specific number, begin by asking whether the
amount will be more or less than a target number.
The following estimation questions can be used with most early estimation activities:
• More or less than ? Will it be more or less than 10 footprints? Will the
apple weigh more or less than 20 blocks? Are there more or less than 15 connecting
cubes in this long bar?
• Closer to or to ? Will it be closer to 5 footprints or closer to 20
footprints? Will the apple weigh closer to 10 blocks or closer to 30 blocks? Is this bar
closer to 10 cubes or closer to 50 cubes?
• About ? Use one of these numbers: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, . . . . About
how many footprints wide is the hallway? About how many blocks will the apple weigh?
About how many cubes are in this bar?
Asking for estimates using these formats helps children learn what you mean by about.
Every child can make an estimate without having to pull a number out of the air.
135
To help with numbers and measures, estimate several things in succession using the
same unit. For example, suppose that you are estimating and measuring “around things”
using a string. The string is wrapped around the object and then measured in some unit
such as popsicle sticks. After measuring the distance around Demetria’s head, estimate the
distance around the wastebasket or around the globe or around George’s wrist. Each succes-
sive measure helps children with the new estimates.
Activity 26 ADD A UNIT TO YOUR NUMBER
Write a number on the board. Now suggest some units to go with it, and ask the children
what they can think of that fits. For example, suppose the number is 9. “What do you
think of when I say 9 dollars? 9 hours? 9 cars? 9 kids? 9 meters? 9 o’clock? 9 hand spans?
9 gallons?” Spend some time in discussion of each. Let children suggest units as well. Be
prepared to explore some of the ideas either immediately or as projects or tasks to share
with parents at home.
Activity 27 IS IT REASONABLE?
Select a number and a unit—for example, 15 feet. Could the teacher be 15 feet tall?
Could your living room be 15 feet wide? Can a man jump 15 feet high? Could three chil-
dren stretch their arms 15 feet? Pick any number, large or small, and a unit with which
children are familiar. Then make up a series of these questions.
Standards for
Mathematical Practice Once children are familiar with Activity 27, have them select the number and the
unit or things (e.g., 10 kids, 20 bananas), and see what kinds of questions children cre-
3 Construct ate. When a difference of opinion develops, capitalize on the opportunity to explore
viable arguments ◀
and find out. Resist the temptation to supply your adult‐level knowledge. Say instead,
and critique the “Well, how can we find out whether it is reasonable? Who has an idea about what we
reasoning of others
could do?”
Graphs
Graphing activities are another good way to connect children’s worlds with numbers.
Graphs can be quickly made from almost any data that can be gathered with children: fa-
vorite ice cream, color, sports team, type of pet; number of sisters and brothers; kids who
ride different buses; types of shoes; number of pets; and so on. Graphs can be connected
to content in other subjects. A unit on sea life might lead to a graph of favorite sea animals.
Once a simple bar graph is made, it is very important to take a few minutes to ask as
many number questions as are appropriate for the graph. In the early stages of number
development (grades pre-K−1), the use of graphs for number relationships and for connect-
ing numbers to real quantities in the children’s environment is a more important reason for
building graphs than the graphs themselves. The graphs focus attention on counts of real-
istic things. Equally important, bar graphs clearly exhibit comparisons between and among
136
numbers that are rarely made when only one number or quantity is considered at a time.
See Figure 19 for an example of a graph and questions that can be asked. At first, children
will have trouble with the questions involving differences, but repeated exposure to these
ideas in a bar graph format will improve their understanding. These comparison concepts
add considerably to children’s understanding of number.
Figure 19 Relationships and number sense in a bar graph.
Class graph showing fruit brought for snack. 9

Paper cutouts for bananas, oranges, apples,
and cards for “others.”
8
• Which snack (or refer to what the graph represents)
is most, least?
7
• Which are more (less) than 7 (or some other number)?
• Which is one less (more) than this snack
6
(or use fruit name)?
• How much more is ______ than ______ ? (Follow
5
this question immediately by reversing the order
and asking how much less.)
4
• How much less is ______ than ______ ?
Peach
(Reverse this question after receiving an answer.)
3
• How much difference is there between ______ and
______ ? Peach
• Which two bars together are the same as ______ ? 2
None
1
Grapes
Bananas Oranges Apples Other
137
E x p a n d e d L e s s o n
I Wish I Had
Content and Task Decisions language. Other possibilities are for them to show the
answer by holding up the appropriate number of fin-
Grade Level: K–1 gers. Or, if they are readers, provide a translation list of
the numbers.
Mathematics Goals
• To develop part–whole relationships by focusing on the For Children with Disabilities
missing part
• Instead of the two‐column cards, use connecting cubes.
Grade Level Guide • Use a part–part–whole mat. Let children place the “I
wish I had” number in the area representing the whole.
NCTM Common Then use the other number as a part to help structure
Curriculum Focal Points Core State Standards their thinking about the relationship.
Children in kindergarten Under the domain of Opera-

use written numerals to tions and Algebraic Thinking,
Materials
represent quantities and to children in kindergarten
solve quantitative problems understand addition as Each child will need:
in the joining and separating putting together and adding • A set of two‐column cards in a plastic storage bag.
of sets. to: “Represent and solve These are best if copied onto cardstock and cut out for
problems involving addition the children.
In grade 1, children use and subtraction.”
strategies for adding and
subtracting whole numbers. Moving to grade 1, children
They use part–whole models use addition within 20 to solve “I Wish I Had” Two-Column Cards
to support their problem‐ a variety of problem situations
solving strategies. including adding to, putting
together, and comparing.
Consider Your Children’s Needs

Children can count meaningfully and, at least for the num-
bers in this lesson, have spent considerable time exploring
decomposing and composing a number. For example, they
have decomposed 7 into two parts, naming the parts as 2
and 5 or 6 and 1. Though not necessary, it would be good
for children to have already worked with decomposing
and composing the number that you select to use in this
lesson using the two‐column cards.
For English Language Learners

• Practice saying the numbers together in the Before phase.
• If a context is added (e.g., balloons), be sure it is famil-
iar to all children.
Two-column cards
• If children do not know the English words for each num-
ber, try to pair children to do the activity in their native
138
Teacher will need: they counting on from your card? Are they using card
• Either a projection device or a large shapes instead of number of squares? You may want
demonstration set of two‐column BLM to have them put the 7 card away; however, some
cards (see Blackline Master 34) children may need to have it visible.
• Note: Several alternative materials • Listen to how confident children are as they say their
can be used, such as connecting cubes, dot plates, or combinations.
ten‐frames. • If 7 seems to present little challenge for all in the
group, make a big deal out of changing the game to
“I wish I had 8.” Alternately, if 7 seems difficult, simply
Lesson switch to 5 or 6.
Before
After
Present the focus task to the class:
Bring the class together to share and discuss the task:
• This lesson will be described for the number 7, but it
can be done for any number from 6 to 10. • “Suppose that I show the 3 card. Tell me how you
decide which card should go with it to make 7.” Get
• Have children place a 7 card in front of them and return
responses from several children. Repeat the question
all cards greater than 7 to the bag.
with another card.
• Show the class a two‐column card for any number less
• “Is there any number that is easy for you? Why?”
than 7 and say, “I wish I had 7.” The children’s task is to
find the two‐column card from their set that goes with • “Does the shape of the card help you? How?”
your card to make 7. For example, if you hold up (or place
on the floor) a 2 card, they would have to find the 5 card.
• When children have found the card that makes 7 when Assessment
combined with your card, they should hold it up si- Observe
lently. Call on a child to say the 7 combination: “Five
• Children’s success with this task depends somewhat on
and two makes seven.”
their familiarity with the two‐column cards, though
• Add context to make it more interesting. Then student it depends more on their experiences with part–part–
responses would include the context: “Five balloons and whole activities for the number 7 (or whatever number
two more balloons makes seven balloons for my party!” you have selected).
Provide clear expectations: • There are many ways that children may use to find the
correct card. They may first count the squares on your
• This lesson can be done with a small group of children
card and then select a card and count on. They may
or the full class sitting in a circle on the floor. All chil-
seem to know which card is needed but still have to
dren must be able to see the teacher materials clearly.
count to find it. Others may use a purely spatial ap-
proach, comparing the shape of your card to the 7 card
During that is in front of them and locating the missing piece.
Ongoing: • Children for whom the game is easy and who do not
• Occasionally stop and ask children how they decided on need to count or rely on the spatial characteristics of
the card so that you can get insights into their thought the cards can be said to “know 7,” at least in terms of
processes. parts and wholes.
• Do not forget to include 0 (indicate “no card” by mim- • It is not a goal to be able to recognize numbers in this set
ing the placing of a card) and also 7. without counting, but some children will quickly be able
to recognize each of the cards without counting (subi-
• For both right and wrong responses, ask whether other
tize). This provides another way to think about numbers.
children agree. Another idea is to ask “How can we tell
if that is correct?” Be sure to do this for both right and
wrong responses. Ask
• Pay attention to the methods that children use to find • “Suppose I show the 4 card. Tell me how you decide
the required card. Do they count squares? Can they which card should go with it to make 7.”
easily tell how many squares are on your card? Are • “How did you find the missing part?”
139
References
CCSSO (Council of Chief State School Officers). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
(2010). Common core state standards. Retrieved from (2006). Curriculum focal points for prekindergarten
http://corestandards.org through grade 8 mathematics: A quest for coherence.
Reston, VA: Author.
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2007). Early
childhood mathematics learning. In F. K. Lester, National Research Council Committee. (2009).
Jr. (Ed.), Second handbook on mathematics teaching Mathematics learning in early childhood: Paths toward
and learning (pp. 461–555). Charlotte, NC: excellence and equity. Washington, DC: National
Information Age Publishing. Academies Press.
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2009). Learning and Steffe, L., & Cobb, P. (1988). Construction of
teaching early math: The learning trajectories approach. arithmetic meanings and strategies. New York, NY:
New York, NY: Routledge. Springer‐Verlag.
Fosnot, C. T., & Dolk, M. (2001). Young Wright, R., Stanger, G., Stafford, A., & Martland,
mathematicians at work: Constructing number J. (2006). Teaching number in the classroom with 4–8‐
sense, addition, and subtraction. Portsmouth, NH: year‐olds. London: Sage.
Heinemann.
Howden, H. (1989). Teaching number sense.
Arithmetic Teacher, 36(6), 6–11.
140
Developing Meanings
for the Operations
141
Developing Meanings
for the Operations
BigIDEAS
1 Addition can be thought of as physically or conceptually placing two or more quantities together.
2 Subtraction can be thought of as taking an amount away from a given quantity, comparing two quantities, or
finding a missing part given the whole and the other part.
3 Multiplication in grades pre-K–2 involves counting groups of equal size and determining how many are in all.
4 Division in grades pre-K–2 can be thought of as sharing equal amounts among a given number of groups or as
repeatedly measuring out the same amount from a given total.
5 The operations are related to each other. Addition names the whole in terms of the parts, and subtraction names a
missing part. Multiplication can be thought of as repeated addition. Division names a missing factor in terms of the known
factor and the product. Division can also be thought of as repeated subtraction.
6 Models can be used to solve contextual problems for all operations and to figure out what operation is involved in a
problem. Models also can be used to give meaning to number sentences.
This chapter is about helping children connect differ-

ent meanings, interpretations, and relationships to the
four operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division so that they can accurately and fluently
apply these operations in real‐world settings. As they
make these connections, children develop what might be
termed operation sense, a highly integrated understanding
of the four operations and the many different but related
meanings these operations take on in real contexts. As
children develop their operation sense through problem
solving and concept development, they can and should
simultaneously develop more sophisticated ideas about
number as well as different ways of thinking about basic
fact combinations.
142
Developing Meanings for the Operations
Teaching Operations through Contextual Problems

Contextual problems are the primary teaching tool that you can use to help children construct
a rich understanding of the operations. What might a good lesson that is built around contex-
tual problems look like? The answer comes more easily if you think about children not just
solving the problems but also using words, pictures, and numbers to explain how they went Standards for
about solving the problem and why they think they are correct. Children should solve prob-
lems using whatever techniques they wish including whatever physical materials they feel they 3 Construct
need to help them, or they can simply draw pictures. What is important is that they explain ◀ viable arguments
and critique the
what they did and why it makes sense within the context of the situation. If they are record-
reasoning of others
ing their ideas on paper, whatever they put on their paper, whether a written explanation or a
drawing they used to help them solve the problem, it should explain what they did well enough
to allow someone else to understand it. With the emphasis on children explaining their ideas
and reasoning, lessons should focus on two or three problems and the related discussion.
Addition and Subtraction

From an adult’s perspective the ideas of addition and subtraction seem quite simple. For
example, think about how you would solve the following problem.
Aidan had 7 beads. After she bought some more beads, she had 15 beads. How many beads
did Aidan buy?
Most adults and older students solve the problem by subtracting 15 - 7. But young children
do not initially view this as a subtraction situation because 15 - 7 is the “opposite” operation Standards for
or action implied in the problem. Instead they will mimic the implied action in the problem
and solve it by adding on or counting up from 7 until they reach 15. Their approach may 1 Make sense
seem less efficient than simply subtracting, but it makes sense to young children because ◀ of problems and
persevere in
it mirrors the situation in the problem. Eventually, after much experience making sense of
solving them
story problems, working with different combinations of numbers, and examining the results
of using addition and subtraction in these situations (possibly at their teacher’s request),
they will begin to generalize that they get the same result by subtracting and will join older
students and adults in using subtraction for these kinds of problems. This example illustrates
how children’s initial conceptions are different from those of adults—even with something
we consider so basic as addition and subtraction.
Children’s conceptions are the best foundation on which to build future learning.
Therefore, the perspective on addition and subtraction taken in this chapter is based
on what has been learned from numerous research studies (Gutstein & Romberg, 1995;
Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, & Empson, 1999; NRC, 2009; Verschaffel, Greer, & De
Corte, 2007; Clements & Sarama, 2009). Through this research, we are aware that children
can solve contextual or story problems with appropriate numbers by reasoning through
the relationships in the problems. We also know that different problems have different
structures that can affect the difficulty level of the problem. When teachers are familiar with
these structures, they are better able to plan and differentiate instruction.
Addition and Subtraction Problem Structures

Addition and subtraction situations have been studied extensively and categorized in mul-
tiple ways (Gutstein & Romberg, 1995; Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, & Empson, 1999;
143
Standards for Verschaffel, Greer, & De Corte, 2007; Clements & Sarama, 2009; NRC, 2009; CCSSO,
Mathematical Practice 2010). Table 1 illustrates one categorization scheme that identifies four types of problems
7 Look for and make based on the relationships involved. The problem types include join (add to) problems, sepa-
◀
use of structure rate (take from) problems, part-part-whole (collection) problems, and comparison problems.
Table 1 Addition and Subtraction Problem Types Using the Number Family 4, 8, 12
Problem Type
and Structure Result Unknown Change Unknown Start Unknown
Physical Action Involved
Join (Add To) Sandra had 8 pennies. Sandra had 8 pennies. Sandra had some
George gave her George gave her some pennies. George
Change 4 more. How many more. Now Sandra has gave her 4 more.
pennies does Sandra 12 pennies. How many Now Sandra has 12
have altogether? did George give her? pennies. How many
pennies did Sandra
Start Result
have to begin with?
Separate (Take From) Sandra had 12 pennies. Sandra had 12 pennies. Sandra had some
She gave 4 pennies to She gave some to pennies. She gave
Change George. How many George. Now she has 4 to George. Now
pennies does Sandra 8 pennies. How many Sandra has 8 pennies
have now? did she give to George? left. How many
pennies did Sandra
Start Result
have to begin with?
Whole Unknown One Part Unknown Both Parts Unknown

No Physical Action Involved
Part–Part–Whole George has 4 pennies George has 12 coins. George has 12 coins.
(Collection) and 8 nickels. How Eight of his coins are Some are pennies and
many coins does he pennies, and the rest are some are nickels. How
Whole
have? nickels. How many nickels many of each could
Part Part
does George have? he have?
George has 12 coins. Four

of his coins are nickels,
and the rest are pennies.
How many pennies does
George have?
Difference Unknown Bigger Unknown Smaller Unknown
Comparison George has 12 pennies Sandra has 8 pennies. George has
and Sandra has George has 4 more 12 pennies. George
Bigger amount
8 pennies. How many pennies than Sandra. has 4 more pennies
Smaller
more pennies does How many pennies does than Sandra. How
Difference George have than George have? many pennies does
Sandra? (Alternative: Sandra has Sandra have?
(Alternative: How 4 fewer pennies than (Alternative: Sandra
many fewer pennies George.) has 4 fewer pennies
does Sandra have than than George.)
George?)
144
Join/Add To Problems. Join problems describe situations in which quantities are physi-
cally being brought together. These problems are also known as add to problems because the
action or change occurring in the problem is a result of adding or joining quantities.
Separate/Take From Problems. Separate problems are commonly known as take away
or take from problems in which part of a quantity is physically being removed or taken away.
Notice that in the separate problems, the start amount is the whole or the largest amount,
whereas in the join problems, the result is the whole.
Part–Part–Whole Problems. Part–part–whole problems, also known as put together

and take apart problems in the Common Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010), involve two
parts that are conceptually or mentally combined into one collection or whole. These
problems are different from joining problems in that there is no action of physically join-
ing the two quantities. These kinds of problems often conceptually combine different kinds
of objects, such as 5 red balls and 6 blue balls or 3 cars and 4 trucks, into one collection.
The third situation in this problem type, in which the whole or total is known and the two
parts are unknown, creates opportunities to think about all the possible decompositions of
the whole.
Comparison Problems. Comparison problems involve comparing two quantities. The

third quantity in these problems does not actually exist but is the difference between the two
amounts. Like part-part-whole problems, comparison situations do not typically involve a
physical action.
Structure versus Operation. Each type of problem involves a number “family,” such
as 4, 8, 12, that can be related through addition or subtraction. Note that the problems are
described in terms of their structure and not as addition or subtraction problems. A different
problem results within each problem type depending on which of the three quantities in the
structure is unknown.
In most curricula, the overwhelming emphasis is on the easier join and separate
problems with the result unknown. These become the de facto definitions of addition and
subtraction: Addition is “put together” and subtraction is “take away.” But these are not the
only situations in which we use addition and subtraction, as you can see from Table 1. When
children develop these limited put‐together and take‐away definitions for addition and sub-
traction, they often have difficulty later when addition or subtraction is called for but the
structure of the problem is something other than put together or take away. It is important
that children experience all the problem types to ensure they are developing a broader un-
derstanding of addition and subtraction. You can find more examples of these problem types
in the Common Core State Standards (see Table 1 in the CCSSI Math Standards Glossary;
CCSSO, 2010, p. 88).
Stop and Reflect

Go back through the problems in Table 1 and match the numbers in each problem with the
components of the problem structure. For example, which numbers in the Join Problems match
to Start, Change, and Result? Then for each problem, first use a set of counters to model
(and solve) the problem as you think children in the primary grades might do. Second, write
either an addition or subtraction equation that you think best represents the problem as you
modeled it with counters. ■
145
In writing an equation for each of the problems in Table 1, you may have written
some equations where the unknown quantity is not isolated on one side of the equal sign.
For example, a likely equation for the join problem with start unknown is + 4 = 12.
This is referred to as the semantic equation for the problem since the numbers are listed
in the order that follows the sequence in the problem. When the semantic form does not
Standards for isolate the unknown, an equivalent equation can be written for the same problem. In this
Mathematical Practice case, the equation 12 - 4 = is referred to as the computational form of the equation; it
isolates the unknown and is typically how most adults think about the problem. This may be
4 Model with
◀ an efficient way to solve the problem, but children typically begin to think about and model
mathematics
the situation based on the sequence played out in the problem, which is modeled more
appropriately by the semantic equation. When the two forms are not the same, you should
help children eventually come to see the equivalence of these equations. However, initially
they should be allowed to use the semantic form of the equation if this equation better
represents their way of reasoning through the problem.
Children’s Strategies for Solving

Addition and Subtraction Problems
Standards for
Mathematical Practice Research in mathematics education describes three levels through which children prog-
ress as they solve addition and subtraction situations (Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, &
2 Reason abstractly
◀ Empson, 1999; Clements & Sarama, 2007; NRC, 2009). The levels are direct modeling,
and quantitatively
counting strategies, and derived facts. Over time, after having multiple experiences with dif-
ferent addition and subtraction situations, children eventually become fluent with individual
sums and differences and these become known facts to the children.
Let’s consider how children might solve the following word problem depending on the
level at which they are functioning.
Jacob has 5 cards. His brother gives him 8 more cards. How many cards does Jacob have now?
Children who use direct modeling to find a solution model every number and action the
situation describes using actual objects, fingers, or drawings. So a child who is working
at the direct modeling level would count out 5 blocks, then count out 8 more blocks, and
then count them all to find 13—this is called a “count all” strategy. A child who is using
counting strategies does not need to model every number in the situation. So this child
might start at 8 and count up 5, holding up one finger for each number word from 9 up
to 13—this is called a “counting on” strategy. A child functioning at the derived facts level
often looks for ways to decompose the numbers in a given situation to make an easier
problem. This child may reason that because 8 is 2 away from 10, he can decompose 5 into
2 and 3, add the 2 to the 8 to get 10, and then add 3 more to get 13—this is called an “up
over 10” strategy. A child who is using derived facts may reason so quickly that it appears
that the fact is a known fact. In this case, the distinction between derived and known facts
is arbitrary.
Problem Difficulty
Structure
The various types of problems are not at all equal in difficulty for children. Problems in
which a physical action is taking place, as in join and separate problems, are easier be-
cause children can model or act out the situation. However, even within these types of
146
problems, some problems are more difficult than others. Consider each of the following
three problems.
Maggie had 7 bracelets. She bought 8 more bracelets. How many bracelets does Maggie
now have?
Maggie had 7 bracelets. She bought some more bracelets. She now has 15 bracelets. How
many did Maggie buy?
Maggie had some bracelets. She bought 8 more bracelets. She now has 15 bracelets. How
many bracelets did Maggie start with?
Stop and Reflect

Use a set of counters to model (and solve) these problems as you think children in the primary
grades might do. Rank order the problems in terms of which ones you think would be more
difficult for children. Why do you think one problem might be more difficult than the others? ■
Unknown start problems are more difficult than unknown change problems and unknown
change problems are more difficult than unknown result problems. Unknown start problems
are among the most difficult probably because children modeling the problems directly do
not know how many counters to put down to begin with. For
these problems, children initially use a trial‐and‐error ap- Many children have difficulty with problems in which the
proach (Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, & Empson, 1999) start is unknown because they try to model the problem
to determine the unknown start amount. The easiest of the in chronological order and they cannot make the set that
three problems is the first one, in which the start and change represents the beginning of the problem. Write a question
are known because to find the unknown result the known mark on an index card and have children use the card to
quantities are simply combined, an action that is implied in represent the unknown amount.
the problem. The result unknown problems tend to be the
most commonly used in classrooms. Make sure to provide your children a wide range of expe-
riences by also posing join and separate problems with more difficult structures.
Part-part-whole problems can be difficult for children for two reasons. First, there is no
action to model because the situation describes a conceptual bringing together of quanti-
ties, which is difficult to directly model. Second, it is a challenge for children to grasp that a
quantity can represent two things at once. For example, if the problem describes 3 cars and
4 trucks in a parking lot and asks how many vehicles are in the lot, children have to under-
stand that the cars and trucks are also part of the larger category of vehicles.
The challenge of comparison problems comes from the fact that two quantities are
being described using language that can be complex for children. Fewer, less than, more,
bigger, and greater than are the terms typically used to describe the relationships in
comparison problems. Children often have more expe-
riences with the relationships of more and bigger than,
If children struggle to make sense of the relationship be-
so you need to ensure they have opportunities to think
tween the quantities in a comparison problem, suggest they
about relationships described using fewer and less than.
cover up the number that comes before the word more/
Note that when the bigger amount is unknown, stating
fewer (e.g., George has ■ more pennies than Sandra; Sandra
the problem using the term more is easier for children
has ■ fewer pennies than George). This strategy helps them
because the relationships between the quantities and the
determine which quantity is bigger or smaller.
operation more readily correspond to each other. In the
147
smaller unknown situation, stating the problem using the term fewer is easier for children
for the same reason. Similar to the part-part-whole problems, the lack of a physical ac-
tion in these situations makes it difficult for children to model or act out these kinds of
problems.
Choosing Numbers for Problems

You can vary the difficulty of the problem by the numbers you choose to use. If a child is
struggling with a problem, use smaller numbers to see if it is the size of the numbers caus-
ing the difficulty. You can also increase the challenge by increasing the size of the numbers
if a child needs the added challenge. In general, the numbers in the problems should be
in accord with the children’s number development. According to the Common Core State
Standards (CCSSO, 2010), by the end of their respective school years, kindergartners
should be able to count as many as 20 objects to answer “how many?”; first graders should
be able to add and subtract up to 20 and demonstrate fluency up to 10; and second grad-
ers should be able to add and subtract fluently up to 20. Kindergartners are also expected
to decompose numbers between 11 and 19 into tens and ones; first graders are learning
about decomposing two‐digit numbers up to 100; and second graders are learning about
decomposing three‐digit numbers up to 1000. Clearly, children in grades K-2 are learning
about multidigit numbers and are beginning to understand how our base‐ten system works.
Rather than wait until children have developed techniques for computing numbers, you
can use word problems as a problem‐based opportunity for them to learn about number
and computation at the same time. For example, a problem involving the combination of
30 and 42 has the potential to help first and second graders focus on sets of 10. As they
begin to think of 42 as 40 and 2, it is not at all unreasonable to think that they will add 30
and 40 and then add 2 more. The structure of a word problem can strongly influence the
type of strategy a child invents to solve a multidigit problem. This is especially true for
children who have not been taught the standard algorithms for addition and subtraction.
For example, consider the following problem.
A school of 28 fish was swimming together in the ocean. Another school of fish decided to
join them, making a larger school of fish. The new larger school had 64 fish. How many fish
were in the second school of fish that joined the first group of fish?
Because the preceding problem has a join action, this increases the probability that children
will use a counting‐on or an add‐on approach to solve the problem. Using an open number
line to support a more efficient strategy than simply counting on by ones, a child might rea-
son as follows: Add 2 to 28 to get to 30, add 30 more to get to 60, add 4 more to get to
2 30 4
64. Then add 2 + 30 + 4 (what was added to 28 to get 64). Another child might add on
40 to 28 making 68 and then take off the 4 extra—4 from 40 is 36.
28 30 60 64
Wording of Problems
Problems that are worded so that the actions and quantities follow in a chronological or
natural story order are generally easier than those in which the problem order is inverted.
For example, in the following pair of problems, notice how the second problem matches a
natural order of events:
Mike’s grandpa gave him some money for his birthday. Mike already had 6 dollars. Now
Mike has 9 dollars. How much did Mike’s grandpa give him?
148
Mike had 6 dollars. His grandpa gave him some money for his birthday. Now he has 9 dollars.
How much did Mike’s grandpa give him?
Join problems in which the change is unknown can be thought of in terms of “how
much more is needed” or in terms of “how much was added.” Some children find actions
that happened in the past more difficult to grasp—as in “how much was added?” These chil-
dren would find the first of the following two problems easier:
Joyce has 3 eggs in her basket. How many more eggs does she need to find to have 8
eggs?
Joyce has 3 eggs in her basket. She found some more eggs for her basket in the chicken
coop. Now she has 8 eggs. How many more eggs did Joyce find in the chicken coop?
When you think that issues with wording are the cause of difficulty, pose problems with
similar structure but with wording in which the actions and quantities follow a chronological
or natural story order. If it is the wording that is causing the difficulty, have children gain
confidence with the easier wording, but eventually they need to be challenged to make sense
of the more difficult wording. Here are some strategies to help support children when they
are challenged with more difficult wording:
• When children do not seem to know what to do with a problem, ask them first to
talk about what is happening in the problem. (See the suggestions in the later section,
“Encourage Problem Analysis.”)
• Have children use counters to act out the problem. Have them say out loud what each
set of counters stands for and explain with the counters what is happening in the prob-
lem. This can help children with similar analyses when you are not there to make these
suggestions.
• Have children draw out pictures that represent each of the quantities in the problem.
Then have them try to articulate the relationships between these quantities.
If you have English language learners (ELLs) in your classroom, you may be tempted to
avoid using story problems because of the concern that language might present a challenge
for them. However, contextual problems are good for ELLs because they connect to life
experiences. Some strategies to support comprehension of story problems include structur-
ing the sentences to use present and past tenses, using a noun‐verb word order, replacing
terms such as his/her and it with a name, and removing unnecessary vocabulary words. Also
ensure that ELLs understand the meaning of any contextual terms (e.g., chicken coop, model
boat, savings account) as well as any mathematical terms (e.g., how many, fewer, feet) used in
story problems.
Introducing Symbolism
Very young children initially have no need for the symbols +, -, and =. However, these
symbolic conventions are important. When you feel your children are ready to use these
symbols, introduce them in the discussion portion of a lesson where children have solved Standards for
story problems. Say, “You had the number 12 in your problem and the number 8 was one Mathematical Practice
of the parts of 12. You found out that the part you did not know was 4. Here is a way we 4 Model with
can write that: 12 - 8 = 4.” The minus sign should be read as “minus” or “subtract” but not ◀ mathematics
as “take away” because not all subtraction situations are take away situations. The plus sign
149
is easier since it is typically a substitute for “and.” Alternatively, for the same problem, you
could introduce the equation as 8 + 4 = 12, especially if a child has described a counting‐up
strategy to find 4.
Some care should be taken with the equal sign. The equal sign means “is the same as.”
However, many children come to think of it as a symbol that tells you that the “answer
is coming up” or “it is time to do a computation.” It is
Use the phrase “is the same as” in place of or in conjunction interpreted in much the same way as the = key on a calcula-
with “equals” as you read equations with children. tor. That is, it is the key you press to get the answer. Find
opportunities to write equations like 12 = 8 + 4 to counter
this misinterpretation of the equal sign. So, for example, if a child has described how she
broke or decomposed 8 into 3 and 5, you could record that idea as 8 = 3 + 5. The next activ-
ity helps to emphasize the meaning of the equal sign.
Activity 1 TRUE OR FALSE
Create a list of number sentences to introduce children to the idea of determining

whether a number sentence is correct. For example, show children the following number
sentences and ask whether each is true or false and how they know: 3 + 4 = 7; 7 + 8 = 15;
10 - 4 = 5; and 8 - 5 = 3. Once they are familiar with true/false number sentences,
introduce number sentences that will encourage them to examine their understand-
ing of the equal sign. The following are some examples: 7 = 3 + 4; 3 + 6 = 6 + 3; 2 + 6 =
4 + 4; 3 = 10 - 7; and 5 = 5. You can also pose problems such as 3 + 4 = + 5 in which
the task is for children to make a true number sentence. Encourage children to explain
their thinking.
Standards for Using Model‐Based Problems for Addition

and Subtraction
5 Use appropriate
◀ Many children will use models such as counters, diagrams, or number lines to solve story
tools strategically
problems. The model is a thinking tool to help them both understand what is happening in
the problem and a means of keeping track of the numbers and solving the problem. Prob-
lems can also be posed using models when there is no context involved.
Addition
When the parts of a set are known, addition is used to name the whole in terms of the parts.
This simple definition of addition serves both action situations (join and separate) and static
or no‐action situations.
Each part-part-whole model shown in Figure 1 is a model for 5 + 3 = 8. Some
of these are the result of a definite add to or joining action, and some are not. Notice
that in every example, both of the parts are distinct, even after the parts are joined. For
children to see a relationship between the two parts and the whole, the image of the
5 and 3 must be kept as two separate sets. For example, if counters are used, the two
parts should be kept in separate piles or in separate sections of a mat or should be two
distinct colors. This helps children reflect on the action after it has taken place. “These
red chips are the ones I started with. Then I added these five blue ones, and now I have
eight altogether.”
150
Figure 1 Part-part-whole models for 5 + 3 = 8 and 8 - 3 = 5.
Join or separate Join or separate on a Join or separate

using 2 colors part–part–whole 2 bars of connecting
mat cubes
8
5 3
5 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Two hops on a
number line
Eight hops on an open number line (Note the whole hop.)
Activity 2 BUILD IT IN PARTS EQUATIONS
In this activity, children are challenged to find different combinations for a particular num-
ber. When children are ready to deal with written symbolism, simply show them how to
write an addition number sentence (equation) for each design. Initially with “Build It in
Parts” children said a combination, such as “Four and five is nine.” Now they have a new
symbolic way to represent and record what they say.
Figure 1 includes two different versions of a number line model. A num-

ber line model can present some conceptual difficulties for younger children.
A number line measures distances from zero the same way a ruler does and Figure 2
children mistakenly might focus on the hash marks or numerals on a number
Sequence of number lines.
line instead of the spaces (units of length) when using a number line to count.
Figure 2 shows a sequence of four number line models that can be used to
5 3
introduce children to the more commonly used number line model and then
the open number line model. The first of the number lines in Figure 2 accen-
1st
tuates the spaces (or the units) between the numerals by using thin rectangular
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
strips in alternating colors. Eventually introduce the hash marks and over time
move to the more commonly seen number line. The fourth model in Figure
2, the open number line, has been found to be an effective way for children 2nd
to keep track of and communicate their reasoning (Fosnot & Dolk, 2001). 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
But before using open number lines, children need to know what the units
and numbers on a number line represent. So the open number line model 3rd
should be introduced only after children demonstrate the understanding that 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
they are counting spaces as opposed to numbers or hash marks. To model the
part–part–whole concept of 5 + 3 on any version of the number line, start by 5 3
drawing an arc from 0 to 5 and saying, “This much is five.” The arcs or hops
are used to explicitly illustrate the notion of length. This technique is demon- 4th
strated in the first and fourth models in Figure 2. It is extremely important that 0 5 8
you do not point to the hash mark for 5 and say, “This is five.”
151
You can find an interactive number line at www.eduplace.com/kids/mw that emphasizes the unit by using
animals (a frog, a rabbit, or a kangaroo) to hop along the number line. Once at the site, select the grade
level (K, 1, or 2), e‐Manipulatives, and then Number Line. Each hop is marked with an arc and a length and
you can change the length of the hops from one to ten. You can also change the direction of the hop so
that the animal hops forward (addition) or backward (subtraction).
The next activity provides an opportunity for children to make sense of a number line.
Activity 3 UP AND DOWN THE NUMBER LINE
Create a large number line on the floor of your classroom by using colored tape. (Mask-
ing tape comes in a variety of colors and will not leave adhesive on your floor.) Make sure
Standards for to start with zero and include arrows at each end of the line. Alternatively you could dis-
Mathematical Practice play a number line in the front of your room. Use a stuffed animal, like a frog or rabbit,
2 Reason abstractly for hopping along the number line, or ask a child to walk on the number line if using the
◀ floor model. Pose a variety of problem situations and talk about the movement required
and quantitatively
for each situation. To begin with, your problem situations should mirror the idea of mov-
ing a distance to emphasize the spaces (units of length) between the numbers on the
number line. For example, use a scenario of a baby rabbit making 5 hops away from its
Figure 3 mother and then making 3 hops back. The children’s task is to determine how many hops
Models for 9 - 4 as a
away the baby is from its mother. This activity can help children create a mental image for
missing‐part problem.
thinking about the meaning of addition and subtraction.
Subtraction
?
In a part-part-whole model, when the whole and one of the parts are known, subtraction
can be used to name the other part. If you start with a whole set of 8 and remove a set of 3,
9
the two sets that you know are the sets of 8 and 3. The expression 8 - 3, read “eight minus
No action three,” names the five remaining. Notice that the models in Figure 1 are models for subtrac-
tion as well as addition (except for the action). Helping children see that they are using the
Start with 9 in all. same models or pictures aids in connecting the two operations.
Remove some.
How many covered?
? Activity 4 MISSING‐PART SUBTRACTION

nguag
-La
Use a context or story about something that is hiding to introduce this activity. For
nglish
e Lerane
rE
Start with a bar of 9. fo

example, the books Five Little Monkeys Play Hide‐and‐Seek (Christelow, 2004) and
rs
Break some off. What’s Hiding in There? (Drescher, 2008) offer scenarios that can be used as contexts.
How many hidden?
Explain to the children that they will model whatever is hiding using a fixed number of
tiles placed on a mat. One child separates the tiles into two parts while another hides his
or her eyes. The first child covers one of the two parts with a sheet of paper or a large
index card, revealing only the other part (see Figure 3). The second child says the
subtraction sentence. For example, “Nine minus four [the visible part] is five [the covered
The other part of part].” The covered part can be revealed for the child to self‐check. Have children record
the bar is hidden. both the subtraction equation and the addition equation. ELLs may need sentence
prompts such as “_____ minus ______ is ________.”
152
Subtraction as Think-Addition
Note that in Activity 4, the situation ends with two parts clearly distinct, even when there
is a remove action. The removed part remains in the activity or on the mat as a model for
an addition equation to be written after writing the subtraction equation. A discussion of
how these two equations can be written for the same model is an important opportunity
to connect addition and subtraction. This is significantly better than the traditional work-
sheet activity of “fact families” in which children are given a family of numbers, such as 3,
5, and 8, and are told to write two addition equations and two subtraction equations. Very
quickly this becomes a matter of putting the numbers in the various slots without much
meaning.
Subtraction as “think‐addition” is extremely significant for mastering subtraction
facts. Because the tiles for the remaining or unknown part are left hidden under the
cover, when children do these activities they are encouraged to think about the hidden
part: “What goes with the part I see to make the whole?” For example, if the total or
whole number of tiles is nine, and six can be seen, the child is likely to think in terms of
“6 and what makes 9?” or “What goes with 6 to make 9?” The mental activity is “think‐
addition” instead of a “count what’s left” approach. Later, when working on subtraction
facts, a subtraction fact such as 9 - 6 = should trigger the same thought pattern: “6
and what makes 9?”

The techniques that children use to solve problems provide you with important information concerning
their number development, strategies that they may be using to answer basic facts, and methods that
they are using for multidigit computation. Therefore, it is essential that you look at more than the answers
children get. These methods can give you clues as to what numbers to use in problems for the next day.
The information can also be used to give special number or computation development work to children
who need it. Key papers can be saved in folders and used in conferences to show parents how their child
is working and progressing.
For example, a child who counts out counters for each of two addends and then counts all of
the counters might be encouraged to count on by posing a problem involving adding 14 + 3, a large
number and a small one. If you have been working on the meaning of the teens or other ideas about
tens, you should pose problems that offer opportunities for children to use these ideas. For example,
pose problems for 14 - 10 or 10 + 10 + 10 + 6. Then you can observe children’s use of the ideas you
have been working on.
Similarly, you can pose problems involving number concepts or computations that you have not yet
explored with your children. How they approach the problems will give you clues as to where that portion
of your number program can best begin.
The point is to use story problems to assess more than problem solving. Number and computation
skills are often much more clearly visible in children’s work with story problems than on exercises devoid
of a context.
Comparison Models
Comparison situations involve two distinct sets or quantities and the difference between them.
Several ways of modeling the difference relationship are shown in Figure 4. The same kind of
model can be used whether the difference or one of the two quantities is unknown.
153
Figure 4 Note that it is not immediately clear how you

would associate either the addition or subtraction op-
Models for the difference between 8 and 5.
erations with a comparison situation. From an adult
vantage point, you can see that if you match part of the
larger amount with the smaller amount, the large set
Difference
is now a part-part-whole model that can be used to
solve the problem. In fact, children may model compare
problems in just this manner. But that is a very difficult
idea to show children if they do not construct the idea
themselves.
Have children make two amounts, perhaps with
two bars of connecting cubes. They can match the
cubes in the two bars until all the cubes are used from
8 the shorter bar. The unmatched cubes in the longer
? bar represent the difference. Discuss the difference
between the two bars to generate the third number.
0 5 10 For example, if the children make a bar of 10 and a bar
of 6, the difference is 4. “What equations can we make
Standards for with these three numbers?” Have children make up story problems that involve two
amounts of 10 and 6 that they are comparing. Discuss which equations go with the
4 Model with
◀ problems that are created.
mathematics
The Commutative Property and the Zero Property

The commutative property (sometimes known as the order property) for addition says
that it makes no difference in which order two numbers are added. Most children find
little difficulty with this idea after they have had many opportunities to verify for them-
selves that the order in an addition problem does not matter. Since it is quite useful in
problem solving, mastering basic facts, and mental mathematics, there is value in spend-
ing some time helping children construct the relationship. Having children state the
name of the property is not important, but the idea behind the property is important for
them to understand.
To help children focus on the order property, pair problems that have the
same addends but in different orders. Using a different context for each problem
can help children focus on the significant similarities that go beyond context. For
example:
Tania is on page 8 in her book. Tomorrow she hopes to read 6 more pages. What page
will she be on if she reads that many pages?
The recycling bin in the cafeteria had 6 bottles in it. During lunch 8 more bottles were
put in the bin. How many bottles were in the bin after lunch?
Ask if anyone notices how these problems are alike. If done as a pair, some children will see
that having solved one they have essentially solved the other. You will likely need to pose
multiple problem pairs across time before children become convinced that the order does
not matter.
The following activity helps with the same idea.
154
Activity 5 MORE THAN TWO ADDENDS
Give children six sums to find involving three or four addends. Prepare these on one page
divided into six sections so that there is space to write beneath each sum. Within each,
include at least one pair with a sum of 10 or perhaps a double: 4 + 7 + 6, 5 + 9 + 9, or 3 +
4 + 3 + 7. Children should discuss and show how they added the numbers. Allow children
to find the sums without any other directions.
Figure 5 illustrates how children might show what they did. As they share their solu- Standards for
tions, almost certainly there will be children who added in different orders but got the Mathematical Practice
same result. From this discussion you can help them conclude that you can add numbers
8 Look for and
in any order. But continue to find opportunities to highlight this idea because some chil- ◀ express regularity in
dren will need additional time to be convinced that the order does not matter. You are repeated reasoning
also using the associative property, but it is the commutative property that is more im-
portant here. This is also an excellent number sense activity because many children will
find combinations of 10 in these sums or will use doubles (easy facts for many children).
Learning to adjust strategies to fit the numbers is the beginning of the road to computa-
tional fluency. Note that some children will attempt to overgeneralize the commutative
property to subtraction. Use contextual situations or story problems to help children
confront this misconception. Figure 5
Using story problems with zero or with zero in the three‐addend sums (e.g., 4 + 0 + 2) Children show how they
is also a good method of helping children understand zero in addition or subtraction. added.
Occasionally children think that 6 + 0 must be more than 6 or that 12
- 0 must be 11 since “addition makes numbers bigger” or “subtraction 4+7+6 5+9+9 3+4+3+7
makes numbers smaller.” Instead of making meaningless rules, create
10 18 7 10
opportunities for discussing adding and subtracting zero using contex-
tual situations. 17 23 17
Laying the Foundation for Multiplication

and Division
The Common Core State Standards recommends that second graders should work with
equal groups of objects to build a foundation for the formal study of multiplication
(CCSSO, 2010). In fact, kindergarten through second‐grade children can be quite suc-
cessful at solving multiplication and division contextual problems, even division involving
remainders, prior to being taught computational methods for multiplication and division
or even before they have learned the terms or symbols used in multiplication and divi-
sion (Carpenter, Fennema, Franke, Levi, & Empson, 1999; Schifter, Bastable, & Russell,
1999; Roberts, 2003). Young children engage in situations such as counting equal groups
(multiplication) and fairly sharing or measuring out (division) in their daily lives outside
of school. Capitalizing on these kinds of informal experiences with multiplication and di-
vision situations can help lay a good foundation for more formal study of these operations
in later grades. Multiplication and division problems also provide children with opportu-
nities to work with the idea of groups, which helps with the development of place value
and grouping in tens.
155
Multiplication and Division Problem Structures

Although there are meanings for multiplication other than equal groups or repeated addition,
we will focus on this particular meaning because it relates well to the addition work in which
children in grades pre-K-2 have been involved and is typically how multiplication and divi-
sion are introduced. Equal group problems involve three quantities: the number of groups,
the size of each group, and the total. These quantities are illustrated in the following problem:
Jill has 4 bags of crayons. There are 3 crayons in each bag. All together she has 12 crayons.
In a given problem, any of these three quantities can be unknown. When the total is
unknown, the problem is a multiplication situation. When either the number of groups or
the size of the groups is unknown, the problem is a division situation. But note that these
latter two situations are not alike. Problems in which the size of the groups is unknown are
called fair‐sharing or partition problems. The whole is shared or distributed among a known
number of groups to determine the size of each. If the number of groups is unknown but the
size of the equal groups is known, the problems are called measurement or repeated subtrac-
tion problems. The whole is “measured off” in groups of the given size.
There is also a subtle difference between problems that might be termed equal‐group
problems (e.g., If 3 children have 4 apples each, how many apples are there?) and those that
might be termed rate problems (e.g., If there are 4 apples per child, how many apples would 3
children have?). Rate problems may be more difficult for children because they involve a rate
rather than a number of countable objects. However, because they can be thought of in much
Standards for
Mathematical Practice the same way as the equal‐group problems, you should consider posing such problems.
Examples of the problem types for multiplication and division are shown in Table 2. Prob-
7 Look for and
◀ lems matching these structures can be modeled with sets of counters, number lines, or arrays.
make use of structure
(The term multiplicative is used here to describe all problems that involve multiplication and
division structure.) You can find more examples of these problem types in the Common Core
State Standards (see Table 2 in the CCSSI Math Standards Glossary; CCSSO, 2010, p. 89).
In multiplicative problems, one number or factor counts how many groups or parts
of equal size are involved. The other factor tells the size of each group or part. The third
number in each of these two structures is the whole or product and is the total of all of the
parts. The parts and wholes terminology is useful in making the connection to addition.
Table 2 Multiplication and Division Problem Types
Partition Division Measurement Division

Multiplication (Size of Groups (Number of Groups
Problem Type (Whole Unknown) Unknown) Unknown)
Equal groups Mark has 4 bags of Mark has 24 apples. He Mark has 24 apples. He put
apples. There are 6 apples wants to share them them into bags containing
in each bag. How many equally among his 4 6 apples each. How many
apples does Mark have friends. How many apples bags did Mark use?
altogether? will each friend receive?
Rate If apples cost 7 cents each, Jill paid 35 cents for 5 Jill bought apples at 7
how much did Jill have to apples. What was the cost cents apiece. The total
pay for 5 apples? of 1 apple? cost of her apples was 35
cents. How many apples
did Jill buy?
156
Children’s Strategies for Solving Multiplication and

Division Problems
As with addition and subtraction situations, children progress through different levels of strategies
as they solve multiplication and division situations. Initially they solve these kinds of problems by
directly modeling the relationships and action described in the problems. In time children move
from directly modeling to using counting strategies and then to using derived facts.
Let’s consider how children who are using different levels of strategies might solve the
following multiplication problem:
There are 3 golf balls in a tube. How many balls are in 6 tubes?
A child who is directly modeling would make 6 groups with 3 counters in each group and
would count all the counters to find the answer. A child who has moved to the next level
might hold up a finger one at a time as she counts by three 6 times: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18.
Another child who is not as proficient at skip counting by threes may start skip counting
and then revert to counting by ones: 3, 6, 9, 12, . . . 13, 14, 15, . . . 16, 17, 18. This child is
still using a counting strategy. When a child is using derived facts, he uses known facts to
find unknown facts. For this problem, a child might reason that 3 * 5 is 15 and 3 more is 18.
For partition division, let’s look at the following problem:
Arielle has 12 lollipops. She wants to share them equally among 4 of her friends. How many
will each friend get?
When direct modeling, a child will count out 12 counters and then separate them into 4 Standards for
groups, probably placing one counter in each of the 4 groups until all 12 counters are dis- Mathematical Practice
tributed. He would then count the counters in one of the groups to find the answer. For a 1 Make sense
child who is using a counting strategy to solve a partition division problem, the child will ◀ of problems and
typically use trial and error to determine how many might be in each group because she persevere in
is trying to mimic the action in the problem. So the child might first skip‐count by twos, solving them
keeping track of the number of twos on her fingers: 2, 4, 6, 8. Because 4 twos is not enough,
she tries another number, say, 3: 3, 6, 9, 12. When she reaches 12 with 4 fingers raised, she
realizes each friend would get 3 lollipops.
For measurement division, consider this problem:
Parker has 24 cupcakes. He wants to store the cupcakes 6 to a box. How many boxes will he need?
A child who is directly modeling will count out 24 counters and then repeatedly measure
out groups of 6 counters until no more groups of 6 are possible. He will then count the
number of groups to find the answer. For a child who is using a counting strategy, he will
count by sixes, keeping track of each count, say, by extending a finger: 6, 12, 18, 24. Looking
at 4 extended fingers, he knows Parker will need 4 boxes. If a child is using derived facts, he
may think 5 * 6 is 30, but one less 6 would be 24—so, 4 boxes.
Symbolism for Multiplication

When children solve simple multiplication story problems before learning about multiplica-
tion symbolism, they will most likely write repeated addition equations to represent what
they did. In fact, the Common Core State Standards recommends that second graders begin
157
to write equations to express the total as a sum of equal addends (CCSSO, 2010). If you feel
your children are ready, introduce the multiplication sign and explain what the two factors
Standards for
Mathematical Practice mean. You can also write one sentence that expresses both concepts at once, for example,
9 + 9 + 9 + 9 = 4 * 9.
6 Attend to ◀ In the United States, the usual convention is that 4 * 8 refers to four sets of eight, not
precision
eight sets of four. (In other countries such as Japan and Korea, the convention is that 4 * 8
refers to eight sets of four.) The more important idea at this level is the informal explora-
tions with multiplication and division situations and not the introduction of symbolism.
Choosing Numbers for Problems

Choose numbers that are within your children’s grasp when creating multiplication and
division problems. In the early grades, it is a mistake to only pose problems without remain-
ders. Rather, it is useful to include story problems with remainders and explore the different
ways that children handle these in context. For children who are beginning to talk about
fractions, include partition problems in which items can be subdivided into fractional parts
(brownies, pies, cups of milk, etc.). For example,
Griffin has 11 brownies and he wants to share them with 4 people. How many brownies will
each person get?
Figure 6 Some children will handle partition problems like this one by fairly sharing, as can be seen
Remainders expressed
as fractions. in the first part of Figure 6.
It is a bit more difficult to conceptualize a measurement problem
Partition 11 ÷ 4 = 2 34 with a fractional remainder. Consider the following problems:
2 34 in each of the 4 sets
(each leftover divided in fourths)
Tania was filling crates with special oranges. Each crate holds 4 oranges.
If Tania has 11 oranges, how many crates will she need?
Toby has 11 cups of milk in a pitcher. If he pours all 11 cups into jars that
hold 4 cups each, how many jars will Toby fill?
The first problem can be modeled as 2 full crates and 34 of another crate (see
the second part of Figure 6). This requires thinking of each crate as a whole
Measurement 11 ÷ 4 = 2 34
3
2 4 sets of 4 and assumes that the child will think about a partial crate as part of the an-
(2 full sets and 34 of a set) swer. In the milk problem, there may be a greater chance of thinking about
a jar being 34 full. If you want to introduce these fractional ideas and no one
in the class suggests them, offer them yourself. You can say, “If someone said
that Toby filled two and three‐fourths jars with milk, would that make sense?
Do you think that could be a correct answer?” There is no need to be afraid
of these ideas even if they do not appear in your curriculum.
More often than not, division situations in real life do not result in a simple whole
number. In the absence of a context, a remainder can be dealt with in only two ways: It can
either remain a quantity left over or be partitioned into fractions. In Figure 6, the problem
11 , 4 is modeled to show fractions.
In real contexts, remainders sometimes have three additional effects on answers:
1. The remainder is discarded, leaving a smaller whole‐number answer.
2. The remainder can “force” the answer to the next highest whole number.
3. The answer is rounded to the nearest whole number for an approximate result.
158
The following problems illustrate all five possibilities.
• Left over. You have 10 pieces of candy to share fairly with 3 children. How many pieces
of candy will each child receive? Answer: 3 pieces of candy and 1 left over.
• Partitioned as a fraction. You have 9 brownies and you want to fairly share with 4 chil-
dren. How many brownies will each child receive? Answer: 2 and 14 brownies.
• Discarded. A rope is 15 feet long. How many 7‐foot jump ropes can be made? Answer:
2 jump ropes.
• Forced to next whole number. If 4 children can ride in each car, how many cars are
needed to take to 23 children to the museum? Answer: 6 cars.
• Rounded, approximate result. If 6 children are planning to share a bag of 50 pieces of
bubble gum, about how many pieces will each child get? Answer: About 8 pieces for
each child.
Using Model‐Based Problems for Standards for

Multiplication and Division Mathematical Practice
In the beginning, children will be able to use the same models—sets and number lines—for ◀ 5 Use appropriate
tools strategically
all four operations. A model not generally used for addition but extremely important and
widely used for multiplication and division is the array. An array is any arrangement of
objects in rows and columns, such as a rectangle of square tiles or blocks. A variety of models
is shown in Figure 7.
The Common Core State Standards recommend that second graders experience using
the array model with no more than five rows and five columns to lay the foundation for
Figure 7 Models for equal‐group multiplication.
5×3=3+3+3+3+3
6×4=4+4+4+4+4+4
5×8=8+8+8+8+8
6 × 3 = 18 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 18
0 5 10 15 20
6×7
20
7+7+7+7+7+7
4 4 4 4 4
0 5 10 15 20
5 × 4 = 20
4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 20
159
multiplication (CCSSO, 2010). However, even younger children can use the array model to
begin to help them organize quantities and skip‐count. Because you want to move children
beyond counting by ones and encourage children’s use of
rows and columns as units, you need to use small quantities
The idea of organizing quantities into rows and columns
to play off their ability to subitize (quickly recognize the
might seem a bit arbitrary to children. So it is important to
amount without counting).
use contexts in which this arrangement seems natural.
Figure 8 Stop and Reflect

Using arrays to help children construct
Compare the arrays in Figure 8. Children who need to count by ones
efficient multiplication strategies. Which
can do so with any of the arrays, but which array subtly suggests skip
array subtly suggests skip counting?
counting? ■
The following activity uses contexts and the idea of using small
numbers of rows and columns to help children make sense of the array
model as well as move beyond counting by ones.
Activity 6 QUICK! HOW MANY ARE THERE?
To use contexts to introduce the array model, find places where you live that organize ob-
jects into arrays, such as a bakery or a grocery store. Take pictures of a tray of doughnuts
or muffins or a box of oranges or apples. You can also find pictures online for this pur-
pose. (Check out the website for the Harry & David stores as one possibility.) Show these
pictures to your children and set up the task by telling them that the baker, grocer, or
person making an online order needs their help to determine how many items are on the
tray or in the box. Allow children to use a strategy that makes sense to them, which ini-
tially may be counting by ones. Look for children who are using skip counting and make
sure to have them share their strategy so that this idea is introduced to other children.
You can repeat this activity several times with different contexts and different pictures.
Keep in mind that even if you use arrays that are arranged in quantities more likely
to be subitized, some children may not be ready to move beyond counting by ones. Allow
them to count by ones but continue to provide them opportunities to work with these
kinds of arrays and to hear how other children are paying attention to and using small
amounts to efficiently skip‐count. Given time, these children will also begin to use more
efficient strategies.
Using contexts also helps to encourage children to explore division situations. Snack
time provides lots of opportunities for children to explore the notion of fair sharing or parti-
tion division as the next activity illustrates.
Activity 7 SNACK TIME SHARING
Read Snack Attack (Ruschak & Carter, 1990) as a lead‐in to this activity. In groups, children
work with a bag of snacks, such as crackers or cookies, to determine how many each child
in the group will get. Because the children will be handling the snacks, you can either
160
use pictures of the snacks that have been cut out or have additional snacks on hand for
children to eat after the activity. To differentiate, you can prepare baggies of different
amounts of the snack and place children in different size groups. For example, you can
give a bag of 12 cookies to a group of 3 children; a bag of 10 cookies to 3 children; a bag
of 16 cookies to 4 children; or a bag of 15 cookies to 4 children. The scenarios depend
on your children and whether they are ready for the challenge of dealing with leftovers.
Circulate as children are engaged in this sharing activity, asking children to explain their
reasoning. You can capture their ideas on chart paper to help them share their ideas later
in a discussion. Look for ways that children dealt with leftovers as well as whether chil-
dren distributed the snacks in amounts other than by ones.
Roberts (2003) described a teacher who used Snack Attack and a similar sharing activ-
ity with her kindergartners. The article describes the various strategies children used to
fairly share their snack and how the teacher supported the children as they shared their
strategies during discussion time. You can refer to the article for more ideas. One Hun-
dred Hungry Ants (Pinczes, 1999) and Remainder of One (Pinczes, 2002) are two additional
children’s books that provide engaging contexts for children to explore multiplication
and division.
As with addition problems, children who are investigating multiplication and division
situations can benefit from a few activities with models and no context. The purpose of such
activities is to focus on the meaning of the operation and the associated symbolism, if chil-
dren are ready for symbolism. Activity 8 has a good problem‐solving spirit. The language
you use depends on what you have used with your children in the past.
Activity 8 DIVIDE AND CONQUER!
Provide children with an ample supply of counters and a way to place them into small
groups. Small paper cups work well. Have children count out a number of counters to
be the whole or total set (e.g., start with 18). They then record this number. Next specify
either the number of equal sets to be made or the size of the sets to be made: “Separate
your counters into four equal‐sized sets,” or “Make as many sets of four as possible.”
Next, if ready for symbolism, have the children write the corresponding repeated ad-
dition or multiplication equation for what their materials show. You can also challenge
children to write a corresponding story problem.
Be sure to include both types of exercises: number of equal sets and size of sets. Discuss
with the class how these two situations are different yet how each is related to multiplication
and can be written as repeated addition and multiplication equations. Do Activity 8 several
times. Start with whole quantities that are multiples of the divisor (no remainders) but soon
include situations with remainders.
Vary the activity by changing the model used. Have children build arrays using square
tiles or have them draw arrays on centimeter grid paper. Present the exercises by specify-
ing how many squares are to be in the array. You can then specify the number of rows that
should be made (partition) or the length of each row (measurement). How could children
model fractional answers using drawings of arrays on grid paper?
161
Figure 9
Two ways an array can be used to illustrate the commutative (order) property for multiplication.
Turn
3×6
Rows
6×3
6×3 3×6
3 rows of 6
Columns
6 rows of 3

A good way to check on children’s understanding of the operations is to provide several story prob-
lems with different operations. It is not necessary to have children do all the problems in one day.
Have them work on two or three problems a day over the course of a week. If your objective is to find
out about their understanding of the operations, you can do this by not having them actually do the
computations. Rather, have them indicate what operation they would use and with what numbers.
To avoid guessing, you can have children draw a picture to explain why they chose the operation
that they did. Alternatively, you can have the children come up with story problems to go with given
equations.
Readiness for Multiplication Properties

As with addition and subtraction, there are some multiplicative properties that are useful
and, although they will be highlighted in third grade and beyond, are still worthy of atten-
tion in the earlier grades. The emphasis should be on the ideas and not on the terminology
or definitions.
The Commutative Property of Multiplication

It is not intuitively obvious that 3 * 8 is the same as 8 * 3 or that, in general, the order of the
numbers makes no difference. A picture of 3 sets of 8 objects cannot immediately be seen as
Standards for
Mathematical Practice 8 piles of 3 objects. Eight hops of 3 land at 24, but it is not clear that 3 hops of 8 will land at
the same point.
7 Look for and
◀ The array, by contrast, is quite powerful in illustrating the order property, as shown in
Figure 9. Children can draw or build arrays and use them to demonstrate why each array
represents two different multiplications with the same product.
The Role of Zero and One in Multiplication

Zero and, to a lesser extent, one as factors can cause difficulty for children. Have children
Standards for make up story problems to reason about situations such as 0 * 5 or 3 * 0. Note that on a
Mathematical Practice number line, 5 hops of 0 land at 0 (5 * 0). What would 0 hops of 5 be? Another fun activ-
8 Look for and ity is to try to model 6 * 0 or 0 * 8 with an array. (Try it!) Arrays for factors of one are also
express regularity in ◀ worth investigating. Avoid telling children rules. Instead, challenge children to articulate
repeated reasoning general statements about the role of zero and one in multiplication based on their experi-
ences thinking about different contexts.
162
More Thoughts about Children Solving

Story Problems
Solving word problems of all sorts on a regular basis should be a significant part of your
number and computation curriculum. But your goals for children should go beyond being
able to solve story problems. At the pre-K-2 level, there are many interrelated objectives
that you should have in mind when you pose story problems:
• Understanding the various meanings of the four operations. It is primarily through story
problems that children will gain a full understanding of which operation to use in any
given situation.
• Development of number skills and concepts. As children solve problems, they are forced to
deal with the numbers involved. Initially, they will use inefficient counting techniques.
Later these techniques will give rise to more efficient skills and eventually will provide
the foundations for mastery of basic facts.
• Computational fluency. Related to their number skills are the many different meth-
ods that children will develop for computing. Place‐value ideas will be enhanced
and utilized as children find new and better ways to break numbers apart and com-
bine them. The structure of the problem can significantly influence the way children
compute.
This broad array of goals suggests that there is much more to story problems than sim-
ply having children get answers. We want them to develop number skills and computational
techniques as well as to have a rich understanding of the operations. To attend to these goals
requires that we think carefully about the problems we pose. What operation structures do
children need to work on? What numbers will challenge children but not overwhelm them?
In other words, think of story problems as a means to an end rather than an end in themselves.
Caution: Avoid Key Words!

It is often suggested that children should be taught to find “key words” in story problems.
For example, “altogether” and “in all” mean you should add and “left” and “fewer” indicate
you should subtract. To some extent, teachers have been reinforced to use key words by the
overly simple and formulaic story problems often found in textbooks. When problems are
written in this way, it may appear that the key word strategy is effective.
In contrast with this belief, researchers and mathematics educators have long cautioned
against the strategy of key words. Here are four arguments against the key word approach.
1. The key word strategy sends a terribly wrong message about doing mathematics. The Standards for
most important approach to solving any contextual problem is to analyze its structure— Mathematical Practice
to make sense of it. The key word approach encourages children to ignore the meaning 1 Make sense
and structure of the problem and look for an easy way out. Mathematics is about of problems and
◀
reasoning and making sense of situations. A sense‐making strategy will always work. persevere in
solving them
2. Key words can be misleading. Often the key word or phrase in a problem suggests
an operation that is incorrect. For example:
Maxine gave 28 stickers she no longer wanted to Zandra. Now Maxine has 73 stickers left.
How many stickers did Maxine have to begin with?
If you look through the story problems in this chapter, you will find other examples of
misleading key words.
163
3. Many problems have no key words. Especially when you get away from the
overly simple problems found in primary textbooks, you will find that a large
percentage of problems have no key words. A child who has been taught to rely on
key words is left with no strategy. In both the addition and the multiplication
problems in this chapter, you will find numerous examples of problems with
no key words.
4. Key words cannot be used to solve multistep problems, which begin in grade
3 in the Common Core State Standards (2010). Using key words for simpler
problems does not require children to learn to read for meaning. When faced
with multistep or more complex problems in later grades, they will struggle
if they have not learned to read word problems for meaning.
Encourage Problem Analysis

Many children in kindergarten and first grade will do better at solving problems than will
children in the upper grades. Once children have learned computational techniques, they
often think that is what solving story problems means—grab the numbers and compute.
These are the children who ignore problem context and often use extraneous numbers
in their computations. In contrast, kindergarten and first‐grade children have little or no
means of computing. They pay attention to the problem, often use counters or other mod-
els, and figure out the solution based on the meaning in the story. Regardless of what grade
you are teaching, it is important to always have children think through the problem before
they get started. For example, let’s consider the following problem:
Luke is saving up to buy a new model boat that costs $33. Each week his dad agrees to put
$6 in a savings account if Luke does chores around the house. How many weeks will Luke
have to work before he has enough money to buy the model boat?
Here are some questions that you might have the class discuss or answer on paper.
Similar questions can be used for most any problem:
• What is happening in this problem? Luke is working to save money to buy a boat.
• What will the answer tell us? The answer will tell us how many weeks Luke will have to
work in order to have enough money.
• Do you think it will be a big number or a small number? Well, each week he gets $6. If he
works 10 weeks, he would have $60. He only needs $33. So it must be less than 10.
• About how many weeks do you think he will have to work? [Although some children may be able
to compute the answer mentally, others may not even be able to make a good guess.]
With these questions, children are asked to focus on the problem and the meaning of the
answer. The analysis of the problem leads to an idea of the size of the answer or a rough
estimate of the answer. Knowing about how big the answer might be—even knowing if it
will be more or less than one of the numbers in the problem—is a big first step in solving
the problem. It is also useful information in judging the answer when the problem is solved.
Standards for
3 Construct Require Explanations

viable arguments ◀ In the early years, solving story problems provides an excellent place to begin children’s
and critique the
reasoning of others habit of providing explanations. This is especially true before children have developed
methods of computation. For children in grades pre-K-2, explanations can range from
164
verbal statements to drawings to written words. You may find that children who know their
basic facts or have learned traditional methods of computing will write little more than the
computations they used. It is important to make clear that you want explanations, nearly
always using words and numbers and often using drawings as well.
The solutions shown in Figure 10 are from children aged 4 to 7. Laura, a beginning
second grader, used separate equations to represent the amounts. Emma, who was just
beginning first grade, chose to use a weekly calendar format to help her think about the
problem. She explained that the calendar helped her keep track of the amounts. She had
Figure 10
Three pre-K–2 children solve a complex problem using different types
of drawings and explanations for their work.
I went to visit Mrs. Sato’s farm last week.

• On Monday, I found 1 egg.
• On Tuesday, I found 2 eggs.
• On Wednesday, I found 3 eggs.
• On Thursday, I found 4 eggs.
• On Friday, I found 5 eggs.
How many eggs did I find last week?
165
initially drawn only circles for each day, counted the circles,
and wrote the large numeral 15 on her paper. When asked
how she got 15, she labeled each circle as she counted by
Sometimes children can become so involved in drawing ones to reach 15. Abby, a pre‐kindergarten child, drew her
detailed realistic pictures of objects mentioned in problems picture on her own after hearing the story problem read
that they lose sight of the mathematics (Crespo & Kyriakides, twice. Notice how Abby used spacing to help organize her
2007). So you will likely need to engage in a discussion with ideas. When asked how many eggs were found, she said she
children about what makes a good drawing in mathematics counted and got 15. She wrote the numeral 15 with help.
versus a good drawing for other purposes. In mathematics, As children continue to attempt to show their reason-
drawings should be simple and only include information rel- ing, they will improve both from practice and from seeing
evant to solving the problem. the methods used by others. For the examples in Figure
10, the children are showing how they solved the problem.
To extend their explanations, you might ask questions such as, “Why do you think your answer
is correct?” or “Why did you decide that addition (or whatever operation was used) was the right
thing to do in this problem?”

If a child is having difficulty solving word problems, first find out what is causing the difficulty. If you cannot
tell from the child’s written efforts or from observation, a short interview session is highly recommended to
gain insight into the child’s difficulties. Do not use the interview as a time to intervene or teach! Prepare some
problems written out on paper, one problem to a page. To avoid issues of reading, read the problem together.
Provide manipulatives but encourage the child to use whatever he or she wishes to solve the problem. Explain
that you want to hear what the child is thinking so that you will know how to help him or her. Do not make
the session too long. Consider the aspects identified in the earlier sections “Problem Difficulty” and “Children’s
Strategies” as you try to identify the difficulty. Is it the structure of the problem, the numbers in the problem,
or the wording of the problem that is causing the difficulty? Is the child trying to use a strategy that is more
sophisticated than he or she is ready for, such as using derived facts when the child is still at the direct model-
ing stage? If you cannot identify the difficulty with one or two problems, use additional problems on another
day. Use any information gleaned to prepare problems or other tasks for a later interview or lesson.
166
Divide and Conquer!
Content and Task Decisions For Children with Disabilities

• Have children match a story problem with an equation
Grade Level: 2
if they are not able to write their own.
Mathematics Goals Materials
• To develop the measurement (repeated subtraction)
Each child will need:
concept of division. (Note that division is considered a
• 35 counters
multiplicative operation.)
• Small paper cups or portion cups that will hold at least
• To connect the measurement concept of division to
6 counters (alternatively, children can stack counters in
multiplication and addition.
piles)
Grade Level Guide

Lesson
NCTM Common Before
Curriculum Focal Points Core State Standards
Begin with a simpler version of the task:
A connection to the Number As part of the Standards for
• Draw or display 9 counters (dots) on the board and ask
and Operations focal point second‐graders, they are ex-
children to put out 9 counters on their workspace. Ask,
identified at second grade pected to “Work with equal
“How many sets of 4 can we make if we have 9? How
states that in preparing groups of objects to gain
many will be left over?” Some children may be able
children for grade 3, they foundations for multiplica-
to answer this question mentally. Others may need to
should “solve problems tion” (CCSSO, 2010, p. 18).
work with manipulatives to find the answer, so make
involving multiplicative
sure to give everyone enough time to think about the
situations, developing initial
question. After receiving several answers, have a child
understanding of multiplica-
come to the board and demonstrate how to verify the
tion as repeated addition”
answer of two sets of 4 and 1 left. (Note: Depending
(NCTM, 2006, p. 14).
on your children, you may want to precede the first
step using a number such as 8 or 12 so that there are
Consider Your Children’s Needs no remainders. Do not wait too long before remain-
Children have explored multiplicative concepts, which ders are addressed.)
include division, using word problems and contexts • Say, “Think of a situation in which someone might have
such as in Activity 7. So the lesson can further develop 9 things and wants to find out how many sets of 4 can
early ideas and help connect the ideas to contextual be made.”
situations. • Make up a story problem about your situation. Have
several children share their story problems.
• Ask, “What equation could we write for what we have on
• Rather than have ELLs write a story, they can illustrate the board?” Accept children’s ideas. Correct ideas include:
the story.
• 4+4+1=9
• Stories about a lot of different topics can be over- • 2 * 4 + 1 = 9 (4 * 2 + 1 technically represents 4 sets
whelming for children learning English. Instead, you of 2 and 1 more.)
can ask them to write stories about something specific • 9 , 4 = 2 with 1 left over (No child may come up
(e.g., apples). with this symbolism, which is fine. Do not introduce
• Be sure that children know the terms sets and groups as unless you feel your children are ready for this par-
well as remainder. ticular symbolism.)
167
Present the focus task to the class: After

• Distribute small paper cups or portion cups and counters Bring the class together to share and discuss the task:
to children. Pose the following two problems:
• Ask children to show how they know how many sets
1. Use 17 counters to see how many sets of 4 you can
of 4 can be made with 17 counters. A picture may be
make.
drawn on the board or counters can be used with a
2. Use 26 counters to find out how many sets of 6 you
projection device.
can make.
• Have several children share their story problems. Chil-
• Ask children for ideas of how they might use the cups
dren should explain how the story situation matches
to help them solve the problems.
the action of finding how many sets of 4 are in 17. For
Provide clear expectations: example: “There were 17 apples in the basket. If each
apple tart requires 4 apples, how many tarts can be
• Write the directions on the board:
made?”
1. Find how many sets of 4 you can make using
• Have several children share their equations. Ask those
17 counters.
who have different equations to share theirs as well.
2. Write a story problem to go with the situation.
3. Write two equations: one addition and one multi- • Have children explain how their equations match what
plication. (Note that you can omit this step if your was done with the counters. If children disagree, have
children are not ready for symbolism.) them respectfully explain their reasoning. Because chil-
4. Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 using 26 counters to make dren are still learning how to use symbolism with mul-
sets of 6. tiplication, you should correct any misunderstandings
about the multiplication and repeated addition equa-
tions and what they mean.
During
• If time permits, repeat with the 26 ÷ 6 situation.
Initially:
• Observe that each child understands the task and is in
the process of attempting to solve the first situation. Assessment
• If you find that some children, particularly those with Observe
disabilities, are struggling, you may need to get them
• Story problems should indicate the action of measuring
started by supporting them in the placement of 4 counters
equal sets of 4 rather than dividing the quantity into 4
in the first cup. Then they should be able to use that
sets in a process of sharing or partitioning. If children
model to continue.
make this error, simply have them discuss whether or
not the story fits well with the action. Do not indicate
Ongoing:
that the story is incorrect.
• Ask children to explain and show (on their workspace)
• It is also possible that children will create addition
why their story problems and equations go with what
stories with 17 being the sum and 4 being one of the
they did with the counters.
addends. Here, ask children to look back at what the
• Do not correct incorrect equations or story problems. number 4 refers to in the task.
You only want to be sure children are attempting to
connect the activity with the stories and symbolism. Ask
• Challenge early finishers to see if they can do the same • How does your story problem connect to subtraction?
thing for 37 things in sets of 5. However, they will have
to figure it out without using counters.
168
References
CCSSO (Council of Chief State School Officers). Gutstein, E., & Romberg, T. A. (1995). Teaching
(2010). Common core state standards. Retrieved from children to add and subtract. Journal of Mathematical
http://corestandards.org Behavior, 14, 283–324.
Christelow, E. (2004). Five little monkeys play hide‐ Pinczes, E. (1999). One hundred hungry ants. New
and‐seek. New York, NY: Clarion. York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2007). Early Pinczes, E. (2002). Remainder of one. New York,
childhood mathematics learning. In F. K. Lester, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
Jr. (Ed.), Second handbook on mathematics teaching
Roberts, S. (2003). Snack math: Young children
and learning (pp. 461–555). Charlotte, NC:
explore division. Teaching Children Mathematics,
Information Age Publishing.
9(5), 258–261.
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2009). Learning and
Ruschak, L., & Carter, D. (1990). Snack attack:
teaching early math: The learning trajectories approach.
A tasty pop‐up book. New York, NY: Simon &
Schuster.
Crespo, S., & Kyriakides, A. (2007). To draw or
Schifter, D., Bastable, V., & Russell, S. J. (1999).
not to draw: Exploring children’s drawings for
Making meaning for operations: Facilitator’s guide
solving mathematics problems. Teaching Children
(Developing mathematical ideas: Number and
Mathematics, 14(2), 118–125.
operations, part 2). Parsippany, NJ: Dale Seymour.
Drescher, D. (2008). What’s hiding in there?
Verschaffel, L., Greer, B., & De Corte, E. (2007).
Edinburgh, Scotland: Floris.
Whole number concepts and operations. In
Fosnot, C. T., & Dolk, M. (2001). Young F. Lester (Ed.), Second handbook of research on
mathematicians at work: Constructing number mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 557–628).
sense, addition, and subtraction. Portsmouth, NH: Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of
Heinemann. Mathematics.
169
Helping Children
Master the Basic Facts
BigIDEAS
1 Number relationships provide the foundation for strategies that help children to remember basic facts or figure
out unknown facts from those already known. For example, knowing how numbers are related to 5 and 10 helps children
master facts such as 3 + 5 (think of a ten‐frame) and 8 + 6 (since 8 is 2 away from 10, take 2 from 6 to make 10 + 4 = 14).
2 Finding the total number of objects arranged in equal‐sized groups helps children to build a foundation for
multiplication. This situation can be represented using repeated addition.
3 Mastery of the basic facts is a developmental process. Children move through stages starting with counting, then
moving to more efficient reasoning strategies and eventually to quick recall. Instruction must help children move through
these phases without rushing them to memorization.
4 Children who are not developing fluency with the basic facts may need to revisit foundational ideas, such as
number relationships. Simply continuing to drill will not address the cause of their difficulty and can negatively affect their
confidence and attitude toward and success in mathematics.
Basic facts for addition refers to combinations in which both addends are
less than 10. Subtraction facts correspond to the addition facts. Thus,
15 - 8 = 7 is a subtraction fact because both the corresponding addition
parts are less than 10.
Mastery of a basic fact means that a child can give a quick response
(in about 3 seconds) without resorting to nonefficient means, such as
counting. According to the Common Core State Standards (CCSSO,
2010), by the end of second grade, children should have mastered their
basic addition and subtraction facts. It is critical that children know
their basic facts well, but mastery does not just start in second grade.
If you teach in grades pre-K-1, this chapter is also for you because you
have a very important role in helping children to be ready to master
their basic addition and subtraction facts by the end of second grade.
171
Helping Children Master the Basic Facts
Aspects of number sense that are critical to children developing fluency with basic facts
begin in pre‐kindergarten and continue throughout the primary grades. The Common Core
State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) indicate that kindergartners should represent and solve ad-
dition and subtraction situations (putting together and adding to; taking apart and taking
from) within 10 using any method that makes sense to them, such as using objects, their
fingers, drawings, or mental images. First graders extend addition and subtraction to a wider
variety of situations and to within 20, still using any method that makes sense to them.
This chapter explains strategies for helping children learn their facts, including instruc-
tional approaches to use and instructional approaches to avoid. It may surprise you to hear
that flash cards and timed tests are not the answer. Focusing on number sense is key to
teaching basic facts effectively.
Approaches to Fact Mastery

Three somewhat different approaches to helping children master their basic facts can be
identified. One is memorization of each fact in isolation. A second approach suggests that
we teach children a collection of strategies and thought patterns for various categories of
basic facts. A third approach also emphasizes the use of strategies to learn facts; however, the
strategies are generated, or reinvented, by the children. Each of these approaches is briefly
described in the following sections.
Memorization
Some textbooks and teachers move from presenting concepts of addition and subtraction
straight to memorization of facts, feeling that developing strategies is not essential to learning
facts (Baroody, Bajwa, & Eiland, 2009). This “passive storage view” (the idea that children can
just store the facts when they are practiced extensively) means that children have 100 separate
addition facts for the various combinations of 0 through 9 that must be memorized and prac-
ticed frequently. They may even have to memorize subtraction separately, bringing the total to
over 200! There is strong evidence that this method simply does not work. Too many fourth
and fifth graders have not mastered addition and subtraction facts and continue to count on
their fingers. You may be tempted to say that you learned your facts in this manner, as did
many other children. However, studies as long ago as 1935 found that despite of the amount
of isolated drill that they experienced, children independently develop a variety of different
thought processes or strategies for basic facts (Brownell & Chazal, 1935). You may even be
aware that you found your own strategies for facts that were difficult to remember. Unfortu-
nately, drill does not encourage or support the refinement of these strategies. Baroody (2006,
p. 27) notes that this approach to basic fact instruction works against the development of the
five strands of mathematical proficiency, pointing out the following limitations:
• Inefficiency. There are too many facts to memorize in a rote fashion.
• Inappropriate applications. Children misapply the facts and don’t check their work.
• Inflexibility. Children don’t learn flexible strategies for finding sums and, there-
fore, continue to count by ones. (Reprinted with permission from Why Children Have
Difficulties Mastering the Basic Number Combinations and How to Help Them, copyright
2006, by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. All rights reserved.)
When taught basic facts via rote memorization, many children with learning disabilities
continue to use counting strategies because they do not independently develop thought pro-
cesses or other strategies that move beyond counting (e.g., Mazzocco, Devlin, & McKenney,
172
2008). However, they can be very successful in learning their basic facts when the empha-
sis is on using strategies. In addition, drill can cause unnecessary anxiety and undermine
children’s interest and confidence in mathematics. Connecting to what children know and
building on that knowledge allows all children to learn the basic facts and to learn them for
life.
Explicit Strategy Instruction

This approach to basic fact instruction involves explicitly teaching efficient strategies that
are applicable to a collection of facts. Children practice these strategies as they are shown to
them. There is strong evidence to indicate that such methods can be effective (e.g., Baroody,
1985; Bley & Thornton, 1995; Fuson, 1984, 1992). Many of the ideas developed and tested
by these researchers are discussed in this chapter.
The intent of this approach is to support children’s thinking rather than to give them some-
thing new to remember. Sometimes textbooks and teachers emphasize memorization of the
strategy and which facts work with that strategy. This emphasis on memorization does not work
for the same reasons that memorizing isolated facts does not work. A recent study found that
children whose teachers emphasized memorization of basic fact strategies had lower number‐
sense proficiency (Henry & Brown, 2008). The key is to help children see the possibilities and
then let them choose strategies that help them determine the answer without counting.
Guided Invention
With this approach, basic fact instruction and mastery are intricately tied to children’s col-
lection of number relationships (Gravemeijer & van Galen, 2003). Some children may think
of 6 + 7 as “double 6 is 12 and one more is 13.” Others in the same class may recognize that Standards for
7 is 3 away from 10, so they take 3 from 6 to add to 7 to make 10, and then add the remain- Mathematical Practice
ing 3 to get 13. Still other children may take 5 from each addend to make 10 and then add
7 Look for and
the remaining 1 and 2 to get 13. The crucial point is that children are using number combi- ◀ make use of structure
nations and relationships that make sense to them.
Gravemeijer and van Galen (2003) called this approach guided invention because not all
children will independently develop many of the strategies that are efficient without some
guidance. That is, we cannot put all of our efforts on number relationships and the meanings
of operations and hope that fact mastery will magically happen. Instead you need to pur-
posefully design tasks and problems that will promote the
invention of effective strategies by children. And then you
need to ensure that these strategies are shared and clearly Having children share their reasoning in think‐alouds can
articulated in the classroom. help others understand the decisions they made.
Developmental Nature of Basic Fact Mastery

For a long time it was believed that children learned their basic facts through drill and
memorization. However, now psychologists and mathematics educators believe that devel-
oping quick and accurate recall with basic facts is a developmental process that depends on
the development of reasoning strategies (Baroody, 2003; Fuson, 1992; Henry & Brown,
2008; Verschaffel, Greer, & De Corte, 2007). Baroody, Bajwa, and Eiland (2009, p. 70) iden-
tify three phases in the process of learning basic facts:
1. Counting strategies. Using objects (e.g., blocks, fingers, marks) or verbal counting to
determine answers. (Example: For 4 + 7, the child starts with 7 and verbally counts
on 8, 9, 10, 11.)
173
Figure 1
The developmental process for basic fact mastery for addition and subtraction.
Addition Subtraction
Counting Direct modeling (counting objects and fingers) Counting objects
• Counting all • Separating from
• Counting on from first • Separating to
• Counting on from larger • Adding on
Counting abstractly Counting fingers

• Counting all • Counting down
• Counting on from first • Counting up
• Counting on from larger
Counting abstractly
• Counting down
• Counting up
Reasoning Properties Properties

• a+0=a • a-0=a
• a + 1 = next whole number • a - 1 = previous whole number
• Commutative property
Known‐fact derivations (e.g., 5 + 6 = 5 + Inverse/complement of known addition

5 + 1; 7 + 6 = 7 + 7 - 1) facts (e.g., 12 - 5 is known because
5 + 7 = 12)
Redistributed derived facts (e.g., 7 + 5 = 7 + Redistributed derived facts (e.g.,

(3 + 2) = (7 + 3) + 2 = 10 + 2 = 12) 12 - 5 = (7 + 5) - 5 = 7 + (5 - 5) = 7)
Retrieval Retrieval from long‐term memory Retrieval from long‐term memory
Source: Reprinted with permission from First‐Grade Basic Facts: An Investigation into Teaching and Learning
of an Accelerated, High‐Demand Memorization Standard. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education,
copyright 2008, by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. All rights reserved.
2. Reasoning strategies. Using known facts and relations to logically determine the answer
for an unknown combination. (Example: For 4 + 7, the child knows that 3 + 7 is 10,
so 4 + 7 is one more or 11.)
3. Mastery. Producing answers quickly and accurately. (Example: For 4 + 7, the child
quickly responds, “11; I just know it.”) (Reprinted with permission from Why Children
Have Difficulties Mastering the Basic Number Combinations and How to Help Them, copyright
2006, by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. All rights reserved.)
Figure 1 outlines the developmental methods children use to solve basic addition and
subtraction problems. In this chapter, we will focus on reasoning strategies and how to teach
children to use reasoning to master the basic facts (phases 2 and 3).

How will you know when your children are ready to work on reasoning strategies? Based on the research, they
are ready to apply reasoning strategies when they can use counting‐on strategies (start with the larger num-
ber and count up) and are able to decompose numbers (e.g., 6 as 5 + 1). Pose one‐digit addition problems to
children in a one‐on‐one setting to see whether they demonstrate these skills. If they lack one skill, provide ad-
ditional experiences to develop it. Once they have all the needed skills, begin working on reasoning strategies.
174
Reasoning Strategies
The purpose of developing reasoning strategies is to help children move from count-
ing to more efficient ways of recalling facts quickly and accurately. In order for you to
support your children in using effective strategies, you need to have a command of as many
successful strategies as possible. With this knowledge you will be able to recognize effec-
tive strategies as your children develop them and then help others make sense of their
peers’ ideas.
Supporting Strategy Development

We discuss two effective approaches that you can use to help children move from count-
ing to strategies to recall. One approach is to have children solve story problems using
strategies that make sense to them. The second approach is to explicitly teach reasoning
strategies. You will find a combination of these two approaches will serve your children
well.
Use Story Problems

A story problem provides a context that can help children make sense of the situation and Standards for
provides opportunities for children to apply a variety of strategies for doing computations.
Suppose that you want your class to consider the Make 10 strategy. The idea is to use story 1 Make sense
problems that increase the likelihood that children will develop that target strategy. You ◀ of problems and
might pose the following question: persevere in
solving them
Rachel sold 9 boxes of Girl Scout cookies on Friday and 6 boxes on Saturday. How many
boxes did she sell?
Stop and Reflect

How does this problem increase the likelihood that children will develop the Make 10
strategy? ■
Suppose that Sammie explains that because 9 is 1 away from 10, she took 1 from 6 to Standards for
make 9 into 10 and then added the remaining 5 to get to 15. Make explicit the expectation
that children are to attend to their classmates’ ideas. You can ask another child to explain 3 Construct
what Sammie just shared. You can also explore with the class what other facts might work ◀ viable arguments
and critique the
with Sammie’s strategy. reasoning of others
Continue to develop and use story problems that are readily solved using the Make 10
strategy to give children more opportunities to make the strategy their own.
Posing a story problem such as the preceding one each day, followed by a brief dis-
cussion of the strategies that children used, can improve children’s accuracy and efficiency
with basic facts (Rathmell, Leutzinger, & Gabriele, 2000).
Research has found that when a strong emphasis is placed
on children solving problems, they not only become better Children with disabilities may find it difficult to keep all of
problem solvers but they also master more basic facts than their peers’ ideas in working memory, so display the ideas on
children in a drill program (National Research Council, a board or on chart paper as an effective support.
2001).
175
Some teachers hesitate to use story problems with ELLs or children with disabilities
because of the additional language or reading required, but because language supports un-
derstanding, using story problems is important for all children. It is crucial, however, that
the contexts you use are relevant and understood by all the children.
Explicitly Teach Reasoning Strategies

A second approach is to directly model a reasoning strategy. This approach can help chil-
dren expand their own collection of strategies that will help them move away from counting.
Do not, however, expect to introduce a strategy and have children understand and use the
strategy with just one exposure. Just as when using story problems, children need lots of op-
portunities to make the strategy their own. Many children will simply not be ready to use
an idea the first few days, and then suddenly something will click and they will meaningfully
use the strategy.
As an example, you can design a lesson to help chil-
dren examine a specific collection of facts for which a
Write new strategies on the board or make a poster of strat- particular type of strategy is appropriate. Discuss as a
egies that children develop. Give strategies names that make class how these facts are alike in some way, or you might
sense so that children can use the names to describe what suggest an approach and see if children are able to use it
they did (e.g., Make 10, Doubles). with similar facts.
Remember to keep the focus on reasoning and con-
tinue to discuss strategies invented in your class and plan lessons that encourage the
use of strategies. You can encourage children to use particular strategies, but do not
require them to do so—this is the opposite of what you are trying to accomplish as it
takes the reasoning right out of strategy development. Instead emphasize making good
choices and justifying those choices.
Reasoning Strategies for Addition Facts

The reasoning strategies children can and will develop are directly related to
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 one or more number relationships. Numerous activities were suggested to help
0 1 2 children develop these relationships. Now the teaching task is to help children
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 connect these number relationships to the basic facts.
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
3 4 5
4 5 6
5 6 7
6 7 8
One More Than and Two More Than
7 8 9 Each of the 36 facts highlighted in the accompanying chart has at least one addend of
8 9 10 1 or 2. These facts are a direct application of the one‐more‐than and two‐more‐than
9 10 11
relationships. Research suggests that children need to be able to count on before
they are able to successfully use this strategy (Baroody et al., 2009).
Standards for
Mathematical Practice Story problems in which one of the addends is a 1 or a 2 are easy to create. For
example: Six children were waiting in line for ice cream. Two more children got in line. How
3 Construct many children are waiting in line? Ask different children to explain how they got 8 as the
and critique the
answer. Some will count on from 6. Some may still need to count 6 and 2 and then count
reasoning of others all. Others will say they knew that 2 more than 6 is 8. To help children move from counting
to reasoning strategies, draw their attention to the connection between counting on two
and adding two.
176
Standards for
Activity 1 HOW MANY FEET IN THE BED? Mathematical Practice
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nguag
4 Model with
Read How Many Feet in the Bed? by Diane Johnston Hamm. On the second time ◀ mathematics
nglish
e Lerane
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through the book, when a new person gets in the bed, ask children how many more
fo rs
feet are in the bed. Have children record the equation (e.g., 4 + 2) and tell how
many feet in all. Standards for
As family members get out of the bed, two less can be explored. If children continue Mathematical Practice
to count all, let them use a number line or ten‐frame. Find opportunities to make the 8 Look for and
connection between counting on two and adding two using a number line or ten‐frame. ◀ express regularity in
For ELLs, clarify the meaning of foot (it is used here as a body part, not as a unit of mea- repeated reasoning
sure) and be sure to they know what the phrases “two more” and “two less” mean. You
can further support ELLs and children with disabilities by acting out the story with chil-
dren in the classroom.
The different responses will provide you with a lot of information about children’s Figure 2
number sense. As children are ready to use the two‐more‐than idea without counting all,
One more and two more
they can begin to practice with activities such as the following.
activities.
Two Dice
+2 5
“Five and two
more is seven”
Activity 2 ONE MORE THAN AND TWO
MORE THAN WITH DICE AND SPINNERS
+1 +1 7 6
Make a die labeled +1, +2, +1, +2, “one more,” and
“two more.” Label another die with the values 3, 4, 5, Spinner and Die
6, 7, and 8, or whatever values children need to practice. After
each roll of the dice, children should say the complete fact:
“Four and two is six.” Alternatively, use a spinner with “1 2
more” on one half and “2 more” on the other half in place of more
the first die (see Figure 2). For children with disabilities, you 1 “Eight plus one
may want to start with a die that just has +1 and “one more” more is nine.”
and then move to a +2 and “two more” die on another day. 8
This approach will help these children focus on and practice 3 5
one approach.
Activity 2 can be modified for almost all of the strategies in the chapter. + 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 1
Adding Zero
2 2
Nineteen facts shown in the accompanying chart have zero as one of the addends. 3 3
Though such problems are generally easy, some children overgeneralize the idea that 4 4
5 5
answers to addition problems are bigger than the addends. Word problems involving
6 6
zero and subsequent discussions will be especially helpful in avoiding this overgen- 7 7
eralization. In the discussion, use drawings that show two parts with one part empty. 8 8
The following activity provides children opportunities to generalize from a set 9 9
of problems, which reinforces reasoning.
177
Standards for Activity 3 WHAT’S ALIKE? ZERO FACTS

Write about 10 zero facts on the board, some with the zero first and some with the zero
8 Look for and ◀
express regularity in second. Discuss how the equations are alike. Ask children to create their own stories and
repeated reasoning then use counters and a part–part–whole mat to model the situations.
Using 5 as an Anchor
Using an anchor (5 or 10) is a reasoning strategy that builds on children’s knowledge of
number relationships and so is a great way to reinforce number sense while learning the
basic facts. Using 5 as an anchor means looking for fives in the numbers in the problem. For
example, in 7 + 6, a child may think of 7 as 5 + 2 and 6 as 5 + 1. The child would add 5 + 5
and then the extra 2 from the 7 and the extra 1 from 6, adding up to 13.
Five‐ and ten‐frames and the arithmetic rack can help children visualize numbers as
5 and some more. The following activity extends the use of these visual models to support
children’s reasoning strategies for addition.
Activity 4 FLASH
Project two ten‐frames on the board. Without letting children see, place counters on
each ten‐frame so that the top row is full (five counters) and the extras are in the bottom
row of each ten‐frame. Uncover the two ten‐frames for about 3 to 5 seconds and then
BLM
recover. First, ask children to share how many counters they saw and accept all answers.
Then ask children to explain how they saw it. Again quickly uncover and then cover the
ten‐frames and ask if anyone wants to change their answer. Finally, uncover the ten‐
frames and have children explain how they saw the counters. Alternatively, you can use
two ten‐frame cards from Blackline Master 18 or two arithmetic racks.
Make 10
Perhaps the most important strategy for children to know is the Make 10 strategy, or the
combinations that make 10. The ten‐frame and the arithmetic rack are useful tools for
creating visual images of the number relationships. The next activity is a good way to intro-
duce the Make 10 strategy. Story problems using two numbers that make 10 or that ask how
many are needed to make 10 can provide children additional opportunities to develop the
Make 10 strategy.
Activity 5 MAKE 10 ON THE TEN‐FRAME

Figure 3 Place counters on a ten‐frame and ask, “How many more to make 10?” (See
Make 10 on ten‐frames. Figure 3.) This activity can be repeated using different starting numbers.
Eventually, show an empty ten‐frame and say a number less than 10. Chil-
dren start with that number and complete the “10 fact.” If you say, “four,”
6 and 4 they say, “four plus six is ten.” This activity can be completed in small groups
is 10. or individually. Children who are still in phase 1 of learning the facts (using
counting strategies) may need to model the numbers using their own
ten‐frame.
178
Knowing number combinations that make 10 also builds a foundation for working on
addition with larger numbers. For example, when adding 28 + 7, a child can use the Make
10 strategy by adding 2 to 28 to get to 30 and then adding 5 more. This strategy can even
be extended to make 100.
Up Over 10
This strategy is also known as Make 10 Extended. Many facts have sums greater than
10, and all those facts can be solved using the Up Over 10 strategy, making this a very
useful strategy. With this strategy, children use their known facts that equal 10 and
then add the rest of the number onto 10. For example, to solve 6 + 8, children may
recognize that 8 is 2 from 10; so they take 2 from the 6 and add the 2 to 8 to make 10
and then add on the remaining 4 to get 14. This process is called Break Apart to Make
Ten, or BAMT (Sarama & Clements, 2009), and aligns with children’s previous experi-
ences with ten‐frames and arithmetic racks. If you are trying to encourage children to
come up with this strategy on their own, pose problems that have at least one addend
of 8 or 9.
Notice that many of the basic addition facts can be solved using the Up Over 10 strat-
egy (about a third). Moreover, this strategy can be later applied to adding up over other
benchmark numbers such as 20 and 50. Therefore, you should spend a significant amount of
time and attention to helping children develop this strategy.
Activity 6 MOVE IT, MOVE IT
Give children a mat with two ten‐frames. Flash cards are placed next to the ten‐frames,
or a fact can be given orally. Children should cover each frame with counters to represent
the problem. For example, for the problem 9 + 6, children would cover nine places on one
frame and six on another. Then children are to decide on a way to move the counters so
that they can find the total without counting. Ask children to explain what they did and Standards for
connect their ideas to the new equation. Mathematical Practice
For example, 9 + 6 may become 10 + 5 by moving one counter to the first 4 Model with
◀
ten‐frame. mathematics
Activity 7 FRAMES AND FACTS

BLM
Make little ten‐frame cards (Blackline Master 18) and display an 8 (or 9) card on a
projector. Place other cards beneath it one at a time and ask children to respond
with the total. Have children say what they are doing. For 8 + 4, they might say, “Take 2
from the 4 and put it with 8 to make 10. Then 10 and 2 left over is 12.” Move to more
difficult cards, like 7 + 6. Have children record each equation as shown in Figure 4. Find
opportunities to highlight that filling in the little ten‐frame starting with the larger num-
ber is a faster approach. Show and talk about how it is more challenging to start with the
smaller number as a counterexample. The activity can also be done independently with
the little ten‐frame cards.
179
Figure 4 Frames and facts activity.
Move 1
to make 10.
7 7 plus 9 is
+9
the same as
10 and 6:
16.
Note that children may have many other ways of using 10 to add with 8 or 9. For example,
with the fact 9 + 5, some will add 10 + 5 and then subtract 1. This is a perfectly good strategy
that uses 10.
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Doubles
0 0 There are ten doubles facts from 0 + 0 to 9 + 9, as shown in the chart here. These
1 2 facts can be anchors for other facts.
2 4
3 6
Many children find doubles easier to grasp than other facts. However, all chil-
4 8 dren, and especially children with disabilities, can benefit from using and creating
5 10 picture cards for each of the doubles as shown in Figure 5. Story problems can focus
6 12 on pairs of like addends:
7 14
8 16
9 18 Alex and Zack each found 7 seashells at the beach. How many did they find together?
Activity 8 CALCULATOR DOUBLES

nguag
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For this activity, children work in pairs with a calculator. The children enter the
nglish
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“double maker” (2 * __) into the calculator. Then one child says a double—for ex-
fo rs
ample, “Seven plus seven.” The other child should press 7 on the calculator, say what the
double is, and then press = to see the correct double (14) on the display. The children then
switch roles. For ELLs who are just learning English, invite them to say the double in their
native language or in both their native language and English. (Note that the calculator is
also a good way to practice +1 and +2 facts.)
Figure 5 Double facts.
S M T W T F S 9
4 +9
1 2 3
7 +4
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
+7
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
5
+5
S 8
N
6 AYO +8
+6 CR
180
Figure 6 Near‐double facts.
Flash
7 Cards ble
6 3 4 +6 5 Dou
+1
+6 +3 +4 +4 9
6
3 +8
8 1 9 +5
+4 5 7
+8 +1 +9 +6 + 8 Double
+1
7
2 7 5
+2 +7 +5 +8 Put the 6
near-double 7 +6
on the double +6
fact that helps.
Near‐Doubles
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Near‐doubles are also called the “doubles‐plus‐one” or “double‐minus‐one” facts
0 1
and include all combinations in which one addend is one more or one less than 1 1 3
the other. This strategy uses a known fact to derive an unknown fact. Double the 2 3 5
smaller number and add 1 or double the larger number and subtract 1. Be sure chil- 3 5 7
dren solidly know the doubles before you focus on this strategy. 4 7 9
5 9 11
To introduce the strategy to the class, write several near‐doubles facts on the 6 13
11
board. Place the smaller addend first for some of the problems and second for oth- 7 13 15
ers. Have children solve problems independently and then discuss their strategies. 8 15 17
Some may double the smaller number and add one and others may double the 9 17
larger and subtract. If no one uses a near‐double strategy (they may use the Up
Over 10 strategy), write the corresponding doubles for some of the facts and ask how these
facts could help. This strategy is more difficult for students to recognize and, therefore, may
not be a strategy that all children find useful. In that case, do not force it.
Activity 9 ON THE DOUBLE!
Create a display (on a board or on paper) that illustrates the doubles and prepare cards with
near‐doubles (e.g., 4 + 5) (see Figure 6). Ask children to take a near‐doubles card and to find
the doubles fact on the display that could help them solve the fact on the card and place the
card on that spot. Ask children if there are other doubles that could help as well.
Reasoning Strategies for Subtraction Facts

Subtraction facts prove to be more difficult than addition. This is especially true when
children have been taught subtraction through a “count‐count‐count” approach; for
13 - 5, count 13, count off 5, count what’s left. Remember that counting is the first phase
in reaching basic fact mastery. You need to move children beyond counting strategies to
ensure they master their basic facts. Figure 1 lists the ways children might subtract as
they move from counting to reasoning to mastery. Children need opportunities to learn
and use reasoning strategies; otherwise they continue to rely on counting strategies for
subtraction, which can be slow and too often result in inaccurate answers. Spending suf-
ficient time on the following reasoning strategies can help children move to phase 2 and
eventually on to mastery (phase 3). You can also help children build stronger connec-
181
tions between addition and subtraction by posing more join and separate story problems
with start and change unknowns as well as more part-part-whole and comparison story
problems.
Subtraction as Think‐Addition
In Figure 7, subtraction is modeled in such a way that children are encouraged to think,
Figure 7 “What goes with this part to make the total?” When done in this think‐addition man-
Using a think‐addition
ner, children use known addition facts to produce the unknown quantity or part. If this
model for subtraction
important relationship between parts and wholes—between addition and subtraction—can
facts.
be made, subtraction facts will be much easier. As with addition
facts, it is helpful to begin with facts whose totals (minuends) are
Connecting Subtraction to Addition Knowledge
10 or less (e.g., 8 - 3, 9 - 7) before working on facts that have a
1. Count out 13 and total higher than 10 (e.g., 13 - 4).
cover.
The value of think‐addition cannot be overstated. However, if
children are to effectively use the think‐addition strategy, they first
must master the basic addition facts. Evidence suggests that children
learn very few, if any, subtraction facts without first mastering the
2. Count and corresponding addition facts. So, for example, mastery of 3 + 5 is
remove 5. prerequisite knowledge for learning the facts 8 - 3 and 8 - 5.
Keep these Story problems that promote think‐addition are those that
in view.
sound like addition but have a missing addend: join, start unknown;
join, change unknown; and part–part–whole, part unknown. Consider
3. Think: “Five and what
makes thirteen?” 8! 8 left. this problem:
13 minus 5 is 8.
4. Uncover. Janice had 5 fish in her aquarium. Grandma gave her some more fish.
Then she had 12 fish. How many fish did Grandma give Janice?
8 and 5 is 13. Notice that the action is join and, thus, suggests addition. There is
a high probability that children will think, “Five and how many more
make 12?” In the discussion in which you use problems such as this,
your task is to connect this thought process with the subtraction fact, 12 - 5. Children may
use the Up Over 10 strategy to solve this problem, just as they did with the addition facts. For
example, they may think, “It takes 5 to get to 10 and 2 more to get to 12, so that’s 7.”
Stop and Reflect

Before reading further, look at these three subtraction facts and reflect on the thought
processes you use to get the answers. Even if you “just know them” think about what a likely
process might be. ■
14 13 15
-9 -7 -6
Down Over 10
You may have used a think‐addition strategy for any of the problems in the previous Stop
and Reflect. Or you may have started with the 14 and counted down to 10 (4) and then
down 1 more to 9 for a total difference of 5. This reasoning strategy is called Down Over 10.
If you did not use this strategy, try it with one of the examples.
This strategy is based on a derived fact strategy because children use what they know
(14 minus 10 is 4) to figure out a related fact (14 - 9). This strategy helps children move to
mastery while supporting their number sense.
182
One way to develop the Down Over 10 strategy is to give children five or six pairs of
facts in which the difference for the first fact is 10 and the second fact is 8 or 9 (e.g., 16 - 6
and 16 - 7 or 14 - 4 and 14 - 6). Have children solve each pair of problems and discuss their
strategies. If children do not naturally see the relationship, ask them to think about how the
first fact can help them solve the second. Reinforce the Down Over 10 strategy by posing
story problems such as the following:
Bekah had 15 bracelets. She gave 6 to a friend. How many does Bekah have left?
Take from 10
This strategy capitalizes on children’s knowledge of the combinations that make 10 and it
works for all subtraction problems in which the starting value (minuend) is more than 10.
For example, consider the problem 16 - 8. Children would take the minuend (16) apart into
10 + 6, and then subtract 10 - 8 (because they know this fact). They would then add the 2
back to the 6 to get 8. Try this strategy on these examples:
15 - 8 = 17 - 9 = 14 - 8 =
This is a great reasoning strategy, although it may seem uncomfortable at first. It may
be helpful to use story problems to make it easier to keep track of the quantities. For ex-
ample, for 14 - 8, you might use a story problem such as “Andy had 14 toy animals. He gave
8 to a friend. How many does Andy have left?” To reason through the strategy, children
can either use manipulatives or imagine taking the 14 toy animals and splitting them into a
group of 10 and a group of 4. Then they have to take 8 from the group of 10 to get 2. Then
they add the 2 to the 4 to see they have 6 left.
Reinforcing Reasoning Strategies

It is important to note that while the strategies explained so far may appear as if they are
best used for particular basic facts, the reality is there is no one “best” strategy for any fact.
For example, 7 + 8 could be solved using Up Over 10 or near‐doubles. The more you em-
phasize choice, the more children will be able to find strategies that work for them, which
will lead to fact fluency.
Stop and Reflect

Most addition facts lend themselves to a variety of different reasoning strategies. What are
three strategies children could use to get the answer to 8 + 6? ■
The following activity is good for helping children realize that if they just don’t know a
fact, they can rely on reasoning.
Activity 10 IF YOU DIDN’T KNOW

nguag
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Pose the following task to the class: If you did not know the answer to 8 + 5 (or
nglish
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any fact that you want students to think about), how could you figure it out with-
out counting? Encourage children to come up with more than one way (hopefully
using the strategies suggested earlier). To support children’s communication skills,
especially ELLs and children with disabilities, use a think‐pair‐share approach in which
children discuss their ideas with a partner before they share them with the class.
183

Using diagnostic interviews with children learning their basic facts is critical. Many children will be stuck
on counting strategies (phase 1) and can be so adept at counting that you may be unaware that they are
counting. Quick counting is not a substitute for fact mastery. Use a short diagnostic interview that includes
a variety of facts that lend themselves to different strategies. After the child records or states the answer,
ask the child to explain how his or her thinking led to the answer.
Building a Foundation for Multiplication Facts

According to the CCSSO (2010), children in second grade should start to work with equal
groups of objects arranged in rectangular arrays (up to 5 rows and up to 5 columns) to lay a
foundation for multiplication. Although it will be appropriate for second graders to use skip
counting at this stage, emphasizing reasoning strategies is
just as important for moving toward mastery of multiplica-
As with addition and subtraction facts, start with story tion facts (Baroody, 2006; Wallace & Gurganus, 2005).
problems as you develop reasoning strategies for multiplica- You can begin to draw children’s attention to the com-
tion facts. mutative property of multiplication. This property can be
best visualized by using arrays as opposed to equal groups of
objects. For example, a 2 * 8 array can be described as 2 rows of 8. When rotated 90 degrees,
Standards for
Mathematical Practice it is an 8 * 2 array and described as 8 rows of 2. In both cases, the total is 16. It will take time
for children to understand this significant idea but understanding it will reduce by half the
7 Look for and ◀
number of multiplication basic facts to be memorized.
For a virtual site that connects arrays to multiplication facts, go to http:// nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav
/category_g_2_t_1.html and click on “Rectangle Multiplication.”
Doubles
Facts that have 2 as a factor are equivalent to addition doubles and should already
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 be known by children by the time you begin introducing them to multiplication.
0 0 So the goal is to help children realize that 2 * 7 is the same as double 7, as is 7 * 2.
1 2
Start with story problems in which 2 is the number of groups. Later, use problems
2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
3 6 in which 2 is the size of each group.
4 8
5 10 Our field trip is in 2 weeks. How many days will we need to wait? [two groups of 7]
6 12
7 14
8 16
A kindergarten class was making clay animals. If there were 7 rabbits made, how
9 18
many rabbit ears were there? [seven groups of 2]
Fives
Facts with 5 as the first or second factor can be related to skip counting by fives. Practice
counting by fives to at least 45. Connect counting by fives with arrays that have rows of 5
dots (see Figure 8a). Point out that such an array with six rows is a model for 6 * 5, eight
184
Figure 8 Fives facts.
12
11 1
5
10 2
10
15 5
9 3 ×7
20
25
8 4
30
7 5
6
(a) Count by fives. (b) The minute hand tells

minutes after.
rows is 8 * 5, and so on. As illustrated in the following activity, you can also connect fives
facts to telling time on a clock to the nearest five minutes, an expectation for second graders
in the Common Core State Standards.
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0
Activity 11 CLOCK FACTS 1 5
2 10
Focus on the minute hand of the clock. When it points to a number, how many 3 15
4 20
minutes after the hour is it? Point to numbers 1 to 9 on a large clock face in 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
random order. Children respond with the minutes after. (See Figure 8b.) Connect 6 30
this idea to the multiplication facts with 5. In this way, the fives facts become the 7 35
“clock facts.” 8 40
9 45
Zeros and Ones

Thirty‐six facts have at least one factor that is either 0 or 1. These facts, though + 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
apparently easy on a procedural level, tend to get confused with “rules” that some 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
children learned for addition. The fact 6 + 0 is 6, but 6 * 0 is 0; and n + 1 fact is the 2 0 2
next counting number, but n * 1 is n. Using story problems to develop the concepts 3 0 3
underlying these facts is the best approach. To reinforce the concepts, ask children to 4 0 4
5 0 5
put words to the equations. For example, for 6 * 0, they could say something such as
6 0 6
six rows of chairs with no people in each. For 0 * 6, they could say something such 7 0 7
as we have zero spiders with six legs each. Avoid rules that aren’t conceptually based, 8 0 8
such as “Any number multiplied by zero is zero.” 9 0 9
Mastering Basic Facts

Children must master the basic facts (develop quick recall) because those who continue
to struggle with basic facts often fail to understand higher mathematics concepts. Their
cognitive energy is spent doing computation when it should be spent focusing on the more
sophisticated concepts being developed (Forbringer & Fahsl, 2010).
185
As stated in the Common Core State Standards, the expectation is that by the end of sec-
ond grade children will know from memory their basic facts for addition and subtraction.
This achievement is a result of repeated experiences with reasoning strategies over time
and not because of time spent memorizing. Children can know something from memory
through immersion in the reasoning strategies, game playing, and life experiences, without
ever having to memorize a fact from a flash card. Drill without moving children from count-
ing strategies (phase 1) to reasoning strategies (phase 2) to mastery (phase 3) has repeat-
edly been found to be ineffective. The distinction between mastering basic facts via rote
memorization and mastering basic facts via an emphasis on reasoning strategies is the most
significant message in this chapter.
Effective Drill
The fact that drill—repetitive non‐problem‐based activity—can strengthen memory and
retrieval capabilities (Ashcraft & Christy, 1995) is important to consider once children
are effectively using reasoning strategies that they understand but that they have not yet
memorized. For drill to be effective, pacing and focus are crucial. Too often children
become frustrated and overwhelmed because drill includes too many facts too quickly.
Children will progress at different rates—gifted children tend to be good at memorizing
whereas children with intellectual disabilities have difficulty memorizing (Forbringer &
Fahsl, 2010).
When working on moving children to phase 3 (know from memory), use groups of
related facts. By organizing the work around related facts, if a child needs any further discus-
sion and illustrations, the focus will be beneficial. For example, if given a stack of *1 facts,
some children will quickly learn these facts by noting the generalization described earlier.
However, some children—in particular, children with disabilities—may need more discus-
sion and illustration to support their learning.
There are several websites and software programs that provide children opportunities to drill basic facts.
These programs can be a great support for children who are near mastery or who are maintaining mastery
because they can be fun. Try to use websites or programs for which you can target groups of related facts,
rather than ones that drill on all the facts at one time. Fun 4 the Brain (www.fun4thebrain.com) and Math
Fact Café (www.mathfactcafe.com) are two such websites.
Use Games to Support Basic Fact Mastery

Games are another option that can keep children engaged while supporting the mastery
of basic facts. Use games and activities in which children can choose from the strategies
discussed in this chapter to help them become more fluent at choosing strategies and
eventually to become more fluent with the basic facts. You can also focus on clusters of
related facts with games. Games increase children’s involvement, encourage student‐to‐
student interaction, and improve communication—all of which are related to improved
academic achievement (Forbringer & Fahsl, 2010; Kami & Anderson, 2003; Lewis, 2005).
When all the facts are learned, continued reinforcement through occasional games and
activities is important.
186
Activity 12 SALUTE!
nguag
-La
Place children in groups of three and give each group a deck of cards (omit face
nglish
e Lerane
rE
cards and use aces as ones). Two children draw a card without looking at it and
fo rs
place it on their forehead facing outward so the others can see it. The child with
no cards tells the sum of the two cards. The first of the other two to correctly say
the number on their forehead “wins” the round. For ELLs, children with disabilities, or
reluctant learners, speed can increase anxiety and inhibit participation. You can remove
speed of response by having each child write down the card they think they have
(within 5 seconds) and they get a point if they are correct. This activity can be differen-
tiated by including only certain cards (e.g., addition facts using only the numbers 1
through 5).
Activity 13 MISSING‐NUMBER CARDS
Show children families of numbers with the sum circled, as in Figure 9a. Ask why
they think the numbers go together and why one number is circled. When this num-
ber family idea is understood, draw a different card and cover one of the numbers
with your thumb, asking, “What is missing?” Ask children how they figured it out.
After you have modeled this process, children can do this with partners. Alternatively,
you can create cards with one number replaced by a question mark, as in Figure 9b.
When children understand this activity, you can introduce missing‐number cards such
as those in Figure 9c. Ask children to name the missing number and explain their
thinking.
Figure 9 Introducing missing‐number cards.
6 8
3 7
13
4 11 4
8 5 5
9 6 12
14
(a)
Why do these numbers belong together?
8
Why is one circled?
7 9
? ? 10 4 14 3 6
6
? 13 (c)
3 4
These missing-number
(b)
cards are just like the
Which number is missing? number families. Say the
How can you tell what it is? missing number.
187
As a follow‐up to Activity 13, children can complete “cards” on missing‐number hand-

BLM outs (Blackline Master 11). You can create differentiated worksheets for children using clus-
ters of facts that each child is ready to work on. For example, in one column of 13 “cards,”
you can put Make 10 facts, in another column you can put near‐doubles facts, and in the
Standards for third column you can put combinations from two families. Put combinations with different
numbers missing, some addends and some sums. Also make sure to put blanks in differ-
4 Model with
◀ ent positions. An example is shown in Figure 10. Have children write an equation for each
mathematics missing‐number card.
This is an important step because many children are able to give the missing part in a
family but do not connect this knowledge with subtraction.

As children are engaged in games and activities, interview them to determine if they are using
counting strategies, reasoning strategies, or quick recall. Ask them to tell you what strategy they
just used. If you observe counting, ask the child to try a particular reasoning strategy. If children are
counting, more experiences to develop number relationships, such as activities with ten‐frames, are
needed.
Figure 10
Missing‐number handouts. The blank version can be used to fill in any sets of facts you
wish to emphasize (see Blackline Master 11). (Note that the columns are not labeled on
student pages.)
Two fact
families
Make-ten Near- (7, 8, 15)
facts doubles (4, 8, 12)
4 8 5 6 4 12
9 6 13 7 15 8
8 7 15 8 12 4
15 6 5 11 7 8
5 13 7 15 12 8
8 17 9 4 12 8
6 8 17 8 4 12
3 9 11 6 8 15
9 16 5 4 15 7
6 8 3 7 7 8
7 16 9 5 4 12
3 9 6 13 4 8
8 8 17 9 8 15
188
Dos and Don’ts for Teaching Basic Facts

This is such an important life skill for all learners that it is important that you use what re-
search suggests are the most effective practices. The following list of recommendations can
support the development of quick recall.
1. Ask children to self‐monitor. Having a sense of what you know, what you don’t know,
and what you need to learn is important. Have children identify which basic facts are
difficult for them and which reasoning strategies they want to work on to help them
with those facts.
2. Focus on self‐improvement. If you are working to improve a child’s quickness at recalling
facts, then the only person he should be compared with is himself. For example, children
can keep track of how long it took them to go through their “fact stack” and then two
days later, work through the same stack and check to see whether they were quicker or
more accurate than the last time. Celebrate successes.
3. Drill in short time segments. Long periods (10 minutes or more) for drill are not effective.
Use the first 5 to 10 minutes of the day, or extra time before lunch, to provide continued
support on fact development and retention without using mathematics instructional
time better devoted to other topics. Other quick ideas include projecting numerous
examples of double ten‐frames, doing a story problem and taking 5 minutes to share
strategies, and having children pair up and go through each of their individualized sets
of flash cards in 2 minutes.
4. Work on facts over time. Plan to work on facts over months and months, emphasizing
reasoning strategies, then memorization, and then continued review and monitoring.
5. Involve families. Share your plan for how you will work on learning facts over the year
and will first emphasize reasoning strategies. Ask family members to help children by
using reasoning strategies when they don’t know a fact.
6. Make drill enjoyable. Use games and activities designed to reinforce facts without
competition and without inducing anxiety.
7. Use technology. Technology offers children immediate feedback and reinforcement,
helping them to self‐monitor.
The following list describes strategies that may have been designed with good inten-
tions but hinder children’s recall of basic facts.
1. Don’t use lengthy timed tests. Children can get distracted by the pressure and abandon
their reasoning strategies during timed tests. They can also develop anxiety as a result
of timed tests, which works against learning mathematics. Instead have children
self‐monitor the time it takes them to go through a small set of facts and then work
to improve their speed.

If there is any purpose for a timed test of basic facts, it may be for diagnostic purposes to determine which
number combinations are mastered and which remain to be learned. Follow up with the child to identify
possible misconceptions or misapplication of strategies as well as which facts are mastered and which
need more practice.
189
2. Don’t use public comparisons of mastery. Avoid using public comparisons, such as a bulletin
board display that shows which children have mastered which basic facts. Similarly,
avoid public competition with flash cards. It is great to celebrate children’s successes,
but avoiding public comparisons between children can go a long way in preventing
children’s anxiety as they learn mathematics.
3. Don’t proceed through the facts in order from 0 to 9. Instead work on collections of facts
based on strategies and conceptual understanding to emphasize connections and
sense making.
4. Don’t work on all the facts all at once. Select a strategy (starting with the easier ones) and
then work on memorization of that set of facts (e.g., doubles). Be sure children really
know these facts before moving on; otherwise, they may become confused and your
goal for them to master all the facts will backfire. Because some children will learn
some facts more quickly than other children, you will need to differentiate.
5. Don’t move to quick‐recall activities too soon. Quick recall or mastery can be attained only
after children have a robust collection of reasoning strategies to apply as needed.
6. Don’t use facts as a barrier to good mathematics. Mathematics is not solely about
computation. Mathematics is about reasoning, using patterns, and making sense of
things. Children who have mastered their basic facts do not necessarily reason better
than those who, for whatever reason, have not yet mastered their facts. There is no
reason that a child who has not yet mastered all basic facts should be excluded from
any mathematical experiences.
7. Don’t use fact mastery as a prerequisite for calculator use. Insisting that children master
the basic facts before allowing them to use a calculator denies them important
learning opportunities. For example, if the learning objective for a lesson is for
children to explore even and odd numbers, then they might be building different
array representations of numbers, recording different parts of the representations
while they look for patterns. A child who has not yet developed fluency could
get too bogged down in computation without a calculator. With a calculator, the
same child can participate and hopefully attain the learning goals of the lesson.
190
Missing‐Number Cards
Content and Task Decisions how they thought about it. Encourage such children
to illustrate their solution on a hundreds chart or with
Grade Level: 1–2 double ten‐frames.
• The phrase “fact families” or “families of values” may
Mathematics Goals sound odd to ELLs because they probably know a dif-
• Practice part–part–whole thinking in developing con- ferent meaning of the word family. Use the everyday
nections between addition and subtraction meaning to connect to the grouping of the numbers in
the missing‐number sets.
• Use think‐addition as a strategy for solving subtraction
facts
For Children with Disabilities
Grade Level Guide • If children are struggling, you may want to use a part–
NCTM Common part–whole mat along with counters to model the ar-
Curriculum Focal Points Core State Standards rangements of the fact families.
Basic fact strategies begin Adding and subtracting

in grade 1 and are mastered within 20 are addressed in
in grade 2 in the Number grades 1 and 2. In grade 1,
and Operations and Algebra children develop strategies
strands. In grades 1 and 2, (such as relating addition to
focal points target basic fact subtraction) and add fluently
7
strategies: to 10. “By end of grade 2,
know from memory all sums
“Developing understandings
of addition and subtrac-
of two one‐digit numbers” Materials
(CCSSO, 2010, p. 19).
tion and strategies for basic Each child will need:
addition facts and related
• Missing‐part recording sheet (Blackline
subtraction facts” (National
Master 11). The combinations on the work- BLM
Council of Teachers of Math-
sheet should address the specific facts chil-
ematics, 2006, p. 13) and
dren need to master.
“Developing quick recall of
addition facts and related
Teacher will need:
subtraction facts and fluency
• Missing‐number flash cards. (The specific combinations
with multi‐digit addition and
on the cards are dependent on the facts that children
subtraction” (p. 14).
still need to master. They should include roughly an
equal number of missing‐part and missing‐whole num-
Consider Your Children’s Needs bers. See Figures 9 and 10 in the text.)
Children who are still very weak with addition facts will
not benefit very much from this activity. The ultimate
goal is to use think‐addition when the whole and part are Lesson
known and then later connect this thinking to subtraction.
Before
For English Language Learners Present the focus task to the class:
• Children from other countries are often very good at • Draw several three‐unit number families on the board.
mental mathematics. ELLs may have no trouble find- For example, you might show 4, 8, and 12; 6, 9, and
ing the missing number but may struggle to explain 15; or 6, 7, and 13. In each number family, the whole is
191
always circled. Have children tell why the numbers go After

together and how they are related.
• Next draw some number families with one number
• Select specific cards on the recording sheet and ask chil-
in the family missing. If the whole is missing, put an
dren to describe how they decided on the answer.
empty circle where it would be. If a part and a whole
are given, circle the whole. For example, for 9, 4, and • Discuss strategies children used on the missing‐part
an empty circle, the missing number is the whole, 13. examples. Listen carefully for reasoning that approxi-
For 5 and a circled 12, the missing number is 7, the mates the following: “I saw a 5 and a 14 in a circle so I
part that goes with 5 to make 12. Ask children to tell had to figure out what goes with 5 to make 14. Since 5
which number you have left out and why. They need and 9 make 14, I put down 9.”
to understand the convention of the circled number
being the whole and the other two numbers being Assessment
the parts.
Observe
• Introduce the missing‐number flash cards. Show at least
five cards with two numbers and a space for a third • The format of this practice activity encourages a
(either in a circle or not) and have children tell which think‐addition approach. Do you see this with your
number is missing on the card. children?
• Pass out the missing‐part recording sheets prepared • For children who struggle with missing parts, it is im-
with number families on which children can practice. portant to see how fluent they are with the corre-
Their task is to fill in the missing number on each sponding missing‐whole cards. You can similarly check
“card” of the recording sheet. their mastery of addition facts.
• Prepare a page of addition and subtraction facts that
Provide clear expectations: correspond to the facts on the missing‐part recording
• This activity may be presented in small groups to ad- sheets. Children who complete the missing‐part record-
dress specific weaknesses. ing sheets fluently should also know the corresponding
addition and subtraction facts.
During • Children who revert to counting, especially count-

ing backward (a take‐away approach), but who can
Ongoing: do the missing‐part sheets have not yet made a con-
• Watch to see how fluently children are able to fill in nection between missing parts and subtraction. This
the cards on the recording sheets. If you see hesitation calls for explicit work on connecting subtraction to
or finger counting, stop and ask children to try to think missing‐part thinking. Ask questions to help build this
of an addition fact (or related fact) that can help them connection.
figure out the missing number. Children can also use
double ten‐frames to help think about the problem. Ask
• Ask children what strategies they are using to find the • How did you find the missing number?
missing number. • How is this missing‐number card related to addition
• Note which types of problems are difficult for children. and subtraction?
192
References
Ashcraft, M. H., & Christy, K. S. (1995). The Gravemeijer, K., & van Galen, F. (2003). Facts
frequency of arithmetic facts in elementary texts: and algorithms as products of students’ own
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companion to Principles and Standards for School
Baroody, A. J. (1985). Mastery of the basic number
Mathematics (pp. 114–122). Reston, VA: National
combinations: Internalization of relationships or
facts? Journal for Research in Mathematics Education,
16(2), 83–98. Henry, V. J., & Brown, R. S. (2008). First‐grade
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adaptive expertise and flexibility: The integration
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69–79. learning disabilities (MLD) varies as a function
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(2006). Curriculum focal points for prekindergarten
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193
Developing Whole‐Number
Place‐Value Concepts
BigIDEAS
1 Sets of ten (and tens of tens) can be perceived as single entities or units. For example, “three sets of ten and two
singles” is using base‐ten language to describe 32 single objects.
2 The positions of digits in numbers determine what they represent—which size group they count. This is the major
organizing principle of place‐value numeration and is central to developing number sense.
3 There are patterns to the way that numbers are formed. For example, each decade has a symbolic pattern reflective
of the 0‐to‐9 sequence (e.g., 20, 21, 22, . . . 29).
4 The groupings of ones, tens, and hundreds can be taken apart in different but equivalent ways. For example, beyond
the typical way to decompose 256 into 2 hundreds, 5 tens, and 6 ones, it can be represented as 1 hundred, 14 tens, and
16 ones as well as 25 tens and 6 ones. Decomposing and composing multidigit numbers in flexible ways is a necessary
foundation for computational estimation and exact computation.
5 Children progress through three levels of understanding the concept of “ten” starting with understanding ten not as
a unit but only as ten ones. They then move to seeing ten as a unit but rely on physical or mental reconstructions of models
to help them work with units of ten. Finally, they are able to easily work with units of ten without the need of physical or
mental reconstructions of base‐ten models.
6 Children’s ability to label the tens place and the ones place or to count by tens does not guarantee that they
understand that one ten is the same as ten ones.
A complete understanding of place value, including extensions to deci-

mal numeration, develops over the elementary and middle grades.
However, the most critical period in this development occurs in grades
pre‐K to 2. In kindergarten and first grade, children count and are ex-
posed to patterns in the numbers to 100. Most importantly, they begin
to think about groups of ten objects as a unit. The Common Core State
Standards (CCSSO, 2010) recommend that kindergartners work with
195
Developing Whole‐Number Place‐Value Concepts
numbers between 11 and 19 by putting them together (composing) and taking them apart
(decomposing) into tens and ones using materials and drawings. By second grade, these ini-
tial ideas are extended to three‐digit numbers.
As a significant part of this development, children should engage in composing and
decomposing numbers in a wide variety of ways as they solve addition and subtraction
problems with two‐ and three‐digit numbers. In other words, there is no need to separate
place‐value instruction from computation instruction. Children’s efforts with the invention
of their own computation strategies will both enhance their understanding of place value
and provide a firm foundation for flexible methods of computation.
Children’s Pre–Place‐Value Understandings

Children know a lot about numbers with two digits (10 to 99) as early as kindergarten.
After all, most kindergartners can and should learn to count to 100 and count out sets of
items with as many as 20 or 30 objects (CCSSO, 2010). They count children in the room,
turn to specific page numbers in their books, and so on. However, to begin with, their un-
derstanding is quite different from yours. It is based on a count‐by‐ones approach to quan-
tity and so the number 18 to them means 18 ones. They are not yet able to separate the
quantity into place‐value groups. For example, even after counting 18 teddy bears, a young
child might tell you that the 1 in the number stands for 1 teddy bear and the 8 stands for 8
teddy bears.
Researchers have identified three levels of understanding about the concept of “ten”
through which children progress (Wright, Martland, Stafford, & Stanger, 2008).
• Level 1: Initial Concept of Ten. Children understand ten not as a unit but only as ten
ones. When solving addition or subtraction problems involving tens, they count only by
ones.
• Level 2: Intermediate Concept of Ten. Children see ten as a unit that consists of ten
ones, but they must rely on physical or mental reconstructions of models to help them
work with units of ten.
• Level 3: Facile Concept of Ten. Children are able to easily work with units of ten with-
out the use of physical or mental reconstructions of base‐ten models.

Ask first‐ or second‐grade children to count out 35 tiles. Watch closely to note whether they count out the
tiles one at a time and put them into a pile without any type of grouping or if they group them into tens.
Have the children write the number that tells how many tiles they just counted. Some may write “53”
instead of “35,” a simple reversal. You will likely find that early on children count the tiles one by one and
are not yet thinking of ten as a unit (level 1 or initial concept of ten).
The children just described know that there are 35 tiles “because I counted them.”
Writing the number and saying the number are usually done correctly, but their under-
standing of 35 derives from and is connected to the count‐by‐ones approach. Children do
not easily or quickly develop a meaningful use of groups of ten to represent quantities.
Even if children can tell you that in the numeral 35 the 3 “is in the tens place” or that
there are “5 ones,” they might just know the name of the positions without understanding
196
that the “tens place” represents how many groups of ten.

Similarly, if children use base‐ten blocks, they may name a
rod of ten as a “ten” and a small cube as a “one” but may not
be able to tell how many ones are required to make a ten. It is easy for children to attach words to both materials and
Children may know that 35 is “a lot” and that it’s more groups without realizing what the materials or symbols
than 27 (because you count past 27 to get to 35). They represent.
think of the “35” that they write as a single numeral. In this
stage, they do not know that the 3 represents three groups of ten things and the 5 represents
five single things (Fuson, 2006). Fuson and her colleagues refer to children’s pre–place‐value
understanding of number as “unitary.” That is, there are no groupings of ten, even though a
two‐digit number is associated with the quantity. They rely on unitary counts to understand
quantities.
Foundational Ideas in Place Value

Place‐value understanding requires an integration of new
and sometimes difficult‐to‐construct concepts of grouping Children must understand the word grouping, especially
by tens (the base‐ten concept) with procedural knowledge of English language learners (ELLs) who may become confused
how groups are recorded in our place‐value system and how because the root word group is frequently used to instruct
numbers are written and spoken. children to work together.
Integration of Base‐Ten Groupings

with Counting by Ones
Recognizing that children can count out a set of 35 by ones, you want to help them see that
making groupings of tens and leftovers is a way of counting that same quantity. Each of the
sets in Figure 1 has 35 tiles. You want children to construct the idea that all of these are the
same and that the sameness is evident by virtue of the groupings of tens.
There is a subtle yet profound difference between children at this stage: Some know
that set B in Figure 1 is 35 because they understand the idea that three groups of 10 and 5 Standards for
more is the same amount as 35 counted by ones; others simply say, “It’s 35,” because they Mathematical Practice
have been told that when things are grouped this way, it’s called 35. The children who un-
7 Look for and
derstand place value will see no need to count set B by ones. They understand the “thirty‐ ◀
fiveness” of sets A and B to be the same. The children in the pre–base‐ten stage may not
be sure how many they will get if they count the tiles in set B by ones or if the groups were
“ungrouped” how many there would then be.
Stop and Reflect

What are some defining characteristics of “pre–place‐value” children and children who
understand place value? ■
Recognition of the equivalence of sets B and C is another step in children’s conceptual

development. Groupings with fewer than the maximum number of tens are referred to as
equivalent groupings or equivalent representations. Understanding the equivalence of sets B
and C indicates that grouping by tens is not just a rule that is followed but also that any
grouping by tens, including all or some of the singles, can help tell how many. Many com-
putational techniques (e.g., regrouping in addition and subtraction) are based on equivalent
representations of numbers.
197
Figure 1 The Role of Counting in Constructing

Three equivalent groupings of 35 objects. Set A is 35 Base‐Ten Ideas
because “I counted them (by ones).” Set B has 3 tens
and 5 more. Set C is the same as B, but now some Counting plays a key role in constructing base‐ten ideas
groups of 10 are broken into singles. about quantity and in connecting these concepts to symbols
and oral names for numbers.
Children can count sets such as those in Figure 1 using
Set A Unitary three distinct approaches. Each approach helps children
or count-by-ones view think about the quantities in a different way.
1. Counting by ones. Children usually begin with this
method. Initially, a count‐by‐ones approach is the primary
Set B Base-ten
way they can name a quantity or “tell how many.” All three
or group-by-tens view of the sets in Figure 1 can be counted by ones. Before base‐
ten ideas develop, counting by ones is the only approach by
which children can be convinced that all three sets are the
same amount.
Set C Equivalent
or nonstandard base-ten
2. Counting by groups and singles. In set B in Figure 1,
view counting by groups and singles would go like this: “One, two,
three groups of 10, and one, two, three, four, five singles.”
Consider how novel this method would be for a child who
had never thought about counting a group of objects as a
single item. Also notice how this approach to counting does not tell directly how many
items there are. This counting must be coordinated with counting by ones before it can be
a means of telling “how many.”
3. Counting by tens and ones. This is the way adults would probably count set B and
perhaps set C: “Ten, twenty, thirty, thirty‐one, thirty‐two, thirty‐three, thirty‐four, thirty‐
five.” Although this count ends by saying the number of objects, it is not as explicit as the
second method in counting the number of groups.
Regardless of the specific activity that you may be doing with children, your foremost
objective should be helping them integrate the grouping‐by‐tens concept with what they
know about number from counting by ones. If they first counted by ones, the question
might be, “What will happen if we count these by groups and singles (or by tens and ones)?”
If a set has been grouped into tens and singles and counted accordingly, “How can we be
really certain that there are 35 things here?” or “How many do you think we will get if we
count by ones?” You cannot tell children that these counts will all be the same and hope that
will make sense to them. It is a relationship they must construct.
Integration of Groupings with Words

The way we say a number such as “thirty‐five” must also be connected with the grouping‐
by‐tens concept. The counting methods provide a way to help children make this connec-
tion. Counting by tens and ones results in saying the number of groups and singles sepa-
rately: “three tens and five.” Saying the number of tens and singles separately in this fashion
can be called base‐ten language. Children can associate base‐ten language with standard
language: “three tens and five—thirty‐five.”
There are several variations of base‐ten language for 35: “3 tens and 5,” “3 tens and
5 ones,” “3 groups of 10 and 5 ones;” “3 tens and 5 singles,” and so on. Each may be used
interchangeably with the standard name “thirty‐five.” If you have ELLs, it is best to select
one variation (e.g., 3 tens and 5 ones) and consistently connect it to the standard language.
198
Figure 2
Groupings by 10 are matched with numerals, which are recorded in labeled places and
eventually written in standard form.
TENS ONES
5 3
53
5 tens 3 ones
5 3
Other languages often use base‐ten terminology, so this can be a good cultural connection
for children (e.g., 17 in Spanish is diecisiete, literally meaning “10 and 7”).
Integration of Groupings with Place‐Value Notation

The symbolic scheme that we use for writing numbers (ones on the right, tens to the left of
ones, and so on) must be coordinated with the grouping scheme. Activities can be designed so
that children physically associate groupings of tens and ones with
the correct recording of the individual digits, as Figure 2 indicates. Figure 3
Language again plays a key role in making these connections. Relational understanding of place value integrates
The explicit count by groups and singles matches the individual dig- three components: base‐ten concepts, oral names
its as the number is written in the usual left‐to‐right manner. A simi- for numbers, and written names for numbers.
lar coordination is necessary for hundreds and other place values.
Figure 3 summarizes the ideas of integrated place‐value un- Base-Ten Concepts
derstanding that have been discussed so far. Note that in addition
to counting by ones, children should have experiences counting
in two other ways: by groups and singles and by tens and ones.
All three methods of counting are coordinated as the principal
method of integrating the base‐ten concepts, the written names,
and the oral names.
Standard and equivalent groupings
meaningfully used to represent quantities
Base‐Ten Models for Place Value

Counting
Physical models for base‐ten concepts can play a key role in • By ones
helping children develop the idea of “a ten” as both a single en- • By groups and singles
tity and as a set of 10 units. Remember, though, that the physical • By tens and ones
models do not “show” the concept to the children. The children
must mentally construct the “ten makes one” relationship and
impose it on the model. Oral Names Written Names
When first teaching place value, the base‐ten model for Standard:
ones, tens, and hundreds should be proportional. That is, a Thirty-two
Base-Ten: 32
model for ten is physically ten times larger than the model for a Three tens and two
one, and a model for one hundred is ten times larger than the ten
199
Figure 4 model. Base‐ten models can be categorized as groupable

and pregrouped.
Groupable and pregrouped base‐ten models.
(a) Groupable base-ten models Groupable Models

Models that most clearly reflect the relationships of ones,
tens, and hundreds are those for which the ten can actually
be made or grouped from the single pieces. When children
Counters and cups: put 10 beans in a cup, the cup of 10 beans literally is the
Ten single counters are
placed in a portion cup.
same as the 10 single beans. Examples of these groupable
Hundreds: ten cups in a models are shown in Figure 4a. These could also be called
margarine tub. “put‐together–take‐apart” models.
Cubes:
Ten single cubes form
a bar of 10.
Hundreds: ten bars on
cardboard backing. As children begin to make groupings of ten, start introduc-
ing the language of “tens” by matching the objects being
Bundles of sticks (wooden craft sticks, coffee stirrers): used, such as “cups of ten and ones” or “bundles of ten and
If bundles are left intact, these are a pregrouped model.
singles.” Then move to a general phrase, such as “groups of
Hundreds: ten bundles grouped with a rubber band.
ten and ones.”
(b) Pregrouped base-ten models
Strips and squares:

Of the groupable models, beans or counters in cups
Make from cardstock. See are inexpensive and easy for children to use. Plastic linking
Blackline Master 13. Plastic cubes also provide a good transition to pregrouped tens rods
versions are available
as they form a similar shape. Bundles of wooden Popsicle
through catalogs.
sticks or coffee stirrers can be grouped with rubber bands,
but small hands may have trouble using rubber bands.
As children become more and more familiar with these
models, collections of tens can be made in advance by the
Base-ten blocks: children and kept as ready‐made tens (e.g., Popsicle sticks
Wooden or plastic units, can be left bundled, linking cubes can be left connected).
longs, flats, and blocks. This is a good transition into the pregrouped models de-
Expensive, durable,
easily handled, the only
scribed next.
model with 1000.
Pregrouped or Trading Models

Models that are pregrouped are commonly shown in
textbooks and are often used in instructional activities.
Pregrouped models, such as those in Figure 4b, cannot
be taken apart or put together. When 10 single pieces
are accumulated, they must be exchanged or traded for
Little ten-frame cards:
Good for illustrating how far to the next multiple of ten.
a ten, and likewise, tens must be traded for hundreds.
Ones are not loose but are organized in a ten-frame. With pregrouped models you need to make extra efforts
No model for 100. Inexpensive and easy to make. to make sure that children understand that a ten piece
See Blackline Masters 17 and 18.
really is the same as 10 ones. Here children combine
multiplicative understanding (each piece is ten times the
Standards for
Mathematical Practice value of the place to the right) with a positional system
(each place has a value)—something hard to do prior to learning multiplication! The
7 Look for and
◀ chief advantage of these physical models is their ease of use and the efficient way they
make use of structure model large numbers.
200
The little ten‐frames (see Blackline Masters 17–18) are less common but are very effec-
tive. If children have been using ten‐frames to think about numbers to 20, the value of the BLM
filled ten‐frame may be more meaningful than the ten rods and squares of base‐ten materi-
als. Although the ones are fixed on the cards, this model has the distinct advantage of always
showing the distance to the next decade. For example, when 47 is shown with 4 ten cards
and a seven card, a child can see that three more ones will make five full cards, or 50.
A significant disadvantage of the pregrouped physical models is the potential for children
to use them without reflecting on the ten‐to‐one relationships or without really understand-
Standards for
ing what they are doing—this is especially true if children have not had adequate experience Mathematical Practice
working with groupable models.
For example, if children are told to trade 10 ones for a ten, it is quite possible for ◀ 5 Use appropriate
them to make this exchange without attending to the “ten‐ness” of the piece they call a ten. tools strategically
Similarly, children can learn to “make the number 42” by simply selecting 4 tens and 2 ones
pieces without understanding that if the pieces all came apart there would be 42 ones pieces
that could be counted by ones.
Electronic versions of pregrouped base‐ten manipulatives (such as the Base Blocks applet at http://nlvm
.usu.edu/en/nav/frames_asid_152_g_3_t_2.html) are computer representations of the three‐dimensional
base‐ten blocks. With simple mouse clicks, children (including those with disabilities) can place ones, tens,
hundreds, or thousands on the screen. To break a piece into 10 smaller pieces, simply move the piece to
the right one column. Lasso 10 pieces and they are automatically grouped into a larger base-ten piece. As
pieces are moved onto the place value mat, a corresponding numeral that shows the current quantity is
displayed. You can also adjust the columns to display two, three, or four place values.
Compared to real base‐ten blocks, these virtual materials are free, can be easily grouped and
ungrouped, can be shown to the full class on a projection device, and are available in “endless” supply—
even the thousands blocks. Even with all these advantages, the computer models, like the physical models,
are only a representation for children who understand the relationships involved.
Nonproportional Models
Nonproportional models (e.g., money, an abacus) can be used by children who understand
that 10 units make “a ten.” These are models, such as money, in which the ten is not physi-
cally ten times larger than the one. Many children can grasp place‐value relationships using
pennies, dimes, and dollars to represent the ones, tens, and hundreds on their place‐value
mat. Using coin representations, they can display amounts and exchange 10 dimes for a dol-
lar and represent and carry out a variety of calculations. However, like a bead frame that has
the same‐sized beads on wires in different columns (i.e., an abacus) or chips that are assigned
different place values by color, nonproportional representations are not used to introduce
place‐value concepts. They are used once children have a conceptual understanding of the
numeration system and need additional reinforcement.
Developing Base‐Ten Concepts

Now that you have a sense of the important place‐value concepts, we turn to activities that
can assist children in developing these concepts. This section focuses on base‐ten concepts
or grouping by tens (see the top of Figure 3). Connecting this important idea with the
201
oral and written names for numbers (the rest of Figure 3) is discussed separately. How-
ever, in the classroom, the oral and written names for numbers can and should be devel-
oped in concert with conceptual ideas.
Grouping Activities
Reflect for a moment on how strange it must sound to say “seven ones.” Certainly, children
have never said they were “seven ones” years old. The use of the word ten as a singular group
name is even more mysterious. Consider the phrase “Ten ones makes one ten.” The first
ten carries the usual meaning of 10 things, the amount that is 1 more than 9 things. But the
other ten is a singular noun, a thing. How can something the child has known for years as
the name for a lot of things suddenly become one thing? And if you think this is confusing
for native speakers, imagine the potential difficulty for ELLs.
Because children come to their development of base‐ten concepts with a count‐by‐ones
idea of number, you must begin there. You cannot arbitrarily impose grouping by ten on
children. Children need to experiment with showing amounts in groups of like size and
eventually come to an agreement that ten is a very useful size to use. The following activ-
ity could be done in first grade and is designed as an example of a first effort at developing
grouping concepts.
Activity 1 COUNTING IN GROUPS
Find a collection of things that children might be interested in counting—perhaps the

Standards for
Mathematical Practice number of shoes in the classroom, a tub of cubes, a long chain of plastic links, or the
number of crayons in the classroom crayon box. The quantity should be countable, some-
1 Make sense where between 25 and 100. Pose the question, “How could we count our shoes in some
of problems and ◀ way that would be easier than counting by ones?”
persevere in
solving them Whatever suggestions you get, try to implement them. After trying several methods,
you can have a discussion of what worked well and what did not. If no one suggests
counting by tens, you might casually suggest that as an idea to try.
One teacher challenged her children to find a good way to count all the linking cubes
being held by the class after each child had been given a cube for each of their pockets.
The first suggestion was to count by sevens. That was tried but did not work very well
because none of the children could count by sevens. In search of a more efficient way, the
next suggestion was to count by twos. This did not seem to be much better than counting
by ones. Finally, they settled on counting by tens and realized that this was a pretty good
method.
This and similar activities provide you with the opportunity to suggest that materi-
als be arranged into groups of tens before the “fast” way of counting is begun. Remember
that children may count “ten, twenty, thirty, thirty‐one, thirty‐two” but not fully realize the
“thirty‐two‐ness” of the quantity. To connect the count‐by‐tens method with their under-
stood method of counting by ones, the children need to count both ways and discuss why
they get the same result.
The idea in the next activity is for children to make groupings of ten and record or say
the amounts. Number words are used so that children will not mechanically match tens and
ones with individual digits. It is important that children confront the actual quantity in a
manner meaningful to them.
202
Activity 2 GROUPS OF TEN
Prepare bags of different types of objects such as toothpicks, buttons, beans, plas-
tic chips, linking cubes, Popsicle sticks, or other items. Children should have a re-
cording sheet similar to the top example in Figure 5. The bags can be placed at stations
around the room or given to pairs of children. Children empty the bags and count the
contents. The amount is recorded as a number word. Then the objects are grouped in as
many tens as possible. The groupings are recorded on the form. After returning the ob-
jects to the bags, bags are traded or children move to another station. Note that children
with disabilities may initially need to use a ten‐frame to support their counting. Then the
use of the ten‐frame should eventually fade.
Variations of the “Groups of Ten” activity are suggested by the other recording sheets
in Figure 5. On the “Get This Many” sheet, children count the dots and then count out the
corresponding number of objects. Provide small cups to put the groups of ten in. Notice
that the activity requires children to first count the set in a way they understand (e.g., count
Figure 5 Activities involving number words and making groups of ten.
Name
Bag of Number word
Tens
Toothpicks
Singles
Tens
Beans
Singles
Tens
Washers
Singles
Get this many. Write the number word.
Tens Ones
Fill the tens.

Get forty-seven beans.
Fill up ten-frames. Draw dots.
Tens Extras
Loop this many.

Loop sixty-two in groups of ten.
Tens Ones
203
by ones), record the amount in words, and then make the groupings. The “Fill the Tens”
and “Loop This Many” sheets begin with a verbal name (number word), and children must
count the indicated amount and then make groups.
The following activity is another variant of the grouping activities but includes an esti-
mation component that adds interest, makes the activity more problem based, and contrib-
utes to number sense. Listening to children’s estimates is a useful assessment opportunity
that tells you a lot about children’s concepts of numbers.
Activity 3 ESTIMATING GROUPS OF TENS AND ONES
Show children a length that they are going to measure—for example, the length of a child
lying down or the distance around a sheet of newspaper. At one end of the length, line up
10 units (e.g., 10 linking cubes, toothpicks, rods, or blocks). On a recording sheet (see Fig-
ure 6), children write down an estimate of how many groups of 10 and ones they think will
fit into the length. Next they find the actual measure, placing units along the full length.
These are counted by ones and also grouped in tens. Both results are recorded. Estimating
the groups of ten requires children to pay attention to the ten as a group or unit.
Children can work in pairs to measure several lengths around the room. A similar
estimation approach could be added to “Groups of Ten” (Activity 2), where children first
estimate the quantity in the bags.

As you watch children doing these activities, you can learn a lot about their base‐ten concept development.
For example, how do children count out the objects? Do they make groupings of ten? Do they count to 10 and
then start again at 1? Children who do that are already using the base‐ten structure. But what you will more
likely see early on is children counting a full set without stopping at tens and without any effort to group the
materials in piles. You can also ask a child in a diagnostic interview to count a jar of small beans. Ask the child,
“If you were to place each group of 10 beans in a small cup, how many cups would you need?” If a child has
no idea or makes random guesses, what would you know about the child’s knowledge of place value?
Figure 6 Recording sheet for estimating groups of tens and ones.
NAME Jessica
OBJECT ESTIMATE ACTUAL
desk 5 TENS 6 SINGLES 3 TENS 2 SINGLES
Thirty-two
Number Word
TENS SINGLES TENS SINGLES
Number Word
204
Grouping Tens to Make 100

In second grade, numbers up to 1000 become important (CCSSO, 2010). Here the issue is
not one of connecting a count‐by‐ones approach to a group of 100 but rather seeing how a
group of 100 can be understood as a group of 10 tens as well as 100 single ones. In textbooks
this is often illustrated on one page showing how 10 rods of ten can be put together to make
one hundred. This quick demonstration may be lost on many children.
As a means of introducing hundreds as groups of 10 tens and also 100 singles, consider
the following estimation activity.
Activity 4 TOO MANY TENS
Show children any quantity with 150 to 1000 items. For example, you might use a jar of
lima beans, a clear bag full of plastic necklace beads, a long chain of connecting links or
paper clips, or a box of Styrofoam packing peanuts. Suppose you are using the bag of
plastic beads. First, have children make and record estimates of how many beads are in
the bag. Discuss with children how they determined their estimates. Then give portions
of the beads to pairs or triads of children to put into cups of 10 beads. Collect leftover
beads and put these into groups of ten as well. Now ask, “How can we use these groups
of ten to tell how many beads we have? Can we make new groups from the groups of
ten? What is 10 groups of ten called?” If using cups of beads, be prepared with some
larger containers or baggies into which 10 cups can be placed. When all groups are made,
count the hundreds, the tens, and the ones separately. Record the totals on the board as
“4 hundreds + 7 tens + 8 ones.”
In this activity, it is important to use a groupable model so that children can see how the
10 groups of ten are the same as 100 individual items. This connection is often too implicit in
the display of a hundreds flat or a paper hundreds square in the pregrouped base‐ten models.
Equivalent Representations
An important variation of the grouping activities is aimed at the equivalent representations
of numbers. After children have just completed the “Groups of Ten” activity (Activity 2)
with a bag of objects, pose the following task.
What is another way you can show 42 besides 4 groups of ten and 2 singles? Let’s see how
many ways you can find.
Interestingly, most children will go next to 42 singles. The following activities focus on cre-
ating other equivalent representations.
Activity 5 CAN YOU MAKE THE LINK?
Show a collection of materials that is only partly grouped in sets of ten. For example, you
may have 5 chains of 10 links and 17 additional links. Be sure the children understand
that each chain is a group of 10 links. Have children count the number of chains, and
also count the singles, in any way they wish to count. Ask, “How many in all?” Record all
responses and discuss how they got their answers. Next change the groupings (make a
205
ten from the singles or break apart one of the tens) and repeat the questions and discus-
Standards for
Mathematical Practice sion. Do not change the total number from one time to the next. Once children begin to
understand that the total does not change, ask in what other ways the items could be
8 Look for and
◀ grouped if using tens and singles.
express regularity in
repeated reasoning
If you teach second grade, equivalent representations for hundreds as groups of tens can
help children with the concept of a hundred as 10 tens. The next activity is similar to “Can
You Make the Link?” but is done using pregrouped materials and includes hundreds.
Activity 6 THREE OTHER WAYS
Children work in groups or pairs. First, they show 463 on their desks with base‐ten materi-
als in the standard representation. Next, they find and record at least three other ways of
representing this quantity.
A variation of “Three Other Ways” is to challenge children to find a way to show

an amount with a specific number of pieces. For example, ask children to show 463 with
31 pieces. (There is more than one way to do this.)
After children have had sufficient experiences with pregrouped materials, a semiabstract
“dot‐stick‐square” notation can be used for recording ones, tens, and hundreds (see Figure 7).
Use the drawings as a means of telling the children which type of pieces to use to solve prob-
lems and also as a way for children to record results.
The next activity begins to incorporate oral language with equivalent representation
ideas.
Figure 7 Equivalent representation exercises using square‐stick‐dot pictures.
Show forty-two three different ways.
Tens Tens Tens

Ones Ones Ones
How much? Show another way.
206
Activity 7 BASE‐TEN RIDDLES
Base‐ten riddles can be presented orally or in written form. In either case, children should use
base‐ten materials to help solve the riddles. The examples here illustrate a variety of differ-
ent levels of difficulty. After children solve the following riddles, have them write new ones.
• I have 23 ones and 4 tens. Who am I?

• I have 4 hundreds, 12 tens, and 6 ones. Who am I?
• I have 30 ones and 3 hundreds. Who am I?
• I am 45. I have 25 ones. How many tens do I have?
• I am 341. I have 22 tens. How many hundreds do I have?
• I have 13 tens, 2 hundreds, and 21 ones. Who am I?
• If you put 3 more tens with me, I would be 115. Who am I?
• I have 17 ones. I am between 40 and 50. Who am I? How many tens do I have?
Oral and Written Names for Numbers

In this section, we focus on helping children connect oral and written names for numbers
(see bottom of Figure 3) with their emerging base‐ten concepts of using groups of ten or
one hundred as efficient methods of counting. Note that
the ways we say and write numbers are conventions, not It is important to note that the patterns in our English number
concepts. Children must learn these by being told rather words are probably not the same as those in ELLs’ native lan-
than through problem‐based activities. guage, especially for the numbers 11 to 19.
Two‐Digit Number Names

In kindergarten and first grade, children need to connect the base‐ten concepts with the oral
number names they have used many times. They know the words but may have not thought
of them in terms of tens and ones. In fact, early on they may want to write twenty‐one as 201.
Almost always use base‐ten models while teaching oral names. Initially, rather than use
standard number words, use the more explicit base‐ten language (e.g., “4 tens and 7 ones”
instead of “forty‐seven”). Base‐ten language is rarely misunderstood. When it seems ap-
propriate, begin to pair base‐ten language with standard language. Emphasize the teens as
exceptions. Acknowledge that they are formed “backward” and do not fit the patterns. The
next activity helps introduce oral names for numbers.
Activity 8 COUNTING ROWS OF 10
Use a 10 * 10 array of dots on the projector. Cover up all but two rows, as shown in Fig-
ure 8a. “How many tens? (2.) Two tens is called twenty.” Have the class repeat. Show an-
other row. “Three tens is called thirty. Four tens is forty. Five tens could have been fivety
but is just fifty. How many tens does sixty have?” The names sixty, seventy, eighty, and
ninety all fit the pattern. Slide the cover up and down the array, asking how many tens
and the name for that many. ELLs may not hear the difference between fifty and fifteen,
sixty and sixteen, and so on, so explicitly compare these words and clearly enunciate and
even overemphasize the word endings.
Use the same 10 * 10 array to work on names for tens and ones. Show, for example,
four full lines, “forty.” Next expose one dot in the fifth row. “Four tens and one. Forty‐
one.” Add more dots one at a time. “Four tens and two. Forty‐two.” “Four tens and
three. Forty‐three.” This is shown in Figure 8b. When that pattern is established, repeat
with other decades from 20 through 90.
207
Figure 8
BLM
10 * 10 dot arrays are used to model sets of 10 and singles (Blackline Master 12).
(a) (b)
“Four tens—forty”
“Two tens—twenty” “Four tens and three—forty-three”
Repeat this basic approach with other base‐ten models. The next activity shows how
this might be done.
Activity 9 COUNTING WITH BASE‐TEN MODELS

nguag
-La
Show some tens pieces on the projector or just place them on the carpet in a mixed
nglish
e Lerane
rE
fo
arrangement. Ask how many tens. Add a ten or remove a ten and repeat the question.
rs
Next add some ones. Always have children give the base‐ten name and the standard name.
Continue to make changes in the materials displayed by adding or removing one or
two tens and by adding and removing ones. Avoid the standard left‐to‐right order for
tens and ones so the emphasis is on the names of the materials, not the order they are in.
Reverse the activity by having children use base‐ten blocks at their desks. For example, say,
“Make 63.” The children make the number with the models and then give the base‐ten name (6
tens and 3 ones) and standard name (63).
Note that Activities 8 and 9 will be enhanced by hav-

ing children explain their thinking. If you don’t require
Post examples of base‐ten names and the corresponding stan- children to reflect on their responses, they soon learn how
dard names on the math word wall. This is particularly helpful to give the response you want, matching number words to
for ELLs and children with disabilities and will be helpful for models without actually thinking about the total quanti-
other children as well. ties. The next activity has the same objective as Activities
8 and 9.
Standards for
Mathematical Practice Activity 10 TENS, ONES, AND FINGERS
2 Reason abstractly
◀ Ask your class, “Can you show 6 fingers (or any amount less than 10)?” Then ask, “How can
and quantitatively you show 37 fingers?” Some children will figure out that at least four children are required.
208
Line up four children, and have three hold up 10 fingers while the fourth child holds
up 7 fingers. Have the class count the fingers by tens and ones. Ask other children to
show different numbers. Emphasize the number of sets of 10 fingers and the single fin-
gers (base‐ten language) and pair this with standard language.
In the last three activities, it is important occasionally to count an entire representation

by ones. Remember that counting by ones is the young child’s principal linkage with the
concept of quantity. For example, suppose you have just had children use linking cubes to
make 36. Try asking, “Do you think there really are 36 blocks there?” Many children may
not be convinced, so the count by ones is very significant.
Three‐Digit Number Names

The approach to three‐digit number names is essentially the same as for two‐digit names.
Show mixed arrangements of base‐ten materials. Have children write the base‐ten name
and the standard name. Vary the arrangement from one example to the next by changing
only one type of piece. That is, add or remove only ones or only tens or only hundreds. It
is important for children with disabilities to see counterexamples, so purposefully point out
that some (anonymous!) children wrote 200803 for two hundred eighty‐three, and ask them
whether that is correct. These discussions allow children to explore their misunderstandings Standards for
and to more explicitly focus on the place‐value system. Mathematical Practice
Similarly, have children at their desks model numbers that you give to them orally using
4 Model with
the standard names. By the time that children are ready for three‐digit numbers, the two‐ ◀
mathematics
digit number names, including the difficulties with the teens, have usually been mastered.
The major difficulty is with numbers involving no tens, such as 702. As noted earlier, the use
of base‐ten language is quite helpful here. The difficulty with zero tens (or more generally
the internal zero) is more pronounced when writing numerals. At first children do not see
the importance of zero in place value and do not understand that zero helps to distinguish
between such numbers as 703, 73, and 730 (Dougherty, Flores, Louis, & Sophian, 2010).
Try posing tasks similar to the following to emphasize the importance of zero in place value.
Use the standard names to say the following numbers: 203, 23, and 230. As you say a num-
ber, have children write the number and then model the number with base‐ten materials.
Then repeat the numbers orally using base‐ten language and have children check their mod-
els and written numerals.
Children frequently incorrectly write 2003 for two hundred three. The emphasis on the
meaning in the oral base‐ten language will be a significant help. ELLs may need additional
time to think about how to say and write numerals because they are translating all the terms
within the number.
Written Symbols
Place‐value mats are simple mats divided into two or three sections to hold ones and tens or
ones, tens, and hundreds pieces as shown in Figure 9. You can suggest to children that the
mats are a good way to organize their materials when working with base‐ten blocks. Explain
that the standard way to use a place‐value mat is with the space for the ones on the right and
tens and hundreds places to the left.
Although not commonly seen in textbooks, it is strongly recommended that two ten‐
BLM
frames (see Blackline Master 15) be drawn in the ones place as shown. That way, the amount of
ones on the ten‐frames is always clearly evident, eliminating the need for repeatedly counting
209
Figure 9 the ones. The ten‐frame also makes it very clear how many
Place‐value mats with two ten‐frames in the ones place to
additional counters would be needed to make the next set
organize the counters and promote the concept of groups of ten. If children are modeling two numbers at the same
of ten. time, one ten‐frame can be used for each number.
Be aware of how easy it is for a child to show a num-
Strips and squares show ber on a mat using base‐ten blocks and learn to write the
237 on three-place mat.
number without any understanding of what the number
represents. First‐ and second‐grade textbooks often show
a picture of base‐ten materials and have children record
numbers in this manner:
7 tens and 3 ones is 7 3 in all.
It is all too easy to copy down the number of rods and

single blocks and rewrite these digits in a single number
With two ten-frames, 73 and not confront what these symbols stand for. Con-
cups and beans show 53. sider the following approach to address this issue.
As children use their place‐value mats, they can be
shown how the left‐to‐right order of the pieces is also
the way that numbers are written. To show how the
numbers are “built,” have a set of 27 cards—one for
each of the hundreds (100–900), one for each of the tens
(10–90), and ones cards for 1 through 9 (see Figure 10).
Notice that the cards are made so that the tens card is
twice as long as the ones card and the hundreds card is
three times as long as the ones card.
As children place the materials for a number (e.g., 457) on the
place‐value mat, have them also place the matching cards (e.g., 400, 50,
Figure 10 and 7) below the materials. Then starting with the hundreds card, layer
Building numbers with a set of cards.
the others on top, right aligned. This approach will show how the num-
ber is built while allowing children to see the individual components
600 of the number. This is especially helpful when there are zero tens. The
place‐value mat and the matching cards illustrate the important link
30 between the base‐ten models and the written form of the numbers.
The next two activities are designed to help children make con-
4 05007 2 nections between models, oral names (base ten and standard), and
written forms. The activities can be done with two‐ or three‐digit
numbers depending on children’s needs.
Activity 11 SAY IT/PRESS IT

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Display some ones and tens (and hundreds) in a mixed arrangement. (Use a projec-
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tor or simply draw on the board using the square‐stick‐dot method.) Children say
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the amount shown in base‐ten language (“four hundreds, one ten, and five ones”) and
then in standard language (“four hundred fifteen”); next they enter it on their calculators.
Have someone share his or her display and defend it. Make a change in the materials and
repeat. You can also do this activity as “Show It/Press It” and start by saying the standard
name for a number (with either two or three digits). At their desks, children use base‐ten
materials to show that number and press it on their calculators (or write it). Again, pay spe-
cial attention to numbers in the teens and the case of zero tens. ELLs may need additional
time to think of the words that go with the numbers, especially as the numbers get larger.
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These activities are especially good for numbers that pose problems for children, such
as the teens and three‐digit numbers with zero tens. If you show or say 7 hundreds and 4
ones, the class says, “seven hundreds, zero tens, and four ones—seven hundred (slight pause)
four.” The pause and the base‐ten language suggest the correct three‐digit number to press,
write, and model.
The next activity is a wonderful challenge for children in early stages of place‐value
development. It can also be used as an assessment to see whether children really understand
the value of digits in two‐ and three‐digit numbers.
Activity 12 DIGIT CHANGE
Have children enter a specific two‐ or three‐digit number on the calculator.

The task is to change one of the digits in the number without simply entering the
new number. For example, change 48 to 78. Change 315 to 305 or to 295. Changes can be
made by adding or subtracting an appropriate amount. Children should write or discuss
explanations for their solutions. Children with disabilities may need the visual support of
having cards that say “add ten” or “add one” first to explore how the number changes.
They may also need to use base‐ten materials to be able to conceptualize the number
before moving to more abstract work using only the calculator.

Children are often able to disguise their lack of understanding of place value by following directions, using
the tens and ones pieces in prescribed ways, and using the language of place value.
The diagnostic tasks presented here are designed to help you look more closely at children’s under-
standing of the integration of the three components of place value. Designed to be used in diagnostic
interviews rather than whole‐class activities, these tasks have been used by several researchers and are
adapted primarily from Kami (1985), Labinowicz (1985), and Ross (1986).
The first interview task is referred to as the Digit Correspondence Task. Take out 36 blocks. Ask the
child to count the blocks, and then have the child write the number that tells how many there are. Circle
the 6 in 36 and ask, “Does this part of your 36 have anything to do with how many blocks there are?”
Then circle the 3 and repeat the question. As with all diagnostic interviews, do not give clues. Based on
responses to the task, Ross (1989, 2002) has identified five distinct levels of understanding of place value:
1. Single numeral. The child writes 36 but views it as a single numeral. The individual digits 3
and 6 have no meaning by themselves.
2. Position names. The child correctly identifies the tens and ones positions but still makes no
connections between the individual digits and the blocks.
3. Face value. The child matches 6 blocks with the 6 and 3 blocks with the 3.
4. Transition to place value. The 6 is matched with 6 blocks and the 3 with the remaining 30
blocks but not as 3 groups of 10.
5. Full understanding. The 3 is correlated with 3 groups of 10 blocks and the 6 with 6 single
blocks.
For the second interview, write the number 342. Have the child read the number. Then have the child
write the number that is 1 more. Next, ask for the number that is 10 more. You may wish to explore further
with models. One less and 10 less can be checked the same way. Watch to see whether the child is count-
ing on or counting back or if the child immediately knows that 10 more is 352. This interview can also be
done with a two‐digit number.
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A third interview can also be revealing. Ask the child to write the number that represents 5 tens, 2
ones, and 3 hundreds. Note that the task does not give the places in order. What do you think will be the
common misunderstanding? If the child does not write 352, then ask the child to show you the number
with base‐ten materials. What information can you obtain from the results of this interview?
BLM
Figure 11
A hundreds chart Patterns and Relationships with Multidigit Numbers
(Blackline Master 10).
Now we move beyond a snapshot view of individual numbers to
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 look at patterns in our number system and how numbers are re-
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 lated. In particular we are interested in helping children develop an
understanding of the relationships of numbers to special numbers
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 called benchmark numbers. These ideas begin to provide a basis for
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 computation.
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
The Hundreds Chart
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
The hundreds chart (Figure 11) is such an important tool in the
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 development of place‐value concepts that it deserves special at-
tention. K–2 classrooms should have a hundreds chart displayed
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
prominently.
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 A pocket‐chart version of a hundreds chart is very useful. You
can hide a number in the chart by inserting a blank card in front
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 of the number in the pocket. You can also insert colored pieces
of paper in the slots to highlight various number patterns such as
skip-counting patterns. You can also remove some or all the num-
BLM ber cards and have children return them to their correct positions. A blank 10 * 10 grid (see
Blackline Master 9) serves as an empty hundreds chart on which you can write numbers.
In kindergarten and first grade, children can count and recognize two‐digit numbers
with the hundreds chart. In first and second grades, children can use the hundreds chart to
develop base‐ten understanding, noticing that jumps up or down are jumps of ten, while
jumps to the right or left are jumps of one.
There are lots of patterns on the hundreds chart. In a discussion, different chil-
dren will describe the same pattern in several ways. Accept all ideas. You might have
children explore various skip‐count patterns.
You can use online versions of a hundreds chart, one of which (called Hundred Square) can be found at
www.crickweb.co.uk/ks2numeracy‐tools.html. This online tool allows you to hide numbers behind opaque
screens as well as highlight particular numbers or patterns using transparent colored screens. You can also
change where the hundreds chart begins (e.g., 0 or 1) and change the increments between numbers to
explore skip‐counting patterns.
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Have children skip‐count together by twos, threes, or fours. Then have children record
a specific skip‐count pattern on their own copy of the hundreds chart by coloring in
each number they count. Discuss the patterns on the chart as well as the patterns in the
numbers.
Replacing the number cards from a blank chart is a good station activity for two chil-
dren to try. By listening to how children determine the correct places for numbers, you can
assess how well they have constructed an understanding of the 1‐to‐100 sequence.
Activity 13 FINDING NEIGHBORS ON THE HUNDREDS CHART
Begin with a blank or nearly blank hundreds chart. Circle a particular missing
number. Children are to fill in the designated number and its “neighbors”—the
numbers to the left, to the right, above, and below. This can be done with the full class
on a projector or with blank hundreds chart worksheets. Especially for children with
disabilities, it is important to use a “think‐aloud” to describe what key features of the
numbers you think about as you determine the missing number and its neighbors. After
children become comfortable naming the neighbors of a number, ask what they notice
about the neighboring numbers. The numbers to the left and right are one more and one
less than the given number. Those above and below are ten less and ten more, respec-
tively. What about those numbers on the diagonal? By discussing these relationships on
the chart, children begin to see how the sequence of numbers is related to the numerical
relationships.
Notice that children will first use the hundreds chart to learn about the patterns in the
sequence of numbers. Many children, especially at the kindergarten or first-grade level, will
not understand the corresponding numeric relationships such as those discussed in the last
activity. In the following activity, number relationships on the chart are made more explicit
by including the use of base‐ten materials.
Activity 14 MODELS WITH THE HUNDREDS CHART BLM
Use any base‐ten model for two‐digit numbers with which the children are familiar. The
little ten‐frame cards are recommended (see Blackline Masters 17–18). Give children one Standards for
or more numbers to first make with the models and then find on the chart. Use groups of Mathematical Practice
two or three numbers either in the same row or the same column. Ask children, “How are
2 Reason abstractly
the numbers in the row (or column) alike? How are they different?” ◀
and quantitatively
Indicate a number on the chart. Ask children, “What would you have to change to
make it into each of its neighbors (the numbers to the left, to the right, above, and
below)?”
It is also helpful for children to have a chart that extends to 200, even in the first grade.
Perhaps a more powerful idea is to extend the hundreds chart to 1000.
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Activity 15 THE THOUSANDS CHART
Provide children with several sheets of the blank hundreds charts (see Blackline Master 9).
BLM Assign groups of three or four children the task of creating a 1‐to‐1000 chart. The chart is
made by taping 10 blank hundreds charts together in a long strip. Children should decide
how they are going to divide up the task of filling in the chart with different children
working on different parts of the chart.
The thousands chart should be discussed as a class to examine how numbers change as
you count from one hundred to the next, what the patterns are, and so on. In fact, the earlier
hundreds chart activities can all be extended to a thousands chart.
Relationships with Benchmark Numbers

One of the most valuable features of both the hundreds chart and the little ten‐frame cards
is how clearly they illustrate the distance to the next multiple of 10 (e.g., the end of the row
on the chart or the blank spaces on the ten‐frame card). Multiples of 10, 100, and occasion-
ally other special numbers, such as multiples of 25, are referred to as benchmark numbers.
Children might learn to use this term as they work with informal methods of computation.
For example, when finding the difference between 74 and 112, a child might say, “First I
added 6 onto 74 to get to a benchmark number. Then I added 2 tens onto 80 to get to 100
because that’s another benchmark number.” No matter the terminology used, understanding
how numbers relate to these special numbers is an important step in children’s development
of number sense and place‐value understanding.
In addition to the hundreds chart, the number line is an excellent way to explore these
relationships. The next two activities are suggestions for using number lines.
Activity 16 WHO AM I?
Sketch a line (or use a piece of cash register tape) and label 0 and 100 at opposite ends.
Mark a point with a “?” that corresponds to your secret number. (Estimate the position the
best you can.) Children use estimation to try to identify your secret number. For each esti-
mate, place and label a mark on the line. Continue marking each estimate until your secret
number is discovered. Have children explain how they are making their estimates. High-
light any use of benchmark numbers in their estimations. As a variation, the endpoints can
be other than 0 and 100. For example, try 0 and 1000, 200 and 300, or 500 and 800.
21 38 47 75
0 ? 100
Activity 17 WHO COULD THEY BE?

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Label two points on a number line (not necessarily the ends) with benchmark
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numbers. Show children different points labeled with letters; ask what numbers
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these points might be and why the children think that. In the example shown
here, B and C are less than 100 but probably more than 60. E could be about 180.
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A BC D E
50 200
You can also ask where 75 might be or where 400 is. About how far apart are A
and D? Why do you think D is more than 100? For ELLs and children with disabilities, say
as well as write the numbers on a note card, or ask children to both write and say the
numbers.
Connecting Place Value to Addition and Subtraction

As you can see, there is much more to learning about place value than having children state
how many ones, tens, or hundreds are in a number. Children need ample time and oppor-
tunity to fully understand place value because it is a complex concept—so complex that it
took humans centuries to develop. One relatively recent shift has been to blend instruction
on numeration and place value. The NCTM Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
suggest, “It is not necessary to wait for students to fully develop place‐value understandings
before giving them opportunities to solve problems with two‐ and three‐digit numbers.
When such problems arise in interesting contexts, students can often invent ways to solve
them that incorporate and deepen their understanding of place value, especially when stu-
dents have the opportunities to discuss and explain their invented strategies and approaches”
(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000, p. 82*). Researchers also suggest that
problems involving addition and subtraction are a good context for learning place‐value
concepts (Wright et al., 2008). We know that children who only understand computation
as a digit‐oriented exercise and not with full understanding of the numbers involved make
many errors and have little judgment of the reasonableness of their answers. Here, in this
section, we lay the groundwork for developing both conceptual and procedural knowledge
as we connect place value to addition and subtraction.
Stop and Reflect

As you consider the activities in this section, you will find that although you are adding and
subtracting multidigit numbers, the activities are structured so that you will not be regrouping
or trading. If you find yourself using a standard procedure, do the activity again. Focus on
decomposing and composing numbers rather than regrouping. ■
The key purpose of the following activities is to provide opportunities for children to
apply their emerging understanding of place value to computation.
Activity 18 50 AND SOME MORE
Say or write a number between 50 and 100. Children respond with “50 and __________.”
For 63, the response is “50 and 13.” Any benchmark number can be used instead of 50.
For example, you could use any number that ends in 50 (e.g., 450). You could also use
numbers such as 70 or 230.
*Reprinted with permission from Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, copyright 2000, by the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics. All rights reserved.
215
Benchmark numbers are often used in computational strategies to make the computa-
tions easier to do. The next activity is aimed at what may be one of the most important
benchmark numbers, 100.
Activity 19 THE OTHER PART OF 100
Two children work together with a set of little ten‐frame cards. One child makes a
two‐digit number. Then both children work mentally to determine what goes with the
ten‐frame amount to make 100. They write their solutions on paper and then check by
making the other part with the cards to see if the total is 100. Children take turns mak-
ing the original number. Figure 12 shows three different thought processes that children
might use.
Figure 12 If children are adept at finding parts of 100, you can

change the whole from 100 to another number. At first try
Using little ten‐frames to help think about the “other
part of 100.” other multiples of 10, such as 70 or 80. Then extend the whole
to any number less than 100.
Two more makes 30 and

70 more is 100, so 72.
Stop and Reflect
Suppose that the whole is 83. Sketch four little ten‐frame
cards showing 36. Looking at your “cards,” what goes with 36
to make 83? How did you think about it? ■
28 and 70 is 98 and 2
makes 100, 72.
What you might have done in finding the other part of 83
was subtract 36 from 83. Or you might have added up from
Has to be 70-something
36. Either way, notice that you did not regroup. Most likely
because 80 more is too much.
70 and 2 goes with the 8, 72. you did it in your head, possibly using benchmark numbers.
With more practice you (and children as early as the second
grade) can do this without the aid of the cards.
Compatible numbers for addition and subtraction are
numbers that go together easily to make benchmark numbers.
Numbers that make tens or hundreds are the most common
Figure 13 Compatible pair searches. examples. Compatible sums also include numbers that end in
5, 25, 50, or 75, because these numbers are easy to work with
Using fives to
as well. The teaching task is to get children accustomed to
Make 10 make 100
6 7 looking for combinations that work together and then looking
2 25 5 85 65
9 45 for these combinations in computational situations.
5 3 75
35
1 4 5 8 95 15 55
Make 50 Make 500

37 41 1
3
28 9 240 415 350
125 Activity 20 COMPATIBLE PAIRS
12 335
19 22 165 85
31 38 150 7 5 2 60
3 Searching for compatible pairs can be done as an activity
Make 1000 with the full class. Project one at a time the five suggested
815 565 240 720 compatible pair searches shown in Figure 13. The possible
635 760 365 450 searches are at different difficulty levels. Children name or
5
435 550 280 18 connect the compatible pairs as they see them.
216
The next activity has children apply some of the same ideas about benchmark numbers
that we have been exploring.
Activity 21 CLOSE, FAR, AND IN BETWEEN

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Put any three numbers on the board. Use two‐digit numbers if those are more appro-
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priate for the children.

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With these three numbers as referents, ask questions such as the following,
encouraging discussion of all responses:
• Which two numbers are closest? How do you know?

• Which number is closest to 300? To 250? 364
• Name a number between 457 and 364. 219
• Name a multiple of 25 between 219 and 364.
457
• Name a number that is more than all of these numbers.
• About how far apart are 219 and 500? 219 and 5000?
• If these are “big numbers,” what are some small numbers? Numbers that are about
the same? Numbers that make these seem small?
For ELLs, modify this activity by using prompts that are similar to each other. Chang-
ing the prompts each time increases the linguistic demand for these children. ELLs and
children with disabilities will also benefit from using a visual, such as a number line, and
from writing the numbers rather than just hearing them or saying them.
The following activity takes the next step to making addition more explicit.
Activity 22 CALCULATOR CHALLENGE COUNTING
Children press any number on the calculator (e.g., 17), then + 10. They say the
sum before they press = . Then they continue to add 10 mentally, challenging
themselves to say the number before they press = . Challenge them to see how far they
can go without making a mistake.
You can adjust the difficulty level by adjusting the numbers. You may want to
begin with a starting number that is less than 10 (e.g., 6) for children with disabilities
or start with a larger number, such as 98 or 327, for children who need a challenge.
The constant addend ( + 10 in the preceding example) can also be changed to any
number with one, two, or three digits. Some children will even find jumps of 5 to be
challenging if the starting number is not a multiple of 5. Skip counting by 20 or 25
will be easier than counting by 7 or 12 and will help develop important patterns and
relationships.
You can also go in reverse. That is, enter a number such as 53 in the calculator and
press – 6. As before, children say the result before pressing = . Each successive press will
subtract 6 or whatever constant was entered.
Children can work together in pairs quite profitably on this activity. The activity can
be used repeatedly and varied according to the skill level to challenge children while they
improve their mental skills with numbers.
This next activity combines base‐ten representations with symbolism.
217
Figure 14 Figure 15
Flexible counting on or addition using Take away or take from subtraction using both
both models and numerals. models and numerals.
Take
30 away
30
56
Take
45 85 away
Take
away
232
470
Take
673 away
745
Activity 23 NUMBERS, SQUARES, STICKS, AND DOTS
As illustrated in Figure 14, prepare a worksheet or display that includes a numeral and
some base‐ten pieces. Use small squares (hundreds), sticks (tens), and dots (ones) for base‐
ten pieces to keep drawings simple. Children then mentally compute the totals.
Figure 15 is a take‐away version of the same activity. As shown, the amount removed
can be represented either by a numeral or the squares and sticks. You may want to start
with the removed amount represented by the numeral first before using the square-stick-
dot representation for the removed amount.
If this activity is done as a whole class, discuss each task before going on to the next. If
you use a worksheet format, include only a few examples and have children write how they
solved them. But it is still important to have a discussion with the class.
The next activity extends the use of the hundreds chart by using it for addition.
BLM
Activity 24 HUNDREDS CHART ADDITION
Standards for Display a hundreds chart (or thousands chart) for all children to see or, alternatively, give
children their own individual charts (see Blackline Master 10). Children use the hundreds
3 Construct chart to add two numbers (e.g., 38 and 24). There are many ways that children can use
viable arguments ◀ the hundreds chart to add two numbers so class discussions are a must. Have children
and critique the work on one sum at a time and then have a discussion to compare the different methods
reasoning of others
children used.
218
The hundreds chart can be thought of as a stacked number line—one that accentuates
the distance from any number to the next multiple of 10. A jump down a row is the same
as adding 10, and a jump up a row is 10 less. To begin, pose problems with relatively small
second numbers such as the following:
17 + 14 23 + 12 35 + 13 78 + 15
Many children will initially count on by ones from the first number, which is an indica-
tion that they may not understand how to count by tens from any starting value (an impor-
tant place‐value concept). A child who is using ten as a unit might explain for the problem
17 + 14 that she started at 17 on the hundreds chart and added 10 by jumping down a row
to 27, and then added 3 more by counting over 30, and then one more to 31. Alternatively, a
child might add 17 + 14 by adding 10 + 10 by starting at 10 and jumping down a row to 20,
then moving over 7 spaces to 27, and then counting 4 more spaces to 31.
The following activity is similar to “Hundreds Chart Addition” but explores the idea of
adding up as a method of subtraction.
Activity 25 HOW MUCH BETWEEN?
Children must have access to a hundreds chart for this activity. Give them two numbers.
Their task is to determine how much from one number to the other.
In “How Much Between?” the choice of the two numbers has an impact on the strate-
gies children will use. The easiest pairs are ones in the same column on the hundreds chart
(e.g., 26 and 76), which is a good place to begin. When the larger number is in a different
column from the smaller number (e.g., 24 and 76), children can add on tens to get to the tar-
get number’s row and then add or subtract ones. There are also other possible approaches.
Consider the numbers 26 and 72, where the column of 72 is to left of the column that 26 is
in. A child might count by tens from 26 to get to 66 (the row before 72) and then count by
ones to get to 72. Or a child might count by tens from 26 to get to 76 and then count back
by ones to get to 72.
You may be so accustomed to thinking about addition and subtraction computation as
involving “regrouping”—the trading of 10 ones for a ten or vice versa—that you tend to be-
lieve that regrouping is an integral part of computation. In fact, virtually all invented strate-
gies for computation as well as mental strategies involve no regrouping at all. Rather, what
happens in most cases might be called “bridging a ten.” The row structure of the hundreds
chart is especially useful in developing this understanding of bridging across ten. Children
should have ample opportunities to develop their ideas in activities like the ones in this
section. Many children are likely still developing their ideas about numbers and distances
between them. These ideas are as much about place‐value understanding as about addition
and subtraction.

Children who exhibit difficulty with any of these activities may also be challenged with invented computa-
tion strategies. Conduct a diagnostic interview with children to determine how they are reasoning in ac-
tivities, such as Activity 23, “Numbers, Squares, Sticks, and Dots.” That activity requires that children have
sufficient understanding of base‐ten concepts to use them in meaningful counts. If children are counting
by ones, then more practice with activities like “Numbers, Squares, Sticks, and Dots” may be ineffective.
Rather, consider additional counting activities in which children have opportunities to see the value of
grouping by ten. Using the little ten‐frames may help.
219
Connections to Real‐World Ideas

As children study place‐value concepts, encourage them to see numbers in the world about
them. Children in the first grade should be thinking about numbers up to 100 and second
graders should be thinking about numbers up to 1000 (CCSSO, 2010). Where are num-
bers like this? Look around your school: the number of children in a particular grade, the
number of children who ride to school on school buses, the number of minutes devoted to
mathematics each day, or the number of days since school has started. And then there are
measurements and numbers at home, on a field trip, in the news, and so on.
You do not need a prescribed activity to bring real numbers into the classroom. So, what
do you do with these numbers? Turn them into interesting graphs, write stories using them,
and make up problems.
As children become more skilled, their interest in numbers can expand beyond the
school and classroom. All sorts of things can and should be measured to create graphs, draw
inferences, and make comparisons. For example, consider posing the following problem to
your class.
How many cartons of chocolate and plain milk are served in the cafeteria each month?
Collecting data for such problems and grouping them into tens and hundreds will help re-
inforce the value of grouping to count and compare quantities.
The particular way you bring numbers and the real world together in your class is up
to you. But do not underestimate the value of connecting the real world to the classroom.
220
Estimating Groups of Tens and Ones

• Make sure your selection of a unit is one that children
Grade Level: 1–2 with disabilities are familiar with from other experi-
ences. Avoid introducing a material for the first time as
Mathematics Goals you are also introducing estimation with this unit.
• To connect a count-by-ones understanding to a count • As the two children actually measure the length in the
based on the number of groups of 10 and leftovers for Before component of the lesson, ask them to share
quantities to 100 aloud how they are deciding where to put the connect-
ing cubes or other unit.
• To measure lengths using nonstandard measures
Grade Level Guide Materials

NCTM Common Each child will need:
Curriculum Focal Points Core State Standards • “How Long?” recording sheet (Blackline Master 45)
In grade 1, children measure In first grade, as part of the

Each measurement station will need:
by “laying multiple copies of Measurement and Data do-
a unit end to end and then main, children should measure • Object that can be measured by placing measurement
counting the units by using the length of an object by units end-to-end along the full length (vertical dis-
groups of tens and ones.” laying multiple lengths of a tances can be measured with connecting cubes)
This “supports children’s un- unit end to end without gaps • Corresponding measurement “kit” consisting of more
derstanding of number lines or overlaps. than enough individual nonstandard units to measure
and number relationships” the length and 10 connected units (a bar of 10 con-
Also in first grade, children
(NCTM, 2006, p. 13). necting cubes, a chain of 10 paper clips, or a row of
begin to understand place
10 toothpicks point to point sandwiched between two
In second grade one of the value by thinking of two-digit
pieces of transparent tape)
main Focal Points is “De- numbers as groups of tens and
veloping an understanding ones. For Unit Use Lengths
of the base-ten numeration Connecting cubes 2 to 5 feet (60 cm to 180 cm)
system and place-value con- Small paper clips 2 to 9 feet (60 cm to 270 cm)
cepts” (NCTM, 2006, p. 14).
Large paper clips 3 to 12 feet (90 cm to 4 m)
Toothpicks 5 to 12 feet (1.8 m to 4 m)
Consider Your Children’s Needs
Teacher will need:
Children have not yet developed a full understanding of
• The recording sheet for projection
two-digit numbers in terms of tens and ones. They are
able to count a collection of objects to 100. They have • A kit of nonstandard units that can be used in the Be-
talked about numbers in terms of groups of tens and have fore portion of the lesson
discussed number patterns on the hundreds chart.
Lesson
• You may want to write the words for the objects on
Before
the recording sheet and place name tags next to the Begin with a simpler version of the task:
objects so that the children know which object they • Show the children a length that is somewhere between
are measuring. 25 and 45 connecting-cube units long. For example,
• Model an example prior to doing the lesson to clarify you might use the edge of a teacher’s desk, a length of
the directions. ribbon or rope, or a poster.
221
• Explain that you want to make an estimate of how Provide clear expectations:
long the item is in terms of connecting cubes. Accept • Have the children work in groups of two to four. Tell them
estimates and record them where the children can see. that they will work together to measure each object, but
Expect the children’s guesses to be quite varied. Then each child should make his or her own estimate. Over the
suggest that it might be helpful to estimate in terms of course of the three stations, each child should have the
groups of 10 units and leftovers. Show the children a opportunity to measure an object using individual units
bar of 10 connecting cubes. and to measure using groups of 10 and leftovers.
• Hold the 10 units at one end of the length to be mea-
sured and accept children’s new estimates. Write the During
first child’s estimate on the projected recording sheet.
Initially:
Explain that an estimate is what you think it might be
by looking at the 10 units; it is not just a wild guess. • Observe that the children understand the task and are
in the process of making a reasonable estimate before
• Pass out the recording sheets and have the children re-
measuring each object.
cord their own estimates in the first box. Ask several
children what their estimates are. • Be sure that the children are making and recording es-
timates by comparing the length to the provided group
• Have two children use individual units (e.g., connecting
of 10. They are not to change their estimates.
cubes) to measure the length. It is important that they
line the units end to end along the entire length so that Ongoing:
when they have finished they will have as many actual
• Check that the children are lining individual units along
units as required for the measure. Have two children
the edge of the object without gaps or overlaps when
put the units into groups of 10. Count the groups of 10,
measuring.
and count any leftovers separately. Record this in blanks
labeled “Actual” on the projected recording sheet and • Pay attention to how the children count the total num-
have the children do likewise on their papers. ber of units. Some may already know that 4 tens and 6
leftovers is 46. However, many will count by ones. Chal-
• Finally, ask the children how many units there are. Have
lenge the children who just count groups: “Are you
the class count the entire group by ones as you set them
sure you will get 46 if you count them all by ones?”
aside or point to each. Write the number word and the
number (e.g., thirty-four 34 ) on the projected recording
After
sheet and the unit (e.g., 34 connecting cubes or 34 tooth-
picks). Have children write this on their recording sheets. Bring the class together to share and discuss the task:
• Discuss what it means to estimate—it is not the same as
Present the focus task:
a guess. Ask, “How did using a group of 10 units help
• At three stations, children are to see if they can make you make an estimate? How does counting the groups
reasonable estimates of lengths in terms of groups of of tens and leftovers help tell you how many units you
10 and leftovers. had?” This last question is the key to this lesson. Avoid
• They then check their estimates by actually measuring, telling children how to relate the groups and leftovers
making and counting groups of 10 and leftovers, and to the actual number.
finally counting all the units.
• Explain that there are measuring kits and a length for
each station. For each length, children are to:
Assessment
• Hold the 10 units at one end of the length and esti- Observe
mate the measure of the length in terms of 10 and • Look for children who do not make connections between
leftovers. Each child should record his or her esti- the groups and leftovers and the actual counts. These
mate on the recording sheet. children have not yet developed base-ten concepts.
• They are then to measure the lengths using individ- • Those who confidently state the total when they have
ual units—laying them end to end with no gaps or the number of groups and leftovers have indicated at
overlaps. least a beginning understanding of base-ten concepts.
• When they have placed units along the full length,
they should make sets of 10, then count and record Ask
the number of groups of 10 and leftovers. • How did using a group of 10 units help you make an
• Finally, they should count all of the units and record estimate?
this as a number word and as a number. Refer to your • How does counting the groups of tens and leftovers
example. help tell you how many units you had?
222
References
Dougherty, B., Flores, A., Louis, E., & Sophian, Ross, S. H. (1986). The development of children’s
C. (2010). Developing essential understanding of place‐value numeration concepts in grades two through
number and numeration for teaching mathematics five. Presented at the annual meeting of the
in prekindergarten–grade 2. Reston, VA: National American Educational Research Association, San
Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Francisco. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service
No. ED 2773 482)
Fuson, K. C. (2006). Research on whole number
addition and subtraction. In D. Grouws (Ed.), Ross, S. H. (1989). Parts, wholes, and place value:
Handbook of research on mathematics teaching A developmental perspective. Arithmetic Teacher,
and learning (pp. 243–275). Charlotte, NC: 36(6), 47–51.
Information Age Publishing.
Ross, S. R. (2002). Place value: Problem solving
Kamii, C. K. (1985). Young children reinvent and written assessment. Teaching Children
arithmetic. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Mathematics, 8(7), 419–423.
Labinowicz, E. (1985). Learning from children: New Wright, R., Martland, J., Stafford, A., & Stanger,
beginnings for teaching numerical thinking. Menlo G. (2008). Teaching number: Advancing children’s
Park, CA: AWL Supplemental. skills and strategies. London: Sage.
(2000). Principles and standards for school
mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.
223
Building Strategies for
Whole‐Number Computation
BigIDEAS
1 Flexible methods of addition and subtraction involve taking apart (decomposing) and combining (composing)
numbers in a wide variety of ways. Most of the decomposition of numbers is based on place value or “compatible”
numbers—number pairs that work easily together, such as 25 and 75.
2 Invented strategies are flexible methods of computing that vary with the numbers and the situation involved.
Strategies can be invented by a child, a peer, or the class as a whole; they may even be suggested by the teacher.
3 Flexible methods for computation require a strong understanding of the operations and properties of the operations,
especially the commutative (turn‐around) property and the associative property. How addition and subtraction are related as
inverse operations is also important.
4 The standard algorithms are clever strategies for computing that are based on performing the operation on one
place value at a time with transitions to an adjacent position (trading or regrouping). Standard algorithms tend to cause
children to think in terms of digits rather than the composite number that the digits make up.
5 Multidigit numbers can be built up or taken apart in a variety of ways. These parts can be used to create estimates
in calculations rather than using the exact numbers involved. For example, 17 can be thought of as 15 and 2 or 3 less
than 20.
Much of the public sees computational skill as the hallmark of what it

means to know mathematics at the elementary school level. Although
this is far from the truth, the issue of computational skills with
whole numbers is, in fact, a very important part of the elementary
curriculum. Expectations for competency in today’s workforce as well
as in daily life mean that changes are warranted in how computation
is approached.
225
Building Strategies for Whole‐Number Computation
Toward Computational Fluency

The days of children memorizing computational algorithms are fading fast. Rather than
constant reliance on a single method of adding or subtracting, methods can and should
change flexibly as the numbers and the context change. In the spirit of the Common Core
State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) and the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (Na-
tional Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000), the issue is no longer a matter of “knows
how to subtract three‐digit numbers”; rather it is the development over time of an assort-
ment of flexible skills that will best serve children in the real world. Adding It Up (National
Research Council, 2001) describes it this way:
More than just a means to produce answers, computation is increasingly seen as a

window on the deep structure of the number system. Fortunately, research is dem-
onstrating that both skilled performance and conceptual understanding are gener-
ated by the same kinds of activities.
According to the Common Core State Standards, children in grades K-2 should solve
addition and subtraction problems with numbers appropriate for their grade level (within
10 for kindergartners; within 100 for first graders; and within 1000 for second graders).
First graders are expected to add two‐digit numbers to one‐digit numbers or to a multiple
of 10. Second graders are expected to add two‐digit and three‐digit numbers. The solution
methods range from using concrete models or drawings to strategies based on place value,
meanings of operations, and number sense. To support the development of flexible addition
and subtraction strategies, the Common Core State Standards also expect children to be able
to compose and decompose numbers (numbers less than 20 for kindergartners; numbers less
than 100 for first graders; and numbers less than 1000 for second graders).
Addition and subtraction strategies that build on decomposing and composing numbers
in flexible ways contribute to children’s overall number sense. In most everyday instances,
these alternative strategies for computing are easier and faster than the standard algorithms
(procedures for computing) and can often be done mentally.
Consider the following problem.
Mary has 114 spaces in her photo album. So far she has 89 photos in the album. How many
more photos can she put in before the album is full?
Stop and Reflect

Try solving the photo album problem using some method other than the one you were taught
in school. Can you solve it mentally? Can you solve it in more than one way? Work on this
before reading further. ■
Here are just four of many methods that have been used by children in the primary
grades to solve the computation in the photo album problem:
• 89 + 11 is 100. 11 + 14 is 25.
• 90 + 10 is 100 and 14 more is 24 plus 1 (because we should have started at 89, not 90)
is 25.
226
Figure 1
A general instructional sequence for three types of computational strategies.
Direct Modeling
Counts by ones.
Use of base-ten models.
Invented Strategies
Supported by written recordings.
After the standard algorithms are
Mental methods when appropriate. added to children’s repertoire of
available strategies, reinforce the idea
that just like the other strategies, they
may be more useful in some instances
than in others. Children should continue
Standard Algorithms to discuss which methods seem best
in which situations.
Usually require guided development.
Use base-ten materials to model
the steps. Justify that the algorithm
produces the correct answer. Should
be considered just another strategy.
• Take away 14 to get to 100, then take away 10 more to get to 90, and then 1 more to get
to 89, or take away 25 in all.
• 89, 99, 109 (that’s 20). 110, 111, 112, 113, 114 (keeping track on fingers) is 25.
Strategies such as these can be done mentally, are generally faster than the standard
algorithms, and make sense to the person using them. Every day, children and adults resort
to often error‐prone, standard algorithms when other, more meaningful methods would be
faster and less susceptible to error. Flexibility with a variety of computational strategies is
an important tool for successful daily living. It is time to broaden our perspective of what it
means to compute.
Figure 1 lists a general instructional sequence for three types of computing. The direct
modeling methods can, with guidance, develop into an assortment of more flexible and use-
ful student‐invented strategies, many of which can be carried out mentally. The standard
algorithms remain in the mainstream curricula; however, an emphasis on a variety of strate-
gies is critical to developing number sense as well as procedural proficiency. The standard
algorithms should be seen simply as another strategy that can be added to children’s reper-
toire of available strategies.
Direct Modeling
The developmental step that usually precedes invented strategies is called direct modeling:
The use of manipulatives, drawings, or fingers along with counting to directly represent the
meaning of an operation or story problem. Figure 2 shows an example of direct modeling in
which a child has modeled the numbers in the problem using counters and then counted by
ones to find the answer.
227
Figure 2 Children who consistently count by ones most likely

have not developed base‐ten grouping concepts. That does
A possible direct modeling solution for a story problem.
not mean that they should not solve problems involving
Savannah had 6 pencils and her mom gave her 5 more. two‐digit numbers. As you work with children who are
How many pencils does Savannah have now? still struggling to see 10 as a unit, suggest that they group
counters by tens as they count, either by making bars of
The child counts out 6 tiles.
10 from connecting cubes or organizing counters in cups
of 10. Some children will initially use the base‐ten rod of
10 as a counting device to keep track of counts of 10, even
though they are counting each segment of the rod by ones.
When children have constructed the idea of 10 as a
unit, they begin to use this idea in the direct modeling of
The child counts out 5 tiles. problems. They will soon transfer their ideas to methods
that do not rely on materials or counting. But it is impor-
tant to note that direct modeling is a necessary phase for
children to work through. It is important not to push chil-
Then the child counts all tiles to get the answer 11. dren to prematurely abandon concrete approaches using
materials—including their fingers!
Children may need encouragement to move away from
direct modeling. Here are some ideas to promote the fading
of direct modeling:
• Record children’s verbal explanations on the board in
ways that they and others can model.
Accepting direct modeling as a necessary developmental • Ask children who have just solved a problem with mod-
phase allows children who are not ready for more efficient els to see if they can do it mentally.
methods a way to explore the same problems as classmates • Ask children to make a written numeric record of what
who have progressed beyond this stage. they did when they solved the problem with models.
Explain that they are then going to try to use the same
written method on a new problem.
Invented Strategies
We refer to any strategy, other than the standard algorithm, that does not involve the use
of physical materials or counting by ones as an invented strategy (Carpenter, Franke, Jacobs,
Fennema, & Empson, 1998). In the expectations for first and second graders, the Com-
mon Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) describe these as “strategies based on place value,
properties of operations, and/or the relationship between addition and subtraction” (pp. 16,
19). More specifically, children are expected to “develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate,
and generalizable methods to compute sums and differences of whole numbers in base‐ten
notation, using their understanding of place value and the properties of operations” (p. 17).
At times, invented strategies become mental methods after ideas have been explored, used,
and understood. For example, after some experience, children may be able to do 75 + 19
mentally (75 + 20 is 95, less 1 is 94). For 648 + 257, children may need to write down inter-
mediate steps to aid in memory as they work through the problem. (Try that one yourself.)
In the classroom, written support is often encouraged as strategies develop. Written records
of thinking are more easily shared and help children focus on the ideas. Distinctions among
written, partially written, and mental computation are not important, especially in the de-
velopment period.
A number of research studies have focused attention on how children handle computa-
tional situations when they have been given options for multiple strategies (see, for example,
228
Keiser, 2010; Rittle‐Johnson, Star, & Durkin, 2010; Verschaffel, Greer, & De Corte, 2007).
“There is mounting evidence that children both in and out of school can construct methods
for adding and subtracting multi‐digit numbers without explicit instruction” (Carpenter et
al., 1998, p. 4). But not all children invent their own strategies. So strategies invented by
class members are shared, explored, and tried out by others. However, children should not
be permitted to use any strategy without understanding it.
Contrasts between Invented Strategies and Standard Algorithms

Consider the following significant differences between student‐invented strategies and the
standard algorithms.
• Invented strategies are number oriented rather than digit oriented. Using the stan-
dard algorithm for 45 + 32, children never think of 40 and 30 but rather 4 + 3. Kamii,
long a crusader against standard algorithms, claims that they “unteach” place value
(Kamii & Dominick, 1998). On the other hand, an invented strategy for 618 - 254
might begin with 600 - 200 is 400. Another approach might begin with 254. Adding 46
is 300 and then 300 more to 600. In either case, the computation begins with complete
three‐digit numbers.
• Invented strategies tend to be left‐handed rather than right‐handed. Invented strate-
gies often begin with the largest parts of numbers, those represented by the leftmost
digits. For 86 + 17, an invented strategy might begin with 80 + 10 or 86 + 10, providing
some sense of the size of the eventual answer in just one step. The standard approach
begins with 6 + 7 is 13. By beginning on the right with a digit orientation, standard
methods typically hide the result until the end. Long division is an exception.
• Invented strategies represent a range of flexible options rather than “one right way.”
Invented strategies tend to change with the numbers involved in order to make the
computation easier. Try each of these mentally: 465 + 230 and 526 + 98. Did you use
the same method? The standard algorithm suggests using the same approach on all
problems. The standard algorithm for 7000 - 25 typically leads to student errors, yet a
mental strategy is relatively simple.
Benefits of Invented Strategies

The development and use of invented strategies generate procedural proficiency. The posi-
tive benefits are difficult to ignore.
• Children make fewer errors. Research indicates that when children use their own com-
putational strategies they tend to make fewer errors because they understand their own
methods (Gravemeijer & van Galen, 2003). Even if well explained and illustrated with
base‐ten blocks, many children do not understand the underlying concepts of standard
algorithms. Not only do these children make more errors, but the errors are often sys-
tematic and difficult to remediate as well. Errors with invented strategies are less fre-
quent and rarely systematic.
• Less reteaching is required. Often teachers are concerned when children’s early efforts
with invented strategies are slow and time consuming. But the extended time for these
early stages results in a meaningful and well‐integrated network of ideas that is robust
and long lasting. The increase in development time results in a significant decrease in
reteaching and remediation.
• Children develop number sense. Children’s development and use of number‐oriented,
flexible algorithms help them cultivate a rich understanding of the number system, es-
pecially place‐value concepts.
229
• Invented strategies are the basis for mental computation and estimation. When in-
vented strategies are the norm for computation, there is no need to talk about mental
computation as if it were a separate skill. As children become more and more proficient
with these flexible methods, they find they are able to use them mentally without having
to write down even intermediate steps.
• Flexible methods are often faster than the standard algorithms. Consider 300 - 98.
A simple invented strategy might use 300 - 100 = 200. Adding 2 back (because we
subtracted 2 too many), we get 202. This is easily done mentally, or even with some
recording, in much less time than the steps to the standard algorithm. Those who be-
come adept with invented strategies will consistently perform addition and subtraction
computations more quickly than those using a standard algorithm.
• Strategy invention is itself an important process of “doing mathematics.” Children who
invent a computational strategy or who adopt a meaningful strategy developed by a class-
mate are involved in the process of sense making. This development of procedures is a
process that is often hidden from children. By engaging in this aspect of mathematics, a
significantly different and valuable view of “doing mathematics” is revealed to learners.
• Children who use invented strategies perform similarly or outperform their counter-
parts who are taught only standard algorithms. Children in other countries such as the
Netherlands are not taught to use standard algorithms, and they perform significantly
better than U.S. children on international measures of proficiency (Fleischman, Hop-
stock, Pelczar, & Shelley, 2010).
Mental Computation
A mental computation strategy is simply any invented strategy that is done without record-
ing steps. What may be a mental strategy for one child may require written steps by another
child. Initially, children may not be ready to do computations mentally, as they may still be
at the direct modeling stage or need to notate parts of the problem as they think it through.
As children become more adept, they can and should be challenged to do appropriate com-
putations mentally. You may be quite amazed at the ability of children (and at your own
ability) to do mental mathematics.
Try this example using mental mathematics:
342 + 153 + 481
Stop and Reflect

For the preceding addition task, try this method: Begin by adding the hundreds, saying the
totals as you go—3 hundred, 4 hundred, 8 hundred. Then add on to this the tens in successive
manner and finally the ones. Give it a try. ■
Standard Algorithms
More than a century of tradition combined with pressures from families who were taught
only the standard algorithm may result in thinking that there is only one best approach and
one “right” algorithm. Arguments for a single algorithm generally revolve around efficiency
and the need for methods that work with all numbers. For addition and subtraction, how-
ever, well‐understood and practiced invented strategies are sometimes more efficient and
often more accurate.
Although teaching only the standard algorithm does not allow children to explore other
useful approaches, including it among the strategies children learn is important. The main
230
focus in teaching the standard algorithm is not learning a memorized series of steps but
making sense of it as a process.
Standard Algorithms Must Be Understood

Children often pick up the standard algorithm from older siblings and family members.
Children who already know the standard algorithm may resist the development of more
flexible strategies. What do you do then?
First and foremost, apply the same rule to standard algorithms as to all strategies: If you
use it, you must understand why it works and be able to explain it. In an atmosphere that says,
“Let’s figure out why this works,” children can profit from making sense of standard algo-
rithms just as they can with invented strategies. But the responsibility for the explanations
should be theirs, not yours!
Delay Standard Algorithms

Children are not likely to invent the standard algorithms because methods that begin with
the smaller numbers are not as intuitive. Therefore, you will need to introduce and explain
each algorithm and help children understand how and why they work. No matter how care-
fully you introduce these algorithms as simply another alternative, children may sense that
“this is the real way” or the “one right way” to compute.
Before teaching standard algorithms, spend a significant amount of time with invented
strategies—months, not weeks. Do not feel that you must rush to the standard algorithms.
Delay! The understanding that children gain from working with invented strategies will
make it much easier for you to teach the standard algorithms. If you think you are wasting
precious time by delaying, think of how many years teacher teach the same standard algo-
rithms over and over to children who are still unable to use them without making errors or
who still do not understand them.
Continue to Value All Methods Standards for

The standard algorithm (once it is understood) is one more strategy children can put in
their “toolbox of methods.” Reinforce the idea that just like the other strategies, it may be 1 Make sense
more useful in some instances than others. ◀ of problems and
Pose problems in which invented strategies are much more useful, such as 504 - 498 or persevere in
solving them
61 + 19. Discuss which method seems best. Point out that for a problem such as 568 + 347,
the standard algorithm has advantages.
Cultural Differences in Algorithms

You need to be aware of various issues when planning, teaching, and assessing culturally and
linguistically diverse children. There are many international differences in notation, conven-
tions, and algorithms. Knowing more about the diverse algorithms English language learners
(ELLs) bring to the classroom and their ways of recording symbols for “doing mathematics”
will assist you in supporting these children and responding to their families. It is important to
realize that an algorithm we call “standard” may not be customary in other countries. Encour-
aging a variety of algorithms is important in valuing the experiences of all children.
For example, one popular subtraction algorithm used in many Latin and European
countries is known as “equal addition” or “add tens to both” and is based on the knowl-
edge that adding (or subtracting) the same amount to both the minuend and the sub-
trahend will not change the difference (answer). Therefore, if the expression to solve is
15 - 5, there is no change to the answer (or the difference) if you add 10 to the minuend
and subtrahend and solve 25 - 15. There is still a difference of 10. Consider the problem
62 - 27. Using the algorithm you may think of as “standard,” you will likely regroup by
crossing out the 6 tens, adding the 10 with a small “1” to the 2 in the ones column (making
231
Figure 3 12 ones), and then subtract 7 from the 12, and so forth. In the
“equal addition” approach (see Figure 3), you add 10 to the
The “equal addition” algorithm.
ones place (2) in 62 to get 12 ones. You would then counteract
the addition of 10 to the minuend by adding 10 to the 27 (sub-
trahend), making 37. Now you subtract the 37. This may sound
confusing to you, but try it. Especially when there are zeros in
the minuend (e.g., 302 - 178), you may find this an easier ap-
proach than our “standard” algorithm. More importantly, your
possible confusion can give you a sense of how your children
(and their families) may react to a completely different proce-
dure from the one they know and find successful.
Invented Strategies for Addition and Subtraction

Children should be able to use strategies for addition and subtraction that they understand
and can use efficiently. Your goal might be that each of your children has at least one or two
methods that are reasonably efficient, mathematically correct, and useful with lots of dif-
ferent numbers. Expect different children to settle on different strategies that play to their
strengths.
Children do not spontaneously invent wonderful computational methods while the
teacher sits back and watches. In various experimental programs, children tended to develop
or gravitate toward different strategies, suggesting that teachers and the programs do have
an effect on the methods children develop (Verschaffel et al., 2007). The following two sec-
tions discuss general pedagogical methods for creating an environment that will help chil-
dren develop invented strategies while the subsequent sections describe a variety of invented
strategies that children often use.
Creating a Supportive Environment

Children who are attempting to investigate new ideas in mathematics need a safe and nurtur-
ing classroom environment in which they can take risks, tests conjectures, and try new ap-
Standards for proaches. Here are some factors to keep in mind:
• Avoid immediately identifying the right answer when a child states it. Give other chil-
3 Construct dren a chance to consider whether they think it is correct.
• Expect and encourage student‐to‐student interactions, questions, and discussions.
and critique the
reasoning of others • Promote curiosity and openness to new ideas and trying new things.
• Talk about both right and wrong ideas in nonevaluative or nonthreatening ways.
• Move less sophisticated ideas to more sophisticated thinking through coaxing, coach-
ing, and strategic questioning.
• Use familiar contexts and story problems to build background and connect to children’s
experiences.
Models to Support Invented Strategies

There are three common types of invented‐strategy models that children come up with to
solve addition and subtraction situations: split strategy (which can also be thought of as de-
composition), jump strategy (similar to counting on or counting back), and shortcut strategy
232
Figure 4
Two methods of recording children’s thought processes on the board so that the class can follow
the strategy.
(a) How much is 86 and 47? (b) What is 84 minus 68?

S: I know that 80 and 20 more is 100. S: I started at 84. First, I jumped back 4 to make 80.
T: Where do the 80 and the 20 come from? 4
S: I split the 47 into 20 and 20 and 7 and the 86 into
80 and 6.
80 84
T: (illustrates the splitting with lines)
So then you added one of the 20s to 80? T: Why did you subtract 4 first? Why not 8?
S: Yes, 80 and 20 is 100. Then I added the other S: It was easier to think about 80 than 84. I will save
20 and got 120. the other part of 8 until later. Then I jumped back 60
to get 20.
T: (writes the equations on the board)
60 4
S: Then I added the 6 and the 7 and got 13.
T: (writes this equation)
20 80 84
S: Then I added the 120 to the 13 and got 133.
S: Then I jumped back 4.
T: Indicates with joining lines.
47 86 4 60 4
20 20 7 80 6
80 + 20 = 100 100 + 20 = 120 16 20 80 84
6 + 7 = 13 T: Why 4?
S: That was how much I still had left over from 68.
133
(sometimes known as compensation) (Torbeyns, De Smedt, Ghesquiere, & Verschaffel, 2009).

The notion of “splitting” a number into parts is a useful strategy for all operations. Both the
word split and the use of a visual diagram have been found to help children develop strate-
gies (Verschaffel et al., 2007). When recording children’s ideas, try using arrows or lines to
explicitly indicate how two computations are joined together, as shown in Figure 4a.
The empty number line shown in Figure 4b uses a sequential jump strategy developed
in the Netherlands. This model has been found to be much more flexible than the usual
number line because it works with any numbers and eliminates the confusion with hash
marks and the spaces between them and children are less prone to making computational
errors when using it (Gravemeijer & van Galen, 2003; Klein, Beishuizen, & Treffers,
2002; Verschaffel et al., 2007). You can introduce the empty number line (also called an Standards for
open number line) by using it to model a child’s thinking for the class. With time and prac- Mathematical Practice
tice, children find the empty number line to be an effective tool to support and explain ◀ 5 Use appropriate
their reasoning. tools strategically
You will find an interactive number line at www.ictgames.com/numberlineJumpMaker/index.html where

children can practice using a jump strategy to find the distance between two numbers. You can change
where the number line starts (-100 to 200) as well as the number of spaces on the number line (26 spaces
versus 66 spaces).
233
The shortcut strategy involves the flexible adjustment of numbers. For example, just as
children used 10 as an anchor in learning their basic facts, they can move numbers such as
38 or 69 to the nearest 10 and then take the 2 or 1 off to compensate later. In this case, 40 +
70 equals 110, and then take off the three extras to get 107. As another example, 51 - 37 can
be thought of as 51 + 6 to get 57 and 57 - 37 = 20; then subtract 6 (because you added 6 to
make the problem easier) to get 14. So 51 - 37 = 14.
As these examples suggest, the numbers involved in a computation will tend to influ-
ence how children approach a problem. The type of story problems used can also influence
strategies children use. Therefore, it is important to think carefully about the type of story
problem you pose as well as the numbers you use in problems.
Adding and Subtracting Single Digits

When adding or subtracting small amounts or finding the difference between two reason-
ably close numbers, many children will use counting to solve the problem. One goal should
be to extend children’s knowledge of basic facts and the ten‐structure of the number system
so that counting is not required. When the calculation crosses a ten (e.g., 58 + 6), using the
decade number (60) and thinking 58 + 2 + 4, for example, extends children’s use of the Up
Over 10 strategy (e.g., add on to get up to 10 and then add the rest). Similarly, for subtrac-
tion, children can extend the Down Over 10 strategy. For
instance, for 53 - 7, take off 3 to get to 50, then 4 more is
Using the empty number line model to support and make 46.
explicit children’s initial reasoning with jumps can help chil- The next activity helps children think explicitly about
dren develop mental models that will allow them to solve making this extension.
problems in their head.
Activity 1 CROSSING A DECADE
Quickly review the Up Over 10 and Down Over 10 strategies from basic facts using ten‐
frames. Then pose an addition or subtraction story problem that crosses a decade num-
ber and involves a change or difference of less than 10. The following problems are
examples.
• Tommy was on page 47 of his book. Then he read 6 more pages. What page did he
end up on?
• How far is it from 68 to 75?
• Meghan had 42 cents. She bought a small toy for 8 cents. How much money does
she have left?
Two children can work together to determine how to quickly find the total.
Listen for children who are counting on or counting back by ones without paying at-
tention to the ten. For these children, suggest that they use either a hundreds chart or the
Standards for little ten‐frames, shown in Figure 5, to support their thinking. Also find out how they solve
Mathematical Practice fact combinations such as 8 + 6 and 13 - 5. The use of tens for these facts is essentially the
7 Look for and ◀ same as for the higher decade problems. Have children who are using the ten to solve these
make use of structure problems share their strategy. For 47 + 6 you should expect something like I added 3 from the
6 to the 47 to get to 50. Then I added the remaining 3 to get to 53.
234
Adding and Subtracting Tens Figure 5

and Hundreds Little ten‐frame cards can help children
extend the Up Over 10 idea to larger BLM
As you move children from single‐digit to two‐digit numbers (see Blackline Masters 17-18).
numbers, adding and subtracting tens and hundreds is an
important transition. Sums and differences involving mul-
tiples of 10 or 100 are easily computed mentally. Write a 7
problem such as the following on the board: + 6
300 + 500 + 20
Challenge children to solve it mentally. Ask them to
share how they did it. Listen for the use of place‐value
words: “3 hundred and 5 hundred is 8 hundred, and 20 is
820.” Early problems should not require any regrouping.
For example, start with problems such as 420 + 300 and 47
then move to more difficult problems that require re- + 6
grouping such as 70 + 80. Using base‐ten models can help
children think in terms of units of tens and hundreds.
Adding Two‐Digit Numbers

Problems involving the sum of 2 two‐digit numbers will usually produce a wide variety of
strategies. Some of these strategies will involve starting with one or the other number and
working from that point, either by adding on to get to the next ten or by adding tens to get
from one number to the other.

Periodically you will want to focus on a child to determine which strategies he is and is not using. Pose a Standards for
problem such as 46 + 35. See if the child begins by splitting the numbers. That is, for 46 + 35, he may add Mathematical Practice
on 4 to get from 46 to 50 and then add the remaining 31. Or he may add 30 to 46 to get to 76, then add 4
◀ 2 Reason abstractly
more to get to 80, and then add the remaining 1.
and quantitatively
Children will often use a counting‐by‐tens‐and‐ones technique. That is, instead of “46 + 30 is 76,”
they may use an open number line and count up “46, 56, 66, 76.” These jumps can be written down as they
are said to help children keep track. In each case, be mindful of how flexibly children use ten as a unit or
how they use the shortcut strategy. If children are not using the ten as a unit, they may need more work
on place‐value activities.
Figure 6 illustrates four different strategies for the following story problem, which in-
volves addition of 2 two‐digit numbers. The recording methods in Figure 6 are suggestions.
Two Scout troops went on a field trip. There were 46 Girl Scouts and 38 Boy Scouts. How
many Scouts went on the trip?
The shortcut and compensation strategies that focus on making ten are useful when one
of the numbers ends in 8 or 9. To promote these strategies, present problems with addends
like 39 or 58. Note that it is only necessary to adjust one of the two numbers.
235
Figure 6 Four different invented strategies for addition with two‐digit numbers.
Add Tens, Add Ones, Then Combine Move Some to Make Tens 46 + 38
46 + 38 46 + 38 44 + 40
40 + 30 = 70 84
40 and 30 is 70. 6 and 8 is 14. Take 2 from the 46 and put it with the 38 to make 40.
70 and 14 is 84.
6 + 8 = 14 Now you have 44 and 40 more is 84.
the 46 44
from
84 2—
Add on Tens, Then Add Ones
46 + 38 38 40 84
46 and 30 more is 76. Then I added on 46 + 30 —› Use a Nice Number and Compensate
the other 8. 76 and 4 is 80 and 4 is 84. 76 + 8 —› 80, 84 46 + 38 46 + 40 —›
46 and 40 is 86. That’s 2 extra, so it’s 84. 86 – 2 —› 84
10 10 10 4 4 40
46 76 80 84 2
46 84 86
Stop and Reflect

Try adding 367 + 155 in as many different ways as you can. How many of your ways are like
those in Figure 6? ■
The next activity provides children opportunities to add multidigit numbers outside a
story problem context.
Activity 2 SUM THEM UP!
Children work in pairs for this activity. Without communicating to each other,
each child writes down a two‐digit number. (You can also use three‐digit numbers
depending on the children.) The children work together to find out the sum of the two
numbers. Once a sum is determined, they should use little ten‐frame cards to represent
the two numbers they started with and use those to check their sum. Children with dis-
abilities may initially need to use the little ten‐frames to help them determine the sum.
This activity could also be completed by displaying two numbers on a projector and
having children work in pairs at their desks. Follow up by having children share their
strategies for finding the sum.
The following activity encourages children to think about different ways to adjust num-
bers as they solve problems.
236
Activity 3 JUST ADJUST IT
Suppose you want to help children think about adjusting numbers by using 10 as an
anchor. Create a series of problems using numbers that will increase the likelihood that
children will gravitate toward this idea, but do not require children to use this idea and
do not be disappointed if they do not use this idea. The point is to try to help children
become more aware of different ways to adjust numbers. Following is one possible series
of problems:
50 + 30 48 + 30 50 + 32 51 + 28 20 + 60 18 + 58
Project one problem at a time and give children time to solve it before you ask first
for answers and then for explanations. Record children’s strategies so that you can refer
back to them when appropriate. If no child suggests the idea of using 50 + 30 or 20 + 60
to help solve the subsequent related problems, you may want to challenge them to deter-
mine how they could use that problem to help them solve the others.
Note that there are multiple ways to add the numbers from the preceding activity and
there are multiple ways to use 10 as an anchor to solve the series of problems. For example,
for 51 + 28, a child may change 51 to 50 and 28 to 30, add 50 + 30 to get 80, and then adjust
for the 30 and 50—subtract 2 to adjust for adding 30 (instead of 28) and add 1 for adding
50 (instead of 51)—to get 79. Other children may think that 51 is really close to 50 and
they move 1 to the 28 and add 50 + 29 to get 79. Still other children may add the tens (50 +
20) and then the ones (1 + 8) to get 79. This last strategy did not use 50 + 30, which is fine.
Again, your goal is to help children develop strategies that are efficient and that make sense
to them. Listening to how some of their classmates used 50 + 30 can help others be more
aware of different ways to adjust numbers.
Subtracting by Counting Up
This is an amazingly powerful way to subtract. Children working on the think‐addition strat-
egy for their basic facts can also be solving problems with larger numbers. The concept is
the same. For example, for 45 - 19, the idea is to think, “How much do I add to 19 to get to
45?” Notice that this strategy is not as efficient for 45 - 6. Using join with change unknown
problems or missing‐part problems will encourage the counting‐up strategy. Here is an ex-
ample of each.
Sam had 46 baseball cards. He went to a card show and got some more cards for his collec-
tion. Now he has 73 cards. How many cards did Sam buy at the card show?
Juanita counted all of her crayons. Some were broken and some were not. She counted 73 Standards for
crayons in all. 46 crayons were not broken. How many were broken?
1 Make sense
◀
Figure 7 shows invented strategies for these story problems. As you can see, using tens of problems and
is also an important part of these strategies. Simply asking for the difference between two persevere in
solving them
numbers may also prompt these strategies.
237
Figure 7 Three different invented strategies for subtraction by counting up.
Add Tens to Get Close, Then Ones Add Ones to Make a Ten, Then Tens and Ones
46 + 20 = 66
73 – 46 66 + 4 = 70 73 – 46 46 + 4 —› 50
46 and 20 is 66. (30 more is too much.) 46 and 4 is 50. 50 and 20 is 70 and 3 50 + 20 —› 70
Then 4 more is 70 and 3 is 73. That’s 20
70 + 3 = 73 more is 73. The 4 and 3 is 7 and 20 is 27.
20 + 4 + 3 = 27 70 + 3 —› 73
and 7 or 27.
4 + 20 + 3 = 27
27
20
4 3 4 10 10 3
46 66 70 73 46 50 60 70 73
Add Tens to Overshoot, Then Come Back
73 – 46 46 + 30 —› 76 – 3 —› 73 46 + 4 —› 50
46 and 30 is 76. That’s 3 too Similarly, 46 and 4 is 50.
much, so it’s 27.
30 – 3 = 27 50 and 23 is 73.
50 + 23 —› 73
23 and 4 is 27. 23 + 4 = 27
27
30 23
4
-3
46 73 76 46 50 73
Take‐Away Subtraction
Using take‐away subtraction is considerably more difficult to do mentally. However, take‐
away strategies are common, probably because many textbooks emphasize take‐away as the
meaning of subtraction. Four different strategies are shown in Figure 8 for the following
story problem.
There were 73 children on the playground. The 46 second‐grade students came in first. How
many children were still outside?
The two methods that begin by taking tens from tens are reflective of what most chil-
dren do with base‐ten pieces. The other two methods leave one of the numbers intact and
subtract from it. When the subtracted number is a multiple of 10 or close to a multiple of
10, take‐away subtraction can be an easy method to do mentally. Try 83 - 29 in your head by
first taking away 30 and adding 1 back. Some children will become confused when they hear
a classmate describe this strategy for 83 - 29. In particular, they do not understand why you
add 1 back. They think because you added 1 to 29 to make it 30, then you should subtract 1
from the answer. Use a story problem with the numbers and let them act it out so that they
can see that when they take away 30, they took 1 too many away and that is why they need
to add 1 back.
Remember the “equal addition” algorithm that was described in the section on standard
algorithms? There are some children who use this strategy as an invented strategy with
take‐away subtraction. For example, for 32 - 17, children might think that 32 is 2 away from
30, so if they subtract 2 from 32 to get 30, they need to subtract 2 from 17 to get 15. Now
the problem is 30 - 15 or 15.
238
Figure 8 Four different invented strategies for take‐away subtraction.
Take Tens from the Tens, Then Subtract Ones Take Away Tens, Then Ones
73 – 46 73 – 46 73 – 40 —> 33 – 3
70 minus 40 is 30. 73 minus 40 is 33. Then take away 6:
Take away 6 more 70 – 40 —› 30 – 6 3 makes 30 and 3 more is 27. 30 – 3 —> 27
is 24. 24 + 3 —› 27 –40
Now add in the –3 –3
3 ones 27.
27 30 33 73
–6 –40
3 Take Extra Tens, Then Add Back
73 – 46 73 – 50 —> 23 + 4
24 27 30 70
73 take away 50 is 23. That’s 4 too many.
23 and 4 is 27. 27
50
Or took 4
70 minus 40 is 30. I can 70 – 40 = 30 extra +4
take those 3 away, but I (73 – 3 = 70)
need to take away 3 more 30 – 3 = 27 23 27 73
from the 30 to make 27.
Add to the Whole If Necessary
–40 +3
73 – 46 73 – 46—›
–3 –3
Give 3 to 73 to make 76. 76 take away
46 is 30. Now give 3 back 27.
76 – 46 —› 30
27 30 70 73
46 – 3 —› 27
-3
+3
27 30 73 76
Stop and Reflect

Try computing 82 - 57. Use both take‐away and counting‐up methods. Can you use all of the
strategies in Figures 7 and 8 without looking? ■
For many subtraction problems, especially those with three digits, an adding‐on ap-
proach is significantly easier than a take‐away approach. Try not to force the issue with
children who do not use an add‐on strategy. However, you may want to revisit some simple
missing‐part activities that are more likely to encourage that type of thinking.
Activity 4 HOW FAR TO MY NUMBER?
Children work in pairs for this activity. Without communicating to each other,
one child writes down a number less than 50 while the other child writes down a
number greater than 50. You may choose to limit the size of the second number (e.g., less
than 100; less than 500) depending on the children. The children work together to find
out how much more must be added to the smaller number to get to the larger number.
Once an answer is determined, they should use little ten‐frame cards to represent the
smaller number and the amount they found to see whether the total matches the larger
number. Children with disabilities may initially need to use the little ten‐frames to help
support their work in finding out how much more to add on.
239
“How Far to My Number?” can also be done by displaying two numbers on a projector
and having children work in pairs at their desks. Another idea to help children think about
using an adding‐on approach is to show a number such as 28 with little ten‐frame cards and
ask, “What goes with 28 to make 53?” You can do the same with three‐digit numbers with or
without the use of models. As always, it is important to have children share their strategies
during a discussion.
Extensions and Challenges

Each of the examples in the preceding sections involved sums less than 100 and all involved
bridging or crossing a ten; that is, if done with a standard algorithm, they require regrouping
or trading. Bridging, the size of the numbers, and the potential for doing problems mentally
are all issues to consider.
Bridging
For most of the strategies, it is easier to add or subtract when bridging is not required. Try
each strategy with 34 + 52 or 68 - 24 to see how it works. Easier problems instill confidence.
They also permit you to challenge children with a “harder one.” There is also the issue of
bridging 100 or 1000. Try 58 + 67 with different strategies. Bridging across hundreds is also
an issue for subtraction. Problems such as 128 - 50 or 128 - 45 are more difficult than ones
that do not cross a hundred.
Larger Numbers
The Common Core State Standards recommend that second graders add and subtract three‐
digit numbers using a variety of strategies. Try seeing how you would do these without using
the standard algorithms: 487 + 235 and 623 - 247. For subtraction, a counting‐up strategy is
usually the easiest. Occasionally, children will use other strategies with larger numbers. For
example, “chunking off ” multiples of 50 or 25 is often a useful method. For 462 + 257, pull
out 450 and 250 to make 700. That leaves 12 and 7 more, making 719.
Standard Algorithms for Addition and Subtraction

As noted earlier, children are not likely to invent the standard algorithms because they are
less intuitive, so your instruction when teaching these algorithms will be more directed.
Given that, it is critical that you teach the algorithms in a conceptual manner, helping chil-
dren understand the tens and ones as they work.
The standard algorithms require an understanding of regrouping, exchanging 10 in one
place‐value position for 1 in the position to the left—or the reverse, exchanging 1 for 10 in
the position to the right. The corresponding terms borrowing and carrying are obsolete and
conceptually misleading. The word regroup may have little meaning for young children. A
preferable term to use initially is trade. Ten ones are traded for a ten. A hundred is traded for
10 tens. Notice that none of the invented strategies involves
regrouping.
Even after you have taught the standard algorithms, it is im-
Be sure to emphasize to children that the standard algo-
portant to continue to encourage and promote the use of in-
rithm is just one possible algorithm that is a good choice in
vented strategies. Children must learn to choose the method
some situations, just as invented strategies are good choices
that best fits the numbers in the problem.
in some situations.
Standard Algorithm for Addition

As with any procedure (algorithm), you need to begin with the concrete. Explicit connec-
tions must be made between the concept (regrouping) and the procedure.
240
Begin with Models Only

In the beginning, simply focus on regrouping with base‐ten materials without recording the
numerical process. Provide children with place‐value mats (see Blackline Master 15) and BLM
base‐ten models.
Have children use base‐ten materials to make one number at the top of the mat and a
second beneath it as shown in Figure 9. If children are still developing base‐ten concepts, a
groupable model such as counting chips in cups is helpful.
Point out this one rule: Begin in the ones column. Then let children solve the problem on
their own. Allow plenty of time and then have children explain what they did and why. Let
children display their work on a projector or on the board to help with their explanations.
One or two problems in a lesson with lots of discussion are much more productive than
a lot of problems based on rules children don’t understand.
Develop the Written Record

Reproduce pages with simple place‐value charts similar to those in Figure 10. The charts
will help children record numerals in columns as they do each step of the procedure with
the base‐ten models. Standards for
The first few times you do this, guide each step carefully through questioning, as shown
in Figure 11. A similar approach would be used for three‐digit problems. ◀ 4 Model with
Have children work in pairs. One child is responsible for the models and the other mathematics
records the steps. They can reverse roles with each
problem. Figure 9
Figure 12 shows a variation of the traditional re- Working from right to left with the standard addition
cording scheme that is quite reasonable, at least for up algorithm.
to three digits. It avoids the “carried ones” and focuses
attention on the value of the digits. If children were per-
mitted to start adding on the left as they are inclined to
do, this would just be a vertical recording scheme for the 27
invented strategy “add tens, add ones, then combine” (see +54
Figure 6). This slight adaptation can be particularly ef-
fective for children with disabilities.
Can a trade be made?
How can you tell? I filled up 10.
Standard Algorithm There’s 11.
That’s 10 and
for Subtraction an extra.
The general approach to developing the subtraction al-

gorithm is the same as for addition. When the procedure
is completely understood with models, a do‐and‐write
approach connects it with a written form.
Trade for a 10.
Begin with Models Only Not enough
to trade tens.
Start by having children model only the top number in a That’s 8 tens and
subtraction problem on the top half of their place‐value a one—81.
mats. For the amount to be subtracted, have children
write each digit on a small piece of paper and place these
pieces near the bottom of their mats in the respective
columns, as in Figure 13. To avoid errors, suggest mak-
ing all trades first. That way, the full amount on the 27
paper slip can be taken off at once. Also explain to chil- +54
dren that they are to begin working with the ones col-
umn first, as they did with addition.
81
241
Figure 10 Anticipate Difficulties with Zeros

Blank recording charts are helpful for children Exercises in which zeros are involved anywhere in the problem tend
to record their work. to cause special difficulties. Give extra attention to these cases while
still using models.
The common errors that emerge when “regrouping across zero”
are best addressed at the modeling stage. For example, in 403 - 138,
children must make a double trade, trading a hundreds piece for 10
tens and then a tens piece for 10 ones. Use the following activity
before giving children any hints about how they might deal with re-
grouping across a zero.
Activity 5 TRICKY TRADING
Pose a problem to the class that requires regrouping across zero. The
problem should be one that will be easy for children to check using
an invented strategy, such as 103 - 78. Children work in pairs using
base‐ten models and place‐value mats. Once they have identified an
answer, they should check their answer using an invented strategy.
Figure 11 Help children record on paper each step they do on their place‐value mats.
Tens Ones How much is in the ones column? (14)
Will you need to make a trade? (yes)
How many tens will you make? (1)

3 6 How many ones will be left? (4)
+4 8
Group ones.
Good! Make the trade now.
Let’s stop now and record exactly what

we have done. You had 14 ones, and you
made 1 ten and 4. Write a “1” in the tens
column to show the ten you put there
and a “4” in the answer space of the
Tens Ones ones column for the 4 ones left.
Trade for a ten.
Look at the tens column on your mat. You

1 have 1 ten on top, 3 from the 36, and 4
3 6 more from the 48. See how your paper
shows the same thing?
+4 8
4
Group tens. Tens Ones
Now add all the tens together. Write how
many tens that is in the answer space for
the tens column.
1
3 6
+4 8
8 4
242
If they did not get the same answer using base‐ten models and their invented strategy, en- Figure 12
courage them to try to determine why. Follow up with a discussion that starts with children An alternative
sharing their ideas. recording scheme for
addition. Notice that
this can be used from
left to right as well as
from right to left.
358
There are several versions of base‐ten blocks online. One example called “Base Blocks Addition” is found at 276
the National Library of Virtual Manipulatives (http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/grade_g_1.html). You can create
any problem up to four digits or you can let the applet generate problems. When you want to regroup,
500
simply drag a rectangle around the pieces you wish to join. 120
14
634
Develop the Written Record
The process of recording each step as it is done is the same as was suggested for addition.
You can also use the same recording sheets (see Figure 10).
When children can explain the use of the symbols involved in the recording process,
move them away from the use of the physical materials and on to a completely symbolic
level. Again, be attentive to problems with zeros.
If children are permitted to follow their natural instincts and begin with the big pieces
(from the left instead of the right), recording schemes similar to that shown in Figure 14 are
possible. The trades are made from the pieces remaining after the subtraction in the column
to the left has been done. In this case, a “regroup across zero” situation will still occur in
problems like 462 - 168. Try it.
Figure 13 Two‐digit subtraction with the standard algorithm and models.
It does
not matter
45 which ones
come off.
–27 Put the
leftovers
2 2 together.
7 7
Not enough ones to take off 7. And now I can take off 2 tens.
Trade a ten for 10 ones.
45
–27
18
2 7
2 7
Now there are 15 ones. That’s 18 left.
I can take 7 off easily.
243
Figure 14 Once children understand the standard algorithms for addition and subtraction of mul-
tidigit numbers, it is important to provide them opportunities to determine which strategy
A left‐hand recording
scheme for subtraction. from a variety of strategies might be more useful, given the specific numbers involved. The
Other methods can also following activity provides this experience.
be devised.
1314
734
275
500 “Base Blocks Subtraction” is an applet found at the National Library of Virtual Manipulatives (http://nlvm
.usu.edu/en/nav/grade_g_1.html). You can create any problem up to four digits or you can let the applet
460 generate problems. The applet uses blue blocks to represent the top number and red blocks to represent
59 the bottom number (the number being subtracted). When the blue blocks are dragged onto the red blocks,
459 they disappear. Although you can begin in any column, if you start in the ones column and trade when
necessary, the applet reinforces the standard algorithm by displaying a corresponding written record.
Activity 6 PICK YOUR PROCESS
Project a list of strategies related to how children might solve addition (or subtraction)
problems. This could include whatever names you have used to label the invented strate-
gies as well as the standard algorithm. Tell children you are going to project a problem
for them to see, but they are NOT to solve it—they are simply to tell which of the various
methods they would choose to solve the problem and be ready to explain why. After
they have made their choice, have children raise their hand as you say each method to
indicate that is the method they have selected. Then tell them they are going to solve the
given problem using their selected method and, once they are finished, they are to raise
their thumb and hold it to their chest to indicate they are finished. Have children share
solutions for each different method. Then ask which method seemed to work best for
this situation. Make sure to use a variety of problems whose numbers lend themselves to
different strategies.
Helping children develop flexible methods of adding and subtracting strengthens their
understanding of place value, number relationships, and operations. Comparing methods
used, including the standard algorithm, supports children in better understanding these
methods, which results in their making fewer computational errors. This assortment of
computational methods will serve children well in the real world.
244
Exploring Subtraction Strategies

• Cut the recording sheet into three pieces to reduce the
Grade Level: 2
visual display or put one problem on a page.
Mathematics Goals • If children are struggling explicitly, suggest the use of a
particular strategy (such as the empty number line) but
• To use invented strategies for subtracting two‐digit
do not suggest how to do the problem.
numbers
• To use efficient strategies for subtracting two‐digit
numbers (beyond counting on by ones) Materials
Grade Level Guide • “Looking at Collections” recording
sheet (Blackline Master 46) BLM
NCTM Common • Manipulatives (for counting)
At grade 2 children are Children in grade 2 use their
expected to develop quick understanding of place value Lesson
recall of addition and to subtract. They should
subtraction facts as well “fluently add and subtract Before
as fluency with two‐digit within 100 using strategies Present the task to the class:
addition and subtraction of based on place value,
• Read the first problem together with the children. Ask
whole numbers. properties of operations, and/
children questions to make sure they understand the
or the relationship between
There is an expectation that situation (not how to solve it). For example, ask “What
addition and subtraction”
they will be able to estimate do we know?” or “Can you put the problem in your
(CCSSO, 2010, p. 19).
and calculate answers own words?”
mentally. • Record what children know on the board.
• Ask children to brainstorm ideas about how they
might solve the problem. Call on several children and
Consider Your Children’s Needs elicit their thoughts. For example, if a child says, “I
would start with 35 and count up to 72,” ask how he
Children should have experience using a variety of in-
or she will count or what model he or she might use
vented strategies for adding two‐digit numbers. Children
to do the problem. It is not sufficient to say, “I would
should have had experience subtracting with smaller val-
subtract.”
ues and may have had experience subtracting two‐digit
from two‐digit numbers. The assumption is that children • Summarize by encouraging children to use one of the
have not been taught the standard algorithms for addi- ideas they heard or one of their own ideas. Also en-
tion and subtraction. Consider using manipulatives or courage them to use manipulatives or models (e.g.,
drawings as a tool to support children’s thinking. hundreds chart, empty number line).
Provide clear expectations:

• Reading comprehension is central to this task. If ELLs • Explain to children that they will be working individu-
have limited English, you can modify this lesson by ally (or you may choose to have them work in pairs).
using the same subject in all the stories. If proficiency • Explain that they are to show how they solved each
is stronger, ensure that the contexts are understood in problem. They can show how with words, drawings, or
the Before phase. equations.
245
• They should provide enough information on their paper • One good visual representation is to use an empty
so that, if they shared it with other second‐grade chil- number line. You can use the number line when a child
dren, other children would understand what they did. suggests a strategy that involves skip counting by tens
• Tell children to continue on to the second and third (e.g., “I started with 35, added 10 and 10 and 10 to get
problems after they finish the first one. to 65, then counted by five to 70, and then by ones to
72, and got 37.”). Your number line on the board may
look like this:
During
Initially: 37
• Observe that children have access to the materials
needed to solve the problem. 30
10 10 10 7
• Observe that each child understands the question and is
5
in the process of attempting to solve the first situation. 2
Ongoing: 35 45 55 65 70 72
• Observe children’s work—notice the methods they are 72 – 35 = 37
using and the models they are using to solve the prob-
lem. See the “Assessment” section of this lesson for de-
• If there are different answers, allow the children with
tails. Keep these in mind for selecting who will share in
different answers to explain their thinking, and the
the After phase of the lesson.
class as a whole can determine if the answer makes
• As children work, ask them to tell you what the prob- sense. The responsibility for deciding what is correct
lem is asking and how they are thinking about solving falls to the class, not you.
it. See the “Assessment” section at the end of the les-
• Repeat the process for the second and third problems.
son for details.
• If a child is stuck, try to make a suggestion that builds on
the child’s ideas. For example, if the child says, “I want
to take 35 from 72, but I don’t know how to start,” you Assessment
might ask the child if the hundreds chart might help. Or
you might suggest that the child try one of the ideas that Observe
was mentioned in the Before phase of the lesson. After • Use a checklist to identify children using strategies that
making a suggestion, walk away and check back later. involve counting by ones. You may need to meet with
• If you notice an error, rather than correct it, ask children these children in a small group to encourage them to
to explain how they solved the problem (children often use skip counting or landmark numbers as a faster,
catch their mistakes while explaining and showing). more efficient strategy.
• Look to see whether children are using different strate-
After gies across the problems or using the same strategy.

Ask
• Ask children to explain how they solved the problem.
Record their ideas on the board, sketching any visuals • What strategy are you using?
that they describe, or show their work on a document • Can you show me (with manipulatives or a hundreds
camera. chart) how you found the answer?
• Be careful to write the equations both horizontally • Can you use skip counting or benchmark numbers to
and vertically so that children recognize that these are find the answer more quickly?
equivalent representations.
246
References
Carpenter, T. P., Franke, M. L., Jacobs, V. Klein, A. S., Beishuizen, M., & Treffers, A. (2002).
R., Fennema, E., & Empson, S. B. (1998). A The empty number line in Dutch second grade. In
longitudinal study of invention and understanding J. Sowder & B. Schapelle (Eds.), Lessons learned from
in children’s multidigit addition and subtraction. research (pp. 41–44). Reston, VA: National Council
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 29(1), of Teachers of Mathematics.
3–20.
Fleischman, H. L., Hopstock, P. J., Pelczar, M. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics.
P., & Shelley, B. E. (2010). Highlights from PISA Reston, VA: Author.
2009: Performance of U.S. 15‐year‐old students
in reading, mathematics, and science literacy
Helping children learn mathematics. J. Kilpatrick, J.
in an international context (NCES 2011–004).
Swafford, & B. Findell (Eds.). Washington, DC:
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office.
Torbeyns, J., De Smedt, B., Ghesquiere, P., &
Gravemeijer, K., & van Galen, F. (2003). Facts
Verschaffel, L. (2009). Acquisition and use of
and algorithms as products of students’ own
shortcut strategies by traditionally schooled
mathematical activity. In J. Kilpatrick, W. G. Martin,
children. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 71,
& D. Schifter (Eds.), A research companion to Principles
1–17.
and Standards for School Mathematics (pp. 114–122).
Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Verschaffel, L., Greer, B., & De Corte, E. (2007).
Mathematics. Whole number concepts and operations. In
F. Lester (Ed.), Second handbook of research on
Kamii, C. K., & Dominick, A. (1998). The harmful
mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 557–628).
effects of algorithms in grades 1–4. In L. J. Morrow
(Ed.), The teaching and learning of algorithms in school
Mathematics.
mathematics (pp. 130–140). Reston, VA: National
247
Promoting Algebraic
Reasoning
Algebraic reasoning for grades pre-K–2 involves form-

BigIDEAS ing generalizations from experiences with number and
computation, formalizing these ideas using meaningful
1 Algebra for pre-K–2 children is more than representations and symbols, and exploring the concepts
recognizing and extending repeating and growing of pattern and functions. The core idea of algebraic rea-
patterns. It should emphasize generalization.
soning or algebraic thinking is looking for and finding
2 Algebra is a useful tool for generalizing relationships and building a structure with those relation-
arithmetic and representing patterns and regularities in ships. This type of reasoning prepares children to think
our world. mathematically across all areas of mathematics and is es-
3 Symbolism, especially that involving equality sential for making mathematics useful in daily life.
and variables, must be understood conceptually. For
example, children need to understand that the equal
sign is used to express the relationship of equality and is
not an indication to do a computation.
Your success in helping children see relationships and think
4 The structures in our number system can and algebraically is driven by your questions. Record the questions
should be generalized. For example, the generalization suggested throughout this chapter on note cards and keep
that a + b = b + a tells us that 38 + 72 = 72 + 38 them handy for lesson planning and classroom discussions.
without computing the sums on each side of the
equal sign.
In Young Mathematicians at Work: Constructing Alge-
bra, Fosnot and Jacob (2010) write, “It is human to seek
and build relations. The mind cannot process the multi-
tude of stimuli in our surroundings and make meaning of
them without developing a network of relations” (p. 12).*
According to the Curriculum Focal Points (National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2006), algebraic
*Reprinted with permission from Young Mathematicians at

Work: Constructing Algebra, copyright 2010, by the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics. All rights reserved.
249
Promoting Algebraic Reasoning
thinking should be connected to the focal points at every grade level with the primary top-
ics being the use of patterns leading to generalizations (especially with operations), the
study of change, and a rudimentary concept of function. In the Common Core State Stan-
dards (CCSSO, 2010), the close connection between arithmetic and algebra is evident by an
identified domain called “Operations and Algebraic Thinking.” This chapter on promoting
algebraic reasoning follows the number and operation chapters so that you can see the close
relationship between number concepts, operations, and algebraic reasoning.
Strands of Algebraic Reasoning

Three strands of algebraic reasoning are commonly identified (Carraher & Schliemann,
2007; Kaput, 2008). Notice that the central notions of generalizations and symbolism are
embedded in all three strands.
1. Study of structures in the number system, including those arising
in arithmetic (algebra as generalized arithmetic).
2. Study of patterns, relations, and functions.
3. Process of mathematical modeling, including the meaningful use of symbols.
Although algebra can be thought of as composed of different components and is often con-
sidered a separate area of the curriculum, algebra can and should be approached as an in-
tegral part of all areas of mathematics. The three strands of algebra that we have identified
form a foundation for the existing mathematics curriculum in grades pre-K–2. Let’s see how.
Generalization from Arithmetic

To generalize a concept, one uses specific examples to identify commonalities that can be used
to describe any example of the concept. The process of generating generalizations from num-
ber and arithmetic begins as early as pre‐kindergarten and continues as children learn about
all aspects of number and computation, including basic facts and meanings of the operations.
Generalization with Operations

When young children explore addition families, they learn how to decompose, compose,
and recompose numbers. Consider the following problem that provides children a chance
to think about ways to decompose the number 9:
Nine frogs are sitting on two lily pads, one small lily pad and one big lily pad. Show the dif-
ferent ways that the nine frogs could sit on the two lily pads.
This problem can also provide children with the occasion to notice generalizable character-
istics, such as increasing the number on the big lily pad by one means reducing the number
on the small lily pad by one. To facilitate this opportunity, children can be challenged to find
all the ways the frogs can be on the two lily pads. The sig-
nificant algebraic question is how to decide when all the solu-
tions have been found. To begin with, children will just reply
In these kinds of problems, children often do not consider
they cannot think of any more ways. By asking questions to
the combinations with zero. If this happens, simply ask,
focus children’s attention on the relationship between adja-
“Could one of the lily pads be empty?”
cent solutions (e.g., 2 + 7 and 3 + 6) (asking questions, not
250
telling!), children will eventually begin to strategically use each number from 0 to 9 for one
lily pad and the corresponding number for the other lily pad.
Continue to work toward generalization by looking at other quantities of frogs (e.g.,
how many ways for 5 frogs? for 6 frogs?), asking children what patterns they notice across
these cases. When a child explains that for each number 0 to 9 there is one solution, he or Standards for
she is no longer partitioning 9 into parts to find solutions but is making a generalization Mathematical Practice
about how to determine the number of solutions without having to list them. For example, 8 Look for and
the child might explain, “There is always one more way than the number of frogs.” ◀ express regularity in
This reasoning can be applied to other numbers and in other contexts, which is an im- repeated reasoning
portant step in generalization. The children’s book The Sleepover (Fosnot, 2007) describes
a context of eight children rearranging themselves on a pair of bunk beds that would offer
another opportunity for children to grapple with the idea of finding all the possible combi-
nations for a number. (Fosnot’s book The Sleepover can be found at www.heinemann.com
/products/E01084.aspx.)
The following activity purposefully focuses children’s attention on the adjacent facts in
an effort to help them generalize and reason more strategically.
Activity 1 ONE UP AND ONE DOWN WITH ADDITION
Have children select a number, such as 7, and add it to itself. The task is to find out what
happens to the sum if you add 1 to one of the sevens and subtract 1 from the other
seven (e.g., 8 + 6). Ask children, “Does this work with other numbers? Does it only work
if you start with a number plus itself? Can you explain why it works? What else can you
find out?”
Activity 1, “One Up and One Down with Addition,” poses a significant task for first and
second graders. Some children may wonder if it works for “really big numbers.” Suggest they
test their ideas with a calculator. It is also useful to explore the idea of two up and two down,
and so on. Of course, the results are the same as long as the same amount is added and sub-
Standards for
tracted from each number. The result of this exploration can be useful when learning basic Mathematical Practice
facts (6 + 8 is the same as 7 + 7 or double 7). Children may want to know if the one‐up/one‐
down idea works for subtraction. (It does not.) But there is an important pattern to discover: If 2 Reasoning
both numbers change in the same direction, up or down, the result is the same. (This is called ◀ abstractly and
quantitatively
“equal additions.”) Recognizing this allows us to change 12 – 8 to 10 – 6, or 83 - 48 to 85 - 50,
changing potentially difficult problems to easier ones.
Generalizing can be extended to symbols, even with first and second graders. For example,
in the frogs and lily pad problem, the teacher might respond to the child who states that there
will always be one more solution than the number of frogs by asking, “How about if there were
n frogs?” Children will typically respond using their own words with something like, “It would
just be one more than that.” Challenge them to determine how they might write this if n indi-
cates the number of frogs. Children will struggle with this question but it extends the oppor-
tunity for them to think about the generalization and how they might communicate about it.
Contexts like the frogs on lily pads can provide opportunities to address commutativ-
ity. For example, some children might consider pairs of solutions such as 2 + 7 and 7 + 2
as different solutions because of the contextual situation; that is, 2 + 7 could represent
2 frogs on the small lily pad and 7 frogs on the big lily pad and then 7 + 2 would represent
7 frogs on the small lily pad and 2 frogs on the big lily pad. Others may argue that they are
the “same,” meaning that although 2 + 7 and 7 + 2 are modeling different situations, they
still result in 9 frogs on lily pads. It is important to allow children to work through this idea
251
Standards for of commutativity so look for multiple places to revisit the idea. Consider the suggestion in
the next paragraph.
8 Look for and Slight shifts in how arithmetic problems are presented can open up opportunities for
express regularity in ◀ generalizations (Blanton, 2008). For example, instead of a series of unrelated addition prob-
repeated reasoning lems, consider the following list:
4+7 7+4 23 + 15 15 + 23
Once children have solved these problems, you can focus their attention on the addends, ask-
ing questions such as, “What do you notice?” “Will this always be true?” and “How could we
write that using symbols?” In their own words, children will explain that the numbers can be
added in any order. Even if children show some understanding of commutativity of single‐
digit addends, it is important to help them recognize the generalizability of the property with
larger numbers.
Generalizations in the Hundreds Chart

The hundreds chart is a rich representation for exploring number relationships. To connect
Standards for arithmetic to algebra, you can ask children, “What did we add to get from 72 to 82? From
Mathematical Practice 5 to 15? From 34 to 44?” When children stop counting and note the generalized idea that
they are adding 10 and moving down exactly one row, they are deepening their understand-
7 Look for and make
use of structure
◀ ing of number concepts and how adding 10 changes numbers.
Moves on the hundreds chart can be represented with arrows (for example, → means
right one column or plus 1, and ↑ means up one row or less 10). Consider asking children
to complete these problems:
14 →→←← 63↑↑↓↓ 45→↑←↓
What do you anticipate children will do? Children may count up or back using a count‐by‐
ones approach. Others may know to jump 10 (up or down) and will do all four moves. Still
others may recognize that a downward arrow “undoes” an upward arrow—an indication
that these children are moving toward generalizations (Blanton, 2008). In other words, they
recognize that +10 and -10 results in zero change.

As children work on tasks like the one just described, observe, using a checklist, which children solve tasks
by counting by ones, by jumping, or by noticing the “doing” and “undoing.” What you observe can help
you identify which children’s approaches to highlight during the subsequent discussion. For example, you
can start the discussion by having children who used a count‐by‐ones approach or a jumping strategy to
share and then have children who have generalized the situation share how they think about it.
The next activity continues to have children explore patterns involving place value and
addition.
Activity 2 DIAGONAL SUMS
Provide children with a hard copy of a hundreds chart (see Blackline Master 10) or you
BLM can have them use an interactive virtual hundreds chart (see, for example, www.crickweb
.co.uk/ks2numeracy‐tools.html). Have children select any four numbers in the hundreds
252
chart that form a square. They are to add the two numbers on each diagonal as in the
example shown here.
47 48 49 50
57 58 59 60
67 68 69 70
77 78 79 80
Children should explore other diagonal sums on the chart. Expand their search to diagonals
of any rectangle. For example, the numbers 15, 19, 75, and 79 form four corners of a rect-
angle. The sums 15 + 79 and 19 + 75 are equal. Challenge children to figure out why this
happens. (See Figure 1.)
Stop and Reflect

Before reading further, stop and explore why the diagonal sums described in the previous
activities are the same. Decomposing the numbers may help. ■
Figure 1
Diagonals on a hundreds chart. For any four numbers
forming a rectangular arrangement on the hundreds
chart, the sum of the corner numbers on one diagonal
Here are some additional tasks you might explore on a
equals the sum of the corner numbers on the other
hundreds chart.
diagonal.
• When skip counting, which numbers make diagonal
patterns? Which numbers make column patterns? Can
you describe a rule for explaining when a number will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
have a diagonal or column pattern?
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
• If you move down two and over one on the hundreds
chart, what is the relationship between the original 21 29
number and the new number?
39
• Can you find two skip‐count patterns with one color
marker “on top of” the other (i.e., all of the shaded val- 49
ues for one pattern are part of the shaded values for
the other)? How are these two skip‐count numbers re- 59
lated? Is this true for any pair of numbers that have this 69
relationship?
79 80
These examples extend number concepts to algebraic rea-
soning. Asking questions such as “When will this be true?” 90
and “Why does this work?” requires children to generalize
and thereby strengthen their understanding of the number 100
concepts they are learning.
253
Meaningful Use of Symbols

The equal sign and variables are powerful tools in representing mathematical ideas and the
primary grades are not too early to begin using them. However, many misconceptions often
develop in these early years that unfortunately stay with children into later years. In this sec-
tion, we emphasize how pre-K–2 teachers can help children develop a strong understanding
of the equal sign and variables through meaningful instruction.
The Meaning of the Equal Sign

The equal sign is one of the most important symbols in mathematics, especially in elemen-
tary arithmetic and in early algebra. We teach children to write equations using the equal
sign as early as kindergarten, and they continue to experience equations in every subsequent
grade. Unfortunately, research dating from 1975 to the present indicates that students have
a very poor understanding of the equal sign (RAND Mathematics Study Panel, 2003). In ad-
dition, the equal sign is rarely represented in U.S. textbooks in ways that facilitate children’s
understanding of the equivalence relationship—an understanding that is critical to under-
standing algebra (McNeil et al., 2006).
Stop and Reflect

In the following equation, what number do you think belongs in the box?
8+4= +5
How do you think children in the early grades or in middle school typically answer this
question? ■
In one study (Falkner, Levi, & Carpenter, 1999), no more

Do not connect multiple expressions using equal signs un- than 10 percent of children in grades 1 to 6 put the correct
less they are equal. For example, when adding 6 and 6 and number (7) in the box. None of the sixth graders (out of
then adding 3 more to that sum, do not write that as 6 + 6 = 145) put a 7 in the box. The common responses were 12 and
12 + 3 = 15. Doing this incorrectly reinforces the idea that 17. (How did children get these answers?)
the equal sign means “and the answer is” rather than indi- Most, if not all, equations that children encounter in
cating equivalence. elementary school are similar to 5 + 7 = ___ or 4 * 3 = ___.
As a consequence, children come to see = as signifying
“and the answer is” rather than as a symbol that indicates
equivalence (Carpenter, Franke, & Levi, 2003; McNeil & Alibali, 2005; Molina & Ambrose,
2006). Subtle shifts in how you approach teaching computation can alleviate this signifi-
cant misconception. For example, a simple change such as writing basic facts as 7 = 2 + 5
can cause children to stop and question why this is the same as 2 + 5 = 7. Also, rather than
always asking children to solve a problem like 19 + 23, ask them to find an equivalent expres-
sion and use both to write an equation (Blanton, 2008). For 19 + 23, children might write
19 + 23 = 20 + 22. Activity 3 (adapted from Fosnot & Jacobs, 2010) works on this idea using
the basic facts and emphasizes the Up Over 10 strategy.
Activity 3 TEN AND THEN SOME
For this activity, each pair of children will need eight note cards labeled with the equa-
tions 10 + 1 to 10 + 8. They lay those cards out on their desks face up.
254
10 + 1 10 + 3
10 + 2
10 + 4 10 + 5
10 + 6
10 + 7 10 + 8
They will also need a deck of playing cards with all the face cards, aces, and tens
removed. Each child draws one playing card from the deck. Together the partners decide
which note card is equivalent to the sum of their playing cards. They place the playing
cards behind the identified note card. If the sum of the playing cards is less than 10, they
slide the cards back in the deck in random places. Have children write the two expressions
as an equation (e.g., 5 + 8 = 10 + 3) to reinforce the idea that these quantities are equal.
Children can also play this game independently.
To begin with, children struggle to understand how amounts that look different can ac-
tually be equivalent. In other words, they wonder why the numbers do not have to be iden- Standards for
tical. Consequently, children will initially need to add the numbers on each side to verify Mathematical Practice
for themselves that they are the same quantity. As they come to understand compensation 7 Look for and make
(e.g., how part of one number can be moved to another number), they begin to understand ◀ use of structure
how equivalent quantities do not have to be identical. Once you know children can use com-
pensation, challenge them to find the equivalent expression without computing first.
The next activity continues to challenge children to find different ways to express
equivalent amounts.
Activity 4 DIFFERENT BUT THE SAME
Challenge children to find different ways to express a particular number, say, 6. Give a
few examples, such as 3 + 3 or 12 - 6. Encourage children to use both addition and sub-
traction in the same expression. Ask questions such as, “How many ways can you make
6 using at least one number greater than 10?” Have children write equations using their
expressions (e.g., 12 - 6 = 0 + 6; 15 - 9 = 2 + 4). In your discussion, emphasize that each
expression is a way of representing the same quantity. Adding a context (e.g., trading
cards) can support children’s reasoning.
Why is it so important that children in grades pre-K–2 correctly understand the equal
sign? First, it is important for children to understand and symbolize relationships in our number
system and the equal sign is a principal method of representing these relationships. For ex-
ample, 8 + 5 = 8 + 2 + 3 shows a basic fact strategy. When ideas that are initially and informally
developed through arithmetic are generalized and expressed symbolically, children have access
to powerful relationships for working with other numbers in a generalized manner. A second
255
reason, although removed from the pre-K–2 classroom, is that when older students have a poor
understanding of the equal sign, they typically have difficulty working with algebraic expressions
(Knuth, Stephens, McNeil, & Alibali, 2006). Helping pre-K–2 children develop a solid under-
standing of the equal sign can in turn help them avoid such difficulties in later grades.
Conceptualizing the Equal Sign as a Balance

You can help children understand the idea of equivalence through concrete methods. The
next two activities use kinesthetic approaches, tactile objects, and visualizations to reinforce
the “balancing” notion of the equal sign (ideas based on Mann, 2004).
Activity 5 SEESAW COMPARISONS
Ask children to raise their arms to look like a seesaw. Explain that you have softballs,
all weighing the same, and tennis balls, all weighing the same. The softballs are
-La
g
n uag heavier than the tennis balls. (Have some softballs and tennis balls in case children,
nglish
e Lerane
especially ELLs, are not familiar with these items.) Tell children to imagine that you
rE
fo rs
have placed a softball in each of their left hands. Ask them what would happen to
their seesaw (children should bend to the left side). Tell children to imagine that you place
another softball in their right hands (children should level off). Next with the softballs still
there, ask them to imagine a tennis ball added to the left. Finally, say you are adding an-
other tennis ball in the left hand again. Then ask them to imagine a tennis ball moving over
to the right hand. This is a particularly important activity for children with disabilities who
may be challenged with the abstract idea of balancing values of expressions.
After acting out the seesaw several times, you can ask children to create and share their
observations. For example, one child may share, “If you have a balanced seesaw and add
something to one side, it will tilt to that side.” Another child may explain, “If you take away
the same object from both sides of the seesaw, the seesaw won’t change.”
Activity 6 WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT THE SHAPES?
Prepare a balance scale with objects on both sides. Here is an example:
Standards for Tell children that the cubes weigh the same and the balls weigh the same. Then ask
Mathematical Practice the children to think about what they know about the shapes. Have children share with
a partner what they think they know. If children do not focus on the weights, ask a more
2 Reason abstractly
◀ directed question such as, “What do you know about how the weights of the balls and
and quantitatively
the cubes compare?” Have children explain their thinking.
256
Figure 2 shows a series of other examples for the pan balance. Two or more balances for
a single problem provide different information about the shapes or variables. Problems of
this type can be adjusted in difficulty for children in grades K–2. When no numbers are in-
volved, as in the top three examples in Figure 2, children can find combinations of numbers
for the shapes that make the pans balance. The different shapes represent different variables
and so would have different values. There are often different paths to finding a solution.
To create your own pan balance problems, start by giving values to two or three shapes.
Place shapes in groups and add the values. Be sure your problems can be solved!
Stop and Reflect

How would you solve the last problem in Figure 2? Can you solve it in two ways? ■
Figure 2 Examples of problems using pan balances.
Which shape weighs the most? Explain.
Which shape weighs the most? Explain.

Which shape weighs the least? Explain.
What will balance two spheres? Explain.
8 12
6 10 7
How much does each shape weigh? Explain.
257
Figure 3
Using expressions and variables in equations and
inequalities. The two‐pan balance helps develop
the meaning of =, <, and >.
You can find more “Pan Balance” explorations at http://illuminations.nctm
.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?id=33. Use the directions under “Explorations” so that
(a)
you can help your children strategically explore the tasks found at this site.
12 – 7 3+4
12 – 7 < 3 + 4
Tilt! After children have experiences with tasks involving shapes,
they can explore numbers and then variables using pan balances.
4+4+4 6+6
Balance! 4+4+4=6+6 Activity 7 TILT OR BALANCE
455 + 197 460 + 192 On the board, draw or project a simple two‐pan bal-
ance. In each pan, write a numeric expression and ask
which pan will go down or whether the two will balance (see
455 + 197 460 + 192 Figure 3a). Challenge children to write their own expressions
Can you determine whether the expressions for each side of the scale to make it balance. Include examples
balance without doing the addition? such as the third and fourth balances for which children can
analyze the relationships on both sides (as opposed to doing
(b) the computation) to determine whether the pan tilts or bal-
64 − 26 63 − 27
ances. For children with disabilities, rather than have them
write their own expressions, initially have them identify from
64 − 26 63 − 27 a small collection of cards with expressions the ones that will
make the scale balance.
Can you determine whether the expressions
balance without doing the subtraction?
+3 8+2 True/False and Open Sentences

Carpenter, Franke, and Levi (2003) suggest that a good starting
point for helping children make sense of the equal sign is to ex-
Can you determine how to make the expressions
balance without doing the addition? plore equations as either true or false. Clarifying the meaning of
the equal sign is just one of the outcomes of this type of explora-
tion, as seen in the next activity.
Activity 8 TRUE OR FALSE EQUATIONS

nguag
-La
Introduce true/false sentences or equations with simple examples to explain what
nglish
e Lerane
rE
you mean by a true equation and a false equation (e.g., 2 + 3 = 5 is a true equa-
fo rs
tion; 4 + 3 = 2 is a false equation). Then put several simple equations on the board,
some true and some false. Here are some examples:
5+2=7 4+1=6
8 = 10 - 1 7 = 12 - 5
To begin with, keep the computations simple. The children’s task is to decide which
of the equations are true and which are false. For each response, they must explain their
reasoning.
258
After this initial exploration, have children explore equations that are in a less famil-
iar form:
3+7=7+3 10 - 3 = 11 - 4 9 + 6 = 0 + 14
8=8 15 + 7 + 3 = 16 + 10
Listen to the types of reasons children use to justify their answers and plan additional
equations accordingly. ELLs and children with disabilities will benefit from first explaining
(or showing) their reasoning to a partner as a low‐risk speaking opportunity and then
sharing with the whole group.
Children will typically agree about equations when there is an expression on one side
and a single number on the other, although initially equations such as 7 = 12 - 5 may gener-
ate discussion. For equations with no operation (e.g., 8 = 8), the discussion may be lively.
Children often believe there must be an operation on one side and an “answer” on the other.
Reinforce that the equal sign means “is the same amount as” by using that language as you
read the symbol.
After children have experiences with true/false sentences, introduce open sentences—
that is, equations with a box or letter to be replaced by a number. To develop an understand-
ing of open sentences, encourage children to look at the number sentence as a whole and
describe in words what the equation represents.
Activity 9 OPEN SENTENCES
Write several open sentences on the board. These can be similar to the true/false sen-
tences that you have been exploring. Here are some examples:
5+2= 4+ =6 4+5= -1
6-n=7-4 n+5=5+8 15 + 27 = n + 28
Ask children to decide what number can replace the box (or letter) to make the sen-
tence true. They should be ready to explain their reasoning.
Relational Thinking
Once children understand that the equal sign means that the quantities on both sides are the Standards for
same amount, they can use relational thinking to solve problems. Relational thinking occurs Mathematical Practice
when a child observes and uses number relationships between the two sides of the equal sign 2 Reason abstractly
instead of actually computing the amounts. Relational thinking of this sort is the first step ◀ and quantitatively
toward generalizing relationships found in arithmetic to relationships used when variables
are involved.
To illustrate this kind of thinking, consider the two explanations for placing an 8 in the
box for 7 + = 6 + 9.
Explanation 1: Since 6 + 9 is 15, I need to figure out 7 plus what equals 15. It is 8,
so the box is 8.
Explanation 2: Seven is one more than the 6 on the other side. That means that the box
should be one less than 9, so it must be 8.
259
The first child computed the sum on one side of the equation and then used the sum to
determine the missing part on the other side. The second child used a relationship between
the expressions on either side of the equal sign. This child did not need to compute the
values on each side.
Stop and Reflect

How are the two children’s responses for 7 + = 6 + 9 different? How would each of these
children solve the following open sentence? ■
534 + 175 = 174 +
The first child would likely do the computation and

may have difficulty finding the correct addend. The second
Having children share their reasoning promotes relational
child would use relational thinking to reason that 174 is
thinking and can help other children to improve analyzing
one less than 175, so the number in the box must be one
relationships in a problem.
more than 534.

As children work on these types of tasks, listen to individual children for whether they are using relational
thinking. If they are not, ask them, “Can you find the answer without actually doing any computation?”
This questioning helps nudge children toward relational thinking and helps you decide the next instruc-
tional steps.
To facilitate relational thinking and the meaning of the equal sign, continue to have
children explore increasingly complex true/false and open sentences that are designed to
elicit relational thinking rather than computation. Although not a guarantee, posing prob-
lems with larger numbers that make computation difficult (not impossible) can prompt chil-
dren to try a relationship approach. Here are some examples to consider.
TRUE/FALSE:
674 - 369 = 664 - 379 37 + 54 = 38 + 53 376 - 329 = 76 - 29
OPEN SENTENCES:
73 + 56 = 71 + 126 - 37 = - 40 68 + 58 = 57 + 69 + n
Stop and Reflect

One of the previous true/false sentences is false. Can you explain why using relational
thinking? ■
The following activity will help to solidify children’s understanding of the equal sign.
260
Activity 10 TRUE OR FALSE CHALLENGES
After children have had ample time to discuss true/false and open sentences, ask them to
make up their own true/false sentences that they can use to challenge their classmates.
Each child should write a collection of three or four sentences with at least one true and
at least one false sentence. Encourage them to include one “tricky” one. Their equations
can be either traded with a partner or shared with the whole class. Repeat for open
sentences.
When children write their own true/false sentences, they often are intrigued with the
idea of using large numbers and lots of numbers in their sentences, especially if you have
challenged them to include “tricky” sentences. Support their efforts, as these kinds of prob-
lems tend to help move children toward relational thinking.
The Meaning of Variables

Expressions or equations with variables are a means for expressing patterns and gen-
eralizations. Variables can be used as unique known values or as quantities that vary.
Unfortunately, children often think of variables as placeholders for specific numbers, not
representations for multiple or even infinite values. Children need experiences that build
meaning for both.
Variables Used as Known Values Standards for

The used in some of the examples of open sentences is a precursor of a variable used Mathematical Practice
in this way. You can also use letters instead of a box to stand for the missing number,
which was also seen in some of the examples. To avoid children thinking of the box as the ◀ 6 Attend to
precision
answer space, ask them what number the box could be to make the sentence true. You can
also use this language when you use letters instead of boxes. Initially children should rely
on relational reasoning when finding the value of the variable that makes the sentence
true.
Consider the following open sentence:
+ +7= + 17
This equation could have also been written as n + n + 7 = n + 17. When the same symbol or
letter is used in multiple places in an expression or equation, the convention is that it stands
for the same number every place it occurs. In this example, the or n must be 10.
There are different types of story problems, and in each type, what is missing from the
problem can be the initial value, the change, or the answer. This is a major emphasis in the
Common Core State Standards in grades 1 and 2. Too often our story problems have the result
unknown. But children need many experiences with other parts missing, as in the following
example:
Rebekah had 5 apples in her basket. She picked some more after lunch. Then she had 13.
How many apples did she pick after lunch?
Children may recognize this as a difference and realize the answer is 8. The equation that
fits this story is 5 + ___ = 13. Note the change is unknown. Therefore, this is a missing‐part
situation. This notion of missing addend is a precursor for children’s work with variables
261
and algebraic expressions and equations. You can begin to use variables instead of leaving a
blank space: 5 + a = 13.
When writing equations for story problems, different equations may occur. For ex-
ample, consider this story problem:
If Gabbie has 12 cards and Karl has 5 cards, write an equation for how many more cards
Gabbie has than Karl.
Notice the instructions did not ask children to solve the problem but rather to write an equa-
tion. Some children might write 12 - 5 = while others may write 5 + = 12. The latter
Standards for equation can be interpreted as “Karl’s 5 cards plus some more cards are the same as Gabbie’s
Mathematical Practice 12 cards.” Facilitate a discussion with children to help them understand that both equations
show the same relationships and either is correct. Although either is correct, it is important
4 Model with ◀ that children can write and justify both equations, connecting the equations to the story.
mathematics
Within a context, children can even explore three variables, each one standing for an
unknown value as in the following activity (based on Maida, 2004).
Activity 11 TOYS, TOYS, TOYS
Children can figure out the cost of three toys, given the following three facts:
1. + = $3
Ask children to look at each fact and make observations
that can help them figure out the cost of each toy. For
2. + = $4 example, they may notice that the soccer ball costs $1
more than the teddy bear. Help children write this
3. + = $5 observation as the other statements. Continue until
these discoveries lead to finding the cost of each toy.
Encourage children to use manipulatives to represent
and explore the problem.
Stop and Reflect

Work on the problem in Activity 11 before reading further. Using the observation that the
soccer ball cost $1 more than the bear, that means that the third fact can be thought of as a
bear + $1 + bear = $5. So, how much is a teddy bear? ■
Variables as Quantities That Vary

The shift from the variable representing a specific quantity to a variable representing mul-
tiple possibilities can be difficult for children. Using contexts (again, story problems!) is
significant in helping children develop this second meaning of variables. As Blanton (2008)
suggests, use slight alterations to a number task:
NUMBER TASK:
Sandra has 8 pennies. George has 4 more pennies than Sandra. How many pennies does
George have?
ALGEBRA TASK:
Sandra has some pennies. George has 4 more pennies than Sandra. How many pennies
does George have?
262
Notice in the new version there is no way to do a computa- Figure 4

tion because you are not given specific values. Children can
Possible ways variables can vary in quantity.
list possible ways in a table (see Figure 4) and eventually rep-
resent the answer as George = Sandra + 4. Number of Number of
Another place to use variables as quantities that vary is Pennies for Sandra Pennies for George
when children make conjectures about the number system
2 6
(e.g., when you add zero to any number, you get that num-
ber back). These statements are true for all numbers. At first 3 7
children will use their own language to describe the situa-
4 8
tion, but you can introduce the use of variables to help refine
their ideas. For example, for the commutative property of 10 14
addition, children might explain, “It does not matter which 23 27
order you add the numbers. You get the same amount.” After
children have discussed this idea multiple times and created
several examples, suggest writing this idea as a + b = b + a.
Making Structure in the Number System Explicit

The properties of addition, subtraction, and multiplication are important for children as
they learn basic facts and computational strategies. For example, understanding the commu-
tative property for addition substantially reduces the number of facts to be mastered. This
and other properties are likely to be used informally as children develop relational thinking
and learn about computation.
A next step is to have children examine these properties and to begin to express them in
general terms without reference to specific numbers—first in their own language and then
using symbols. For example, after examining several examples of adding zero, a child might
observe, “When you add zero to any number, you get that number back.” Articulating this
property (and any other properties of our number system) in a general way, in either words or
symbols (e.g., a + 0 = a), noting that it is true for all numbers, makes the structure of our num-
ber system explicit. When these structures are made explicit and are understood, they not only
add to children’s tools for computation, but they also enrich their understanding of the number
system, providing a base for even higher levels of reasoning (Carpenter, Franke, & Levi, 2003).
Making and Justifying Conjectures about Properties

Properties of the number system can be built into children’s explorations with true/false and
open number sentences. For example, children will eventually agree that the true/false sen-
tence 4 + 7 = 7 + 4 is true. The pivotal question, however, asks, “Is it true for any numbers?”
Some children will agree that although it seems to be true all of the time, maybe there are
two numbers that haven’t been tried yet for which it does not work.
Consider the following discussion that occurs after children have had several opportunities
to discuss true/false sentences such as 4 + 7 = 7 + 4. The following discussion focuses on in-
vestigating the commutative property of addition, not on whether the equation is true or false.
Teacher: [Pointing at 5 + 3 = 3 + 5 on the board ] Is it true or false?
Carmen: True, because 5 + 3 is 8 and 3 + 5 is 8.
Andy: There is a 5 on both sides and a 3 on both sides and nothing else.
Teacher: [Writing 6 + 9 = 9 + 6 on the board ] True or false?
263
Children: True. Same reasons!

Teacher: [Writing 25 + 48 = 48 + 25 on the board ] True or false?
Children: True!
Teacher: Who can describe what is going on with these examples?
Rene: If you have the same numbers on each side, you get the same thing.
Teacher: Does it matter what numbers I use?
Children: No.
Teacher: [Writing a + 7 = 7 + a on the board ] What is a?
Michael: It can be any number because it’s on both sides.
Teacher: [Writing a + b = b + a on the board ] What are a and b?
Children: Any number!
Notice how the teacher is developing the aspects of the commutative property in a con-
ceptual manner—focusing on exemplars to guide children to generalize rather than asking
them to memorize the properties as their first experience, which can be a meaningless, rote
Standards for
Mathematical Practice activity.
You can follow specific examples, such as those used in the preceding dialogue, by asking
3 Construct children to try to state the idea in words without using specific numbers. If the generalization
viable arguments ◀ is not clear or entirely correct, have children discuss and modify the wording until all agree
and critique the
reasoning of others with and understand the wording. Write this verbal statement of the property on the board.
Making a conjecture and attempting to justify or prove that conjecture is true is a signifi-
cant form of algebraic reasoning and is at the heart of what it means to do mathematics (Ball &
Bass, 2003; Carpenter, Franke, & Levi, 2003; Schifter, 1999; Schifter, Monk, Russell, &
Bastable, 2007). Therefore, when children make conjectures in class, rather than respond
with an answer, ask, “Do you think that is always true? How can we find out?” Children need
Standards for
Table 1 Properties of the Operations for Pre-K–2
Symbolic How Children Might Describe
7 Look for and Name of Property Representation the Pattern or Structure
◀
Commutative a+b=b+a “When you add two numbers in any order,
you’ll get the same answer.”
Associative (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) “When you add three numbers, you can add

the first two and then add the third or add the
last two numbers and then add the first number.
Either way, you will get the same answer.”
Additive Identity a+0=0+a=a “When you add zero to any number, you get
the same number you started with.”
a-0=a “When you subtract zero from any number, you

get the number you started with.”
Additive Inverse a - a = 0* “When you subtract a number from itself, you

get zero.”
Inverse Relationship of If a + b = c then c - b = a “When you have a subtraction problem you can
Addition and Subtraction and c - a = b ‘think addition’ by using the inverse.”
*The additive inverse property is usually written as a + (-a) = 0, but the symbolic representation a - a = 0
will make more sense to elementary children.
264
to reason through ideas based on their own thinking Figure 5

rather than simply relying on the word of others.
Using manipulatives to generalize the commutative
The most common form of justification for young property.
children is the use of examples. Some children will be sat-
isfied to try one or two examples. Others will try several
+ = +
but will not vary those examples in terms of size or other
characteristics, such as using even and odd numbers. Still
others will try very large numbers as substitutes for “any”
number. Encourage children to use a wide variety of ex- “There could be more tiles under the paper, so these could be
any numbers.”
amples. After trying their examples, they may respond,
“See? It works for any number you try.” Proof by example “It would work this way no matter what the numbers are.”
will hopefully lead to someone asking, “How do we know
there aren’t some numbers that it doesn’t work for?”
Children may reason with physical materials or illustrations to show the reasoning be-
hind the conjecture (see Figure 5). What moves this beyond “proof by example” is an expla-
nation such as “It would work this way no matter what the numbers are.”
Odd and Even Relationships

The categorization of numbers as odd or even is an important structure in our number
system. All too often children are simply told that the even numbers are those that end in 0,
2, 4, 6, or 8 and odd numbers are those that end in 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9. Although this is true, it is
only an attribute of even and odd numbers rather than a definition that explains what even
or not even (i.e., odd) really means. The next two activities help children develop conceptual
ideas of even and odd numbers without forcing definitions. In fact, after these activities chil-
dren should be able to describe in their own words what we mean by odd and even numbers.
Activity 12 FAIR SHARES FOR TWO
Tell a story about two twin sisters (or brothers). The twins always shared whatever they
had equally. If they found some pretty seashells, they would count them out and share
them so that each had the same number of shells. When Mom gave them cookies for
lunch, they would be sure that each got the same number of cookies. Sometimes they
were not able to share things fairly because there would be something left over. This
happened once when Dad gave them five marbles. (Discuss why they could not share five
marbles equally.) Whenever there was a leftover, the twins put the extra item in a special
box of “leftovers” that they decided to keep for their baby brother.
After discussing the way that the twins shared things, ask children to find out what
numbers of things they could share fairly and what numbers would have a leftover when
they shared them. Assign three or four numbers from 6 to 40 to pairs of children. Their
task is to decide which of their numbers could be shared fairly and which would have a
leftover. Provide linking cubes to help them in their investigation. Collect the information
and make lists of numbers that can be shared and those that will have a leftover. Examine
the lists as a class and ask for observations. Select numbers not in the list and ask if chil-
dren can tell which list they belong in and why they think so.
The critical portion of the last activity is the discussion. Notice how the children used
the linking cubes in their investigation. Some children counted out the number of cubes
and then distributed the cubes one by one to each twin. They either kept track of the fair
265
Figure 6 sharing (e.g., one for this twin, one for that twin; two for this twin, two for that twin,
and so on) or they had to count at the end to determine if each twin received the same
Sharing cubes fairly with
two people. amount. Others may have organized their cubes by pairing them together to make sure
that each twin received the same amount (see Figure 6). Have children share how they
Six cubes Nine cubes used their linking cubes and ask which ways (or to identify a way to) help them quickly
shared with shared with see that the twins received the same amount. Based on this activity, an even number is an
two people two people
amount that can be shared fairly or split into two equal parts with no leftovers. An odd number is
one that is not even or cannot be split into two equal parts. Challenge the children to use their
own words to describe the numbers. The number endings of 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 are only an
interesting and useful pattern or observation and should not be used as the definition of
an even number.
The next activity focuses on the same concept of even and odd but this time children
Extra start with visual representations of even and odd numbers.
Activity 13 BUMPS OR NO BUMPS
Create sets of “two‐column cards” on card stock (see Figure 7) for groups of three to four
BLM
children (see Blackline Master 34). In their groups, children are to see how many things
they can find to tell about the pieces. (For example: There is a piece for each number 1 to
10. Some are like rectangles. Some have a square sticking out.) For those who might need
a start, suggest that they put the pieces in order from one square to ten. After having
some time to explore and share ideas they have noticed, have children sort their pieces
into two sets. It is very likely that some group will sort the pieces as shown in Figure 7. (If
no one sorts the pieces this way, do so on a projector and ask what rule you are using to
sort them.) Use children’s language to describe the pieces representing the odd numbers.
For example, someone may describe the seven piece as having a “bump.”
Next, assign the groups of children three or four numbers between 11 and 50 and
have them decide whether two‐column cards for these numbers would have bumps or
no bumps (or whatever language children used). Have linking cubes available for their
investigation. Have them use words and pictures to explain their conclusions.
Figure 7 Stop and Reflect

Two‐column pieces are Think for a moment how you might prove that the sum of two odd numbers is always even.
separated into pieces How might the two‐column pieces used in the activity “Bumps or No Bumps” be useful? ■
with “bumps” and “no
bumps.” Note that
these are also odd and
even numbers. Why? Once children have described in their own
words a general way to describe these numbers,
introduce the terminology odd and even numbers.
As in “Fair Shares for Two,” children will eventu-
ally see that numbers with “bumps” end in 1, 3, 5,
7, or 9 and even numbers end in 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8.
As an extension exploration to “Bumps or No
Bumps,” ask children what kind of piece they will
get when two pieces in the set are added together
to create a new two‐column piece.
266
Patterns and Functions

Standards for
Patterns are found in all areas of mathematics. Learning to look for, describe, and extend Mathematical Practice
patterns are important processes in thinking algebraically. Two of the eight mathematical 7 Look for and
practices (CCSSO, 2010) actually begin with the phrase “look for,” implying that children make use of structure
who are mathematically proficient pay attention to patterns as they do mathematics. ◀ 8 Look for and
In grades pre-K–2 repeating and then growing patterns have often been a strong focus, express regularity
but they are not explicitly mentioned in the Common Core State Standards. This does not in reasoning
mean that patterns are not useful. In fact, patterns provide opportunities for children to look
for structure and express regularity in situations. The point is that the goal is not to have
children do patterns just to do patterns. Rather children should be engaged in looking for,
describing, and extending patterns to help them develop the skills to look for structure and
express regularity in all mathematical situations.
When possible, patterning activities should involve some form of physical materials.
Many kindergarten and first‐grade textbooks have pages where children are given a pat-
tern such as a string of colored beads. The task may be to color the last bead or two in the
string. There are two differences between this and the same activity done with actual ma-
terials. First, by coloring on the page, the activity takes on an aura of right versus wrong. If
a mistake is made, correction on the page is difficult and can cause feelings of inadequacy.
Physical materials, on the other hand, allow a trial‐and‐error approach to be used. Second,
pattern activities on worksheets prevent children from extending patterns beyond the few
spaces provided by the page. By using materials such as colored blocks, buttons, and con-
necting cubes to create and extend their patterns, children gain more experience thinking
about patterns because the patterns can be extended well beyond a few elements. Plus, when
patterns are built with materials, children are able to test the extension of a pattern and
make changes without fear of being wrong.
Repeating Patterns
The concept of a repeating pattern and how a pattern is extended or continued can be intro-
duced to the full class in several ways. One possibility is to draw simple shape patterns on the
board and extend them in a class discussion. Oral patterns can be recited. For example, “do,
mi, mi, do, mi, mi, . . .” is a simple singing pattern. Body movements such as moving the arm
up, down, and sideways can be used to make patterns: up, side, side, down, up, side, side, down.
There are several websites that offer children opportunities to explore repeating patterns. For example, PBS
Kids offers an interactive site for young children (www.pbs.org/teachers/connect/resources/7661/preview).
NCTM’s Illuminations Activity called “Patch Tool” (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=27)
allows children to flip and rotate shapes to create various patterns, which informally introduces them
to geometric transformations. The National Library of Virtual Manipulatives also has several applets that
support the exploration of repeated (and growing) patterns, including Attribute Trains, Color Patterns, and
Pattern Blocks (http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/grade_g_1.html).
267
An important concept in working with repeating patterns is for children to identify the
core of the pattern (Warren & Cooper, 2008). The core of a repeating pattern is the shortest
string of elements that repeats. Notice in Figure 8 that the core is always fully repeated and
never only partially shown.
Children can explore patterns with all sorts of materials, as shown in the following
activity.
Figure 8 Activity 14 REPEAT THAT PATTERN

Examples of repeating patterns using manipulatives.
Children can work independently or in groups of
Multilink Cubes
two or three to extend patterns made from simple
A B A B
materials: buttons, colored blocks, connecting cubes, tooth-
picks, geometric shapes—items you can gather easily. For
each set of materials, draw or build two or three complete
repetitions so the core is obvious. The children’s task is to
Pattern Blocks extend it. Figure 8 illustrates one possible pattern for a vari-
ety of manipulatives. Children can build their own patterns
A B C D
and then trade with a partner and work on identifying the
core and extending their partner’s pattern. In the follow‐up
discussion, children should be able to identify the patterns
Two-Color Counters
as AB, ABC, ABBA, or whatever core is represented. For chil-
A A B B dren with disabilities, you may need to ask them to say the
name of the color or shape as they look at the manipula-
tives to help support identifying the pattern.
Color Tiles
A B B B Alternatively, you can create several pattern strips using
various materials that have been glued onto strips of card
stock in a repeating pattern (see Figure 9) and place the pat-
tern strips and corresponding sets of materials at a center.
Children identify the core of the pattern on the pattern strips
and then use the sets of materials to extend the pattern. They can take digital pictures to
record their finished product.
The following activity helps children work on identifying the core of a pattern.
Activity 15 CAN YOU MATCH IT?
Using the board or a projector, show six or seven patterns with different materials or
pictures. Half of the class closes their eyes while the other half uses the A, B, C method to
read a pattern that you point to. After hearing the pattern, the children who had their
eyes closed examine the patterns and try to decide which pattern was read. If two of the
patterns in the list have the same structure, the discussion can be very interesting.
Standards for A significant step forward mathematically is to see that two patterns constructed with
different materials are actually the same pattern. For example, the third pattern in Figure 8
7 Look for and and the third pattern in Figure 9 can both be “read” A‐A‐B‐B‐A‐A‐B‐B, and the pattern
◀ above those in both figures is A‐B‐C‐D‐A‐B‐C‐D. Translating two or more essentially alike
patterns to a common format helps children to move beyond the materials making up the
pattern to see the fundamental mathematical structure involved. Using some form of sym-
bolism (in this case, the alphabet) to represent the structure of a pattern helps children
generalize the pattern.
268
Activity 16 SAME PATTERN, Figure 9

DIFFERENT STUFF Examples of pattern cards on card stock. Each pattern
completely repeats its core at least twice.
Give each child a pattern strip like those shown in Figure
9 and a set of materials that is different from that on the Bread tags
pattern strip. Have children make a pattern with the set
of materials that has the same structure as the pattern on
the strip. You can also mix up the pattern strips and have
children find strips that have the same pattern structure.
To test if two patterns are the same, children can trans-
late each of the strips into a third set of materials or they Pattern blocks
can write down the A, B, C pattern for each.
Though geometric patterns and motions like clapping

are good ways to introduce patterns, it is important that chil-
Keys
dren see patterns in the world around them. The seasons,
days of the week, and months of the year are just a begin-
ning. Challenge children to identify AB patterns in their
daily activities—for example, “set the table before eating,
clear the table after eating.”
Children’s books can also be a great resource for pat-
Paper shapes
terns. For example, a very long repeating pattern can be
found in If You Give a Mouse a Cookie (Numeroff, 1985), in
which each event eventually leads back to giving a mouse a
cookie, implying that the sequence should be repeated.
Growing Patterns Squares or blocks—2 colors
Beginning in the primary grades, children can begin to ex-

plore patterns that involve a progression from step to step.
In technical terms, these are called sequences; we will simply
call them growing patterns. Figure 10 shows different exam-
ples of growing patterns. With growing patterns, children
identify the core, as with repeating patterns, but they also
look for a generalization or a relationship that will tell them how the pattern is chang-
ing—and ultimately, in later grades, what the pattern will be at any point along the way
(e.g., the nth term). Figure 10d is a growing pattern in which design 1 requires 4 cubes,
design 2 requires 8 cubes, and so on—so we can say that the number of cubes needed is a
function of the design (which happens to be the function: number of cubes = 4 × design
number).
For children in grades K–2, the first thing to do with growing patterns is to have chil-
dren build the pattern (replicate what they see) and extend the pattern (build the next one in
the sequence). Geometric patterns made with physical materials (e.g., tiles, counters, cubes)
make good exemplars because the pattern is easier to see (than with numbers) and because
children can manipulate the objects. Some growing patterns get quite large quickly and can
require more materials than you may have. One solution to this dilemma is to have children
make a step with materials and then draw it on grid paper. In this way, they will only need
enough materials to make one step at a time.
The following activity will introduce growing patterns to your children.
269
Figure 10 Activity 17 EXTEND AND EXPLAIN

Geometric growing patterns using manipulatives.
Show children the first three or four steps of a pattern. Pro-
(a) Multilink cubes
vide them with appropriate materials and grid paper, have
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
them extend the patterns recording each step, and explain
why their extension indeed follows the pattern.
When discussing a pattern, children should try to deter-

(b) Pattern blocks
mine how each step in the pattern differs from the preceding
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 step.
Two important questions help children analyze growing patterns

in order to determine the general relationship: What is staying the
(c) Color tiles
same? What is changing?
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
If each new step can be built by adding on to or changing

the previous step, the discussion should include how this can
be done.
Stop and Reflect

Before reading further, what is the relationship between the
steps in the each of the patterns shown in Figure 10? What
(d) Multilink or centimeter cubes changes from the first step to the second step? From the
second step to the third step? ■
Each stair step in Figure 10a can be made by adding a col-

umn of blocks to the preceding stair steps. The pattern in Fig-
ure 10e involves adding three tiles to each new figure, two to
the vertical part and one to the horizontal part of the figure.
(e) Color tiles or paper squares Circling the part that is the same in adjacent terms may help
identify what is changing.
The children’s book Two of Everything (Hong, 1993)
describes a magic pot in which anything that falls into it
is doubled. This scenario is a growing pattern. McNamara
(2010) describes using this book with second graders who
determined a rule for explaining how much would come
out of the magic pot (output) when told how much went in
(input).
The next activity builds on a similar idea by creating a
function machine.
270
Activity 18 GUESS MY RULE Figure 11

A function machine is used to
Draw a simple in–out “machine” on the board, as shown in Figure 11. The “operator” play “Guess My Rule.” Children
of the machine knows the secret rule that is stored in the machine that changes what- suggest input numbers and the
ever is put into it. For example, the secret rule might be “double the input number machine operator records the
output value.
and add 1.” Children try to guess the rule by putting numbers into the machine and
observing what comes out. A list of in–out pairs is kept on the board. Children who
think they have guessed the rule raise their hands. As more numbers are put into the
machine, those children who think they know the rule tell what comes out. Continue In Out
until most have guessed the rule.
3 7
4 8
10 14
“Guess My Rule” can be played with the whole class, or children can play in small
groups, perhaps as a station activity. Provide a collection of rules on cards. Include at least
three examples so that the function machine operator is sure to understand the rule.
The guesses can be kept in a chart on paper that all players can see. Eventually
children can make up their own rules to try to stump their classmates.
Number Patterns With a large empty box, you can have a volunteer inside a
Our number system is also full of wonderful patterns. Num- function machine generating the output. This can become
bers not only offer children an opportunity to explore pat- a fun daily routine, switching who is the function machine
terns but also to learn to expect, see, and use patterns in all operator.
of mathematics.
The simplest form of a number pattern is a string of numbers that follows some rule for
determining how the string continues. Consider the following activity, which includes some
repeating patterns and some growing patterns as well as some other kinds of relationships.
Skip counts by 2, 5, and 10, already a part of most K–2 curricula, can be an excellent
source of patterns and can help children reason about number relationships (e.g., comparing
skip counting by twos and by threes leads to revealing that both counts include 6, 12, 18, . . .).
Activity 19 WHAT’S NEXT AND WHY?
Show children five or six numbers from a number pattern. The task is to extend the
pattern for several more numbers and to explain the rule for generating the pat-
tern. The difficulty of the task depends on the number pattern and how familiar
the children are with searching for patterns. Here are some recommended patterns
to try.
1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, . . . a simple alternating scheme

1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, . . . each digit repeats according to its value
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . even numbers—skip counting by 2
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . double the previous number
2, 5, 11, 23, . . . double the previous number and add 1
1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, . . . successively increase the skip count
2, 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, . . . add the preceding two numbers
Most of the preceding examples also have variations you can try. Challenge
children to make up their own number pattern rules.
271
The calculator can skip‐count by any amount beginning anywhere. For example, to
count by threes, enter 0 + 3 = . ( The 0 isn’t necessary but is a good idea with young
children.) Successive presses of the = key will count on from 3 by threes. To skip count
by threes from a different number, say, 16, simply press 16 + 3 and continue pressing the
= key. What is happening is that the calculator “remembers” the last operation, in this case
“ + 3,” and adds that to whatever is currently in the window whenever the = key is pressed.
The = will continue to have this effect until an operation key is pressed.
Activity 20 CALCULATOR SKIP COUNTING
If you have not done so previously, teach children how to make their calculators count
by twos. When the children are able to do this without pressing a new operation key—
which is what they have a tendency to do—show them how to change the beginning
number. For example, press 5 + 2 = , = , = , . . . . They can return to beginning the count
at 5 (or any other number) by pressing 5 and continuing to press = .
Now challenge children working in pairs to say the next number before they press
the = key. Have them hold their finger over the = button and say the next skip count,
press the = to confirm or correct, and then continue, always trying to say the next count
before pressing the key.
As children skip count on the calculator, discuss the patterns that they see. For example,
when counting by twos starting with 0, they see numbers ending in 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8, and
then that pattern repeats. Note that this same sequence appears if you begin with any even
number, such as 34 (although the sequence begins with 4 instead of 0). If counting by twos
beginning with 1, the numbers are odd: 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9.
When children have become comfortable skip counting by small numbers, suggest that
they try a “big” number. Suggest they count by 20 or 50. These large numbers will seem
very difficult to children, who will then be surprised to recognize familiar patterns in the
tens and hundreds places. Continue as appropriate with challenges to count by 25 or by 30
Standards for or 40. Other good skip‐count numbers are 9, 11, 12, 15, or 21.
Focusing on patterns in skip counting will support children’s use of invented strategies
1 Make sense for multiplication. In fact, the key to exploring patterns in the elementary curriculum is not
of problems and ◀ to identify patterns for patterns’ sake but to strengthen children’s understanding of number
persevere in
relationships and properties. The more often you can ask children, “Did you notice a pat-
solving them
tern?” the more they are considering and making sense of the mathematics they are doing.
272
One Up and One Down
Content and Task Decisions a balance, use a two‐sided mat with an equal sign in
the middle to have the children demonstrate making
Grade Level: K–1
equations that show that what is on the left side of the
mat is the same as (or equal to) what is on the right
Mathematics Goals
side of the mat.
• To discover and explore number patterns within the
context of addition
Materials
• To understand how complementary changes in two ad-
dends leave the sum unchanged
• Counters
• Calculators (optional)
Grade Level Guide
NCTM Common
Lesson
In a focal point connection In the domain of Operations Before
under “Algebra” at both and Algebraic Thinking, Present the focus task to the class:
kindergarten and grade 1, kindergartners add by using
• Explain this problem: “The other day, a friend of mine
children work with number a variety of ways to represent
was thinking about adding 7 + 7.” Write 7 + 7 on the
patterns to explore the problems.
board. “She wondered what would happen if she made
relationships that will
In first grade, children the first 7 one more and the second 7 one less.” With
eventually result in the
add using the relationship the children’s help, write this new sum, 8 + 6, on the
creation of generalizable
between addition and board. Have the children complete each equation.
rules.
subtraction and are expected • Ask, “Why do you think the answers are the same?”
to understand the meaning Have the children offer their ideas. Ask, “Do you think
of the equal sign. this same plan will work if we started with 5 + 5 or
8 + 8?” Discuss this briefly.
Consider the Children’s Needs • To differentiate the task, some children could use coun-
Children need not know their addition combinations to en- ters to try to figure out why 7 + 7 and 8 + 6 have the
gage in this lesson. However, they should have been exposed same answers. Then try another sum, such as 5 + 5, and
to the plus and equal signs and understand how an addition see if it works for that sum also.
equation is a representation of two parts of a whole. • For more advanced children, the task is to use counters
and try to figure out why 7 + 7 and 8 + 6 have the same
answers. Will it work for any double (e.g., 5 + 5, 6 + 6,
• Be sure that the children know the words “up” and 8 + 8, and so on)? What if the two numbers you begin
“down,” which can be acted out by asking children to with are not the same?
stand up and sit down (emphasizing the words up and
• The children should use pictures, numbers, and words
down).
to show their thinking. If others pick up the papers,
• As needed, provide translations for the numbers. they should be able to understand the children’s
ideas.
For Children with Disabilities
• Use a mathematics balance (a plastic “number line” on Provide clear expectations:
a fulcrum). This can be used to dramatically model the • You may want to have children work in pairs. Work
movement of one hanging weight and the effect it has could be shown on large chart paper to be shared with
on the balance of the equation. If you do not have such the class.
273
During couraged. Although it is good for children to see the

more sophisticated ideas, it is important to also focus
Initially: on emerging ideas as well. For each child who shares,
• Observe that children have access to the materials they encourage the children to ask questions or to offer ad-
need to solve the problem. Observe that each child un- ditional ideas.
derstands the question and is in the process of attempt- • Some children may have difficulty articulating their
ing to solve the first situation. ideas. Suggest that they use counters on the overhead
or magnetic counters on the board so that they can
Ongoing:
show the class their thinking.
• Some children may use their counters and complete
• Ask the children how this idea could help them if they
each sum independently without relating one to the
forgot how much 5 + 7 was. (5 + 7 will be the same as
other. Ask these children to show you 7 + 7 with coun-
6 + 6. Similarly, 6 + 8 is double 7, and so on.)
ters. Be sure that there are two separate piles of 7 and
not a single pile of 14. Ask, “How could you change
these piles to show 8 + 6?” Observe how the children Assessment
make the changes so that later you can invite the chil-
dren to show their different ways. Observe
• Encourage children to get their ideas on paper for the • Especially for very young learners, be aware of children
7 + 7 case before they explore further. who do not have a clear connection between a model
• How much you push children to explore further de- for addition—especially a part‐part‐whole model—and
pends on the abilities and maturity of the children. In the symbolic equation that represents this. Many chil-
the lower grades, you might remind them to try an- dren learn only to use counters to get answers but do
other double such as 5 + 5 and see if the same thing not see the counters as a way to show what the equa-
works there. Older children can be challenged with tion means.
more open‐ended explorations, such as “Does it always • Children who shove counters together and begin
work? Do you have to start with a double? What if you counting at once to solve an addition equation are the
change the numbers by 2 or some other number? What most likely to have difficulty with this activity.
about really big numbers like 87 + 87?” (For large num- • A few children will see this activity as rather simple.
bers, children should be encouraged to use calculators, These children have a good understanding of what ad-
even if they cannot compute the sums by hand.) dition means.
• For those children who may find this exploration rather
easy, challenge them to see how this might work for Ask
subtraction.
• How does changing one number (or pile of counters)
up one and the other pile down one affect the sum?
After Why is that?
Bring the class together to share and discuss the task: • Did you see a number pattern with your problems?
• Select children to share their ideas. Perhaps call first • What do you think would happen if we change the
on children who have struggled and need to be en- numbers by adding two to each?
274
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275
Exploring Early Fraction
Concepts
BigIDEAS Fractions have always presented a considerable challenge

for students, even into the middle grades. NAEP results
1 Fractions are numbers. They indicate a quantity have consistently shown that students have a weak under-
and can be compared with other quantities. standing of fraction concepts (Sowder & Wearne, 2006;
2 Partitioning and iterating are two ways children Wearne & Kouba, 2000). You can help children in the
can reason about fractions. Partitioning can be thought primary grades begin to construct a foundation for frac-
of as cutting or splitting an amount equally. Iterating tion concepts that will prepare them for the more com-
can be thought of as physically or mentally making plex concepts and skills that come later in the elementary
copies of a piece (unit fraction) and counting those and middle school curricula.
pieces. The Curriculum Focal Points (National Council of
3 Fractional parts are equal shares or equal-sized Teachers of Mathematics, 2006) and the Common Core
portions of a whole or unit. A unit can be one object or State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) recommend that formal
a collection of objects. instruction on fraction concepts begin in third grade.
However, that does not mean that you cannot build on
4 Fractional parts have special names that tell how children’s everyday experiences to begin to develop infor-
many parts of that size are needed to make the whole.
mal knowledge and understanding about fractions before
For example, thirds require three parts to make a whole.
third grade. In fact, the Common Core State Standards
5 The more fractional parts used to make a include partitioning geometric shapes into equal shares at
whole, the smaller the parts. For example, thirds are both the first and second grade levels. In first grade, chil-
smaller than halves.
dren are introduced to fractions through the partition-
ing of circles and rectangles into two and four equal-sized
shares (Standard 1.G.A.3). First graders are also expected
to know the vocabulary halves, fourths, and quarters and to
tell time to the nearest half hour. Second graders extend
this work to partitioning circles and rectangles into thirds
or three equal-sized shares (Standard 2.G.A.3).
277
Exploring Early Fraction Concepts
Meanings of Fractions for Pre-K–2 Children

To help children develop a comprehensive understanding of fractions, a report completed
by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) (Siegler et al., 2010) recommends that children
have experiences involving the different meanings of fractions. The different meanings in-
clude part–whole, division, measurement, ratio, and operator. For grades pre-K–2, we em-
phasize part–whole, division, and measurement.
Part–Whole
One of the most commonly used meanings of fractions is the part–whole relationship. In
early childhood classrooms, part–whole fractions are typically represented by shading part
of a whole that has been partitioned into equal parts ( 34 of a rug). Part–whole situations can
also be described as part of a group of children ( 13 of the class brought their lunch) or as part
of a length (we walked 112 miles). The first example (shading part of a whole to indicate area)
and the third example (walked 112 miles) use continuous quantities, that is, quantities that
are measured and that can be cut into as many equal parts as we wish. The second example
( 13 of the class) uses discrete quantities, that is, quantities that represent objects that cannot
be divided further (e.g., a person, a chair, a car).
Although the part–whole meaning of fractions is important, too often instruction based
only on the part–whole relationship leaves children with little sense that fractions are num-
bers. Also fractional amounts arise naturally from partitioning amounts in everyday life. For
these reasons, initial instruction should focus on the next meaning of fractions: equal sharing.
Equal Sharing
Equal sharing is an idea that young children understand intuitively because of their ex-
Standards for periences sharing things with brothers, sisters, friends, and so on. Consider the idea of four
children fairly sharing two sticks of clay so they can make clay animals. Fractions emerge
2 Reason abstractly naturally from this scenario. Because of the meaningful connections that can be made, early
◀
and quantitatively fraction instruction should build from young children’s experiences of sharing and partition-
ing (Empson & Levi, 2011; Lamon, 2012; Siegler et al., 2010).
Equal sharing situations can use continuous or discrete quantities. The example with
two sticks of clay is an example of a continuous quantity because theoretically we could cut
the stick into as many equal pieces as we want. For equal sharing situations that use discrete
quantities, it is best with young children to use story problems that have whole-number
solutions with no remainders. Consider these story problems:
• There are 12 chairs and 4 tables in a classroom. If we want the same number of chairs
around each table, how many chairs will be placed around a table?
• There are 14 chairs and 4 tables in a classroom. If we want the same number of chairs
around each table, how many chairs will be placed around a table?
The solution for both problems (how many chairs will be placed around a table) is a whole
number (3). But in the second problem there are 2 chairs that cannot be placed and, because
chairs are discrete objects, they cannot be split or cut into smaller parts that can be shared. If
your goal is to have children think about fractional parts, you want them to be able to share
fairly all the objects in the situation. So it is important to use continuous quantities when
there are remainders so those can be cut into as many equal parts as needed.
278
Measurement
Although the Common Core State Standards recommend limiting linear measurement
in grades K–2 to whole units (e.g., inches, feet, centimeters, meters), fractions often
emerge naturally in many measurement situations. Linear measurement involves iden-
tifying a unit of length and then using that unit to determine the length of an object.
For example, using the unit of an inch, a child could use multiple copies of an inch to
determine that a pencil is 5 inches long. Similarly for fractions, a child can use a fraction
strip that represents the unit fraction 13 to count or measure to show that it takes four
units to reach 43 .
Measurement also includes time. The most obvious place to relate fractions and time is
when telling time to the half hour and quarter hour. This would involve identifying the unit
of time as an hour. Making the hour unit explicit is key. Emphasize how the minute hand
sweeps a full turn around an analog clock face to measure an hour. Halfway measures half
that time or half of an hour. Half of that measures a quarter of the time by splitting the hour
into four equal quantities of time. When second graders progress to telling time in smaller
increments of 5-minute intervals, the connection between time and fractions becomes less
obvious.
Measurement situations by their very nature consist of measuring a quantity that
we could cut into as many equal-sized pieces as we need and so involve continuous
quantities.
Fractions Are Numbers, Too!

One of the most significant ideas for children to develop about fractions is the sense that
fractions are numbers—quantities that have values. You may have never heard the terms
partitioning (splitting equally) and iterating (counting a repeated amount) but, as you will
see, they connect to whole-number concepts you will recognize. Researchers have acknowl-
edged for some time the importance of these two actions to meaningfully working with
fractions (e.g., Olive, 2002; Pothier & Sawada, 1990). These actions, in particular, emphasize
the numerical nature of fractions. When children explain how they thought about fractional
situations, listen for these ideas.
Partitioning
Partitioning can be thought of as splitting or cutting a quantity equally. Young children are
engaged in the act of partitioning from an early age when they split a group of 6 into 3 and 3.
Connecting this informal knowledge to fair sharing and then to more formal fraction con-
cepts is key to providing effective initial fraction instruction in grades pre-K–2. You can do
this by posing story problems that involve equal sharing. In fact, using story problems is the
primary method for facilitating children’s fraction learning at the pre-K–2 level. Consider
the following example that uses a continuous quantity (candy bars) that can be cut into as
many equal-sized pieces as we wish.
Six children want to share 5 candy bars fairly. How much will each child get?
When children answer questions such as “how much will each child get?” the idea that frac-
tions are numbers will be reinforced.
279
Iterating
In whole-number learning, counting precedes learning to add and subtract. This is also true
of fractions. Children should come to think of counting fractional parts in much the same
way they might count apples or any other objects. Counting fractional parts to see how
multiple parts compare to the whole helps children to understand the relationship between
the parts of the whole. Children should be able to answer the question, “How many fourths
are in one whole?” just as they know how many ones are in ten. This counting a repeated
amount (e.g., unit fraction) is called iterating. Understanding that 34 can be thought of as a
count of three parts called fourths is an important idea for children to develop (Post, Wachs-
muth, Lesh, & Behr, 1985; Siebert & Gaskin, 2006; Tzur, 1999).
Models for Fractions

Substantial evidence suggests that the effective use of physical models in fraction tasks is
important (Cramer & Henry, 2002; Empson & Levi, 2011; Siebert & Gaskin, 2006). Unfor-
tunately, when textbooks use physical models, they tend to use only area models, in particular
fraction circles, with little attention to length or set models (Hodges, Cady, & Collins, 2008).
Using a variety of physical models that represent both continuous and discrete quantities
is critical for children to make sense of fractions as they explore fractions in a variety of
situations.
Area Models
Circular fraction pieces are by far the most commonly used area model. One of the ad-
vantages of the circular model is that it emphasizes the part–whole concept of fractions
and, in particular, the relative size of a part to the whole (Cramer, Wyberg, and Leavitt,
2008). What is being compared is the area of the part to the area of the whole. Because
we can cut area into as many equal-sized pieces as we want and because area is measured,
it falls into the category of a continuous quantity. Note that when drawing circles, chil-
dren (and adults) can find it difficult to partition the circle into reasonably equal-sized
parts. There are many other area models including pattern blocks, geoboards, color tiles,
and fraction bars. Regions, such as rectangles, can also be drawn on blank or grid paper.
The other physical models in Figure 1 demonstrate how different shapes can represent
the whole.
Length Models
With length models, lengths or linear measurements are compared instead of areas. In this
model, a unit of length is compared to the whole length. We can cut a length into as many
equal-sized pieces (units) as we want; therefore, length models represent continuous quanti-
ties. Length models appropriate for pre-K–2 include fraction strips, paper strips (e.g., adding-
machine tape), Cuisenaire rods, and line segments (see Figure 2). All of these models provide
flexibility because any length can represent the whole.
Researchers have identified number line models as useful in fraction instruction be-
cause they emphasize the idea that a fraction represents a quantity (Siegler et al., 2010).
Locating fractions on a number line also highlights their relationship to other numbers, in-
cluding other fractions. The number line has been shown as extremely effective with young
children when working with whole numbers (e.g., Booth & Siegler, 2008; Fosnot & Dolk,
2001; Siegler & Ramani, 2009). Using this model with whole numbers can help prepare
280
Figure 1 Area models for fractions.
Rectangular regions
Any piece can be
selected as the whole.
Circular “pie” pieces Pattern blocks
One-half or
One-third two-fourths
Fourths on a geoboard Drawings on grids or dot paper Paper folding
these children to be ready to use this model with fractions in later grades. Using a modified
version, line segments, for fraction instruction in grades pre-K–2 is ideal.
Set Models
The whole in a set model is understood to be a set of objects, and subsets of the whole make
up fractional parts. For example, 3 red counters are one-fourth of a set of 12 counters. The
set of 12, in this example, represents the whole or 1. The idea of referring to a collection of
counters as a single entity can make set models difficult for young children. To help children
see the set of objects as a whole, put a loop of yarn around the set. Another challenge with
set models is that children may focus on the size of the subset rather than the number of
equal-sized subsets in the whole. For example, if 12 counters make a whole, then a subset of 4
counters is one-third, not one-fourth, because 3 equal-sized subsets make the whole. Discrete
objects, like two-color counters, are frequently used for set models. They can easily be flipped
to change their color to model various fractional parts of a whole set (see Figure 3).
Figure 2 Length or measurement models for fractions.
Line segment drawings
Fraction strips or Cuisenaire rods

Folded paper strips
281
Figure 3 Set models for fractions.
2
Two-color counters show 3 . Two-color counters in a loop
1
of yarn show 4.
Introducing Fraction Language

Fraction symbolism represents a fairly complex convention that can be misleading to chil-
dren. That is why it is important in grades pre-K–2 to use fraction words and postpone intro-
ducing fraction symbolism (e.g., Empson & Levi, 2011). Let children first focus on making
sense of fractions without the complication of also trying to make sense of the symbolism.
Children will need to learn fraction vocabulary, such as halves, thirds, fourths, and quar-
ters. A good time to introduce the vocabulary of fractional parts is during the discussions of
children’s solutions to story problems and not before. When a brownie or other whole has
been partitioned into equal shares, simply say, “We call these fourths. The whole is cut into
four equal-sized parts—fourths.”
Children need to be aware of two aspects of fractional parts: (1) the number of parts and
(2) the equality of the parts (in size, not necessarily in shape). Emphasize that the number of equal
parts or fair shares that make up a whole determines the name of the fractional parts or shares.
Children will likely be familiar with halves but should quickly learn to describe thirds and fourths.

Some children think that all fractional parts are called halves. Once a child has completed a partitioning
story problem, ask the child to tell you how much each person gets. The word the child uses to describe the
fractional amount will tell you if the child is overgeneralizing the word half.
Note that in the Common Core State Standard for Mathematics, halves and fourths are
developed in first grade prior to thirds in second grade. This is done because successive
halving of parts is a natural process for young children. Once children have been successful
dealing with and explaining halves and fourths, pose sharing tasks that involve eighths. They
will likely rely on their halving strategy to find a solution. Likewise, once children have
Standards for demonstrated an understanding of thirds, pose sharing tasks that involve sixths.
Mathematical Practice In addition to helping children use the words halves, thirds, fourths, and quarters, be sure
to make regular comparisons of fractional parts to the whole. Make it a point to use the term
6 Attend to
precision
◀ whole, one whole, or simply one so that children have a language that they can use regardless
of the model involved.
Equal Sharing Tasks

Given children’s experiences with fairly sharing items among family and friends, sharing
tasks are a good place to begin the development of fractions. The sharing tasks allow chil-
dren to develop concepts of fractions from an activity that makes sense to them, rather
282
than having the structure imposed on them. In this approach children do not begin with Standards for
traditional part–whole tasks of identifying halves, thirds, fourths, and so on. These fractional
parts and children’s understanding of part–whole fractions emerge as a result of their fair 1 Make sense
sharing in meaningful contexts. ◀ of problems and
Sharing tasks are generally posed in the form of a story problem involving a given num- persevere in
solving them
ber of objects that are to be shared equally among a given number of people. The problems
and variations that follow are adapted from Empson (2002).
Four children are sharing 10 brownies so that each one will get the same amount. How
much will each child get?
Stop and Reflect

Before reading further, use a drawing with rectangles to represent the brownies and
act out this problem as if you were a child. Based on your drawing, how much will each
child get? ■
For 10 brownies and 4 sharers, many children will deal out 2 brownies to each child and
then halve each of the remaining brownies (see Figure 4).
These kinds of story problems include the following features:
• The objects in the story are easy to draw and partition (e.g., apples, bagels, cookies,
brownies, quesadillas, pancakes, sticks of gum, sandwiches, pizzas, crackers, cake, candy
bars, sticks of modeling clay, pretzel sticks, and so on).
Standards for
• The story problem does not contain fractions. The fractions emerge as a result of the Mathematical Practice
relationship between the number of objects to be shared and the number of people
2 Reason abstractly
sharing. This allows children to make connections between their whole-number knowl- ◀
and quantitatively
edge and their developing fraction knowledge.
• Children can solve these kinds of problems without formal instruction and without
knowing anything about fraction symbols. They can represent how much one person
gets by shading in one share or showing one share with manipulatives.
You can differentiate these tasks by changing the numbers involved. Consider these
variations in numbers:
• 5 brownies shared with 2 children
Figure 4 Ten brownies shared with four children. Each child gets 212 brownies.
283
Stop and Reflect

Try drawing pictures for each of the preceding sharing tasks listed. Which do you think is most
difficult? Which of these represents essentially the same degree of difficulty? What other tasks
involving two, four, or eight sharers would you consider as similar, easier, or more difficult than
these tasks? ■
When the numbers allow for some items to be distributed whole (five shared with two),
some children will first share whole items and then cut up the leftovers. Others will slice
every piece in half and then distribute the halves. When there are more sharers than items,
some partitioning must happen at the beginning of the solution process. When children
who are still using a halving strategy try to share five things among four children, they will
eventually get down to two halves to give to four children. For some, the solution is to cut
each half in half; that is, “each child gets a whole (or two halves) and a half of a half.”
Stop and Reflect

Try solving the following variations using drawings. Can you solve them in different
ways? ■
• 4 pizzas shared with 6 children

Figure 5 Three different sharing processes.
(a) Four candy bars shared with six children: Partitioning into 3 and 6 equal parts is challenging for
children because they naturally want to use a halving
1 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 2 5 strategy that does not work in these cases. Figure 5
3 6 shows some different sharing solutions that might be
observed.
Cut all the bars in half. Considerable research has been done with chil-
Cut the last two halves into three parts.
Each child gets a half and sixth. dren from first through eighth grades to determine
how they go about the process of forming fair shares
(b) Four pizzas shared with three children: and how the tasks posed to children influence their
responses (e.g., Empson & Levi, 2011; Lamon, 2012;
A B Mack, 2001; Pothier & Sawada, 1990; Siegler et al.,
2010). Researchers recommend following a progression
of sharing tasks that builds on children’s understanding
A B C C of whole-number quantities and informal partitioning
Pass out whole pizzas. strategies (e.g., Empson & Levi, 2011; Siegler et al.,
Cut the last pizza in three parts. 2010). Table 1 captures the following progression and
Each child gets 1 whole and one-third. provides examples of corresponding story problems.
(c) Five sandwiches shared with three children:

1. Begin with equal sharing problems whose solutions are
whole numbers. To begin with, it is easier for young
children to share fairly a number of discrete
objects (e.g., 14 apples with 7 people) than for
Cut each sandwich in three parts (thirds). them to share fairly one object (e.g., 1 pancake
Each child gets five parts—five-thirds. with 4 children). So begin with equal sharing
situations in which the quantities to be shared
284
Table 1 Progression for Teaching with Equal Shares Story Problems.
Progression Example Problems
1. Problems whose solutions are whole Three children want to fairly share 15 grapes. How
numbers. many grapes will each child get?
2. Problems with 2, 4, or 8 sharers and Two children want to share 5 quesadillas so that
whose solutions are mixed numbers (greater everyone gets the same amount. How much will each
than 1). child get?
3. Problems with 2, 4, or 8 sharers and whose Four children want to share 3 cookies so that
solutions are less than 1. everyone gets the same amount. How much will each
child get?
4. Problems with 3 sharers and whose solutions Three children want to share 10 sticks of clay to make
are mixed numbers (greater than 1). clay animals. If everyone gets the same amount, how
much does each child get?
5. Problems with 3 sharers and whose solutions Three children want to equally share 2 pizzas. How
are less than 1. much does each child get?
are discrete objects. In the Before and the After portions of the lessons, emphasize
that all of the objects must be shared and shared equally. This is an important idea
to stress because once the scenarios require partitioning quantities into smaller
pieces, some children will either not share all of the objects or not share them
equally.
2. Use equal sharing problems with 2, 4, or 8 sharers and whose solutions are mixed numbers.
Because children’s initial strategies for sharing single objects involve halving,
begin with 2, 4, and then 8 sharers. Using problems that have solutions that are
larger than 1 enable children to relate their understanding of whole numbers to
fractions and they actually find them easier to solve than problems whose solutions
are less than 1.
3. Use equal sharing problems with 2, 4, or 8 sharers and whose solutions are less than
1. Again, problems with 2, 4, or 8 sharers capitalize on children’s halving strategies.
Problems with solutions less than 1 tend to be more difficult for young
children.
4. Next, use equal sharing problems with 3 sharers and whose solutions are mixed numbers.
For 3 sharers, children have to anticipate how to slice or cut the objects. Many
children will attempt to use a repeated halving strategy or trial and error. Moving
to 3 (and then 6 sharers) will force children to confront their tendencies to use
halving strategies.
5. Use equal sharing problems with 3 sharers and whose solutions are less than 1. Again,
children have to anticipate how to partition the objects. Standards for
When using story problems to help children construct mathematical ideas, having
children share their solutions and explain their reasoning to each other is key. Make sure to 3 Construct
look for significant ideas in children’s work while they are solving the story problems that ◀ viable arguments
and critique the
you can then highlight in the discussion (After) portion of the lesson. reasoning of others
285
“Kids and Cookies” (http://mathlanding.org/content/kids-and-cookies) is an interactive website where

children can work on partitioning strategies in the context of fairly sharing cookies with friends. You can
change the number of friends (up to 6), the shape of the cookie (round or rectangular), the number of
cookies to share (up to 12), and the number of equal pieces you can cut a cookie into (halves, thirds,
quarters, fifths, and sixths). If children want to change a partition, they can drag the cookie back to the
cutting board or click a button to put one or all cookies back. The applet is also available in Spanish.

Young children can have difficulty drawing equal parts because they will not initially anticipate how to slice
the object into equal parts (Empson & Levi, 2011; Siegler et al., 2010). Observe children as they draw pictures
and begin to partition the objects. Note if they automatically begin halving for every scenario, even those
for which halving will not work (e.g., 5 children equally sharing 3 bananas). This could be an indication that
they are not anticipating how to partition objects. Especially when partitioning into equal groups of 3 and 6,
children have to pay attention to the relationship between the number of objects and the number of sharers.
Initially some children do not partition amounts into

equal-sized groups and, in particular, some children do
For children who have difficulty drawing equal parts, give them
not distinguish between the number of objects shared
wooden coffee stirrers or thick uncooked spaghetti noodles to
and the quantity shared—in other words, they may find
show the partitioning. This allows children to easily move the
an equal number of pieces without considering the size of
partitions as needed.
the pieces. The next activity targets this difficulty.
Activity 1 FAIR AND UNFAIR SHARES
As in Figure 6, show examples and nonexamples of fair shares. (Note that exam-
Standards for
Mathematical Practice ples and nonexamples are very important to use with children with disabilities.)
Have children identify the amounts that are equally partitioned and those that are not.
3 Construct
◀ For each response, have children explain their reasoning.
viable arguments The activity should be done with a variety of models, including length and set models.
and critique the
reasoning of others The Common Core State Standards set as an expectation for second graders that they will
recognize that “equal-sized parts” does not necessarily mean the same shape when using
an area model. So if you teach second grade, make sure to include examples that illustrate
this concept. Many children, in particular children with disabilities, will need to cut and move
pieces around to check to make sure the parts are indeed equal in size.
In the “Fair and Unfair Shares” activity, the wholes are already partitioned either cor-
rectly or incorrectly; the children are not involved in the partitioning. So the most impor-
tant part of this activity is the discussion. Use the discussion to reinforce the idea that all the
pieces need to be shared and shared equally.
286
In the following activity, children create designated equal shares Figure 6 Children learning about
using physical models as opposed to drawing their own representations. fractions through partitioning need to
You may want to start with an activity like this before you move to asking recognize when shares are not equal.
children to draw and partition their own representations.
Activity 2 FINDING FAIR SHARES

nguag
-La
Give children manipulatives identifying which piece represents
nglish
e Lerane
rE
one whole and have them find thirds or fourths or other frac-
fo rs
tional parts. Use a familiar context, such as friends sharing sandwiches

or pizzas. (The physical models should never have fractions written on
them.) Some ideas are suggested in Figure 7. Emphasize “ths” as you
say the fractional parts, particularly for ELLs who may not hear the dif-
ference between fraction parts and wholes (e.g., fourths sounds like
“fours”). Also write and discuss the meaning of the words whole and
hole.
In Activity 2, children do not necessarily have to think of equal-

sized pieces because the manipulatives automatically create them.
Emphasize the need for equal-sized pieces whether manipulatives or
student-generated representations are used. Activity 3 uses examples
of line segments (length model) in which the partitioning is not com-
pletely illustrated. This can help children develop a stronger under-
standing of equal parts.
Activities such as Activity 2 are especially interesting when different wholes can be designated
in the same physical model. That way, a given fractional part does not get identified with a
special shape or color but instead with the relationship of the part to the designated whole.
Figure 7 Given a whole, find fractional parts.
Fourths
One Blue
Thirds
Sixths
Fourths Cuisenaire rods
Fourths
Different wholes make different

fractional parts in the same model. Filled in with pattern blocks Line segments
287
Activity 3 HOW MUCH DID SHE SHARE?
Give children line segments par-

titioned such that only some of
1
the partitions are showing. Use a
context such as someone sharing How much Holly shared
licorice strings. For each line seg-
ment, ask “How much did Holly
share? How do you know?” 1
Children can justify their rea- How much Holly shared
soning by measuring the size of
the sections that have been parti-
tioned using paper strips or Cuise- 1 2
naire rods.
How much Holly shared
Children should engage in counting by fractional

amounts to reinforce that fractions are numbers. Iterating
Make sure to use fractions greater than 1 (104 ) and mixed or counting can be done with length models as well as area
numbers (212 ) along with fractions between 0 and 1. This models. Display some circular fractional pieces in groups as
helps children see that fractions can be any size and that shown in Figure 8. For each collection, tell children what
they often fall between whole-number values. type of piece is being shown and simply count them to-
gether: “One-fourth, two-fourths, three-fourths, four-fourths,
five-fourths.” Ask, “If we have five-fourths, is that more than
one whole, less than one whole, or the same as one whole?”
As children count collections of parts, discuss the re-
Figure 8 BLM
lationship to one whole. Make informal comparisons
Iterating fractional parts in an area model between different collections. “Why does it take more
(see Blackline Masters 35–36). fourths to make a whole than thirds?” “Why did we
get two wholes with four halves but just a little more
Quesadilla Quantities than one whole with four thirds?” Take this oppor-
tunity to connect this language to mixed numbers.
More than “What is another way we could say ten-fourths?”
1 quesadilla or less
5 fourths than 1 quesadilla? (Possible responses are two wholes and two-fourths,
or two wholes and one-half, or one whole and
How much more six-fourths.)
to get to a second
whole quesadilla? 3 fourths
With this introduction, children are ready for
the following activity.
Wow! Ten-fourths:
How many Activity 4 MORE, LESS, OR
quesadillas is that?
EQUAL TO ONE WHOLE
10 fourths
Give children a collection of fractional parts (all
the same size pieces) and indicate the kind of frac-
Is ten-thirds the same
as ten-fourths? Is it as tional part they have. (Use either area or length
much as five-fourths? models. Set models are too difficult for young chil-
dren to use for iteration.) Parts can be drawn on
10 thirds
a worksheet or physical models can be placed in
288
plastic bags with an identifying card. For example, if done with Cuisenaire rods or fraction
strips, the collection might have seven light green rods/strips with a caption or note indicat-
ing “each piece is an eighth.” The task is to decide whether the collection is less than one
whole, equal to one whole, or more than one whole. Ask children to draw pictures and/
or use fraction words to explain their answer. Adding a context, such as people sharing
candy bars, pizzas, or sticks of clay, can help children understand and reason through the
problem.
To develop a more comprehensive understanding of fractions, children need experi-

ences partitioning regions or shapes (area models) as well as lengths and sets of objects. In
the story problems you pose, make sure to include a variety of situations that can be repre-
sented with these different models. For example, the following story problems fit a length
model, a set model, and an area model respectively:
• Marley, Zack, Rita, and Hannah want to share 5 pretzel sticks equally. How much will each
of them get? (length)
• Marley and Zack want to share 11 grapes equally. How much will each of them get? (set)
• Marley, Zack, and Mia want to share 7 pieces of poster board equally. How much will
each of them get? (area)
The objects to be shared can be drawn on paper as rectangles, circles, or line segments
along with a statement of the problem. Some children may need to cut and physically dis-
tribute the pieces, so another possibility is to cut out construction paper circles or rectangles
to represent the objects to be shared. You could use thin rectangles to represent objects of
length. Children can use connecting cubes to make bars that they can separate into pieces.
Or they can use more traditional fraction models such as circular “pie” pieces (area), Cuise-
naire rods (length), or counters of different colors (sets).
As you create story problems and tasks for the children, remember the big ideas you
are trying to help them construct: (1) Fractions are numbers and (2) fractional parts are
equal shares or equal-sized portions of a whole or unit.
Fraction Ordering and Equivalence

Look for opportunities when children are solving equal sharing story problems in which they
have what appear to be different answers but are actually equivalent amounts. For example, for
the problem 4 children equally share 6 pancakes, one child may distribute one whole pancake to
each person and then halve the remaining two and say that each person gets one and one-half
pancakes. A second child may also distribute one whole pancake to each person but partition
the remaining two pancakes into fourths and say that each person gets one and two-fourths. A Standards for
third child may partition each of the 6 pancakes into 4 equal parts (fourths) and say that each Mathematical Practice
person gets six fourths. (See Figure 9.) Use the children’s solutions to help them see that the 7 Look for and make
same quantity is shared in each case. You can have children count the pieces together: “one- ◀ use of structure
fourth, two-fourths, three-fourths, four-fourths, five-fourths, six-fourths.” Ask, “If we have six-
fourths, is that more than one whole, less than one whole, or the same as one whole?”
Once children are successful with equal sharing problems over an extended period of
time (months, not days), you can extend sharing problems to situations in which children
compare fractional amounts. For example, children can compare the amounts people
would get if 2, 3, 4, and 6 people shared a brownie. The Doorbell Rang (Hutchins, 1986)
is a great children’s book that builds on the idea that as the number of sharers involved
289
Figure 9 increases, the smaller the shares become. En-

courage children to use the formal fraction
Solutions for an equal sharing story problem.
names in their comparisons; for example, one-
Four children equally share 6 pancakes. How much does each child get? third of a brownie is less than one-half of a
Solution 1: brownie.
Give each child one pancake. As already mentioned, when children use
Then halve the remaining 2 pancakes.
Give each child one-half of a pancake. different partitioning strategies, you should look
Each child gets one and one-half for opportunities to have them consider if the
pancakes.
amounts in different solutions are equivalent
(e.g., when one child gets 12 and another child
Solution 2: gets 24 ). The following activity has children pur-
Give each child one pancake.
Then cut the remaining 2 pancakes posefully looking for different ways to partition
into fourths. Give each child one- the same quantity.
fourth of each pancake.
Each child gets one and two-fourths
pancakes.
Solution 3:
Cut all the pancakes into fourths.
Activity 5 CUT THEM UP
Give each child one-fourth of each AGAIN!
pancake.
Each child gets six-fourths pancakes.
Pose a sharing story problem for which children
could partition the objects in multiple ways. For
example, “4 children share 10 brownies so that
each one will get the same amount. How much will each child get?” Tell children that their task
is to find at least two different ways to share the objects. Some children will use trial and error
while others will be more systematic in finding different ways to partition the objects. Have
children share the different ways they have found to partition the objects. Then challenge them
to determine if the different ways result in each child getting a different or equal amount of
brownie. Have children explain their reasoning.
The next activity uses the idea of a missing value to help children find equivalent frac-
tional amounts.
Activity 6 KEEPING IT FAIR
Pose a problem such as the following: “Suppose 6 children shared 8 cookies equally. If 3
more children arrive, how many cookies would you need if you want to give them the same
amount as the first 6 children?” Some children will share 8 cookies equally among the 6
children to determine how much each person will get in that situation and then use that
information to determine how much is needed for the additional 3 children. Others may rea-
son that because 3 is half of 6, they can halve the 8 cookies to see that 4 cookies are needed
for the additional 3 children. Make sure to have children share their reasoning for keeping
it fair!
Using a length model helps to emphasize that a fraction is a quantity and it also allows
children to compare fractions in terms of relative size. The following activity (adapted from
Bay-Williams & Martinie, 2003) is a fun way to use a real-world context to engage children
in thinking about fractions through a linear model.
290
Activity 7 WHO IS WINNING?

ng
uaugag
Lnag
-L-a Friends are playing the game “Red Light–Green Light.” The fractions tell how much
r EEnglishh
e LLeerraannee
e
nglis
of the distance each child has already moved. Who is winning? Challenge children
r
rsrs fo
fo
to place the friends on a line to show where they are between the start and finish.
Mary: three-fourths Harry: one-half Larry: two-fourths

Hans: two-thirds Angela: five-eighths Greta: four-sixths
The game “Red Light–Green Light” may not be familiar to all children, especially ELLs.
Modeling the game with children in the class is a good way to build background and also
support children with disabilities.
From Fraction Words to Symbols

Notice that throughout this chapter we have used words to name fractional amounts. The
earliest we recommend introducing fraction symbolism is toward the end of second grade.
If you choose to do so, you will need to spend time helping children develop a strong un-
derstanding of what the top number (numerator) and bottom number (denominator) of a
fraction tell us. Build on the ideas that children have already been using as they counted
one-fourth, two-fourths, three-fourths, four-fourths, five-fourths, and so on.
The way that we write fractions with a top and a bottom number and a bar between is
a convention—an arbitrary agreement for how to represent fractions. (By the way, always
write fractions with a horizontal bar, not a slanted one. Write 34 , not ¾. It is easier for chil-
dren to tell which number is on the top and which one is on the bottom.) As a convention,
it falls in the category of things that you simply tell children. However, a good idea is to
make the convention so clear by way of demonstration that children will tell you what the
numerator and denominator stand for.
Display several collections of fractional parts in a manner
similar to those in Figure 10. Have children count the parts The phrase “improper fraction” is a misleading phrase that
together. After each count, write the correct fraction, indicat- implies something is wrong with the fraction, when it is sim-
ing that this is how it is written as a symbol. Include sets that ply an equivalent representation. Instead use “fraction” or
are more than 1, but write them as fractions greater than 1 “fraction greater than 1.”
(sometimes referred to as “improper” fractions) and not as
mixed numbers. Include at least two pairs of sets with the same numerators such as 48 and 43 .
Likewise, include sets with the same denominators. After the class has counted and you have
written the fraction for at least six sets of fractional parts, pose the following questions: Standards for
What does the denominator in a fraction tell us?
4 Model with
What does the numerator in a fraction tell us? ◀
mathematics
Stop and Reflect

Before reading further, answer these two questions in your own words. Don’t rely on formulations
you’ve heard before. Think in terms of what we have been talking about—namely, fractional parts
and counting fractional parts. Imagine counting a set of 5 eighths and a set of 5 fourths and writ-
ing the fractions for these sets. Use children’s language in your formulations and try to come up
with a way to explain these meanings that has nothing to do with the type of model involved. ■
291
Figure 10 Counting fractional parts. Here are some reasonable explanations for the numerator and
denominator.
• Numerator. This is the counting number. It tells how many
More than 1
or less than 1? shares or parts we have. It tells how many have been counted.
5 fourths
It tells how many parts we are talking about. It counts the
How much more to parts or shares.
3 fourths get to a whole? • Denominator. This tells what is being counted. It tells what
fractional part is being counted. If the denominator is a 4, it
10 fourths means we are counting fourths; if it is a 6, we are counting
sixths; and so on.
This formulation of the meanings of the numerator and de-
Wow! Ten-fourths: nominator may seem unusual to you. It is often said that the nu-
Did we count as far
as 2? Did we get to 3?
merator tells “how many” and the denominator tells “how many
parts it takes to make a whole.” This may be correct but can also be
misleading. For example, a 16 piece is often cut from a cake without
10 eighths making any slices in the remaining 56 of the cake. That the cake is
only in two pieces does not change the fact that the piece taken
That’s a lot of is 16 . Or if a pizza is cut in 12 pieces, two pieces still make 16 of the
eighths. Is ten-eighths pizza. In neither of these instances does the denominator tell how
as much as ten-fourths?
many pieces make a whole.
Is it as much as
five-fourths? The iterative concept described earlier is most clear when fo-
cusing on these two ideas about fraction symbols:
• The top number counts (numerator).
• The bottom number tells what is being counted (denominator).
The what of fractions are the fractional parts. They can be counted. Fraction symbols
are just a shorthand way of saying how many and what.
292
Equal Sharing Stories for Early Fractions
Content and Task Decisions Consider Your Children’s Needs

Children have solved partition and measurement story problems
Grade Level: 1–2
with whole-number solutions. They understand that in a sharing
Mathematics Goals situation all the objects should be shared and shared fairly.
• To develop the equal sharing (division) meaning of
fractions by investigating various contexts through
story problems • Use visuals for the opening story problem (real grapes
or manipulatives to represent grapes) and model it
• To introduce or reinforce the terms for fractional parts
with children in the class.
(e.g., halves, fourths, quarters, eighths)
• Provide an opportunity for children to work with a
partner who will be able to help with vocabulary.
Grade Level Guide • Encourage children to use both their native language
and English as they work in groups.
NCTM Common
Curriculum Focal Points Core State Standards • Using the same context (sharing quesadillas) across the
problems in the lesson helps ELLs focus on the math-
Composing and decomposing In first and second grades, ematics involved rather than having to make sense of a
geometric shapes is one of children begin developing their new and possibly unfamiliar context for each problem.
the focal points for grade 1. understanding of fractions,
Through this activity, children particularly with thinking For Children with Special Needs
build “an understanding of about partitioning quantities. • After debriefing the problem with the grapes, use a
part–whole relationships” In grade 1, children will “parti- think-aloud to highlight some of the thinking strate-
(National Council of Teachers tion circles and rectangles into gies that come into the decision making as you solve
of Mathematics, 2006, p. 14). two and four equal shares, the problem. Jot down some of these ideas so that chil-
describe the shares using the dren can use them as a reference.
Developing an understanding
words halves, fourths, and
of partitioning in the context • Suggest to children who struggle with making equal
quarters, and use the phrases
of measurement is included partitions to use wooden coffee stirrers or thick un-
half of, fourth of, and quarter
in one of the focal points in cooked spaghetti noodles to help them decide where
of. Describe the whole as
grade 2. Composing and de- to make their cuts.
two of, or four of the shares.
composing two-dimensional
Understand for these examples
shapes are identified in grade Materials
that decomposing into more
2 as a way to “develop foun-
equal shares creates smaller Each child will need:
dations for understanding
shares” (CCSSO, 2010, p. 16). • Manipulatives, such as counters or cubes (at least 20)
area, fractions, and propor-
tions” (p. 14). In grade 2, children will “parti- • 15–20 circles cut from construction paper
tion circles and rectangles
into two, three, or four equal Teacher will need:
shares, describe the shares • A way to project the stories and the solutions
using the words halves, thirds,
half of, a third of, etc., and
describe the whole as two Lesson
halves, three thirds, four
fourths. Recognize that equal Before
shares of identical wholes Begin with a simpler version of the task:
need not have the same
• Ask children how they would solve the following story
shape” (CCSSO, 2010, p. 20).
problem:
293
• “Four children want to fairly share 12 grapes. How After

many grapes will each child get?”
Bring the class together to share and discuss the tasks:
• Have them draw a picture or act out the story with ma-
nipulatives to determine the answer. Listen to children’s • For each problem, first get answers from different chil-
ideas. Capitalize on ideas that emphasize the sharing dren in the class. If more than one answer is offered,
action in the problem, in particular that all the grapes simply record them and offer no evaluation.
are shared and they are shared equally among the four • Have children come to the board to explain their strate-
children. gies for thinking about the problem. You may need to
ask questions about drawings or explanations to make
Present the focus task to the class: sure everyone in the class follows the rationale. Encour-
• Children are to solve the following problems: age the class to comment or ask questions about the
• Two children want to share 5 quesadillas so that ev- child’s representation or thinking. Ask if others parti-
eryone gets the same amount. How much will each tioned in a different way. If so, have the children come
child get? forward to share their solutions. If there are different
• Four children want to share 9 quesadillas so that answers, the class should evaluate the solution strate-
everyone gets the same amount. How much will gies and decide which answer is correct and why.
each child get? • Discuss the different partitions children use and how the
• Children should either use the construction paper cir- action in the story is one of sharing fairly in which all the
cles or draw pictures and have a written explanation quesadillas are shared and everyone gets an equal share.
for their solutions that shows how much each child • If you are using this lesson to introduce the terms for
will get. Their explanation should include writing the fractional parts (e.g., halves, fourths, quarters, eighths),
fractional parts in words (e.g., halves, fourths, eighths) wait until a child has shared a solution that illustrates
if they have been introduced to these terms. (See the the fractional part you want to name. If possible, use
fourth bullet under the After portion of lesson if you the child’s representation to point out that the whole is
are using this lesson to introduce these terms.) Children partitioned into, say, four equal parts and that we call
should also be prepared to explain their thinking. Be- those parts fourths or quarters.
fore you come together as a class, have children explain
• Children will likely use different ways to partition
their ideas to a partner.
the circles (e.g., some children will distribute whole
quesadillas first and then halves; others will halve all
the quesadillas before distributing). It is important to
• Have children work independently and then share their have children compare and contrast the different ap-
work with a partner. proaches. Through questioning, help children under-
stand that, while some solutions at first appear to be
different, they are actually equivalent.
During
Initially: Assessment
• Be sure that children are using the construction paper
circles or drawing pictures to help them think about
Observe
how to do the problems and explain their thinking. • Are children using their understanding of sharing fairly
to help them partition the amounts equally?
Ongoing: • Look for children who are not partitioning the circles
• Look for children who partitioned their representations into smaller parts and either want to ignore the extras
in different ways. Highlight those different ways in the or are okay with someone getting more than someone
After phase of the lesson. else. These children need more experience working
• To differentiate for advanced learners, pose another with sharing tasks whose solutions are whole numbers.
problem to them in which the quantities must be split
into smaller parts (say, 8 children and 11 quesadillas).
Ask
• W
What
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roblem a
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askin
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discussions
usssions
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exp
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explain
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adddress
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294
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Wearne, D., & Kouba, V. L. (2000). Rational
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295
Building Measurement
Concepts
BigIDEAS Measurement is one of the most useful mathematics

content strands because it is so pervasive in our daily
lives—buying apples, preparing recipes for a meal, deter-
1 Measurement involves a comparison of an mining how long it will take to get ready for school or
attribute of an item or situation with a unit that has work, deciding whether you need the 6‐foot or 12‐foot
the same attribute. Lengths are compared to units of power cord, checking the loudness of your music or TV,
length, areas to units of area, time to units of time, and
hearing about the intensity of a tornado or hurricane,
so on.
and more. Measurement is also embedded in the other
2 Before anything can be measured meaningfully, strands of mathematics—number, geometry, and data in
it is necessary to understand the attribute to be particular—and is used in science, social studies, art, and
measured. music.
3 Estimation of measures and the development of Measurement can be thought of as the “assignment
benchmarks for frequently used units of measure help of a numerical value to an attribute or characteristic of
children increase their familiarity with units, preventing an object” (National Council of Teachers of Mathemat-
errors in measurements and aiding in the meaningful ics, 2003, p. 1) and is not an easy topic for children to
use of measurement. understand. Data from international studies consistently
4 Measurement instruments (e.g., rulers) are tools indicate that children in the United States are weaker
that replace the need for actual measurement units. in the area of measurement than any other topic in the
mathematics curriculum (Thompson & Preston, 2004).
For grades pre‐K–2, the primary emphasis is on help-
ing children develop a conceptual understanding of the
measurement process and the units and tools for measur-
ing length and time. According to the Common Core State
Standards (CCSSO, 2010), kindergartners should learn
to describe measureable attributes of objects (e.g., length
and weight), directly comparing two objects using words
such as taller, shorter, heavier, lighter, more, and less. By first
grade, children should compare objects indirectly using a
third object and understand how to use multiple copies of
297
Building Measurement Concepts
a unit to measure the length of an object. Second graders move to using standard measur-
ing tools, such as rulers, yardsticks, and meter sticks, and to using number lines to represent
whole numbers as lengths from zero. They also begin to explore the inverse relationship
between the size of the measuring unit and the measure (i.e., number of units used). First
graders begin to tell and write time in hours and half‐hours and second graders extend that
to 5‐minute intervals and the use of a.m. and p.m. Money is also included under the study of
measurement but does not occur until second grade.
The Meaning and Process of Measuring

Suppose that you asked your children to measure an empty bucket (see Figure 1). The first
thing they would need to know is what about the bucket is to be measured. They might
measure the height, depth, diameter (distance across), or circumference (distance around).
All of these are length measures. The surface area of the side could be determined. A bucket
also has capacity and weight. Each aspect that can be measured is an attribute of the bucket.
Once children determine the attribute to be measured, they need to choose a unit that has
the attribute being measured. Length is measured with units that have length, area with units that
have area, volume with units that have volume, weight with units that have weight, and so on.
Technically, a measurement is a number that indicates a comparison between the attri-
bute of the object (or situation, or event) being measured and the same attribute of a given
unit of measure. We commonly use small units of measure to determine a numeric relation-
ship (the measurement) between what is measured and the unit. For example, to measure
a length, the comparison can be done by lining up copies of the unit directly against the
length being measured. For most attributes measured in schools, we can say that to measure
Figure 1 Measuring different attributes of a bucket.
Attribute: Weight
Units: objects that stretch the
spring in the scale
How many units will pull the spring

as far as the bucket will?
Attribute: Volume/Capacity
Units: cubes, balls, cups of water
How many units will fill the bucket?
Attribute: Length
Units: rods, toothpicks, straws, string
How many units are as tall as the bucket?

How much string is needed to go around
the bucket?
Attribute: Area
Units: index cards, squares of paper, tiles
How many cards will cover the surface

of the bucket?
298
means that the attribute being measured is “filled” or “covered” or “matched” with a unit of
measure with the same attribute (as illustrated in Figure 1).
In summary, to measure something, one must perform three steps:
1. Decide on the attribute to be measured.
2. Select a unit that has that attribute.
3. Compare the units—by filling, covering, matching, or using some
other method—with the attribute of the object being measured. The
number of units required to match the object is the measure.
Measuring instruments such as rulers, meter sticks, scales, and clocks are devices that
make the filling, covering, or matching process easier. A ruler lines up the units of length
and numbers them. A clock lines up units of time and marks them off.
Measurement Concepts and Skills

If a typical group of first graders attempts to measure the length of their classroom by lay-
ing strips 1 meter long end to end, the strips sometimes overlap, and the line can weave in
a snakelike fashion. Do they understand the concept of length as an attribute of the class-
room? Do they understand that each 1‐meter strip has this attribute of length? They most
likely understand that they are counting a line of strips stretching from wall to wall. But
they may not be aware that, when measuring, they are comparing the same attribute of the
measuring unit (the 1‐meter strip) and the object being measured (the classroom). The skill
of measuring with a unit must be explicitly linked to the concept of measuring as a process
of comparing attributes. Table 1 describes a recommended sequence of experiences that
help children explicitly link measurement concepts and skills. We also briefly discuss the
sequence here.
Table 1 Recommended Sequence of Experiences for Measurement Instruction
Step Goal Type of Activity Notes
1—Making Children will understand the Make comparisons based on the attribute, for When it is clear that the
Comparisons attribute to be measured. example, longer/shorter, heavier/lighter. Use attribute is understood,
direct comparisons whenever possible. there is no further need for
comparison activities.
2—Using Children will understand how Use physical models of measuring units to fill, Begin with nonstandard
Models of filling, covering, matching, or cover, match, or make the desired comparison units. Progress to the direct
Measuring making other comparisons of an of the attribute with the unit. use of standard units when
Units attribute with measuring units appropriate and certainly
produces a number called a before using measuring
measure. tools.
3—Using Children will use common Make measuring instruments and use them in Without a careful
Measuring measuring tools with comparison with the actual unit models to see comparison with the
Instruments understanding and flexibility. how the measurement tool performs the same standard tools, much of the
function as the individual units. Be certain to value in student‐made tools
make direct comparisons between the student‐ can be lost.
made tools and the standard tools. Standard
measuring instruments, such as rulers, make the
filling, covering, or matching process easier.
299
Making Comparisons
The first critical goal is for children to understand the attribute they are going to measure.
When children compare objects on the basis of some measurable attribute, that attribute
becomes the focus of the activity. For example, is the weight of one box more than, less than,
or about the same as the weight of another? No measurement is required, but some man-
ner of comparing one weight to the other must be devised.
The attribute of “weight” (heaviness) is inescapable.
Use and encourage precise language when helping children With a measure, such as length, you can sometimes
make comparisons. Avoid using the phrase “bigger than” and make a direct comparison by lining up one object against
instead use more specific language such as “longer than” or another. But often an indirect method using a third object
“is heavier.” is necessary. For example, if children wanted to compare
the height of a wastebasket to the distance around, they
Standards for would need to use something like a string to make that comparison. The string is the inter-
Mathematical Practice mediary, as it is impossible to directly compare these two lengths.
6 Attend to
◀
precision Using Physical Models of Measuring Units
The second goal is for children to understand how matching, filling, covering, or making
other comparisons of an attribute with measuring units produces a number called a measure.
For most attributes that are measured in elementary schools, it is possible to have physi-
cal models of units of measure. Time and temperature are exceptions. Units can be both
nonstandard (sometimes referred to as informal) units and standard units. For length, for
example, a drinking straw cut into an arbitrary length (nonstandard) and a 1‐foot‐long strip
of card stock (standard) might be used as units.
To help make the notion of units explicit and to aid children in understanding units, use as
many copies of the unit as are needed to fill or match the attribute measured (this can be thought
of as equal partitioning). The length of the room could be measured with giant footprints by
placing card stock copies of the footprint end to end, completely “covering” the length of the
room. Laying out copies of the same size unit and counting the units is called iteration (you may
recall that counting same‐size fractional parts is also called iteration). It is somewhat more dif-
ficult to use a single copy of a unit to complete this iteration. That means measuring a given
length (say, with a single footprint) by repeatedly moving it from position to position and keep-
ing track of where the last unit ended. Not only is this more difficult for younger children, but
it also obscures the meaning of the measurement—to see how many units will fill the length.
It is useful to measure the same object with units of different sizes to help children
understand that the size of the unit used is important. (This is an expectation for second
graders in the Common Core State Standards.) For each differently sized unit, estimate the
measure in advance and discuss the estimate afterward. Children should start to observe
that smaller units produce larger numeric measures, and vice versa. This is a difficult con-
cept for young children to understand but, with instruction, they can learn it (e.g., National
Research Council, 2009). Children construct this inverse relationship by estimating, then
experimenting, and finally reflecting on the measurements.
Building and Using Measuring Instruments

Figure 2 Only after children understand and can use single units of
“How long is this crayon?”
measurement should they move to working with common
measuring tools. On the 2003 NAEP exam (Blume, Galindo,
& Walcott, 2007), only 20 percent of fourth graders could
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
give the correct measure of an object not aligned with the
end of a ruler, as in Figure 2. Even at the middle school
level, only 56 percent of eighth graders answered the same
situation accurately (Kloosterman, Rutledge, & Kenney,
300
2009). Students on the same exam also experienced difficulty when the increments on a mea-
suring tool were not one unit. These results point to the difference between using a measur-
ing tool and understanding how it works.
If children build simple measuring instruments using unit models with which they are
familiar, it is more likely that they will understand how an instrument measures. A ruler is
a good example. If children line up individual physical units, such as paper clips or 1‐inch‐
long tiles, along a strip of card stock and mark them off, they can see that it is the spaces on
rulers and not the hash marks or numbers that are impor-
tant. It is essential that children discuss how measurement
If your children have been using individual paper clips as
with iterating individual units compares with measurement
units of measurement, ask them to create a chain of paper
using an instrument. Without this comparison and discus-
clips to be used as a ruler to make the transition from single
sion, children may not understand that these two methods
units to instruments more apparent.
are essentially the same.
Using Nonstandard Units

At the pre‐K–2 level, a conceptual foundation for measuring various attributes (e.g., area,
volume, capacity, and weight) is developed with a primary emphasis on the development of
linear measurements. A common approach in primary grades is to begin measurement of any
attribute with nonstandard units. The move to standard units should be guided by how well
you believe your children are developing an understanding of measurement of that attribute.
The use of nonstandard units for beginning measurement activities is beneficial for the
following reasons:
• Nonstandard units make it easier to focus directly on the attribute being measured. For
example, when discussing how to measure the length of a bulletin board, units such as
toothpicks, straws, or paper clips may be suggested. Each unit covers length—and actu-
ally accentuates length because each unit is thin and long—and each will give a different
result. The discussion focuses on what it means to measure length.
• The use of nonstandard units avoids conflicting objectives in introductory lessons. Is
your lesson about what it means to measure length or about understanding inches?
• By carefully selecting units, the size of the numbers in early measurements can be kept
reasonable. The measures of length for first graders can be kept less than 20 units even
when measuring long distances simply by using longer units.
• Nonstandard units provide a good rationale for standard units. The need for a standard
unit can have more meaning when your children measure the same objects with their
own units and arrive at different answers.
Although nonstandard units have these benefits, based on several research studies, Cle-
ments and Sarama (2009) caution that early measuring experiences with several different
units can confuse children. While children are grappling with the concept of measurement,
it is important to use a few nonstandard units that clearly demonstrate the attribute being
measured (e.g., for length, toothpicks as opposed to square tiles or linking cubes). Early on,
children need to understand the attribute being measured, the notion of matching, and the
use of units of equal size. Once they demonstrate understanding of these concepts, you can
introduce units of different sizes to provide the rationale for standard units.
Developing Standard Units

Children who exhibit measurement sense are familiar with the standard measurement units,
are able to make estimates in terms of these units, and meaningfully interpret measures
depicted with standard units. Perhaps the biggest error in measurement instruction is the
301
failure to recognize and separate two types of objectives: (1) understanding the meaning and
technique of measuring a particular attribute and (2) learning about the standard units com-
monly used to measure that attribute.
Teaching standard units of measure can be organized
As you teach the standard units, make sure children,
around three broad goals:
especially ELLs, understand the terms (e.g., feet, yard) and
abbreviations (e.g., in, ft, cm). Include these on your math 1. Familiarity with the unit. Children should have
word wall. a basic idea of the size of commonly used units
and what they measure. Being able to estimate
a shelf as 5 feet long is as important as being able to measure the length of a shelf
accurately.
2. Ability to select an appropriate unit. Children should know both what is a reasonable
unit of measure in a given situation and the precision that is required. (Would
you measure your lawn to purchase grass seed with the same precision you
would use to measure a window to buy a pane of glass?) Children need practice
in selecting appropriate standard units and judging the level of precision.
3. Knowledge of relationships between units. Children should know the relationships that are
commonly used, such as those between inches, feet, and yards or minutes and hours.
Developing Unit Familiarity

One way to develop familiarity with standard units is through comparisons that focus on a
single unit. The following activity provides this kind of experience and can be adapted for
use with any standard unit.
Activity 1 ABOUT ONE UNIT
Give children a physical model of a standard unit and have them search for objects that
have about the same measure as that one unit. For example, to develop familiarity with
the meter, give children a piece of rope 1 meter long and have them look for objects in
the classroom, outside on the playground, around the school building, or at home that
are about 1 meter in length. Have them make lists of things that are about 1 meter long
and separate lists for things that are a little shorter (or longer) or twice as long (or half
as long). In the case of lengths, be sure to include circular lengths. Later, children can try
to predict whether a given object is longer, shorter, or close to 1 meter. (Notice the use of
terms such as longer rather than more than. Remember to use precise language!)
For larger standard units, such as 1 mile or 1 kilometer, enlist parents to help children
find distances of that length. Suggest in a letter sent home that they check the distances
around the neighborhood, to the school or shopping center, or along other frequently trav-
eled paths. If possible, send home (or use in class) a 1‐meter or 1‐yard trundle wheel to
measure distances.
For the standard weights of gram, kilogram, ounce,
and pound, children can compare objects on a two‐pan
Meter trundle wheels measure off one meter with every ro-
balance with single copies of these units. It may be more
tation. Children may not understand that the circumference
effective to work with 10 grams or 5 ounces so you don’t
of the wheel is the same length as the flat meter stick. Help
have to use so many units to balance the pan. (Note that
children make the connection by having them match a rope
one slice of store‐bought sandwich bread usually weighs
or strip of paper that is 1 meter in length to a meter stick
about 1 ounce, so many objects will weigh much more than
and then to the wheel. You can also lay a meter stick down
1 ounce.) Children can be encouraged to bring in familiar
and roll the trundle wheel along the length of the stick.
objects from home to compare on the classroom scale.
302
A second approach to develop unit familiarity is to begin with familiar items and use
their measures as references or benchmarks. A doorway is a bit more than 2 meters high. A
bag of flour is a good reference for 5 pounds. A paper clip weighs about a gram and is about
1 centimeter wide. A gallon of milk weighs a little less than 4 kilograms. The following ac-
tivity engages children in measuring familiar items in a variety of ways.
Activity 2 FAMILIAR REFERENCES

nguag
-La
Use the book Measuring Penny (Leedy, 2000) to introduce children to the variety
nglish
e Lerane
rE
rs
of ways familiar items can be measured. In this book, the author bridges between
fo
nonstandard units (e.g., dog biscuits, swabs, etc.) and standard units (inches, centimeters,
etc.) to measure her pet dog Penny. Have children use the idea of measuring Penny to
find something at home (or in class) to measure in as many ways as they can think of
using standard units. The measures should be rounded to whole numbers. Discuss in class
the familiar items chosen and their measures so that different ideas and benchmarks are
shared. Many of the units used in Measuring Penny are common in the United States but
not in other countries. Still, the book can be used to relate to how children from other
countries measure length and volume.
Children’s literature can also provide a way to engage children in developing familiarity
with various lengths. For example, the children’s book Actual Size ( Jenkins, 2011a) portrays
several different animals and insects (or a part of their body) in their actual size. From the
head of a 23‐foot‐long crocodile to the hand of a gorilla to the 212 ‐inch‐tall mouse lemur,
children can compare themselves and their classmates to these fascinating creatures while
learning about linear measurement.
It can be interesting to have children find length benchmarks on their bodies. Couple
the discussion of personal benchmarks with a discussion of growth because these bench-
marks will change as they grow! Have children compare their references with their parents
or an older sibling’s benchmarks to see how they differ in size. Point out that children will
likely need to adjust their benchmarks over time.
Activity 3 PERSONAL BENCHMARKS
Measure various parts of your body. About how long is your foot, your stride, your hand
span (stretched and with fingers together), the width of your index finger or pinky finger,
your arm span (finger to finger and finger to nose), and the distance around your wrist
and around your waist? What is the height to your waist, shoulder, and head? Some of
these measures may prove to be useful benchmarks for single or multiples of standard
units. (The average child’s fingernail is about 1 cm in width and most people find a 10‐cm
length somewhere on their hands.)
Choosing Appropriate Units

Should rooms be measured in feet or inches? Should concrete blocks be weighed in
grams or kilograms? The answers to questions such as these involve more than simply Standards for
knowing how big the units are, although that is certainly required. Another consideration Mathematical Practice
involves the need for precision. If you were measuring your wall in order to cut a piece
5 Use appropriate
of molding or woodwork to fit, you would need to measure it very precisely. The smallest ◀
tools strategically
unit would be an inch or a centimeter, and you would also use small fractional parts. But
303
if you were determining how many 8‐foot molding strips to buy, the nearest foot would
probably be sufficient.
Activity 4 GUESS THE UNIT
Find examples of measurements of all types in newspapers, on signs, or in other

everyday situations. Present the context and measures but without units. The
task is to predict what units of measure were used. Have children discuss their choices.
For children with disabilities you may want to provide the headings for the possible
units (e.g., inches, feet, yards, miles) so they can sort the real‐world measures into these
groups.
Important Standard Units and Relationships

Although a conceptual foundation for measuring many attributes is developed during grades
pre‐K–2, the primary emphasis is on the development of linear measurements, including
work with standard linear units. Your state or local curriculum is the best guide to help
you decide which linear units your children should learn. However, the position statement
of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics on the metric system is clear: “Because
the metric system is an effective, efficient, base‐ten measurement system used through-
out the world, students need to develop an understanding of its units, and their relationship
as well as fluency in its application to real world situations” ( National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics, 2011b). The statement goes on to say that because we are still using cus-
tomary measures in day‐to‐day life children must work in that system as well. Countries
worldwide have passed laws stating that international commerce must use metric units, so if
U.S. students are going to be prepared for the global workplace, they must be knowledge-
able and comfortable with metric units. The Common Core State Standards specifically state
that, by the end of second grade, children should be familiar with centimeters and meters as
well as inches and feet.
The relationships between units within either the metric or customary systems are con-
ventions. As such, children must simply be told what the relationships are and instructional
experiences must be devised to reinforce them. Typically, knowing basic relationships be-
tween units in a given measurement system becomes important in the intermediate grades.
At the primary level, being able to pace off 3 meters—unit familiarity—is more important
than knowing how many cups in a quart or inches in a yard. The Common Core State Stan-
dards support this stance by identifying measurement equivalents within the same system as
being an expectation for fourth graders.
Estimation and Approximation

Measurement estimation is the process of using mental and visual information to measure
or make comparisons without using measuring instruments. It is a practical skill used by
people almost every day. Do I have enough sugar to make cookies? Is this suitcase over the
weight limit? Will my car fit into that parking space? Here are several reasons for including
estimation in measurement activities:
• Estimation helps children focus on the attribute being measured and the measuring
process. Think how you would estimate the area of the cover of this book using playing
cards as the unit. To do so, you have to think about what area is and how the units might
be placed on the book cover.
304
• Estimation provides an intrinsic motivation for measurement activities. It is interesting

to see how close you can come in your estimate.
• When standard units are used, estimation helps develop familiarity with the unit. If you
estimate the height of the door in meters before measuring, you must think about the
size of a meter.
• The use of a benchmark to make an estimate lays the foundation for multiplicative rea-
soning. For example, someone might reason that the width of a picture is about twice
the length of a ruler, or about 24 inches or 2 feet.
In all measuring activities, emphasize the use of approximate language. The desk is
about 15 orange rods long. The chair is a little less than 4 straws high. Approximate lan- Standards for
guage is very useful for young children because many measurements do not result in Mathematical Practice
whole numbers. This is an opportunity to develop the idea that all measurements include
6 Attend to
some error. As children get older, they will begin to use fractional units or smaller units ◀
precision
to measure with more precision. When this happens, acknowledge that the smaller unit
or subdivision produces a greater degree of precision. Consider that a length measure
can never be more than one‐half unit in error. And because there is mathematically no
“smallest unit,” there is always some error involved. In other words, all measurements are
approximations.
Stop and Reflect

Why is it the case that a length measure can never be more than one‐half unit in error? ■
Suppose you are measuring a length of ribbon with a ruler that only shows quarter inches;
our unit is a quarter of an inch. If the length of ribbon falls between 334 and 4 inches, we
would usually round to whichever number is closest to the length of ribbon. If the length
of ribbon is more than halfway towards the 4‐inch mark, we say it’s 4 inches long. However,
if the length of ribbon is less than halfway from 334 , we say it is closer to 334 inches. In either
case, we are within 18 of an inch or one‐half of the unit and are essentially ignoring the excess
or deficiency—and this constitutes our “error.” If we need more precision in our measure-
ment, we use smaller units to ensure that our measurement rounding or error is within a
range that we can accept.
Strategies for Estimating Measurements

Always begin a measurement activity with children making an estimate—whether they are
using nonstandard or standard units. Here are four specific strategies that can be taught for
estimating measures:
1. Develop and use benchmarks or referents for important units. Research shows that
children who have acquired mental benchmarks or reference points for measurements and Standards for
have practiced using them in class activities are much better estimators than children who Mathematical Practice
have not learned to use benchmarks (Joram, 2003). Children must pay attention to the size
7 Look for and make
of the unit to estimate well (Towers & Hunter, 2010). Referents should be things that are ◀
use of structure
easily envisioned by the child. One example is the height of an average child (see Figure 3).
Children should have a good referent for single units and also useful multiples of standard
units.
2. Use “chunking” when appropriate. Figure 3 shows an example indicated by the arrows.
It may be easier to estimate the shorter chunks along the wall than to estimate the whole
length. The weight of a stack of books is easier if some estimate is given to the weight of an
“average” book.
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Figure 3 Estimating measures using benchmarks and chunking.
Today’s Estimate
Estimate the room length.

Use: windows, bulletin board, and spaces between as “chunks.”
Use: mental benchmark—“My height is about 4 feet long. I could get 5 kids lying down in here plus maybe 2 more feet. Say, 22 feet.”
3. Use subdivisions. This is a strategy similar to chunking, with the chunks imposed on
the object by the estimator. For example, if the wall length to be estimated has no useful
chunks, it can be mentally divided in half and then in fourths or even eighths by repeated
halving until a more manageable length is found. Length, volume, and area measurements
all lend themselves to this technique.
4. Iterate a unit mentally or physically. For length, area, and volume, it is sometimes easy
to mark off single units visually. You might use your hands or make marks or folds to keep
track as you go. If a child knows, for example, that her stride is about 12 meter long, she can
walk off a length and then add to get an estimate. Hand and finger widths are useful for
shorter measures.
Tips for Teaching Estimation

Each strategy just listed should be explicitly taught and discussed with children. Suggested
benchmarks for useful measures can be developed and recorded on a class chart. Include
items found at home. But the best approach to improving estimation skills is to have chil-
dren do a lot of estimating. Keep the following tips in mind:
1. Help children learn strategies by having them first try a specified approach. Later
activities should permit them to choose whatever techniques they wish.
2. Discuss how different children made their estimates. This will confirm that there is
no single right way to estimate while reminding children of other useful approaches.
3. Accept a range of estimates. Think in relative terms about what is a good estimate.
Within 10 percent for length is quite good. Even 30 percent “off” may be reasonable
for weights or volumes.
4. Encourage children to give a range of estimates
(e.g., the door is between 7 and 8 feet tall) that they
believe includes the actual measure. This not only
Do not promote a “winning” estimate. It discourages estima-
is a practical approach in real life but also helps
tion and promotes only seeking the exact answer.
focus on the approximate nature of estimation.
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5. Make measurement estimation an ongoing activity. Post a daily measurement to be

estimated. Children can record their estimates and discuss them in a 5‐minute
period. Teams of second graders can take turns determining the daily measurements
to estimate each week.
6. Be precise with your language and do not use the word measure interchangeably with
the word estimate (Towers & Hunter, 2010). Randomly substituting one word for the
other will cause uncertainty and possibly confusion in children.
Measurement Estimation Activities

Estimation activities need not be elaborate. Any measurement activity can have an “estimate
first” component. For more emphasis on the process of estimation itself, simply think of
measures that can be estimated and have children estimate (without later measuring). The
following activities provide two suggestions.
Activity 5 ESTIMATION QUICKIE
Select a single object such as a box, a pumpkin, a painting on the wall of the school, a
jar, or even the principal! Each day, select a different attribute or dimension to estimate.
For the pumpkin, for example, children can estimate its height, circumference, weight,
volume, and surface area.
Activity 6 ESTIMATION SCAVENGER HUNT
Conduct estimation scavenger hunts. Give teams a list of either nonstandard or standard
measurements and have them find things that are close to having those measurements.
Do not allow children to use measuring instruments. A list might include the following
items:
• A length of 3 meters
• Something that is as long as your mathematics book
• Something that weighs more than a paper clip but less than your mathematics book
• Something that has the same area as the palm of your hand
Let children suggest how to judge results in terms of accuracy.

Estimation tasks are a good way to assess children’s understanding of both measurement and units. Use
a checklist while children estimate measures of real objects inside and outside the classroom. Prompt
them to explain how they arrived at their estimates to get a more complete picture of their measurement
knowledge. Asking only for a numeric estimate and no explanation can mask a lack of understanding and
will not give you the information you need to provide appropriate remediation.
In this chapter, we emphasize length, time, and money as these are the measurements
highlighted in the pre‐K–2 curriculum. We infuse ideas of teaching measurement and esti-
mation using activities as examples.
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Length
Length is usually the first attribute children learn to measure. Be aware, however, that length
measurement is not immediately understood by young children. Researchers (e.g., Clements
& Sarama, 2009; Curry, Mitchelmore, & Outhred, 2006) have identified some of the more
common misconceptions and difficulties children have when measuring length:
• Leaving gaps between units or overlapping units
• Using units that are not of equal size (e.g., measuring with paper clips of different sizes)
• Combining units of different sizes as if they were the same unit (e.g., combining 2 feet
and 4 inches as “6 long”)
• When using a ruler, beginning at “1” rather than “0” or measuring from the wrong end
of the ruler
• Counting the marks on a ruler or the “points” between heel‐to‐toe steps rather than the
spaces in between
• When comparing the length of two objects, comparing the objects at one end only
It is important to keep these misconceptions and difficulties in mind as you plan lessons and
observe your children during measurement activities.
Comparison Activities
At the pre‐K–K level, children should begin with direct comparisons of two or more lengths
and then move to indirect comparisons by the first grade (CCSSO, 2010; National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics, 2006).
Activity 7 LONGER, SHORTER, SAME
Set up learning stations where children can explore which objects in a group are longer,
shorter, or about the same in length as a specified “target” object. Change the target ob-
ject and children may find that the shorter object is now longer than the target. A similar
task can involve putting a set of objects in order from shortest to longest.
Activity 8 LENGTH (OR UNIT) HUNT
Give pairs of children a strip of card stock, a stick, a length of rope, or some other object
with an obvious length dimension that will serve as a “target” unit. The task is for chil-
dren to find five things in the room that are shorter than, longer than, or about the same
length as their target unit. They can record what they find using pictures or words.
By making the target length a standard unit (e.g., a meter stick or a 1‐meter length of
rope), the activity can be repeated to provide familiarity with important standard units.
Throughout the school day, look for opportunities for children to compare lengths
directly. For example, which block tower is taller, which clay snake is shorter, which chair is
wider, and so on.
Indirect comparison, which means using another object to help make the measure, is
the focus in the next activity. Children who can use a third object to compare the lengths of
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two other objects must have a transitive understanding of measurement. For example, if the
length of a green pencil is shorter than the length of a blue pencil, and the length of the blue
pencil is shorter than the length of a red pencil, then the length of the green pencil must be
shorter than the length of the red pencil. Although transitivity is crucial to understanding
measurement, not all children in grades K–1 will be able to follow this argument (Curry,
Mitchelmore, & Outhred, 2006).
Activity 9 WILL IT FIT?
Challenge children to determine whether an object in the classroom or outside the class-
room (maybe in the library or cafeteria or on the playground) would fit through the
doorway of the classroom. For example, is the doorway wide enough for one of the
tables in the cafeteria to go through? Will one of the shelves in the library fit through
the doorway? What about the monkey bars on the playground? In pairs have children
brainstorm ways they can check and then discuss and try some of their suggestions.
Children should also compare lengths that are not in straight lines. One way to do this
is by using indirect comparisons. For example, children can wrap string around objects in
a search for things that are, say, as long around as the distance from the floor to their belly
button or as long as the distance around their head or waist.
Activity 10 CROOKED PATHS
Make some crooked or curvy paths on the floor (or outside) with masking tape
or chalk. The task is to determine which path is longest, next longest, and so on.
Children should suggest ways to measure the crooked paths so that they can be compared
easily. If you wish to offer a hint, provide pairs of children with a long piece of string (at
first make it longer than the path). Have children explain how they solved the problem.
For children with disabilities, you may need to tape the end of the string to the beginning
of the path and help them mark the final measurement on the string with a marker. Use
another string for the other path in the same way. Then compare the string lengths.
In “Crooked Paths” some children may argue that the path that “looks longer” is the
longer path, although a crooked and more compact path may actually be longer. You might
want to show an example of two paths on the floor (one crooked path and one straight path
that “looks longer” than the crooked path) and have children walk each path to see which
takes longer to walk.
Using Physical Models of Length Units

There are four important principles of iterating units of length, whether they are nonstan-
dard or standard (Dietiker, Gonulates, Figueras, & Smith, 2010, p. 2). You will notice that
these principles are related to some of the common difficulties children have with linear
measurement that were identified earlier.
• All units must have equal length—if not, you cannot accumulate units by counting.
• All units must be placed on the path being measured—otherwise, a different quantity is
being measured.
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• The units must be without gaps—if not, part of the quantity is not being measured.
• The units must not overlap—otherwise, part of the quantity is measured more than
once.
Children can begin to measure length using a variety of nonstandard units, including
the following:
• Giant footprints. Cut out about 20 copies of a large footprint about 112 to 2 feet long on
poster board.
• Measuring ropes. Cut rope into lengths of 1 meter. These ropes can measure the perim-
eter and the circumference of objects such as the teacher’s desk, a tree trunk, or the class
pumpkin.
• Drinking straws. Straws provide large quantities of a useful unit as they are easily cut
into smaller units. They can also be linked together with a long string or slid onto a
length of pipe cleaner, creating an excellent bridge to a ruler or measuring tape.
• Short units. Flat toothpicks, linking cubes, and paper clips are all useful nonstandard
units for measuring shorter lengths. Cuisenaire rods are also useful because they are
easily placed end to end and are also metric (centimeters) and so make an excellent
bridge to a ruler. Paper clips can also be made into chains. Note that individual linking
cubes do not explicitly exhibit the attribute of length as well as Cuisenaire rods, tooth-
picks, paper clips, and straws.
Keep in mind the word of caution mentioned earlier about using a few well‐chosen
nonstandard units to avoid confusing children with a variety of units. Once children dem-
onstrate, in particular, that all the units used to measure a given length must be the same
length, then you may want to increase the variety of nonstandard units available.

For a quick diagnostic interview, give a child the two diagrams as shown and ask him to tell you the length
of each object. Does the child simply count the units for both objects or does he indicate the issue with the
different length units in the second diagram? If the child simply counts the units, this is an indication that
he does not understand that the units must be of equal size. Having the child use a wide variety of different
kinds of units may actually be more confusing. Instead, having the child consistently use the same kind of
unit in measurement activities may help him realize that the units need to be equal in length.
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The following activity encourages children to develop their own approach to measuring
lengths.
Activity 11 HOW LONG IS THE TEACHER?
Explain that you have just received an important request from the principal. She needs to
know exactly how tall each teacher in the building is. The children are to decide how to
measure the teachers and write a note to the principal explaining how tall their teacher
is and detailing the process that they used. If you wish to give a hint, ask if it might
be easier if they were to measure how long you are instead of how tall. You can ask,
“Would it help if I lie down?” Have children make marks at your feet and head and draw
a straight line between these marks.
Explain that the principal says they can use any nonstandard unit to measure with
(provide a few choices until you are confident children understand the necessity to use
equal‐length units). For each choice of unit, supply enough units to more than cover your
length. Put children in pairs and allow them to select one unit with which to measure.
Ask children to make an estimate and then have them use their unit to measure.
After children complete their measuring, follow up with questions such as “How did you
get your measurement?” “Did children who measured with the same unit get the same an-
swers? If not, why not?” “How could the principal make a line
that was as long as the teacher?” Focus on the value of carefully
lining up units end to end. Discuss what happens if you overlap
Figure 4
Record sheet for measuring with informal length units.
units, have gaps in the units, or don’t follow a straight line.
Repeat the basic task of “How Long Is the Teacher?”
with other measuring tasks, each time providing a choice of Name
units and the requirement that children explain their mea-
sures. It is always helpful if the same lengths (e.g., heights, Around your outline
distances around) are measured by several pairs of children Unit:
using the same unit so that possible errors can be discussed straw
and the measuring process refined. The following activity Estimate straws
adds an estimation component.
Measured straws
Activity 12 ESTIMATE AND MEASURE
Make lists of things in the room to measure (see Figure 4). The teacher’s desk
Run a piece of masking tape along the dimension of ob- Unit: orange rod
jects to be measured. Include curves or other distances Estimate rods
Teacher’s desk
that are not straight lines. Have children make estimates Measured rods
before they measure. Young children will not be very
good at estimating distances at first so it is important
to provide them with some strategies for doing so (see Around math book
section on “Tips for Teaching Estimation”). For example, Math Unit: paper clip
have children make a row or chain of exactly 10 units to
help them with their estimates. They can first lay 10 units
Book
Estimate clips
against the object and then make their estimate. You can
Measured clips
also do this activity using standard units.
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The Common Core State Standards recommend that second graders consider the rela-
tionship between the size of a unit and the resulting measure. Children can find it a chal-
lenge to understand that larger units will create a smaller measure and vice versa. Engage
children in activities in which this issue is emphasized.
Activity 13 CHANGING UNITS
Have children measure a length with a specified unit. Then provide them with a different
unit that is either twice as long or half as long as the original unit.
Standards for
Mathematical Practice Their task is to predict the measure of the same length using the new unit. Children
should write down their predictions and discuss how they made their estimations. Then
2 Reason abstractly
◀ have them make the actual measurement. Cuisenaire rods are excellent for this activity,
and quantitatively
but other nonstandard units are useful as well.
When first doing the “Changing Units” activity,

show the second unit and discuss only if the measure
will be smaller or larger using this unit. You will find
Some children will be challenged using units that are more
that many children will think that the larger units will
difficult multiples of the original task. Starting with simpler
give the larger measure. Allow children to struggle with
multiples will help children more readily see the inverse rela-
their reasoning and test their conjectures by actually
tionship of size of unit to the numeric measure.
measuring.

Observation and discussion during activities such as those just described provide evidence of how well
your children understand length measurement. Additional tasks that can be used in diagnostic interviews
include the following:
• Provide a box with assorted units of different sizes. Cuisenaire rods would be suitable. Have children
use the materials in the box to measure a given length. Observe whether the child understands that
all units must be of similar size. If different lengths of units are used, ask the child to describe his or
her measurement.
• Ask children to draw a line or mark off a distance of a prescribed number of units. Observe whether
children know to align the units in a straight line without overlaps or gaps.
• Provide a length of string. Tell children that the string is 6 units long. How could they use the string
to make a length of 3 units? How could they make a length of 9 units? In this task, you are looking
to see if children can mentally subdivide the given length (string) based on an understanding of its
measure. That is, can children visualize that 6 units are matched to the string length and half of these
would be 3 units?
• Have children measure two different objects. Then ask how much longer the longer object is. Observe
whether children can use the measurements to answer or whether they need to make a third mea-
surement to find the difference.
Making and Using Rulers

The jump from measuring with individual units to using standard rulers can be challenging.
One method to help children understand rulers is to have them make their own rulers.
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Activity 14 MAKE YOUR OWN RULER
Use two colors of precut narrow strips of construction

paper. For each unit, use a length that is at least twice Alternatively, children can color a strip of centimeter grid
as long as the width so that the notion of length is paper and number each section to create a metric ruler.
emphasized. For example, if you use inches as the unit,
your narrow strips could be 1 inch long and 12 inch wide
(or tall). For centimeters, the strip could be 1 cm long and 12 cm wide. Or you could use
a nonstandard unit of 5 cm long and about 212 cm wide. Discuss how the strips could
be used to measure by laying them end to end. Provide long strips of card stock at
least twice the width of your unit. Have children make their own ruler (e.g., foot‐long,
10‐cm‐long, 10‐unit‐long rulers) by gluing the units in alternating colors onto the card
stock, as shown at the top of Figure 5.
Have children use their new rulers to measure items on a list you provide. Include
lengths that are longer than their rulers. Discuss the results, including how they measured
the longer items. It is possible that there will be discrepancies due to rulers that were not
made properly or because a child does not understand how a ruler works. Use these dis-
crepancies as opportunities to reinforce the four important principles mentioned earlier
(i.e., units must align with no gaps or overlaps, units must have equal length, units must
be placed along the path being measured).
Also, consider using larger nonstandard units such as multiple tracings of a child’s
footprint glued onto strips of cash register tape. These rulers can be used to measure
longer lengths or distances.
Challenge children to find more than one way

to measure a length with a ruler. Do you have to
start at the end? What if you start at another unit Figure 5
in the center? Does that matter? Children can Give meaning to numbers on rulers.
eventually put numbers on their homemade rul-
ers, as shown in Figure 5. To begin with, numbers
Glue units to a card stock strip.
can be written in the center of each unit as a way
to precount the units. When numbers are written
in the standard way, at the ends of the units, the
ruler becomes a number line. This format is more
sophisticated and should be carefully discussed with
children—in particular, why the numbers are at the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
end of the unit.
Help children make the connection between
Numbers help count the units.
their handmade rulers and standard rulers by giv-
ing them a standard ruler and having them identify
and discuss how the handmade and standard rulers
are alike and how they are different. Ask questions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
such as “What are the units?” “What do the num-
bers mean?” “What are the marks for?” “Where do Standard rulers: Numbers are at ends of units. Notice
the units begin?” “Could you make a ruler with the where 0 is.
same units as the standard ruler?”
313
Figure 6
Use an unmarked ruler and ask children to measure an object. In the example shown, the
correct length is 8 units. A child counting hash marks would respond with 9 units.

Research indicates that when children see standard rulers with the numbers on the hash marks, they
often incorrectly believe that the numbers are counting the marks rather than indicating the units or
spaces between the marks. As a performance assessment, provide children with a ruler, as shown in
Figure 6, with hash marks but no numbers. Have children use the ruler to measure an item that is shorter
than the ruler. Use a checklist to record whether the child counts spaces between the hash marks or
counts the hash marks.
Another good performance assessment of ruler understanding is to have children measure with a
“broken” ruler, one with the first two units broken off. Use your checklist to note whether children say that
it is impossible to measure with such a ruler because there is no starting point. Those who understand rul-
ers will be able to match and count the units meaningfully in their measures.
Observing how children use a ruler to measure an object that is longer than the ruler is also informa-
tive. If a child simply reads the last mark on the ruler, this is an indication that he or she does not under-
stand how a ruler is a representation of a row of units.
GeoGebra offers a couple of interactive worksheets in which children are asked to measure given
objects using a broken ruler. The worksheet at http://maine.edc.org/file.php/1/AssessmentResources
/BrokenRulers132_L.html allows you to change the ruler from a standard ruler to a standard ruler that
is broken along different intervals. There are nine objects children can measure, all of which are close
enough in length to approximate to whole units. The rulers on this worksheet are all divided into fourths.
Another worksheet uses a ruler that is divided into sixteenths and has children measuring various
parts of pets (http://maine.edc.org/file.php/1/AssessmentResources/BrokenRulers_MeasureMe32_L.html).
If children click on the hint button, a line is drawn along the path that should be measured.
Time
Time is different from most other attributes that are commonly measured in school because
it cannot be seen or felt and because it is more difficult for children to comprehend units of
time or how those units are matched against a given time period or duration.
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Time can be thought of as the duration of an event from its beginning to its end. As with
other attributes, for children to adequately understand the attribute of time, they should
make comparisons of events that have different durations. If two events begin at the same
time, the shorter duration will end first and the other last longer. For example, which wind‐
up toy lasts longer? However, this form of comparison focuses on the ending of the duration
rather than the duration itself. In order to think of time as something that can be measured,
we need to focus on the duration itself.
Engaging tasks that address duration include the following:
• Stacking 10 blocks one at a time and then removing them one at a time
• Saying your full name
• Walking along a designated path
• Watering a plant
• Reading a page of a book
Children need to learn about seconds, minutes, and hours to develop some concept of how
long these units are. Point out to children the duration of short and long events during the Figure 7
school day. Have children time familiar events in their daily lives: brushing teeth, eating Approximate time with
dinner, riding to school, doing homework. Timing short events of 12 minute to 2 minutes one‐handed clocks.
at school and at home can be fun and useful. Children can work in pairs and use a timer,
such as a stopwatch, to time some of the tasks listed previously. For other examples, in
Just a Second author Steve Jenkins (2011b) shares some interesting events that occur in just 11 12 1
1 second, 1 minute, and 1 hour. 10 2
9 3
Reading Clocks 8 4
7 6 5
The common instrument for measuring time is the clock. However, learning to tell time
has little to do with time measurement and more to do with the skills of learning to read an
instrument. Clock reading can be a difficult skill to teach. Starting in first grade children are “About 7 o’clock”
usually taught to read clocks to the hour and then to the half hour. In second grade, they
learn to read to 5‐minute intervals (CCSSO, 2010). In the early stages of this sequence,
children are shown clocks set exactly to the hour or half hour. Thus, many children who can 11 12 1
read a clock at 7:00 or 2:30 are initially challenged by 6:58 or 2:33. 10 2
Digital clocks permit children to read times easily but do not relate times very well to 9 3
benchmark times. To know that a digital reading of 7:58 is nearly 8 o’clock, the child must 8 4
7 6 5
know that there are 60 minutes in an hour, that 58 is close to 60, and that 2 minutes is not
a very long time. These concepts are challenging for many first‐grade and second‐grade
children. The analog clock (with hands) shows “close to” times visually without the need for “A little bit
understanding big numbers or even how many minutes are in an hour. past 9 o’clock”
The following suggestions can help children understand and read analog clocks by fo-
cusing on the actions and functions of the minute and hour hands on a clock.
1. Begin with a one‐handed clock by breaking off the minute hand from a regular clock. 11 12 1
10 2
Use lots of approximate language: “It’s about 7 o’clock.” “It’s a little past 9 o’clock.”
9 3
“It’s halfway between 2 o’clock and 3 o’clock” (see Figure 7).
8 4
2. Discuss what happens to the big hand as the little hand goes from one hour to the 7 6 5
next. When the big hand is at 12, the hour hand is pointing exactly to a number. If the
hour hand is about halfway between numbers, about where would the minute hand
“Halfway between
be? If the hour hand is a little past or before an hour (10 to 15 minutes), about where
2 o’clock and 3 o’clock”
would the minute hand be?
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3. Use two real clocks, one with only an hour hand and one with two hands. Cover the
two‐handed clock. Periodically during the day, direct attention to the one‐handed
clock. Discuss the time in approximate language. Have children predict where the
minute hand should be. Uncover the other clock and check.
4. Teach time after the hour in 5‐minute intervals. After step 3 has begun, count by fives
going around the clock. Instead of predicting that the minute hand is “pointing at the
4,” transition to the language “it is about 20 minutes after the hour.” As skills develop,
suggest that children always look first at the little or hour hand to learn approximately
what time it is and then focus on the big or minute hand for precision.
5. Predict the reading on a digital clock when shown an analog clock, and vice versa; set
an analog clock when shown a digital clock.
6. Relate the time after the hour to the time before the next hour. This is helpful not
only for telling time but also for number sense.
The following activity assesses children’s ability to read a clock.
Activity 15 ONE‐HANDED CLOCKS

nguag
-La
Prepare a page of clock faces (see Blackline Master 47). On each clock draw an
nglish
e Lerane
rE
rs
hour hand with a variety of placements that are appropriate for your grade (e.g.,
fo
on the hour, half past the hour, a quarter past the hour, a quarter until the
hour, and close to but not on the hour). For each clock face, the children’s
BLM
task is to write the digital time and draw the corresponding minute hand
on the clock. If you have ELLs, it is important to note that telling time is
done differently in different cultures. For example, in Spanish any time past 30 minutes is
stated as the next hour minus the time until that hour. For example, 10:45 is thought of
as 15 minutes before 11, or 11 minus a quarter. Be explicit that in English it can be said
either way—“10:45” or “a quarter till 11.”
The “Time— Analog and Digital Clocks” applet at the National Library of Virtual Manipulatives allows children
to change the time on an analog clock and see how it changes on the digital clock and vice versa (http://nlvm
.usu.edu/en/nav/grade_g_1.html). The “Time—Match Clocks” applet at the same website displays a time
on the analog clock and children have to match that time on the digital clock. Times are also shown on the
digital clock that children match using the analog clock.
After children learn how to read a clock, the following activity not only motivates them
to think about telling time, but it also helps them to consider the relationship between ana-
log clock reading and digital recording.
Activity 16 READY FOR THE BELL
Give children a recording sheet with a set of clock faces (see Blackline Mas-
BLM ter 47). Secretly set a timer to go off at the hour, half hour, or minute.
When the bell rings, children should look up and record the time on the
clock face and in numerals on the recording sheet.
316
Although intervals of time (elapsed time) are a third‐grade topic in the Common
Core State Standards, time provides a good context for adding and subtracting numbers.
“Ready for the Bell” provides opportunities for children to determine the time between
timer rings.
You can also pose story problems about time, keeping in mind the problem structures
for addition and subtraction. Consider the following examples:
• Sara started reading at 4:15 p.m. and stopped at 4:40 p.m. How long did Sara read?
(Change Unknown)
• Sara read today for 50 minutes. She stopped reading at 6:30 p.m. What time did Sara
start reading? (Start Unknown)
• Danny gets on the bus at 7:15 a.m. and arrives at school at 7:50 a.m. Callie gets on her
bus at 7:25 a.m. and arrives at school at 8:05 a.m. Who has a longer bus ride? (Compari-
son: Difference Unknown)
• It takes Frank 15 minutes to get to school on his bus. If Kiera gets on her bus at 7:20 a.m.
and rides the bus for 10 more minutes than Frank, what time does she arrive at school?
(Comparison: Larger Unknown)
You can modify the difficulty of these problems by changing the numbers (e.g., use time on
the hour or half hour to create easier problems, or use time in 5‐minute intervals to increase
the difficulty level). Start unknown and change unknown problems are also more difficult
than result unknown problems. Make sure to provide a variety of problems in which the
location of the unknown changes.
Money
Here is a list of the money ideas and skills typically required in the primary grades:
• Recognizing coins
• Identifying and using the value of coins
• Counting and comparing sets of coins
• Creating equivalent coin collections (same amounts, different coins)
• Selecting coins for a given amount
• Making change
• Solving word problems involving money starting in second grade (CCSSO, 2010)
Recognizing Coins and Identifying Their Values

The names of our coins are conventions of our social system. Children learn these names
the same way that they learn the names of any physical objects in their daily environment—
through exposure and repetition.
The value of each coin is also a convention that children must simply be told. For these
values to make sense, children must have an understanding of 5, 10, and 25 and think of
these quantities without seeing countable objects. Nowhere else do we say, “This is five,”
while pointing to a single item. A child who remains tied to counting objects to determine
“how much” will be challenged to understand the values of coins. Lessons about coin values
should focus on purchase power—a dime can buy the same thing that 10 pennies can buy.
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Counting Sets of Coins

Naming the total value of a group of coins is the same as mentally adding their values. Sec-
ond graders can be asked to do the mental mathematics required in counting a collection of
different coins. Children may sort their coins by value and start counting from the highest
values, just as they often add or subtract the larger place values first. Or they may put coins
together to make decade numbers, for example, adding a quarter and a nickel to make 30¢.
With pennies aside, coins have the advantage of being in multiples of 5 and 10 and thereby
lead to skip counting. The next activity helps prepare children for counting money.
Activity 17 MONEY SKIP COUNTING

nguag
-LaFor this activity, use counts that are used when counting money (coins or bills).
nglish
e Lerane
Explain to children that they will start skip counting by one number, and at your
rE
fo rs
signal they will shift to a count by a different number. Use any two of these num-
bers: 100, 50, 25, 10, 5, 1. Always start the skip count with the larger number. For
example, write the numbers 25 and 10 on the board. Point to the larger number
(25), and have children begin to skip count. After three or more counts, raise your hand
to indicate a pause in the counting. Then point to the smaller number (10). Children
continue the skip count from where they left off but now count by tens. Later, try three
numbers in descending order. If you have ELLs who are recent immigrants, invite them
to share coins from their country and see how they compare to our coins or use them for
more addition and subtraction experiences. Children with disabilities may need to use a
hundreds chart to help them with their skip counts.

When a collection of coins is not arranged in descending order of values, children must first impose this
order on the collection. This is a skill based only on the ability to compare numbers and recognize the value
of the coins. Check to see if children can put a string of numbers such as this in order from greatest to least:
5, 1, 5, 25, 10, 1, 25, 10. For a child experiencing difficulty with this task, try a collection with no duplicates.
If there is still difficulty, the child may need more experiences with counting, with the hundreds chart, and
with other concept‐development activities for place value.
If the child can put the numeral string in order but cannot order a set of coins, the problem is most
likely a failure to have learned the values of the coins.
Working with coins requires not only adding up the values but also first mentally giving
each coin a value. Engage children in using coins and developing addition concepts by hav-
ing them add a mixed collection of coins.
Activity 18 COIN‐NUMBER ADDITION
Using a projector, show a small collection of coins not arranged in any order. How many
coins to use will vary with the experiences of your children. Begin with only dimes and
pennies. Then add some nickels and eventually quarters. Give children time to identify
the coins and write down the corresponding numeric values of the coins (e.g., 5 for a
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nickel, 25 for a quarter). Have children share what they have written down to make sure
everyone has identified the correct amounts.
Now the children’s task is to add the numbers mentally. Do not suggest how they add
the numbers or in what order because there is almost always more than one good way to
do this. For example, rather than add from the largest values to the smallest—the typical
way coins are taught in books—it is also reasonable to use the 5s to make tens or other
methods. For this collection, note that it is easy to add 5 and 25, then 10, then 7 (the last
5 and two 1s). Discuss with children how they added the collection.
10 1 25
5 5 1
When discussing solutions to this last activity, be sure to value any approach that works.
However, pay special attention to those children who begin with the larger values and those
who put combinations together utilizing thinking with tens. There is no reason to require
children to add in any particular order, not with this activity or with coins.
As with time, you can also pose story problems about money using the problem struc-
tures for addition and subtraction. Consider the following examples:
• Alexis has some coins. Zig gives her 1 dime and 2 pennies. Now Alexis has 36¢. What
coins did Alexis have to begin with? (Joining: Start Unknown)
• Jay has 2 quarters and a dime. He needs 95¢ to buy a notebook. How much more money
does Jay need? (Part–Part–Whole: Part Unknown)
• Andy has $11.65. He gave Becky some money. Now Andy has $8.15. How much money
did Andy give Becky? (Separate: Change Unknown)
• Wendy has $2.67. That is $1.25 more than what Keith has. How much money does Keith
have? (Comparison: Smaller Unknown)
Again, changing the numbers and the location of the unknown will modify the level of
difficulty.
Making Change
When you pay for something at a store using cash, you may often give the clerk more
money than the purchase price and you expect to receive the correct change back. Know-
ing how to make change is important for the clerk but also for the customers—so they can
check to make sure they received the correct change!
Stop and Reflect

Before reading further, think about how you would make change from a hundred dollar bill for
a purchase that cost $82. ■
You may have thought, I can start at 100, go back 10 to 90, then back 8 more to 82—so
the change would be 10 + 8 or 18 dollars. You could also start at 100, go back 20 to 80, up 2
to 82, so that’s 20 - 2 or 18. You may have thought to start at 82, go 8 more to 90 and then
10 more to 100—that’s 8 + 10 or 18 dollars.
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Making change is the same as finding a difference—

specifically, a difference between the amount given to the
clerk and the purchase price. The third approach described
When introducing children to the process of making change, earlier uses adding on to find a difference. This strategy is
start with smaller values and connect the dime to the sometimes used to teach how to “make change” in school
ten‐frame. because it is useful for counting back change to the cus-
tomer. Any of the ways previously described are appropri-
ate to make change because they all use strategies based on number sense. Counting back
change should be considered a separate skill. Because making change is related to strategies
based on number sense, children should have experiences with these strategies before they
are asked to make change with money.
The following activity builds from children’s experiences using various strategies to find
a difference.
Activity 19 HOW MUCH IS THE CHANGE?
Write a target number on the board. This number should be the same as an amount of
money that might be given to a store clerk in a purchase, most likely 25, 50, 75, or 100.
To the left of this target, write a smaller starting number and an arrow. Here are some
examples:
13 S 25 56 S 75 29 S 50
In creating the amounts for this activity, think in terms of purchases. If the target is 75,
that means you gave the clerk 75¢. You would only do this for items costing more than
50¢. Similarly, for a target of 50, use numbers greater than 25. For a target of 100, any
smaller number would be appropriate because you may have given the clerk a dollar
bill.
Embed the numbers in story problems that describe making a purchase. Explain to
the children that the first number written represents the amount of the purchase and the
second number represents the amount of money given to the store clerk. The children’s
task is to find the difference (i.e., the change) using a strategy that they can explain. They
may need to write down intermediate results. Discuss the solution methods used by dif-
ferent children.
The next activity extends “How Much Is the Change?” and attempts to draw children’s
attention to the notion of using the fewest possible coins.
Activity 20 HOW MUCH IS THE CHANGE WITH COINS?
On the board, write start and target numbers as in “How Much Is the Change?” Then
write on the board the values of the coins: 25, 10, 5, 1. In this task, children must use
only the numbers (i.e., coins) in the list to create the difference. As they use a number,
they should write it down. Challenge children to try to use as few “coins” as possible
or, in other words, as many of the larger numbers as possible. For example, if the
target is 75 with a start of 58, they could write 1, 1, 10, 5. Have children discuss their
solutions.
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When your children are ready, “How Much Is the Change with Coins?” can be ex-
tended to values greater than a dollar (greater than targets of 100¢).
This sequence of suggested activities is not a surefire solution to the difficulties children
experience with money. It is designed to build on number and place‐value skills and con-
cepts that were developed without or before using coins.
The Coin Box applet found at Illuminations on NCTM’s website (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail

.aspx?ID=217) poses tasks that allow children to count coins, collect a given amount of money, exchange
a given collection of coins for the fewest coins, and make change. There are two options to display coins—
one that uses only the pictures of coins and another that places the coin onto a grid that indicates its value
(e.g., a nickel is displayed on a 1 by 5 grid; a dime is displayed on a 2 by 5 grid). You can find another applet
under “Money” at http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/grade_g_1.html that uses coins and bills. In this applet
children can count the money displayed, pay an exact amount, and make a dollar by dragging coins into
a box. They can also check their work, receiving feedback that indicates if they are correct or if they have
placed too much or too little in the box.
Other Measurable Attributes

Although children in grades pre‐K-2 focus on measuring length, time, and money, they also
need experience with other measureable attributes, such as area, weight, and volume. Here
we offer some ideas and activities for initial experiences with these attributes.
Area
Area is the two‐dimensional space inside a region. As with other attributes, children must
first understand the attribute of area before measuring.
One purpose of early comparison activities with areas is to help children distinguish be-
tween size (or area) and shape, length, and other dimensions. A long, skinny rectangle may
have less area than a triangle with shorter sides. Also important to understand is the idea
that rearranging areas into different shapes does not affect the amount of area. These ideas
are especially difficult for young children to understand.
Direct comparison of two areas is frequently impossible except when the shapes
involved have some common dimension or property. For example, two rectangles with
the same width can be compared directly. Comparison of these special shapes, however,
fails to deal with the attribute of area. Instead, activities in which one area is rearranged
(conservation of area) are suggested. Cutting a shape into two parts and reassembling it
in a different shape can show that the before and after shapes have the same area, even
though they are different shapes. This idea is not at all obvious to children in grades
pre‐K–2.
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Figure 8 Different shapes, same area.

Activity 21 TWO‐PIECE SHAPES
Cut out a large number of rectangles of the same area,

about 3 inches by 5 inches, or use unruled index cards
with these dimensions. Each pair of children will need
six rectangles. Have them fold and cut the rectangles on
the diagonal, making two identical triangles. Next, have
them rearrange the triangles into different shapes, includ-
ing back into the original rectangle. The rule is that only
sides of the same length can be matched up and must be
matched exactly. Have pairs of children find all the shapes
that can be made this way, gluing the triangles on paper as a record (see Figure 8). Discuss
the area and shape of the different responses. Does one shape have a greater area than
the rest? How do you know? Did one take more paper to make? Help children conclude
that although each figure is a different shape, all the figures have the same area.
Using Physical Models of Area Units

Although squares are the most common area units, any tile that conveniently fills up a plane
region can be used. Nonstandard units, such as index cards or playing cards, can be used ini-
tially to explore the concept of area. Here are some suggestions for nonstandard area units:
• Round counters, chips, or pennies. It is not necessary that the area units fit with no gaps for
early explorations.
• Cardboard squares. Squares that are about 20 cm per side work well for large areas.
Smaller units should be about 5 cm to 10 cm on a side.
• Sheets of newspaper. These make excellent units for very large areas.
• Pattern blocks. The hexagon, trapezoid, blue rhombus, and triangle are easily compared
to each other by laying one on top of the other.
In addition, standard units can be used:
• Color tiles (1‐inch sides).
• White Cuisenaire rods or the unit cube from base‐ten blocks (1‐cm sides).
Children can use units to measure surfaces in the room such as desktops, bulletin boards,
and books. Large regions can be outlined with masking tape on the floor. Small regions can
be duplicated on paper so that children can work at stations.
In area measurements, there may be lots of units that only partially fit. To avoid this
issue as children begin their initial explorations with area, create tasks by building a shape
with units and drawing the outline. Give this outline to children for them to determine how
many units are needed to cover the outlined region.
The following activity is a good way to see what ideas your children have about units
of area.
Activity 22 FILL AND COMPARE
Draw two rectangles and a blob shape on a sheet of paper. Make it so that the three
areas are not the same but with no area that is clearly largest or smallest. The children’s
first task is to estimate which is the smallest and the largest of the three shapes. After
recording their estimate, they should use multiples of the same unit to fill in the shapes
(e.g., color tiles, round counters). Alternatively, they can trace or glue the same two‐
dimensional unit on the shapes. Children should explain what they discovered.
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Your objective in the beginning is to develop the idea that area is measured by covering
or tiling. Groups are likely to come up with different measures for the same region. Discuss
these differences with the children and point to the difficulties involved in making estimates
around the edges. Avoid the idea that there is one “right” approach.
Volume and Capacity

Volume and capacity are both terms for measures of the “size” of three‐dimensional re-
gions. The term capacity is generally used to refer to the amount that a container will
hold. Standard units of capacity include quarts and gallons, liters and milliliters—units
used for liquids as well as the containers that hold them. The term volume can be used to
refer to the capacity of a container but is also used for the size of solid objects. Standard
units of volume are expressed in terms of length units, such as cubic inches or cubic
centimeters.
Comparing the volumes of solid objects is very difficult. For primary grade children, it is
appropriate to focus on capacity. A simple method of comparing capacity is to fill one con-
tainer with something and then pour this amount into the comparison container.
Young children should have lots of experiences directly comparing the capacities of dif-
ferent containers such as cans, small boxes, and plastic containers. The following activity is
appropriate for pre‐K–2 children.
Activity 23 CAPACITY SORT
Provide a variety of containers with one marked as the “target.” The children’s task
is to sort the collection into those that hold more than, less than, or about the same
amount as the target container. Provide a recording sheet on which each container is
listed and a place to circle “holds more,” “holds less,” and “holds about the same.”
List the choices twice for each container—one to record an estimate and one for the
actual measure. Provide a filler (such as beans, rice, or Styrofoam peanuts), scoops,
and funnels. Working in pairs, have children measure and record results. Discuss what
children noticed in their estimating and measuring (e.g., rounder/fatter shapes seem
to hold more).
Using Physical Models of Volume and Capacity Units

Two types of units can be used to measure volume and capacity: solid units and containers.
Solid units are things like wooden cubes or old tennis balls that can be used to fill the con-
tainer being measured. The other type of unit model is a small container that is filled and
poured repeatedly into the container being measured. The following are a few examples of
units that you might want to collect.
• Plastic liquid medicine cups
• Plastic jars and containers of almost any size
• Wooden cubic blocks or blocks of any shape (a lot and all the same size)
• Styrofoam packing peanuts (which still produce conceptual measures of volume even
though they do not pack perfectly)
Remember your goal is to help children develop an understanding of the concept of ca-
pacity or volume. Children often think that a tall, narrow container holds more than a
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short, wide one because it is difficult for them to attend to two dimensions, the height and
width. By having them explore capacity using a variety of containers, you can challenge this
misconception.
You can also have children begin to use cups, pints, quarts, and gallon containers to help
them begin to get a sense of their sizes. Having them use, for example, a measuring cup to
fill a pint container or a pint container to fill a gallon container can help them begin to de-
velop a sense of the relative sizes of customary units of capacity.
Weight and Mass

Weight is a measure of the pull or force of gravity on an object. Mass is the amount of mat-
ter in an object and a measure of the force needed to accelerate it. On the moon, where
gravity is much less than on Earth, an object has a smaller weight but the identical mass as
on Earth. For practical purposes, on Earth, the measures of mass and weight will be about
the same. In this discussion, the terms weight and mass will be used interchangeably.
Starting in kindergarten, children can begin exploring the concept of heavier and lighter.
The most conceptual way for children to compare the weights of two objects is to hold
one in each hand, extend their arms, and experience the relative downward pull on each—
effectively communicating to a pre‐K–1 child what “heavier” or “weighs more” means. This
personal experience can then be transferred to one of two basic types of scales—balances
and spring scales.
When introducing children to a balance, have them hold two different objects, one in
each hand, and estimate which of two objects is heavier. When they then place the objects in
the two pans of a balance, the pan that goes down can be understood to hold the heavier ob-
ject. Even a relatively simple balance will detect small differences. If two objects are placed
one at a time in a spring scale, the heavier object pulls the pan down farther. Both balances
and spring scales have real value in the classroom. (Technically, spring scales measure weight
and balance scales measure mass. Why?) With either scale, sorting and ordering tasks are
possible with very young children.
Using Physical Models of Weight or Mass Units

Any collection of uniform objects with the same mass can serve as weight units. For very
light objects, large paper clips, wooden blocks, or plastic cubes work well. You can also use
U.S. coins for weight units. For example, all U.S. nickels weigh 5 grams and pennies weigh
2.5 grams. Large metal washers found in hardware stores are effective for weighing slightly
heavier objects. You will need to rely on standard weights to weigh things as heavy as a
kilogram or more.
Weight cannot be measured directly (i.e., you can’t see weight), so either a two‐pan
balance or a spring scale must be used. In a balance scale, place an object in one pan and
weights in the other until the two pans balance. In a spring scale, first place the object in and
mark the position of the pan on a piece of paper taped behind the pan. Remove the object
and place just enough weights in the pan to pull it down to the same level. Discuss how
equal weights will pull the spring or rubber band with the same force.
Although the notion of units of weight or mass appears in the expectations of the Com-
mon Core State Standards for third graders, it is good preparation for younger children to
explore the attribute of weight using informal units.
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Crooked Paths

• Tape the end of the string to the beginning of the
Grade Level: K–1 path, then mark the end of the measurement on the
Mathematics Goals string with a marker. Use another string for the other
path in the same way. Then compare the lengths.
• To help children understand that length is an attribute
that need not be in a straight line (e.g., the distance • Children may have trouble with thinking about the
around an object or a nonstraight path has length, just estimates of length when one path is “crooked.” You
as does a straight object) might want to show an example of two paths on the
floor (one crooked and one straight) and have the chil-
• To use a nonstandard measurement tool (e.g., string,
dren walk each to see which takes longer to walk. Then
blocks) to measure lengths
they can think about estimating the paths made in the
learning stations.

NCTM Common • Masking tape
Curriculum Focal Points Core State Standards • Rope, string, or yarn that is at least 10 feet long for
each station
Children in prekindergarten Kindergarten students begin
think about which objects to describe attributes of • One “Crooked Paths” recording sheet for every pair of
have the attribute of length objects that can be measured children (Blackline Master 48)
and can compare objects’ with length. BLM
lengths. In kindergarten, chil-
In grade 1, one of four focal Lesson
dren use length to compare
areas is children measuring
objects. First graders measure Before
lengths indirectly and by
using multiple copies of units
iterating (or using groups of This will be a station activity. Set up three identical sta-
end to end.
the same unit). tions around the room. Each station consists of two
crooked paths made of masking tape. Try to make them
about the same in each station. Path A is a zigzag of four
Consider Children’s Needs straight‐line segments that total about 9 feet. Path B is
more S‐shaped and is about 7 feet long. Make path B
Children have made comparisons of straight objects or
“look” longer by spreading it out more.
paths and have learned the meaning of longer and shorter
in that context. Children have not used units or rulers to
measure lengths.

• Children may need language support for the terms
longer, shorter, straight, and crooked. You can have Begin with a simpler version of the task:
the children model what these terms mean and/or use • Show the class pairs of straight objects, such as a pen-
objects to illustrate their meaning. Also, reinforce the cil and a crayon, or two lines drawn on the board. For
meaning of estimate. each pair, ask, “Which is longer? Which is shorter? How
• Use pair‐share and/or encourage use of native lan- can we tell?”
guage in the After phase when the children are ex- • On the board, draw a half‐circle and beneath it a line
plaining their thinking about the longer paths. segment about as long as the diameter. Ask, “How can
325
we tell which of these is longer?” Solicit ideas. Be sure • For children who need a greater challenge, ask them
the children hear the idea that the curve is longer than to make a row of blocks in a straight line that is just as
the line segment and that some children provide good long as the curvy path.
reasons. For example, say, “If you had to walk on these,
it would take longer to walk the curved path.”
After
• Remind the children of the task of comparing the two
paths. Have the children refer to their worksheets as
they talk about what they did.
• Ask, “How many thought the zigzag path was longer?”
Present the focus task to the class:
Count and record on the board next to a zigzag. “How
• Gather the children around one station. Say, “One path many thought the curvy path was longer?” Count
might be longer or they might be the same. Your task is and record. “How many thought they were about the
to decide.” same?” Count and record. Ask the children if the esti-
• Show the children the worksheets and explain how to mates they made were the same as the result that they
use them. Explain that they are to circle the path that figured out. Were they surprised? Why?
is longer or circle both paths if they think they are the • Select pairs to explain what they did. Get as many dif-
same. Then they are to draw a picture to show how ferent ideas and methods as possible.
they decided. Have the children work in pairs.
• If the children disagree about which path is longer,
• Ask the children which path they think is longer or have them explain their reasoning in a way that might
whether they think they are the same. Say, “Before you convince those who disagree. Give the children the op-
begin work, put an X on the picture of the path that portunity to change their minds, but ask, “What made
you think is longer. This is your estimate.” Have a few you change your minds?”
children share their estimates and their reasoning.
• Show the children that there is string for comparing
lengths, but they can use linked paper clips, blocks, or Assessment
whatever materials they want to help them decide.
Observe
Provide clear expectations: • Look for children who understand how length can exist
on a curved path (correctly compare or make appropri-
• Children will work with partners at the stations.
ate attempt). This can be a checklist item based on the
discussion or observations.
During
• For children who used units, did they use like‐sized
• Monitor station activity but do not interfere. Be sure units or make appropriate use of materials?
the children are completing worksheets to the best of
their abilities.
Ask
• If a pair seems unable to make a decision, ask, “If a
toy car was going to go along these paths, which path • Which path is longer? How do you know?
would it travel longer on?” or, “Could you use some • How can path A be longer if it takes less room to make
blocks from over in the block corner to help?” on the floor than path B?
326
References
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(2011b, March). Position statement on the metric
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327
Developing Geometric
Reasoning and Concepts
BigIDEAS
1 What makes shapes alike and different can be determined by an array of geometric properties and defining
characteristics. For example, a square is like a rectangle because it has two pairs of parallel sides and four right angles; some
rectangles are different from squares because they do not have four equal sides.
2 Shapes can be described in terms of their location in a plane or in space. Initially children use the words of everyday
language such as above, below, next to, in front of, and beside to describe location and then later transition to simple
coordinate systems to describe locations more precisely.
3 Shapes can be moved in a plane or in space without changing the shape’s properties. These movements can be
described in terms of translations (slides), reflections (flips), and rotations (turns).
4 Visualization is “geometry done with the mind’s eye.” It involves being able to create and move mental images of
shapes, thinking about how they look from different viewpoints, and predicting the results of various transformations.
According to the NCTM Principles and Standards for School Mathematics

(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000), “At the core of
mathematics in the early years are the Number and Geometry strands”
(p. 77). This sentiment is also seen in the Curriculum Focal Points (Na-
tional Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2006) in which geometry
is included as one of three focal points in grades pre-K–1 and as a con-
nection to the focal points in grade 2. The Common Core State Standards
(CCSSO, 2010) highlight geometry as one of the critical areas across
grades K–2 (see the Common Core State Standards Critical Core Content
Areas and Overviews appendix). The National Research Council (2009)
in its publication Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood also supports
an emphasis on geometry in the early grades. All of these directives are
clear that geometry instruction in grades pre-K–2 should help children
learn more about the world they live in while also playing a significant
role in supporting the development of number concepts.
329
Developing Geometric Reasoning and Concepts
Geometry Goals for Young Children

It is useful to think about your geometry objectives in terms of two related frameworks:
(1) spatial sense and geometric reasoning and (2) the specific geometry content found
in your state or district objectives. The first framework has to do with the way chil-
dren think and reason about shape and space. A well-researched theoretical basis that
describes the development of geometric thought informs this framework. The second
framework is content in the more traditional sense—knowing about shapes, such as
squares, triangles, circles, prisms, cubes, and cylinders, parallel lines, symmetry, and so
forth. The Common Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) and Curriculum Focal Points
(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2006) help describe content goals across
the grades:
• In kindergarten, children are expected to identify and describe various two- and three-
dimensional shapes and describe their relative position using everyday language (e.g.,
above, below, beside). They should also draw and build shapes as well as compose larger
shapes from smaller ones.
• In first grade, children should be able to distinguish between a shape’s defining attributes
(e.g., number of sides, closed) and irrelevant attributes (e.g., color, size, orientation).
They also work on composing shapes to create new shapes and begin to decompose
shapes into smaller shapes.
• Second graders are expected to be able to recognize and draw shapes given specific
attributes (e.g., number of angles, equal length sides, and “square” angles). They con-
tinue to work on decomposing shapes into smaller shapes.
In order to best help children grow in their understanding of geometry, we need to under-
stand both aspects of geometry—reasoning and content.
Spatial Sense and Geometric Reasoning

Spatial sense can be defined as an intuition about shapes and the relationships between
shapes and is considered a core area of mathematical study in the early grades (Sarama &
Clements, 2009). Spatial sense includes the ability to mentally visualize objects and spatial
relationships, including being able to mentally move objects around. It also includes famil-
iarity with geometric descriptions of objects and position. People with well-developed spa-
tial sense appreciate geometric form in art, nature, and architecture and they use geometric
ideas to describe and analyze their world.
Some people say that you either are or are not born with spatial sense. This simply
is not true! Meaningful experiences with shape and spatial relationships, when provided
consistently over time, can and do develop spatial sense. Between 1990 and 2000, Na-
tional Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data indicated a steadily continuing
improvement in children’s geometric reasoning at grade 8 (Sowder & Wearne, 2006).
However, students did not just get smarter. Instead, there has been an increasing em-
phasis on geometry at all grades, but particularly so in the elementary grades. The Prin-
ciples and Standards for School Mathematics support this notion that all students can grow
in their geometric skills and understandings: “The notion of building understanding in
geometry across the grades, from informal to more formal thinking, is consistent with
the thinking of theorists and researchers” (National Council of Teachers of Mathemat-
ics, 2000, p. 41).
330
Geometric Content
For too long, geometry curricula in the United States emphasized the learning of terminol-
ogy. Geometry, in fact, involves a number of aspects that apply to all grade levels:
• Shapes and Properties includes a study of the properties of shapes in two and three
dimensions, as well as a study of the relationships built on properties.
• Transformation includes a study of translations, reflections, and rotations (slides, flips,
and turns), the study of symmetries, and the concept of similarity.
• Location refers to ways of specifying how objects are located in the plane or in space,
such as coordinate geometry.
• Visualization includes the recognition of shapes in the environment, developing rela-
tionships between two- and three-dimensional objects, and the ability to recognize,
draw, and think about objects from different viewpoints.
The chapter is organized around these four categories with experiences suggested for
each category. You will note that more attention is devoted to the topic shapes and proper-
ties as that category aligns with the emphasis of the Common Core State Standards for grades
pre-K–2. However, you should also note that experiences targeted toward each of the cat-
egories have potential to enhance children’s understanding in the other categories.
Developing Geometric Reasoning

Although not all people think about geometric ideas in the same manner, we are all capable
of developing the ability to think and reason in geometric contexts. The research of two
Dutch educators, Pierre van Hiele and Dina van Hiele-Geldof, provides insight into the dif-
ferences in individuals’ geometric thinking and how those differences come to be. The van
Hiele theory significantly influences geometry curricula worldwide.
The van Hiele Levels of Geometric Thought

The van Hiele model is typically described as a five-level hierarchy of ways of understanding
spatial ideas. Each level describes the thinking processes used in geometric contexts. Specifically,
the levels describe what types of geometric ideas we think about (called objects of thought) and how
we think about those ideas. Clements and Battista (1992) proposed the existence of a level prior
to the first level in the van Hiele model. We include this level because of its power to help you
make sense of some of your young children’s geometric reasoning (see Figure 1); however, we
have left this initial level unnumbered and maintained the original numbering of the van Hiele
levels to be consistent with other resources and the other volumes in this series.
Pre-Recognition
The objects of thought at this level are specific visible or tactile objects.
Children at this level are unable to identify and distinguish between many common shapes.
They may notice only a subset of the visual characteristics of a shape, which results in an
inability to distinguish between some shapes. For example, they may be able to distinguish
between a circle and a square but not between a square and a triangle. Most children at this
level will know something about circles and squares. They tend to be less accurate identifying
triangles and rectangles. At this level children may identify any shape that has a prominent
331
Figure 1 The van Hiele theory of geometric thought, modified to include the pre-recognition level.
Analysis of
deductive
Deductive systems
systems of
Relationships properties
among
4. Rigor
Properties of properties
shapes 3. Deduction
Classes of
shapes
2. Informal
Deduction
Shapes 1. Analysis
Visual or 0. Visualization
tactile objects
Pre-Recognition
“point” as a triangle and any four-sided shape with long parallel sides as a rectangle (Clem-
ents & Sarama, 2000a).
The products of thought at the pre-recognition level are shapes and what they “look like.”
Level 0: Visualization
The objects of thought at level 0 are shapes and what they “look like.”
Children at level 0 recognize and name figures based on the global, visual characteristics
of the figure—a gestalt-like approach to shape. For example, a square is defined by a child
at this level as a square “because it looks like a square.” Because appearance is dominant at
this level, appearances can overpower properties of a shape. For example, a rotated square
whose sides are all at a 45-degree angle to the vertical may now be called a diamond and no
longer a square according to children at this level. Children at level 0 will sort and classify
shapes based on their appearances—“I put these together because they are all pointy” (or
“fat,” or “look like a house,” or “are dented in,” and so on). With a focus on the appearances
of shapes, children are able to see how shapes are alike and different. As a result, children at
this level can create and begin to understand classifications of shapes.
The products of thought at level 0 are classes or groupings of shapes that seem to be “alike.”
Level 1: Analysis (also known as Description)

The objects of thought at level 1 are classes of shapes rather than individual shapes.
Children at the analysis or description level see shapes as a collection of properties. Con-
sequently, in describing a shape, level 1 thinkers are likely to list as many properties of
a shape as they know. They do not see relationships between these properties and so
cannot determine which properties are sufficient in describing a shape. They are able to
consider all shapes within a class rather than just the single shape on their desk. Instead
of talking about this rectangle, they can talk about all rectangles. By focusing on a class
of shapes, children are able to think about what makes a rectangle a rectangle (four sides,
opposite sides parallel, opposite sides of the same length, four right angles, congruent di-
agonals, etc.). The irrelevant features (e.g., size or orientation) fade into the background
332
and children begin to appreciate that a collection of shapes goes together because of
properties. If a shape belongs to a particular class such as cubes, it has the correspond-
ing properties of that class. “All cubes have six congruent faces, and each of those faces
is a square.” These properties are only implicit at level 0. Children operating at level 1
may be able to list all the properties of squares, rectangles, and parallelograms but not
see that these are subclasses of one another, that is, that all squares are rectangles and all
rectangles are parallelograms.
The products of thought at level 1 are the properties of shapes.
Level 2: Informal Deduction

The objects of thought at level 2 are the properties of shapes.
Children at the informal deduction level are able to develop relationships between proper-
ties and between shapes. “If all four angles are right angles, the shape must be a rectangle. If
it is a square, all angles are right angles. If it is a square, it must be a rectangle.” With greater
ability to engage in “if–then” reasoning, children can classify shapes using only a minimum
set of defining characteristics. For example, four congruent sides and at least one right angle
are sufficient to define a square. Rectangles are parallelograms with a right angle. Obser-
vations go beyond properties themselves and begin to focus on logical arguments about
the properties. Children at level 2 will be able to follow and appreciate informal deductive
arguments about shapes and their properties. “Proofs” may be more intuitive than rigor-
ously deductive; however, there is an appreciation that a logical argument is compelling.
An appreciation of the axiomatic structure (an agreed-on set of rules) of a formal deductive
system, however, remains under the surface.
The products of thought at level 2 are relationships among properties of geometric objects.
Level 3: Deduction
The objects of thought at level 3 are relationships among properties of geometric objects.
At level 3, students move from thinking about properties to reasoning and generating
proofs that are based on the properties. As this analysis of the informal arguments takes
place, the structure of the system, complete with axioms, definitions, theorems, corollaries,
and postulates, begins to develop and can be appreciated as the necessary means of estab-
lishing geometric truth. The student at this level is able to work with abstract statements
about geometric properties and make conclusions based more on logic than intuition. A
student operating at level 3 is not only aware that the diagonals of a rectangle bisect each
other (level 2) but also has an appreciation of the need to prove this from a series of deduc-
tive arguments.
The type of reasoning that characterizes a level 3 thinker is the same reasoning required
in high school geometry, where students build on a list of axioms and definitions to create
theorems. In a very global sense, high school geometry students are working to create a
complete geometric deductive system.
The products of thought at level 3 are deductive axiomatic systems for geometry.
Level 4: Rigor
The objects of thought at level 4 are deductive axiomatic systems for geometry.
At the highest level of the van Hiele hierarchy, the objects of thought are axiomatic systems
themselves, not just the deductions within a system. There is an appreciation of the distinctions
333
and relationships between different axiomatic systems. For example, spherical geometry is based
on lines drawn on a sphere rather than in a plane. This geometry has its own set of axioms and
theorems and is generally found at the level of college geometry courses.
We have given brief descriptions of all six levels to illustrate the scope of the van Hiele
theory. Most children at the pre-K–2 grades will be at the pre-recognition level or level 0
(visualization) with some children moving to level 1 (analysis). Consequently, a significant
number of the activities in this chapter address the first two levels.
Characteristics of the van Hiele Levels

Five related characteristics of the van Hiele levels merit special attention.
• The products of thought at each level are the same as the objects of thought at the next
level, as illustrated in Figure 1. The objects (ideas) must be created at one level so that
relationships between these objects of thought can become the focus of the next level.
• The levels are not age dependent. A third grader or a high school student could be at level 1.
• The levels are sequential. To arrive at any level above the pre-recognition level, children
must move through all prior levels. To move through a level means that children have
experienced geometric thinking appropriate for that level and have created in their own
minds the types of objects or relationships that are the focus of thought at the next level.
• Advancement through the levels requires geometric experiences. Children should explore,
talk about, and interact with content at the next level while increasing their experiences
at their current level.
• When instruction or language is at a level higher than that of the children, children will
be unable to understand the concept being developed. They may memorize a fact (e.g.,
all squares are rectangles) but not construct the actual relationship between the proper-
ties involved.
Implications for Instruction

If students are to be prepared for the deductive geometry of high school and beyond, reach-
ing van Hiele level 2 by the end of the eighth grade is critical. All teachers should be aware
that the experiences they provide are the single most important factor in moving children
up this developmental ladder.
The van Hiele theory and the developmental perspective of this text highlight the neces-
sity of teaching at the child’s level of thought. However, almost any activity can be modified to
span two levels of thinking. For many activities, you will need to adapt the activity to the level
of individual children so you can challenge them to operate at the next higher level.
As you choose activities for your children, keep in mind four features of effective geom-
etry instruction for young children (Clements & Sarama, 2009):
• Show and compare diverse examples and nonexamples. Show examples and nonexamples
that look alike to help children attend to a shape’s relevant attributes.
• Facilitate discussions about shapes and their attributes. When you encourage children to describe
shapes, expect them to initially use visual descriptions (e.g., long, pointy, etc.) but try to focus
their attention on the relevant attributes (e.g., number of sides, sides of equal length).
• Examine a wider variety of shape classes. Children in early childhood classrooms should
experiment with and describe shapes beyond the typical circle, square, triangle, and
rectangle. Their experiences should extend to semicircles, trapezoids, pentagons, hexa-
gons, cubes, prisms, cones, and cylinders as well as different kinds of triangles and
quadrilaterals.
334
• Challenge children with a wide range of geometric tasks. The use of physical materials, draw-
ings, and computer models at every level of geometric thought is a must. Activities
should also require and support children’s reflection about the ideas they are learning.
From Pre-Recognition to Level 0 (Visualization)

Children transitioning from the pre-recognition level to level 0 can be supported as follows:
• Provide opportunities for children to identify shapes in their classroom, school, and
community.
• Involve children in lots of experiences sorting shapes and describing why they believe
a particular shape belongs to a group as well as why a particular shape does not belong.
Include a sufficient variety of examples of shapes so that irrelevant features (e.g., orien-
tation, size, color) do not become important.
• Provide lots of experiences for children to copy and build shapes using a wide variety
of materials. These activities should help children focus on the relevant and irrelevant
attributes of shapes.
From Level 0 (Visualization) to Level 1 (Analysis)

Children moving from level 0 to level 1 can be supported as follows:
• Challenge children to test ideas about shapes using a variety of examples from a par-
ticular category. Say to them, “Let’s see if that is true for other rectangles,” or “Can
you draw a triangle that does not have a right angle?” In general, encourage children
to see whether observations made about a particular shape apply to other shapes of a
similar kind.
• Provide ample opportunities for children to draw, build, make, put together (compose),
and take apart (decompose) shapes in both two and three dimensions. These activities
should be built around understanding and using specific characteristics or properties.
• Emphasize the properties of figures rather than simple identification. As new geometric
concepts are learned, the number of properties that figures have can be expanded.
• Apply ideas to entire classes of figures (e.g., all rectangles, all prisms) rather than to in-
dividual models. For example, find ways to sort all possible triangles into groups. From
these groups, define types of triangles.
Task Selection and Levels of Thought

No simple assessment exists to identify the exact level at which a child is functioning. How-
ever, using the descriptors at the levels of thinking can be helpful. As children are engaged
in an activity or a diagnostic interview, listen to children discuss their thinking. Can they
identify common shapes? Do they understand that shapes do not change when the orienta-
tion or size changes? Do they use properties in their descriptions and discussions of shapes?
Can they talk about shapes as classes? Do they, for example, refer to “rectangles” or do they
base their discussion around a particular rectangle? With careful observations such as these,
you will soon be able to distinguish among children at the first three levels.
The remainder of this chapter offers a sample of activities organized around the four
content goals of the NCTM Principles and Standards for School Mathematics: Shapes and
Properties, Transformations, Location, and Visualization. Within each of these sections,
activities are further sorted according to the most appropriate van Hiele levels for grades
pre-K–2. Understand that all of these subdivisions are quite fluid. An activity found at one
level of thinking can easily be adapted to an adjacent level simply by the way it is presented
to children.
335
Learning about Shapes and Properties

Although the van Hiele theory applies to all students of all ages learning any geometric con-
tent, it may be easier to apply the theory to the shapes and properties category. In this con-
tent area, children are finding out what makes shapes alike and different, and in the process
they will begin to discover properties of the shapes, including the conventional names for
these properties. With sufficient experiences, children can begin to develop classifications of
special shapes (e.g., triangles, quadrilaterals) and learn that some properties apply to entire
classes of shapes. As children explore their geometric world, they should have experiences
with a rich variety of both two- and three-dimensional shapes.
Shapes and Properties Activities

for Pre-Recognition Thinkers
The following activity can be modified to accommodate children at the pre-recognition
level, level 0, and level 1 by altering the object of the search. Here we focus on children at
the pre-recognition level.
Activity 1 SHAPE SHOW AND HUNT

nguag
-La
Show a couple of examples of the target shape and name the shape. Explicitly
nglish
e Lerane
rE
point out the relevant attributes on the target shape (e.g., straight or curved
fo rs
sides, number of sides, right angles, and so on). Make sure children, especially
ELLs, understand the terms you use such as square corners and right turns. You
can compare a square corner or right angle to a capital “L” or the corner of a sheet of
paper or an index card. Use masking tape to create a large target shape on the commu-
nity rug so that children can walk around the shape. You can also have the children draw
the shape in the air. Now the task is for children to find one or two items in the class-
room, on the playground, in the library, or somewhere else at school that have this same
shape or attribute. If searching outside the classroom, you may want to take pictures of
the examples children find so that you can show the examples later. As children find their
examples, ask them how they know it is the target shape. Listen for how they describe
their example. What are they focusing on? What words are they using? For children with
disabilities, provide a cutout of the target shape that children can take with them as they
search for an example.
Have children search not just for triangles, circles, squares, and rectangles but also for
properties of shapes. A shape hunt will be much more successful if you let children look
for either one thing or for a specific list. Some examples children can search for are the
following:
• Right angles (“square corners”)
• Curved surfaces or curved lines
• Two or more shapes that can be put together to make another shape
• Circles inside each other (concentric)
• Shapes with “dents” (concave) or without “dents” (convex)
• Solids that are like a box (prism), a cylinder, a pyramid, a cone
• Five shapes that are alike in some way
336
Activity 2 MATCH IT–NAME IT
Create a variety of familiar shapes from the assorted two-dimensional shapes in the
BLM
Blackline Masters (20–26) using card stock in two colors. Create multiples of the same
shapes. Give each child a shape from the set. Select a shape that matches one of the
children’s shapes but in a different color. Ask the children to stand up if they think they
Standards for
have a shape that matches your shape. Have children (either those standing or others) Mathematical Practice
explain how they know the shapes match and to name the shape. Then have children try
7 Look for and
to find matches for their shapes with children sitting near them. Have children share their ◀
matches and encourage them to try to name the shapes.
The next activity introduces children to three-dimensional shapes and is adapted from
Clements and Sarama (2000b).
Activity 3 GETTING INTO SHAPE
After identifying and talking about the relevant attributes of a three-dimensional shape,
have the children pretend they are inside of it. For example, after showing the children
an oatmeal box (cylinder), tell them to pretend they are inside of it. Tell them to close
their eyes and touch the walls of the cylinder. Ask them to describe the walls. Then have
them pretend to trace the top of the cylinder and then the bottom of the cylinder with
their finger. Ask, “What is the shape you traced?” The activity can be repeated with other
shapes, such as a prism, where they are feeling and trying to identify each face. Try to
find large boxes or tubes for your children to get in so they can actually feel the inside
and outside of the shapes.
Source: D. H. Clements and J. Samara, Young Mathematicians at Work: Constructing Algebra. Reprinted
with permission. Copyright 2010 by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. All rights reserved.
Children at the pre-recognition level tend to ignore some of the attributes of shapes.
The next two activities help to draw their attention to shapes’ attributes as children consider
examples and nonexamples of shapes.
Activity 4 IS IT OR ISN’ T IT?
Show children an example of a two-dimensional shape that you’ve drawn on the board.
Ask them for the name of the shape and ask them to tell why it is that shape. Draw an-
other shape that is somehow different from the first shape—it could be another example
of the shape or a nonexample that looks like the target shape and that children could
mistake for the shape. For example, if the target shape is a triangle, display triangles that
are “skinny” or oriented with the vertex pointing down. Or display a three-sided shape
whose sides are not straight. You can also provide counterexamples such as a “triangle”
musical instrument that has an open side. Have children identify and discuss the differ-
ences. Summarize by highlighting the relevant features of the target shape.
Clements and Sarama (2009) recommend pairing examples and nonexamples that look
alike so as to focus attention on a shape’s critical attributes. The next activity provides this
kind of experience.
337
Activity 5 TRICKY SHAPES

Standards for
Mathematical Practice Provide pairs of children with a worksheet that has several examples and nonexamples of
a target shape (see Figure 2). They are to identify the examples and explain why they are
6 Attend to ◀ that shape. They are also to describe why the nonexamples are not the shape. Facilitate
precision
a discussion with the whole class. Summarize by reviewing the relevant features of the
target shape.
Figure 2
“Tricky Shapes” The following activity requires children to think about the attributes of target shapes so
uses examples and that they can then build them.
nonexamples that look
alike to help children
attend to critical
attributes.
Activity 6 BUILD IT
Provide children with drawings of four or five varied ex-

amples of a target shape and plastic (flat) coffee stirrers
cut to various lengths or a manipulative such as D-Stix.
(D-Stix kits contain six to nine sticks of different lengths
that can be used to make two- and three-dimensional
shapes.) Children make the shapes by placing the stirrers
on the drawings with the stirrers “connected” or touch-
ing at their endpoints. Have children name the shape and
talk about the attributes. Challenge children to create
examples of a target shape without having access to a
drawing as a model.
Clements and Sarama (2000a) describe how a kinder-

garten teacher challenged her children to create shapes with
their bodies. Two children in the class created a rhombus by
sitting on the floor facing each other with their legs spread
and feet together. One child in the classroom suggested that
if another child lay across their feet, they would have two
triangles. See how creative your children can be!
Shapes and Properties Activities

for Level 0 (Visualization)
Thinkers
The emphasis at level 0 is on the shapes that children can
observe, feel, build, take apart, and perceive in many ways.
The general goal is to explore how shapes are alike and dif-
ferent and use these ideas to create classes of shapes (both
physically and mentally). Some of these classes of shapes
have names—rectangles, triangles, prisms, cylinders, and so
on. Properties of shapes, such as parallel sides, symmetry,
right angles, and so on, are included at this level but only
in an informal, observational manner. Children need expe-
Along the way, the names of any new shapes and their prop-
rience with a wide variety of two- and three-dimensional
erties can be introduced and placed on the math word wall.
shapes. The triangles you use should be more than just
338
equilateral and not always shown with the vertex at the top. Shapes should have curved
sides, straight sides, and combinations of these.
Sorting and Classifying

As young children work at classification of shapes, be prepared for them to notice features
that you do not consider to be “real” geometric attributes, such as “skinny” or “looks like a
rocket.” Children at this level will also attach to shapes ideas that are not part of the shape,
such as “points up” or “has a side that is the same as the edge of the board.”
For variety in two-dimensional shapes, create your own materials using something like BLM
the 2-D Shapes in the Blackline Masters (20–26). Make multiple copies so that groups of
children can all work with the same shapes. Once you have your sets constructed, the fol-
lowing activity provides several ideas.
Activity 7 SHAPE SORTS

Figure 3
A collection of shapes for
sorting. See Blackline Masters
Have children work in groups of four on the following related activities using
20–26 for these shapes and
a set of two-dimensional shapes like those in Figure 3. Do the activities in the
others.
order shown.
• Each child randomly selects a shape. In turn, the children tell one or two
things they find interesting about their shape.
• Children each randomly select two shapes and try to find something that is
alike about their two shapes and something that is different.
• The group selects one target shape at random and places it in the center of
the workspace. Their task is to find all other shapes that are like the target
shape according to the same rule. For example, if they say, “This shape is like
the target shape because it has a curved side and a straight side,” then all
other shapes that they put in the collection must have these properties. Do a
second sort with the same target shape but use a different property.
• Do a “secret sort.” You (or one of the children) create a small collection of
about five shapes that fit a secret rule. Leave other shapes that belong in
your set in the pile. Children try to find additional pieces that belong to the
set and/or guess the secret rule.
Figure 4 illustrates a few of the many possible ways a set might be sorted.
Most of these activities can and should be done with three-dimensional shapes as
well.
These activities can elicit a wide variety of ideas as children examine the shapes.
They may start describing the shapes with ideas such as “curvy” or “looks like a
tree” rather than typical geometric properties. But as children notice more sophis-
ticated properties you can attach appropriate names to them. For example, some
children may notice that some shapes have corners “like a
square” (explain that those are also called right angles) or
that “these shapes are the same on both sides” (symmetrical).
In any sorting activity, the children—not the teacher—
What makes Activity 7 a level 0 activity is that chil-
should decide how to sort. This allows the children to do the
dren are operating on the shapes that they see in front of
activity using ideas they own and understand. By listening to
them and are beginning to see similarities and differences
the kinds of attributes that they use in their sorting, you will
in shapes. By forming groups of shapes, they begin to imag-
be able to tell which properties they know and use and how
ine shapes that are not in the collection that belong to the
they think about shapes.
classes or groups they identify.
339
Figure 4 The secret sorting in Activity 7 is one option for introducing a

new property. For example, sort the shapes so that all have at least
By sorting shapes, children begin to recognize
properties. one right angle or “square corner.” When children discover your
rule, you have an opportunity to talk more about that property and
name the property “right angle.”
The following activity is also done with the two-dimensional
shapes.
Shapes with curved edges Activity 8 WHAT’S MY SHAPE?
From the Blackline Masters 20–26, make a double set

of two-dimensional assorted shapes on card stock. Cut
out one set of shapes and glue each shape inside
BLM a folded half-sheet of construction paper to make
“secret-shape” folders. You can also cut file folders
Opposite sides “go the same way”—parallelograms
to create mini folders for the secret shapes.
In a group, one child is designated the leader and given a
secret-shape folder. The other children are to find the shape that
matches the shape in the folder by asking only “yes” or “no”
questions. The group can eliminate shapes as they get answers
that help narrow down the possibilities. They are not allowed
to point to a piece and ask, “Is it this one?” Rather, they must
Three sides—triangles continue to ask questions about properties or characteristics
that reduce the choices to one shape. The final piece is checked
against the one in the leader’s folder. You may need to provide
a list of properties and characteristics (e.g., number of sides) to
support children with disabilities in their question asking.
Shapes with a “square corner”—right angle

The difficulty of Activity 8 largely depends on the shape in the
folder. The more shapes in the collection that share properties with
the secret shape, the more difficult the task.
This activity can be adapted for three-dimensional shapes
by using two sets of three-dimensional models. The leader can
place the secret shape under a cloth or in a shoe box. Power Sol-
These all “dent in”—concave ids, Polydrons, and other collections of three-dimensional shapes
are available through various catalogs. Another option is to col-
lect real objects such as cans, boxes, balls, and Styrofoam shapes.
Figure 5 illustrates some classifications of solids.

Using three-dimensional shapes, adapt Activity 7 “Shape Sorts” for a diagnostic interview. Make sure you
have a collection of solids that offers sufficient variability (curved surfaces, etc.).
The ways children describe these three-dimensional shapes provides good evidence of their level of
thinking. The classifications made by level 0 thinkers are generally restricted to the shapes they have in
front of them. Level 1 thinkers will begin to create categories based on properties, and their language will
indicate that they know there are many more shapes in the group than those that are physically present.
Children may say things such as, “These shapes have square corners sort of like rectangles,” or “These look
like boxes. All the boxes have square (rectangular) sides.”
340
Figure 5 Early classifications of three-dimensional shapes.
All of the faces are rectangles.

Each has 6 faces, 8 corners,
These will all roll.
and 12 edges.
These all have a triangle. These all have a “point.”
The next activity helps draw children’s attention away from appearance to relevant
attributes.
Activity 9 FEELING IT
You will need two sets of shapes, one that you will display and one that you will use
to select a secret shape from. On one day, focus on two-dimensional shapes. On an-
other day, use three-dimensional shapes. Give children time to explore the displayed
shapes, asking them to run their fingers along the sides and around the corners (for
two-dimensional shapes). Secretly select one of the shapes from your set and place
it in a box or a bag. Use a box with holes cut into the sides or a bag that has elastic
around the top—or you could use a long sock. The idea is for children to be able to
get their hands into the box, bag, or sock without being able to peek! Have the chil-
dren feel the secret shape and try to guess what shape it is. You can have one child
feel the shape and describe it to others so that they can decide which of the displayed
shapes it matches.
Composing and Decomposing Shapes

Children need to freely explore how shapes fit together to
form larger shapes (compose) and how larger shapes can be
made of smaller shapes (decompose). Among two-dimensional
Many pattern block designs and artwork created by children
shapes for these activities, pattern blocks and tangrams are
will have an element of symmetry in them. Although symme-
the best known. Use pattern blocks or shapes cut from card
try is not a core idea in the Common Core State Standards
stock to create designs for children to copy (see Figure 6). To
for grades K–2, you can use children’s creations to introduce
increase the level of difficulty, only provide the outside out-
this idea informally.
line of the design. Children can then create their own designs
using these materials.
Figure 7 shows tangram puzzles in increasing order of difficulty. A pattern for tangrams
BLM
can be found in Blackline Master 27.
341
Figure 6 Assorted materials for composing and decomposing activities.
Cut squares or rectangles made from card stock into smaller pieces.
Children can use these to recompose the squares or rectangles.
Children can use pattern blocks to compose and decompose different shapes.
Figure 7 Four types of tangram puzzles illustrate a range of difficulty levels.
Easy
Medium
Use Fit all seven

tangram pieces
in this shape.
Full-sized
outlines
To make
Full-sized
outlines
Fit in the
tangram pieces.
Hardest
Outlines are
Each of these to scale but
shapes can be made much smaller.
Dog using all seven pieces.
342
“Patch Tool” at NCTM’s Illuminations site provides a computerized environment where children can
compose shapes using different pattern blocks (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=27).
It also provides five outlines of different designs where children have to decide which shapes are used
to complete the designs. The National Library of Virtual Manipulatives has a tangram applet with a set
of fourteen puzzle figures that can be made using all seven of the pieces (http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav
/category_g_1_t_3.html). The e-version of tangrams has the advantage of motivation and the fact that you
must be much more deliberate in arranging the shapes.
The geoboard is one of the best devices for creating Figure 8 Shapes on geoboards BLM
two-dimensional shapes. Here are just two of many pos- (see Blackline Masters 28–29).
sible activities appropriate for level 0.
Activity 10 GEOBOARD COPY
Using their own geoboards, children

BLM copy shapes, designs, and patterns
from prepared cards (use Blackline Mas-
Have children copy
ters 28–29 to create cards) or from a shapes from pattern
geoboard projected by the teacher. Begin with designs cards onto a geoboard.
using one band; then create more complex designs (see
Figure 8).
Activity 11 CUT IT UP/BUILD IT UP
Children copy a shape from a card onto their geo-

boards and then subdivide or cut the shape into
Have lots of geoboards available in the classroom. It is
smaller shapes. Specify the number of smaller shapes.
better for two or three children to have 10 or 12 boards
Also specify whether the shapes should all be the
at a station than for each to have only one. That way, a
same size or simply of the same type as shown in Fig-
variety of shapes can be made and compared before they
ure 9. Alternatively, children can start with a smaller
are changed.
shape and duplicate the shape to create a larger
shape.
Teach children from the very beginning to copy their geoboard designs on geoboard
paper (use Blackline Masters 28–29). To help children transfer their designs to paper, sug- BLM
gest that they first mark the dots on the paper for the corners of their shape by identifying
the location of the pegs (e.g., “second row, first peg”). With the corners identified, it is much
343
Figure 9
Decomposing and composing shapes (see Blackline Masters 28–29). BLM
Three triangles that are Four triangles What is the fewest Fill with three
all the same number of triangles rectangles that are
that will fit this? all the same
One version is to use multiple shapes to create
a larger shape. Alternatively, start with a shape
and cut into smaller shapes.
easier for them to draw lines between corners to make the shapes. These drawings can be
placed in groups for classification and discussion, made into booklets illustrating a new idea
that is being discussed, or sent home to families.
The NCTM e-Standards provides electronic geoboard activities entitled “Investigating the Concept of a
Triangle and Properties of Polygons” (www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?menu_id=1155&id=26867).
Children can select and delete bands and select and delete vertices as they create triangles and other
polygons. The geoboard applet from the National Library of Virtual Manipulatives (http://nlvm.usu.edu
/en/nav/category_g_1_t_3.html) is essentially the same kind of set up with some additional features.
The following activity provides children more opportunities to decompose two-

dimensional shapes.
Activity 12 TWO SHAPES FROM ONE
Provide children with a variety of cut-out shapes or outlines of shapes on a recording

sheet. Their task is to connect any two sides of the shape with a straight line, forming two
new shapes (see Figure 10). Challenge them to classify each new shape using properties.
“Shape Tools” at NCTM’s Illuminations site allows children to decompose pattern blocks and then compose
them into different shapes (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=35). Children can use
“Shape Cutter” at the same site to create and decompose a wide variety of shapes and then compose
them into new shapes (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=72).
344
Building Shapes
Standards for
Building activities at level 0 help children pay attention to the properties of shapes. For Mathematical Practice
building two-dimensional models, use an activity like Activity 6, “Build It,” but do not pro-
vide drawings as models for children. Challenge them to create two or more examples of a 3 Construct
viable arguments
target shape and explain why they are that shape. See whether others in the class agree with ◀
and critique the
their explanations. reasoning of others
Building three-dimensional shapes is a little more difficult
than building two-dimensional shapes. A variety of commercial
materials permit fairly creative construction of geometric sol- Figure 10 Start with a shape and then draw a
ids (e.g., Polydron and the Zome System). The following are segment to divide the shape into two new shapes.
three approaches to making handmade models.
• Plastic coffee stirrers with modeling clay or pipe cleaners. Plastic
stirrers can be cut into different lengths and used to build
the edges of the three-dimensional shape. To connect cor-
ners, use small balls of clay or insert pipe cleaners cut into Begin with: 3 sides Begin with: 4 sides
2-inch lengths into the ends of the stirrers. Two new shapes: 7 sides Two new shapes: 7 sides
• Plastic drinking straws with flexible joints. Cut the straws

lengthwise from the top down to the flexible joint. These
slit ends can then be inserted into the uncut bottom ends
of other straws, making a strong but flexible joint. Three
or more straws are joined in this fashion to form two-
Begin with: 6 sides Begin with: 5 sides
dimensional polygons. To make skeletal solids, use tape or Two new shapes: 8 sides Two new shapes: 8 sides
twist ties to join polygons side to side.
• Rolled newspaper rods. Fantastic superlarge skeletons can be
built using newspaper and masking tape or duct tape (see
Figure 11).
Begin with: 5 sides
With these homemade models, children should compare Two new shapes: 9 sides
the rigidity of a triangle with the lack of rigidity of polygons
with more than three sides. Point out that triangles are used in
Figure 11
Large skeletal structures and special shapes can be built with tightly rolled newspaper.
Roll three full sheets of newspaper very

tightly on the diagonal. Secure with tape.
Tight rolls make stronger sticks.
Use masking tape

at corners.
345
many bridges, in the long booms of construction cranes, in gates, and in the structural parts
of buildings. Discuss why this may be so.
Shapes and Properties Activities for Level 1

(Analysis/Description) Thinkers
As children move to level 1 thinking, their attention turns more to properties of shapes.
They do not see relationships between shapes and between properties, so that is an empha-
sis for instruction at this level. Level 1 thinkers will continue to use models and drawings
of shapes. Their understanding of the properties of shapes—such as relationships of side
lengths, size of angles, symmetry, parallel sides, and so on—continues to be refined.
The definitions of two- and three-dimensional shapes support the exploration of the
relationships between shapes. Table 1 lists some important categories of two-dimensional
shapes. Examples of these shapes can be found in Figure 12.
Table 1 Categories of Two-Dimensional Shapes
Shape Description
Simple Closed Curves
Concave, convex An intuitive definition of concave might be “having a dent in it.”

If a simple closed curve is not concave, it is convex.
Symmetrical, nonsymmetrical Shapes may have one or more lines of symmetry and may or
may not have rotational symmetry. These concepts will require
more detailed investigation.
Polygons Simple closed curves with all straight sides.

Concave, convex
Symmetrical, nonsymmetrical
Regular All sides and all angles are congruent.
Triangles
Triangles Polygons with exactly three sides.
Classified by sides
Equilateral All sides are congruent.
Isosceles At least two sides are congruent.
Scalene No two sides are congruent.
Classified by angles
Right Has a right angle.
Acute All angles are smaller than a right angle.
Obtuse One angle is larger than a right angle.
Convex Quadrilaterals
Convex quadrilaterals Convex polygons with exactly four sides.

Kite Two opposing pairs of congruent adjacent sides.
Trapezoid At least one pair of parallel sides.
Isosceles trapezoid A pair of opposite sides is congruent.
Parallelogram Two pairs of parallel sides.
Rectangle Parallelogram with a right angle.
Rhombus Parallelogram with all sides congruent.
Square Parallelogram with a right angle and all sides congruent.
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Figure 12 Classification of two-dimensional shapes.
Simple Closed Curves
Concave Convex Polygons Simple closed curves
Triangles
Equilateral Isosceles Scalene
Acute Right Obtuse
Convex Quadrilaterals
Kite
Isosceles
No sides parallel Trapezoids Parallelograms
Rhombuses Rectangles Squares
Convex quadrilaterals There are many ways to sort

Trapezoids polygons. Many with three and
Parallelograms four sides have special names.
Rhombuses Squares Rectangles Level 1 thinking does

not recognize these
subrelationships.
In the classification of quadrilaterals and parallelograms, some subsets overlap. For

example, a square is a rectangle and a rhombus. All parallelograms are trapezoids, but not
all trapezoids are parallelograms.* Children at level 1 commonly have difficulty seeing
*Some definitions of trapezoid specify only one pair of parallel sides, in which case parallelograms
would not be trapezoids. The University of Chicago School Mathematics Project (UCSMP) uses
the “at least one pair” definition, meaning that parallelograms and rectangles are trapezoids.
347
this type of subrelationship. They may quite correctly list all the properties of a square, a
rhombus, and a rectangle and still might identify a square as a “nonrhombus” or a “non-
rectangle.” You can suggest to children to consider how one of their classmates can belong
to more than one club or team. A square is an example of a quadrilateral that belongs to
two other clubs.
Important and interesting shapes and relationships also exist in three dimensions. Table 2
describes classifications of solids. Figure 13 shows examples of cylinders and prisms. Note
that prisms are defined here as a special category of cylinder—a cylinder with a polygon for
a base (Zwillinger, 2011). Figure 14 shows a comparable grouping of cones and pyramids.
Table 2 Categories of Three-Dimensional Shapes
Shape Description
Sorted by Edges and Vertices
Sphere and “egglike” shapes Shapes with no edges and no vertices (corners).
Shapes with edges but no vertices (e.g., a flying saucer).
Shapes with vertices but no edges (e.g., a football).
Sorted by Faces and Surfaces
Polyhedron Shapes made of all faces (a face is a flat surface of a solid). If all surfaces are faces, all the edges will
be straight lines.
Some combination of faces and rounded surfaces (cylinders are examples, but this is not a definition
of a cylinder).
Shapes with curved surfaces.
Shapes with and without edges and with and without vertices.
Faces can be parallel. Parallel faces lie in places that never intersect.
Cylinders
Cylinder Two congruent, parallel faces called bases. Lines joining corresponding points on the two bases are
always parallel. These parallel lines are called elements of the cylinder.
Right cylinder A cylinder with elements perpendicular to the bases. A cylinder that is not a right cylinder is an oblique
cylinder.
Prism A cylinder with polygons for bases. All prisms are special cases of cylinders (Zwillinger, 2011).
Rectangular prism A cylinder with rectangles for bases.
Cube A square prism with square sides.
Cones
Cone A solid with exactly one face and a vertex that is not on the face. Straight lines (elements) can be
drawn from any point on the edge of the base to the vertex. The base may be any shape at all. The
vertex need not be directly over the base.
Circular cone Cone with a circular base.
Pyramid Cone with a polygon for a base. All faces joining the vertex are triangles. Pyramids are named by the
shape of the base: triangular pyramid, square pyramid, octagonal pyramid, and so on. All pyramids are
special cases of cones (Zwillinger, 2011).
348
Figure 13 Cylinders and prisms.
Cylinders Not Cylinders
Special Cylinders
Prisms Right prisms Right cylinders (not prisms)
Cylinders have two parallel faces, and parallel lines join corresponding points on these faces.
If the parallel faces are polygons, the cylinder can be called a prism.
Figure 14 Cones and pyramids.
Cones
Special cones—pyramids
Not cones
Cones—not pyramids
Cones and cones with a polygon base (pyramids) all have straight-line
elements joining every point of the base with the vertex. (Yes, a
pyramid is just a special type of cone.)
Many textbooks limit the definition of cylinders to circular cylinders. These books do
not have special names for other cylinders. Under that definition, the prism is not a special
case of a cylinder. This points to the fact that definitions are conventions, and not all con-
ventions are universally agreed upon.
349
At NCTM’s Illuminations Activity called “Geometric Solids” (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail

.aspx?ID=70) children can explore a variety of geometric solids by rotating the solids and coloring and
counting faces, edges, and vertices.
Standards for Building Shapes from Properties

Through building or drawing, children can focus on the properties and defining features of
1 Make sense shapes. In the next activity, children are challenged to build two-dimensional shapes accord-
of problems and ◀ ing to given properties.
persevere in
solving them
Activity 13 CAN YOU MAKE IT?
Create a collection of challenges. Each challenge describes one or more properties of a

shape, and the challenge is to create a shape with these properties on a geoboard or
using plastic (flat) coffee stirrers cut to various lengths or a manipulative such as D-Stix.
The list that follows is only a sample. Try combining two or more properties to create new
challenges. Also have children create challenges that can be posted for others to make.
• A shape with only one square corner and four sides

• A shape with two square corners (or three, four, five, or six square corners)
• A shape with two pairs of parallel lines
• A shape with two pairs of parallel lines and no right angles
• A shape with one or two lines of symmetry (if your class has discussed symmetry)
If you keep track of solutions to the challenges in the last activity, there is an added
possibility of creating classes of shapes possessing certain properties that may result in defi-
nitions of new classes of shapes. The activity can also include impossible tasks, such as a
four-sided shape with exactly three right angles. Also, a triangle with three congruent sides
(equilateral) is not possible on a geoboard.
Sorting and Classifying

For children at level 1, classifying and sorting activities should focus more closely on the
properties that make the shape what it is (not just that it looks like the others in the group).
The next activity focuses children’s attention on properties and provides a good way to in-
troduce a category of shapes.
Activity 14 MYSTERY DEFINITION
Use a projector to show a collection of shapes that have one or more properties in
common and another collection of shapes that do not have this commonality, such
as in Figure 15. For your first collection be certain that you have allowed for all possible vari-
Standards for
Mathematical Practice ables. In Figure 15, for example, a square is included in the set of rhombi. Similarly, choose
nonexamples to be as close to the positive examples as is necessary to help with an accurate
1 Make sense definition. The third or mixed set should also include those nonexamples with which chil-
of problems and ◀ dren are most likely to be confused. Children should justify their choices. Note that the use
persevere in
solving them of examples and nonexamples is particularly helpful for children with disabilities.
350
The value of the “Mystery Definition” approach of Figure 15 A mystery definition.

Activity 14 is that children develop ideas and definitions
based on their own concept development. After their All of these have something in common.
definitions have been discussed, compared, and refined
as needed, you can offer the conventional definition for
the sake of clarity.
The next activity introduces children to the idea
that there are different categories of triangles. It is not
None of these has it.
necessary that children in grades pre-K–2 know the dif-
ferent names (e.g., equilateral, isosceles, scalene), only
that some shapes can be further categorized based on
their properties.
Which of these has it?
Activity 15 TRIANGLE SORT

nguag
-La
Children work in groups of three to four. Each
nglish
e Lerane
rE
fo
group will need a set of the Assorted Triangles
rs
(see Blackline Master 37). There are ex-

The name of a property is not necessary for it to be
BLM amples of right, acute, and obtuse tri- understood. It requires more careful observation of properties
angles and equilateral, isosceles, and to discover what shapes have in common.
scalene triangles. Ask the children to sort
the triangles in some way so that no triangle belongs
to two groups. Have them describe and discuss their
groupings. If no group used length of sides to form
their groups, ask them to sort the entire collection by
comparing the length of the sides in each triangle. Figure 16
Again, no triangle should belong to two groups. When Shapes for “Property Lists for Quadrilaterals” BLM
they complete this sort, have them describe and discuss activity (see Blackline Masters 38–41).
their groupings. Provide appropriate terminology as
ideas arise. For example, you can say, “A triangle that
has all equal sides is a special triangle called an equi-
lateral triangle.” Add this new terminology and corre-
sponding illustrations to the math word wall.
In the following activity, children explore the idea that

squares, rectangles, and rhombi have properties in common. Squares Parallelograms
Activity 16 PROPERTY LISTS FOR

QUADRILATERALS
Prepare handouts for parallelograms, rhombi,

-La
nguag
nglish
e Lerane
rectangles, and squares (see Blackline Masters

rE
fo rs
38–41 and Figure 16). Assign groups of Rhombi Rectangles

three or four children to work with one
BLM
type of quadrilateral. The task is for
each group to use the examples on the
handouts to describe the sides and angles (corners) of the shapes. For ELLs, make sure
they understand the meaning of the terms side and angle. Anything that children list
351
has to apply to all of the shapes on their sheet. They will need tools such as index cards
(to check right angles, to compare side lengths) and tracing paper (for identifying angle
congruence). Encourage children to say the words “at least” when describing how many
of something; for example, “rectangles have at least two sides that are equal” because
squares—included in the rectangles—have four. Groups then share their lists with the
class and eventually a class list for each category of shape will be developed.
Standards for This last activity may take two or three days. Share lists beginning with parallelograms,
then rhombi, then rectangles, and finally squares. Have one group present its list. Then oth-
3 Construct ers who worked on the same shape should add to or subtract from it. The class must agree
◀
viable arguments with everything that is put on the list. As new relationships come up in this presentation-and-
and critique the discussion period, you can introduce proper terminology. For example, if an angle is larger
reasoning of others
than a right angle, then it is called obtuse. Other terms such as acute, parallel, and so on can be
clarified as you help children write their descriptions.
Compare the last activity, “Property Lists for Quadrilaterals,” with Activity 7,
“Shape Sorts.” In “Shape Sorts,” the objects of children’s thought are the very shapes
that are in front of them. The results of that activity are collections or classifications
of shapes. For young children, these classifications will be nonstandard groupings that
make sense to the children—fat, tall, pointy, looks like houses, and so on. Soon they
will also construct standard groupings that have standard names—squares, triangles,
rectangles, prisms, and so on—as you supply the appropriate names as the collections
are developed.
In “Property Lists for Quadrilaterals,” the children only see a small collection of shapes at
the top of their paper. However, the object of their thinking is the entire class of shapes for which
these few are representative. In “Property Lists for Quadrilaterals” the object of thinking is the
very type of thing (a class of shapes) that was the product of thinking in “Shape Sorts” at level 0.
Learning about Transformations

Transformations are changes in position or size of a shape. Movements that do not change the
size or shape of the object are called “rigid motions.” Usually, three transformations are dis-
cussed: translations or slides, reflections or flips, and rotations or turns. Symmetry is included
under the study of transformations due to its link to reflections.
Figure 17
Translation (slide), reflection (flip), rotation (turn). Transformation Activities for Pre-
Recognition and Level 0 Thinkers
Transformations at these levels involve an introduction to the
basic concepts of slides, flips, and turns. At the primary level,
the terms slide, flip, and turn are adequate. The goal is to help
children recognize these transformations and to begin to ex-
plore their effects on simple shapes. Use a nonsymmetrical
shape to introduce these ideas (see Figure 17).
When putting together puzzles, children use geo-
metric motions intuitively as they turn, flip, and slide
pieces into place. Have them discuss how they are mov-
ing the pieces to make them fit. Use these experiences to
help young children learn that changing an object’s posi-
tion or orientation does not change the shape.
352
Clements and Sarama (2009) recommend having children use computer programs and
applets to explore slides, flips, and turns of objects because children have to purposefully
select the screen tools to perform the geometric motion, which makes the motions more
explicit to children. Some applets for exploring transformations are listed in the next Tech-
nology Note.
The NCTM’s Illuminations Activities called “Patch Tool” (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail

.aspx?ID=27) and “Shape Tool” (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=35) allow children
to flip and rotate shapes to create various patterns and fill in designs, which informally introduce them to
geometric transformations.
Transformation Activities for Level 1 Thinkers

More Complex Slides, Flips, and Turns
Flags can provide an interesting context for children to think about slides, turns, and flips
because of how flags move in the wind. Read to children a book about different flags or
share pictures of flags used by different countries (e.g., Flags of the World by Selvie Bednar,
2009). Then use the following activity to explore these motions.
Activity 17 MOTION FLAG

nguag
-La
Using the Motion Flag Blackline Masters 42–43, make copies of the first Motion
nglish
e Lerane
rE
Flag and then copy the mirror image on the backs of these copies (see Figure 18).
fo rs
You want the back image to match the front image when held to the light. Cut
off the excess paper to leave a square. Alternatively, you can make the same de-
sign on squares of card stock using a marker. Give all children a two-sided Mo-
BLM tion Flag. It might be helpful, especially for children with disabilities, to give
them two Motion Flags, one to leave at the original position and the other to
manipulate.
Demonstrate each of the possible motions. A slide is simply a slide. The figure does not
rotate or turn over. Demonstrate turns. (With young children, use only clockwise turns for
this activity.) Similarly, demonstrate a horizontal flip (top
goes to bottom) and a vertical flip (left goes to right). For
all children, especially ELLs, it is important that these dem-
onstrations include explicit practice with the terms and that
Figure 18
Motion Flag is used to show slides, flips, BLM
visuals are posted for reference. Practice by having every-
and turns (see Blackline Masters 42–43).
one start with their Motion Flag in the same orientation. As
you announce one of the moves, children slide, flip, or turn
their Motion Flag accordingly.
Then display two Motion Flags side by side in any ori-
entation. The task is to decide what motion or combina-
tion of motions will get the flag on the left to match the
flag on the right. Children use their own flag to work out
a solution. Test the solutions that children offer. If both
flags are in the same position, call that a slide.
353
Once children understand how to use the Motion Flag, they can work in pairs. They
begin with their Motion Flags in the same position. One child then changes his or her
Motion Flag and challenges the other child to say what motion is required to make the
two Motion Flags match. The solution is then tested and the roles reversed.
Stop and Reflect

Begin with the Motion Flag in the left position shown in Figure 18. Now place a second Motion
Flag next to the first. Will it take one move or more than one move (transformation) to get
from the first to the second Motion Flag? Can you describe all of the positions that require
more than one move? Are there any positions that require more than two moves? ■
At first, children will be confused when they can’t get their Motion Flag into the new
position with one move. This causes an excellent problem. Don’t be too quick to sug-
gest that it may take two moves. If flips across each of the two diagonals are added to the
motions along with vertical and horizontal flips, the Motion Flag can assume any new
position in exactly one move.
Line Symmetry
Transformations for level 1 thinkers should involve the initial development of line sym-
metry. If a shape can be folded on a line so that the two halves match exactly, then it is said
to have line symmetry (or mirror symmetry). Notice that the fold line is actually a line
of reflection—the portion of the shape on one side of the line is reflected onto the other
side—demonstrating a connection between line symmetry and transformations (flips).
One way to introduce line symmetry to children is to show examples and nonexamples
using an “all-of-these” or “none-of-these” approach as in Figure 15. As another possibility,
consider the following example that creates a line of symmetry: Fold a sheet of paper in half.
Start somewhere along the fold and cut out a shape of your choosing. Open the paper and
describe what you notice.
A third way to introduce line symmetry is to have children create designs with mirror
images, as in the following activity.
Activity 18 PATTERN BLOCK MIRROR SYMMETRY
Children need a plain sheet of paper with a straight line through the middle. Using no
more than six to eight pattern blocks, they make a design completely on one side of the
line that touches the line in some way. When the one side is finished, children try to make
the mirror image of their design on the other side of the line. After it is built, they use a
mirror (or a Mira, a red plastic image reflector) to check their work. With the mirror sit-
ting perpendicular on the line, they should see exactly the same image as they see when
they lift the mirror.
Children often refer to the ideas of line and rotational symmetry when working with
pattern blocks and other designs. They may observe, “When I turn the (equilateral) triangle
a little, it fits back on top of itself” or “I can fold my butterfly drawing and it matches!” Capi-
talize on these opportunities to discuss the idea of symmetry so your children have a strong
foundation for more formal study that will come later.
354
Learning about Location

In pre-K and kindergarten, children learn about everyday positional descriptions—above,
below, beside, in front of, behind, and next to (CCSSO, 2010). These informal indicators of
location are useful for helping children begin to specify locations. However, helping chil-
dren refine the way they reason and communicate about direction, distance, and location
enhances spatial understandings. Geometry, measurement, and algebra are all supported by
the use of a grid system with numbers or coordinates attached that can specify the location.
Children at the primary level can begin to think in terms of a grid system to identify loca-
tion to help prepare them for more sophisticated ways of reasoning about location.
Location Activities for Pre-Recognition Thinkers

At the pre-recognition level, children are learning to use language to describe an object’s
relative position in space. In learning to describe location, children need opportunities in
which they have to pay attention to the space around them and how it is organized. Using
and building simple maps can help children become more aware of their environment and
how they navigate through it (e.g., Clements & Sarama, 2009). Clements (1999) found that
children develop the ability to navigate by first paying attention to landmarks in their envi-
ronment. In Activity 19, children use a simple map that includes landmarks to locate hidden
objects.
Activity 19 PLAYGROUND SCAVENGERS
Prepare some simple maps of your playground area that identify some big landmarks
and different paths. Give different groups of children different maps. Children will use
their map to move from one location to another to find a hidden treasure. On each map,
highlight the starting point and the ending point and draw a path along the route you
want children to take.
After children have some experience using simple maps, having them create their own
maps will help them notice landmarks and how those landmarks are positioned as they are
challenged to identify a path that connects these landmarks.
Activity 20 MAKING MAPS Standards for

Identify landmarks in your classroom that children can use to design a map showing a path
4 Model with
from one landmark to another. For example, children can create a map between the block ◀
mathematics
area and the sink. Mark the path first with masking tape and have children walk along the
path, drawing their attention to objects they pass along the way. (These are other land-
marks that they can and should include on their maps.) After they create their map, they
can walk along the path again and add additional landmarks to their maps.
The maps young children create can vary greatly due to individual children’s drawing
skills. You do not want children to get bogged down in providing a lot of detail in represent-
ing landmarks. Encourage them to use simple drawings or provide cutout pictures of the
landmarks that they can glue to their maps so they can attend more to the positions of the
landmarks in relation to each other and the path.
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Figure 19 Location Activities for Level 0 Thinkers

The “Hidden Positions”
When children are able to attend to and describe landmarks in the space around them, it is
game. Players must
communicate verbally
time to help them see the value of a way to specify location without pointing. Activity 21 can
the positions of their help children refine their ways of describing location.
blocks on the grid.
Activity 21 HIDDEN POSITIONS
For the game boards, draw an 8-inch square on card

stock. Subdivide the squares into a 3 by 3 grid. Two
children sit with a “screen” separating their desktop space
so that neither child can see the other’s grid (see Figure 19).
Each child has four different pattern blocks. The first player
places a block on four different sections of the grid. He then
tells the other player where to put blocks on her grid to
match his own. When all four pieces are positioned, the two
grids are checked to see if they are alike. Then the players
switch roles. Model the game once by taking the part of the
first child. Use words such as top row, middle row, last row,
above, below, next to, and beside. Children can play in pairs
as a station activity. For children with disabilities, consider starting with just one
shape. Then move on to two shapes and so on. For children ready for a greater
challenge, increase the size of the grid.
Next, children can begin to use simple coordinates to describe positions. By ex-
tending the grid in “Hidden Positions” to a 6 by 6 grid, the need arises for a system to
BLM label positions. Use a simple coordinate grid like the one shown in Figure 20 (see Black-
line Master 44). Explain how to use two numbers to designate an intersection point on
the grid. The first number tells how far to move to the right. The second number tells
how far to move up. Initially use the words along with the numbers: “right 3 and up 0.”
Be sure to include 0 in your introduction. Select a point on the grid and have children decide
Figure 20 what two numbers name that point. If your point is at (2,4) and children incorrectly say “four,
A simple coordinate
two,” then simply indicate where the point is that they named.
grid. The X is at (3,2)
The next activity explores the notion of different paths on a grid.
and the O is at (1,3).
Use the grid to play
“Three in a Row” (like
“Tic-Tac-Toe”). Put
marks on intersections, Activity 22 PATHS
not spaces.
On a sheet of 2-cm grid paper (see Blackline Master 30), mark two dif-
4 BLM ferent points A and B as shown in Figure 21. Using a projector or floor
tiles, demonstrate how to describe a path from A to B. For the points
3 in the figure, one path is “up 5 and right 6.” Another path might be
“right 2, up 2, right 2, up 3, right 2.” Count the length of each path. As long as
2 you always move toward the target point (in this case either right or up), the path
lengths will always be the same. Here they are 11 units long. Children draw three
1 paths on their papers from A to B using different-colored crayons. For each path
they write directions that describe their paths. They should check the lengths of
0 each path. Ask the children, for example, “What is the greatest number of turns
0 1 2 3 4 that you can make in your path? What is the smallest number? Where would A and
Coordinate Grid B have to be in order to get there with no turns?”
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Figure 21
Coloring in different paths
on a grid. What is the
NCTM’s e-Example 4.3 (found at www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?menu_id=1155&id=26868) is fewest number of turns
similar to “Paths” but offers some additional challenges. Children move a ladybug by listing directions needed to get from A to
B? The most?
that will hide the ladybug beneath a leaf. When the directions are complete, the ladybug is set in motion
to follow them. The ladybug can also be directed to draw shapes such as a rectangle or to travel through
B
mazes. Creating directions and predicting their outcome will help children develop ideas about navigation
and location as they hone their visualization skills.
If you add a coordinate system to the grid in “Paths,” children can describe their paths
with coordinates: For example, one of the paths in Figure 21 can be described as follows: A
(1,2) S (3,2) S (3,5) S (7,5) S (7,7)

Once a coordinate system has been introduced, children may want to use it in a simple
game similar to the commercial game called “Battleship.” Each player has a grid similar to
the one in Figure 20. Players secretly put their initials on five intersections of their own grid.
Then, with the grids kept separate as in “Hidden Positions,” the players take turns trying to
“hit” the other player’s targets by naming a point on the grid using coordinates. The other
player indicates if the “shot” was a hit or a miss. When a player scores a hit, he or she gets
another turn. Each player keeps track of where he or she has taken shots, recording an “X”
for a hit and a “0” for a miss. The game ends when one player has hit all of the other player’s
targets.
Learning about Visualization

Visualization could be called “geometry done with the mind’s eye.” It involves being able
to create and move mental images of shapes, thinking about how they look from differ-
ent viewpoints, and predicting the results of various transformations. It involves imagining
the impact of certain actions on two- and three-dimensional shapes, such as what the parts
would look like if you cut a shape in half. Many of the activities described in the previous
sections can be used to develop children’s visualization skills if they are asked to think about,
manipulate, or transform a shape mentally—experimenting in their “mind’s eye” to make
predictions and then checking and reflecting on their predictions.
The following activity is a great example of how you can ask children to use their
“mind’s eye” to predict the outcome of manipulating a shape. It is based on an idea found in
the NCTM’s Principles and Standards for School Mathematics section on geometry in pre-K–2.
Activity 23 NOTCHES AND HOLES
Use a half-sheet of paper that will easily fit on a projector. Fold it in half. Children make a
sketch of the paper when it is opened, showing a line for the fold. With the paper folded,
cut notches in one or two sides and/or cut off one or two corners. You can also use a
paper punch to make a hole or two. While still folded, place the paper on the overhead
showing the notches and holes. The folded edge should be to the left (see Figure 22). The
task is for children to draw the notches and holes that they think will appear when you
open the paper.
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Figure 22 An example for the “Notches and Holes” activity.
Step 1: Step 2:
Fold paper Cut notches
Fold
Step 3: Step 4:
Show on projector Children draw their predictions
Stop and Reflect

Stop now and try the “Notches and Holes” activity yourself. Try cuts in various places on the
folded paper. Can you predict what the unfolded paper will look like? ■
The activity “Notches and Holes” can be modified for use with children who are at any
level of geometric thought. To introduce this activity, begin with only one fold and only one
cut. Adding additional cuts and additional folds increases the challenge. Having to predict
the result helps build visualization skills and is also very motivating!
Visualization Activities for Pre-Recognition Thinkers

Children at the pre-recognition level may notice only a subset of the visual characteristics
of a shape, which results in an inability to distinguish between some shapes. Therefore, vi-
sualization activities for this level will have children trying to attend to the details of images.
The following activity is based on an idea from NCTM’s Principles and Standards for Math-
ematics (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000).
Activity 24 CAN YOU REMEMBER?
Draw some simple sketches of figures that will be easy for children to reproduce.
Some examples are shown in Figure 23. Display one of the sketches for about
5 seconds. Then have children attempt to reproduce it on their own. Show the same
358
figure again for a few seconds and allow children to modify their drawings. Repeat Standards for
with additional figures. Mathematical Practice
Ask children to share how they thought about the figure or to describe in words 7 Look for and
what helped them remember what they saw. As children learn to verbally describe what ◀
they see, their visual memory will improve. Have children with disabilities identify the
displayed figure from a set of figures that look alike.
Figure 23
Visualization skills can also be developed through the map-building activities that are Examples of designs to
used to help children learn about location. Consider the following task that you can pose just use in the “Quick
after your class returns to the classroom from another location in the Images” activity.
building:
Imagine that we are walking back to our classroom from the gym.
What are some of the landmarks that we pass along the way?
After children have had time to visualize the path between the gym
and their classroom, make a list of the landmarks that children thought
of and take it with the class the next time you walk that path.
Visualization Activities for Level 0

Thinkers
Remember children at level 0 (visualization) are thinking about shapes in terms of the way
they look. Visualization activities for this level will have children using a variety of physi-
cal shapes and drawings and will challenge them to think about these shapes in different
orientations.
Finding out how many different shapes can be made with a given number of simple tiles
requires that children mentally flip and turn shapes in their minds and find ways to decide
whether they have found them all. That is the focus of the next activity.
Activity 25 PENTOMINOES
A pentomino is a shape formed by joining five squares as if cut from a square grid. Each Standards for
square must have at least one side in common with another. Provide children with five
square tiles and a sheet of square grid paper for recording. Challenge them to see how 1 Make sense
many different pentomino shapes they can find. Shapes that are flips or turns of other ◀ of problems and
persevere in
shapes are not considered different. Do not tell children how many pentomino shapes
solving them
there are. Good discussions will come from deciding if some shapes are really different
and if all shapes have been found.
Once children have decided that there are just 12 pentominoes (see Figure 24), glue the
grids with the children’s pentominoes onto card stock and let them cut out the 12 shapes.
Following is a variety of additional activities that can be done with pentominoes.
• Try to fit all 12 pieces into an 8 by 8 square.

• Use each of the 12 shapes as a tessellation tile and create a tessellation design.
• Examine each of the 12 pentominoes and decide which ones will fold up to make an
open box. For those that are “box makers,” which square is the bottom?
359
Figure 24 It is also fun to explore the number of shapes that can be made
from six equilateral triangles or from four 45-degree right triangles
There are 12 different pentomino shapes.
(halves of squares) (see Figure 25). With the right triangles, sides that
touch must be the same length. How many of each of these “ominoes”
do you think there are?
Another aspect of visualization for young children is to be able
to think about solid shapes in terms of their faces or sides. For these
activities you will need to make “face cards” by tracing around the
different faces of a three-dimensional shape, making either all faces
on one card or a set of separate cards with one face per card (see
Figure 26).
Activity 26 FACE MATCHING
There are two versions of the task: Given a face card, find the corresponding solid, or
given a solid, find the face card. With a collection of single-face cards, children can select
the cards that go with a particular solid. For another variation, stack all of the single-face
cards for one solid face down. Turn them up one at a time as clues to finding the solid.
Visualization involves creating and manipulating mental images. You can use activities
in the other geometry categories (e.g., shapes and properties, transformation, location) to
help children improve their visualization skills simply by asking them to recall and describe
a hidden shape, describe how a shape would look from a different viewpoint, and predict
what will happen before they manipulate (e.g., decompose, compose, flip, slide, turn) shapes.
Look for those opportunities as you plan lessons and as you interact with your children.
Figure 25 Figure 26
Finding all possible shapes. Matching face cards with solid shapes.
Finding all possible shapes made

with five squares—or six squares
(called “hexominoes”) or six
equilateral triangles and so on—is
a good exercise in spatial problem
solving.
(a) Find a shape with

these faces.
Four of the different shapes that

six equilateral triangles will make.
Four of the different shapes that

four “half-square” triangles will make.
(b) Which cards do you need
for each shape? How many?
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Shape Sorts
Content and Task Decisions • Record a list of the ideas children share to describe
their shapes and draw a sketch next to it as a reminder.
Grade Level: K–2
Mathematics Goals For Children with Disabilities

• To develop an awareness of the wide variety of ways • In the first part of the lesson, as children brainstorm dif-
that two‐dimensional shapes can be alike ferent possible ideas that describe their shapes, record
• To establish classifications of shapes by various proper- some of these on the board so that children can use
ties, including both traditional categorizations and in- these examples later as a guide for their own “target
formal, child‐generated categories shape rule.”
• To introduce the names of common shapes or impor- • Make sure the rule for a given target shape is written
tant properties (when and if the opportunity arises down near the target shape so that children with dis-
within the activity) abilities can refer to it during the session.

Each group of three to five children will need:
NCTM Common
Curriculum Focal Points Core State Standards • Collection of two‐dimensional shapes (Blackline Mas-
ters 20–26 provide a collection of 49 shapes. Duplicate
Kindergartners use ideas Kindergartners identify, de- each set on card stock and cut out the shapes. You may
about shapes to describe scribe, analyze, and compare want to laminate the card stock before you cut out
geometric ideas. shapes. They can use informal the shapes. Only use one color card stock so that the
language to describe the attribute of color does not become a focus for some
In first and second grades
shapes to point out their children.)
children recognize that
common attributes and
shapes have properties that
differences.
help describe how they are BLM
alike and different from other First and second graders Lesson
shapes. use reasoning to distinguish
Before
between defining and non-
defining attributes and they Begin with a simpler version of the task:
can draw shapes that have • Gather children in a circle where all can see and have
specific defining attributes. access to one set of shapes.
• Have each child select a shape. Ask children to think of
Consider Your Children’s Needs things that they can say about their shape. Go around
Children need no prerequisite knowledge for this lesson. the group and ask children to hold up their shape and
The activity will naturally adjust itself to the ideas held by tell one or two of their ideas.
the children. The level of vocabulary and the types of ob- • Return all shapes to the pile and select one shape. Place
servations that children make will depend on their prior this “target” shape for all to see. Each child is to find a
geometric experiences and their verbal skills. shape that is like the target shape in some way. Again,
have children share their ideas. You may want to re-
For English Language Learners peat this with another shape.
• As children describe what they notice about a shape,
or are identifying how their shape is like another, ask Present the focus task to the class:
that they point at the aspect of the shape(s) they are • Each group of children is to select one shape from
describing so that everyone can understand. the collection to be the target shape just as you did.
361
Then they announce their “rule” to the group. Then After

other children are to find as many other shapes that
are like the target shape as they can. However, all the Bring the class together to share and discuss the task:
shapes they find must be like the target shape in the • Collect children’s drawings, keeping the groups intact.
same way. For example, if the child uses “has straight Gather children together so that all will be able to see
sides” as a rule, each child in turn adds other shapes the drawings. (This could be done the day after the
to the “has straight sides” group. They cannot also use During portion of the lesson.)
another descriptor of the target shape such as “has a • Display the drawings from one group. Have children
square corner” to add to the group. That would be two from other groups see if they can guess the rule for the
different ways or two rules. drawings. If the drawings are not adequate to identify
• Explain that when you visit each group, you want to the rule, have those who made the drawings find a few
see a collection of shapes that go together according to shapes from the collection of shapes that also fit the rule.
the same rule. You will see if you can guess their rule by • To expand children’s ideas or interject new ideas, you
looking at the shapes they have put together. may want to create a set of shapes using a secret rule,
• When you have checked their first rule, you will select as described previously. Base your rule on a property of
a new target shape for them. They should make a new the shapes that the children have not yet thought of.
collection of shapes using a different rule. When they
have finished, each child should draw a new shape
on paper that would fit the rule. All of the drawings Assessment
should then be alike in the same way. (For kindergarten
and first‐grade children, you will probably explain this Observe
part as you visit their group.)
• Do not think of this activity as something that children
should master. This lesson can be repeated numerous
times over the course of the year. As children have more
• Children are to work in groups of three to five members. and more experiences with shapes, they will be able to
• Children should take turns choosing descriptive proper- create different, more sophisticated sorting rules.
ties (attributes) for the target shape. • Watch for children who talk about shapes in terms of rela-
tive attributes such as “bottom,” “pointing up,” or “has a
During side near the windows.” These same children will not rec-
ognize a square as such if it has been turned to look like
• Listen carefully for the types of ideas that children are
a diamond. When this happens, pick up the shape, turn it
using. Are they using “nongeometric” language such as
slowly, and ask the children if it is still pointing up (or what-
“pointy,” “looks like a house,” or “has a straight bot-
ever other attribute they are discussing). Point out that the
tom,” or are they beginning to talk about more geo-
shape doesn’t change, only the way it is positioned.
metric properties such as “square corners,” “sides that
go the same way” (parallel), or “dented in” (concave)? • If you have introduced vocabulary that is important,
If they are using shape names, are they using them you can informally assess children’s knowledge of that
correctly? vocabulary during this activity. Every type of shape that
a primary‐grade child needs to know is included in the
• Introduce and reinforce correct terminology for shapes;
set. There are also examples of right angles, parallel
however, do not make terminology and definitions a
lines, concave and convex shapes, shapes with line sym-
focus of the activity. Allow children to use their own
metry, and shapes with rotational symmetry.
ideas.
• To differentiate, you may want to challenge children Ask
by quickly creating a small group of shapes that go to-
• How are these shapes alike?
gether according to a secret rule. See if they can figure
out what the rule is and find other shapes that go with • What other shapes are like the ones in this group?
your collection. • What is a shape that does NOT belong? Why?
362
References
Clements, D. H., & Battista, M. T. (1992). National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Geometry and spatial reasoning. In D. A. Grouws (2000). Principles and standards for school
(Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.
and learning (pp. 420–464). Old Tappan, NJ:
Macmillan.
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J., (2000a). Young through grade 8 mathematics: A quest for coherence.
children’s ideas about geometric shapes. Teaching Reston, VA: Author.
Sowder, J. T., & Wearne, D. (2006). What do we
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2000b). The know about eighth‐grade student achievement?
earliest geometry. Teaching Children Mathematics, Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 11(6),
7(2), 82–86. 285–293.
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2009). Learning and Zwillinger, D. (Ed.) (2011). Standard mathematical
teaching early math: The learning trajectories approach. tables and formulae (32nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL:
New York, NY: Routledge. CRC Press.
Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J., (2000a). Young
children’s ideas about geometric shapes. Teaching
363
Helping Children Use Data
BigIDEAS Graphs and statistics bombard the public in areas such

as advertising, opinion polls, population trends, health
1 Doing statistics involves a four‐step process: risks, and progress of children in schools. We hear that
formulating questions, collecting data, analyzing data, the average amount of rainfall this summer is more than
and interpreting results. it was last summer or that the average American family
2 Data are gathered and organized in order to consists of 3.19 people. We read on the U.S. Census web-
answer questions. site (www.census.gov) that the median home price in May
2000 was $164,700, and in May 2011 it was $222,000.
3 A collection of objects with various attributes The mean home price in May 2011 was $262,700. Know-
can be classified or sorted in different ways. A single
ing these statistics should raise an array of questions:
object can belong to more than one class. Classification
is fundamental to data analysis. How were these data gathered? What was the purpose?
What does it mean to have an average of 3.19 people?
4 Different types of graphs and other data Why are the median and the mean for home sales so dif-
representations provide different information about the
ferent? Which statistic makes more sense for communi-
data and, hence, the population from which the data
cating about the prices of homes?
are taken. The choice of graphical representation can
Statistical literacy is critical to understanding the
affect how well the data are understood.
world around us, essential for effective citizenship, and
5 Graphs can provide a sense of the shape of the vital for developing the ability to question information
data, including how spread out or clustered the data presented in the media (Shaughnessy, 2007). Misuse of
are. Having a sense of the shape of data is having a big
statistics occurs even in trustworthy sources such as news-
picture of the data rather than the data being simply a
papers, where graphs are often designed to exaggerate a
collection of numbers.
finding. Therefore, it is crucial that students develop an
understanding of the basic concepts of statistics. Children
at the pre‐K–2 level can begin developing this under-
standing. The Common Core State Standards for Math-
ematics (CCSSO, 2010) and the Curriculum Focal Points
(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2006) in-
dicate that pre‐K–K children should learn how data can
be categorized while children in first and second grades
should collect, organize, represent, and interpret data
365
using picture and bar graphs. Second graders extend their work to generating and repre-
senting measurement data on line plots. The focus of the learning at these and every grade
level should be on ways to use, present, and interpret data in the context of real questions.
The Process of Doing Statistics

Doing statistics is, in fact, a different process from doing mathematics. As Richard Scheaffer
(2006), past president of the American Statistics Association, notes,
Mathematics is about numbers and their operations, generalizations and abstrac-

tions; it is about spatial configurations and their measurement, transformations, and
abstractions. . . . Statistics is also about numbers—but numbers in context: these
are called data. Statistics is about variables and cases, distribution and variation,
purposeful design or studies, and the role of randomness in the design of studies,
and the interpretation of results.
Statistics and mathematics are two different fields; however, statistical questions are often
asked in assessments with questions that are mathematical in nature rather than statistical.
The harm in this is that children are not focusing on statistical reasoning, as shown by the
following exemplars from Scheaffer (2006).
1. The average weight of 50 prize‐winning tomatoes is 2.36 pounds. What is the

combined weight, in pounds, of these 50 tomatoes? (NAEP sample question)
a. 0.0472 b. 11.8 c. 52.36 d. 59 e. 118
2. Table 1 gives the times each girl has recorded for seven trials of the 100‐meter
dash this year. Only one girl may compete in the upcoming track meet. Which
girl would you select for the meet and why?
Stop and Reflect

Before reading further, label each of the preceding questions as “doing mathematics” or
“doing statistics.” ■
So, which of these problems involves statistical reasoning? Both? Neither? As explained
by Schaeffer, only the second one is statistical in nature. The first requires computing with
multiplication—mathematical thinking, not statistical thinking. The second question is sta-
tistical in nature because the situation requires analysis—graphs or averages might be used
to determine a solution. The mathematics here is basic; the focus is on statistics. Also notice
the context is central to responding to the second question, which is an indication that it is
statistical reasoning.
Table 1 Race Time for Three Runners
Runner Race
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Suzie 15.2 14.8 15.0 14.7 14.3 14.5 14.5
Tanisha 15.8 15.7 15.4 15.0 14.8 14.6 14.5
Dara 15.6 15.5 14.8 15.1 14.5 14.7 14.5
366
Just as learning addition involves much more Figure 1 Process of doing statistics.
than the procedure for combining, doing statistics is
much more than the process of creating a bar graph Step 1: Formulate Questions
or line plot. To meaningfully engage children in learn- Clarify the problem at hand.
ing and doing statistics, they should be involved in Formulate one (or more) questions that can be answered with data.
the full process, from asking and defining questions
Step 2: Collect Data
to collecting and analyzing data to interpreting data. Design a plan to collect appropriate data.
This chapter is organized around this process, which Employ the plan to collect the data.
is presented in Figure 1.
Step 3: Analyze Data
Select appropriate graphical and numerical methods.
Use these methods to analyze the data.
Formulating Questions
Step 4: Interpret Results
The first goal in the Data Analysis and Probability Interpret the analysis.
standard of Principles and Standards for School Math- Relate the interpretation to the original question.
ematics says that children should “formulate questions
Source: Franklin, C. A., Kader, G., Mewborn, D., Moreno, J., Peck, R., Perry, M., &
that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, Scheaffer, R. (2005). Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Ed-
and display relevant data to answer them” (National ucation: A Pre‐K‐12 Curriculum Framework. Alexandria, VA: American Statis-
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000, p. 48). tical Association. Reprinted with permission. Copyright 2005 by the American
Statistical Association. All rights reserved.
Notice that data collection should be for a purpose—
to answer a question—just as in the real world. Then the analysis of data should add infor-
mation about some aspect of our world. This process of gathering data to answer questions
and make informed decisions is what political pollsters, advertising agencies, market re-
searchers, census takers, wildlife managers, and hosts of others do.
Whether the question is teacher initiated or student initiated, children should engage
in conversations about how well‐defined the question is. For example, if the teacher asks,
“How many brothers and sisters do you have?” there may be a need to discuss half siblings.
If children want to know how many shoes each classmate owns, questions may arise as to
whether they should count bedroom slippers and flip‐flops.
When children formulate the questions they want to ask, the data they gather be-
come more and more meaningful. How they organize the data and the techniques for
analyzing them have a purpose. For example, one class of children might gather data
concerning which cafeteria foods are most often thrown in the garbage. As a result of
these efforts, certain items could be removed from the regular menu. The experience can
illustrate to children the power of organized data, and it can help them get food that they
like better!
Often the need to gather data will come from the class naturally in the course of
discussion or from questions arising in other content areas. Science, of course, is full of
measurements and thus abounds in data analysis possibilities. Social studies is also full of op-
portunities to pose questions requiring data collection. The next few sections suggest some
ideas related to these content areas as well as additional ideas.
Questions about “Me and My Classmates”

Young children want to learn about each other, their families and pets, measures such as arm
span or time to get to school, their likes and dislikes, and so on. At the pre‐K–2 level, the
easiest questions to deal with are those that can be answered by each class member contrib-
uting one piece of data. Here are a few ideas:
• Favorites: TV show, game, movie, ice cream, video game, fruit, season of the year,
color, sport, sports team (if many possibilities, start by restricting the number of
choices)
367
• Numbers: Number of pets, siblings, or letters in name; hours watching TV, hours of
sleep, or hours spent on the computer
• Measures: Height, arm span, length of foot, long‐jump distance, time to run around
the swing set on the playground, minutes spent traveling to school, daily temperature,
shadow length
Questions beyond Self and Classmates

Eventually, you will sense that your children are ready to ask questions about things beyond
themselves and their classmates.
Content Area Questions

Discussions about communities provide a good way to integrate social studies and math-
ematics. As you study the community in which children live, many questions arise:
• How many different kinds of restaurants or stores are in our community (fast‐food
restaurants versus “sit‐down” restaurants; Italian, Mexican, or American; convenience
stores, grocery stores, clothing stores, variety stores)?
• How many responses are made by local firefighters each month? How many different
types of responses are made by local firefighters each month (fire, medical, hazardous,
public service)? (Data can usually be found on websites of local institutions.)
• How many state and local government officials are elected by voters?
The newspaper itself suggests all sorts of data‐related questions. For example, how
many advertisements are included in the newspaper on different days of the week? How
many sports stories are about different types of sports (e.g., basketball, football, swimming,
etc.)? How many pages is the local paper each day of the week?
Science is another area in which questions can be asked and data gathered. In particular,
experiments can be a great source for questions.
• How many plastic bottles or aluminum cans are placed in the school’s recycling bins
over a given week?
• How many times do different types of balls bounce when each is dropped from the
same height?
• How many days does it take for different types of bean, squash, and pea seeds to germi-
nate when kept in moist paper towels?
• Which brand of bubble gum will give you the largest bubble?
• Do some liquids expand more than others when frozen?
• Does a plant grow faster when watered with water, soda, or milk?
Children can also develop questions before going on a field trip (Mokros & Wright,
2009). While on the field trip, they can gather data to help answer those questions. For ex-
ample, if visiting a zoo, children might look for the number of animals that are smaller than
a small dog, like a Jack Russell terrier, or how many animals are larger than a large dog, like
a golden retriever. (Make sure the animals or objects chosen are ones that all the children
are familiar with!) Other questions might be “How many animals have wings and how many
don’t?” or “Are there more animals with fur than not?” or “How many animals have no legs,
two legs, four legs, or more legs?” or “How many animals move around in various ways (e.g.,
fly, slither, crawl on four legs, walk on two legs, etc.)?” You can work with zoo personnel be-
fore going on the trip to identify possible topics to share with children to help them develop
questions that they are curious about.
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Comparisons
Another type of progression from the questions children ask about themselves and their class-
mates is to consider if they as a class are alike or different from other groups. Do other sec-
ond‐grade children spend the same amount of time watching
TV or like the same foods as they do? How much taller are
children in the next grade or two grades ahead of them?
Comparisons can also be made between your own class If your children have “buddies” in the upper grades, they can
and selected groups of adults to which the children have ac- collect data from their buddies.
cess, such as parents or faculty.
To further expand your children’s perspective, you might explore ways that your class
can compare themselves or their data with similar classes in other places in the state, other
states, or perhaps even in a foreign country. This can open up not just a source of interesting
data but also a way for your children to see beyond their own localities.
Data Collection
There are two main types of data—categorical and numerical. Categorical data refer to in-
formation about things that can be grouped by labels such as favorite after‐school activity,
colors of cars in the school parking lot, and the most popular name to give the class guinea
pig. Categorical data are ordered arbitrarily—in other words, the bars in a bar graph could
be put in any arrangement.
Numerical data, on the other hand, are ordered numeri-
cally, such as on a number line, and could include fractions
Note that the word data is plural—hence, we say “data are.”
or decimals. This kind of data includes how many miles to
The singular form of the word is datum.
school, the temperature in your town over a one‐week period,
or the weight of the children’s backpacks.
Collecting Data
Gathering data is not easy for children, especially young children. A teacher asked her first
graders to gather data on “Are you 6?” After hearing the request, 18 eager children began asking
others in the class if they were 6 and tallying yes or no responses. Eventually they realized that
they had no idea whom they had asked more than once or whom they had not asked at all. This
provided an excellent entry into a discussion about how statisticians gather data. Have your
children brainstorm ways to gather the needed data in an organized manner. One kindergarten
teacher asked her children to think of an organized way they could gather data from their class-
mates about their favorite flavors of ice cream. These kindergartners decided a class list would
help them keep track of who had been asked and what their response had been (Cook, 2008).
Data can also be collected through observation. This creates a shared context for chil-
dren in that they all will be a part of observing phenomena. For example, set up a bird feeder
outside the classroom window and collect data at different times during the day to either
count the number or type of birds. Children can also collect observational data on field trips
(Mokros & Wright, 2009) and at evening or weekend activities with their families.
Using Existing Data Sources

Data do not always have to be collected by children; existing data abound in various places,
such as print resources and databases on the Internet.
Newspapers, almanacs, sports record books, maps, and various government publications
are sources of data that may be used to answer children’s questions. Children’s literature
369
is also an excellent and engaging resource. Children can tally words in a repeating verse
like “Hickory, Dickory, Dock” (Niezgoda & Moyer‐Packenham, 2005). Similarly, books like
Goodnight Moon (Brown, 2005) and Green Eggs and Ham (Seuss, 1960) have many repeated
words or phrases.
Children may be interested in facts about another country as a result of a social studies
unit or a country in the news. Olympic records in various events over the years or data re-
lated to environmental issues are other examples of topics around which children’s questions
may be formulated. For these and hundreds of other questions, data can be found on the
Web. Following are a few websites with a lot of interesting data.
• State Data Map (http://illuminations.nctm.org/ActivityDetail.aspx?ID=151) is a source
that displays state data on population, land area, political representation, gasoline use,
and more.
• Olympic Records (www.olympic.org/medallists-results) provides information about
medalists in every Olympic event since 1896.
• Internet Movie Database (www.imdb.com) offers information about movies of all
genres.
• Google Earth (http://earth.google.com) allows you to take a virtual trip to explore cities
and regions in any place in the world.
Data Analysis
Data analysis begins with organizing the data in a meaningful way, such as sorting or graph-
ing, with the resulting visual providing a kind of summary for the data. The data are then
analyzed with a focus on how the information answers the question that provided the pur-
pose for collecting the data.
Classification
Initially young children tend to not use categories to represent data and instead simply
put the data in one list (Clements & Sarama, 2009). For example, if children were asked to
represent the class data about how children arrived at school, some children may simply
list each child and their response. Classification involves making decisions about how to
categorize things, a basic activity that is fundamental to data analysis. In order to formulate
questions and decide how to represent data that have been gathered, decisions must be made
about how things might be categorized. For example, children might group farm animals
by number of legs; by type of product they provide; by those that work, provide food, or
are pets; by size or color; by the type of food they eat; and so on. Each of these groupings
is based on a different attribute of the animals. Those decisions about how things might be
categorized need to become an emphasis in the early grades.
According to the Curriculum Focal Points (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,
2006) and the Common Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010), classification by attributes is a
topic for pre‐K–K children. Attribute activities are explicitly designed to develop flexible
reasoning about the characteristics of data.
Classifications Using Attribute Materials

Attribute materials can be sets of objects that lend themselves to being sorted and classified
in different ways—for example, seashells, leaves, children’s shoes, or the children themselves.
The attributes are the ways that the materials can be sorted. For example, hair color, height,
370
Figure 2
A teacher‐made attribute set. Woozle cards can be duplicated on card stock, quickly colored in two colors, laminated,
and cut into individual cards (see Blackline Master 49).
Woozle
Cards
(Blackline Masters)
Attributes (values): shape (rounded, straight)

16 pieces color (red, blue)
dots (one, two)
hair (bald, fuzzy)
and gender are attributes of children. Each attribute has a number of different values: for
example, blond, brown, or red (for the attribute of hair color); tall or short (for height);
male or female (for gender). A teacher‐made attribute set is displayed in Figure 2 (see also
Blackline Master 49). BLM
Commercially available attribute blocks are sets of 60 plastic attribute pieces with
each piece having four attributes: color (red, yellow, blue), shape (circle, triangle, rectangle,
square, hexagon), size (big, little), and thickness (thick, thin). The specific values, number of
values, or number of attributes that a set may have is not important.
Initially, do attribute activities by sitting in a large circle on the floor where all children
can see and have access to the materials to be sorted. The following activity is a simple Venn
diagram activity that pre‐K–K children will enjoy.
Activity 1 WHAT ABOUT “BOTH”?

Standards for
Give children two large loops of string and attribute blocks. Direct them to put all
the red pieces inside one string and all triangles inside the other. Let the children 1 Make sense
try to resolve the difficulty of what to do with the red triangles. When the notion of over- ◀ of problems and
persevere in
lapping the strings to create an area common to both loops is clear, more challenging
solving them
activities can be explored. It will be helpful, especially for children with disabilities, to
place labels on each loop of the string.
The Attribute Blocks applet at http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/grade_g_1.html provides several classification

problems for children to do. They are shown a set of blocks inside a loop having the same shape, size, or
color. Their task is to drag inside the loop other blocks that belong according to the target attribute.
371
Figure 3 A three‐loop activity with attribute pieces. As shown in Figure 3, the labels need not be re-
stricted to single attributes. If a piece does not fit in
s any region, it is placed outside of all of the loops.
cate e
Indi triangl As children progress, introduce labels for nega-
NO T
Da tive attributes such as “not red” or “not small.” Also
gr rk important is the eventual use of and and or con-
ay
nectives to form two‐value rules such as “red and
square” and “big or happy.” This use of and, or,
and not significantly widens children’s classification
schemes.
An engaging and challenging activity is to infer
how things have been classified when the loops are
Smile drawn not labeled. The following activities require children
on card to make and test conjectures about how things are
being classified.
Activity 2 GUESS MY RULE

nguag
-La
Standards for For this activity, try using children instead of shapes as attribute “pieces.” Decide
nglish
e Lerane
rE
rs
on an attribute such as “blue jeans” or “stripes on clothing” but do not tell your
fo
1 Make sense rule to the class. Silently look at one child at a time and move the child to the left or right
of problems and ◀ according to this secret rule. After a number of children have been sorted, have the next
persevere in child come up and ask children to predict in which group he or she belongs.
solving them
Before the rule is articulated, continue the activity for a while so that others in the
class will have an opportunity to determine the rule. The same activity can be done with
virtually any materials that can be sorted, such as children’s shoes, shells, or buttons.
Encourage ELLs to use their native language and English to describe the rule.
Activity 3 HIDDEN LABELS

nguag
-La
Create label cards for the loops of string used to make the Venn diagram. Place
nglish
e Lerane
rE
rs
two of the cards face down, one on each loop. Ask children to select an attribute
fo
piece for you to place. For ELLs and children with disabilities, provide a list of the
labels with pictures and/or translations for each as a reference. Begin to sort pieces
according to the hidden rules. As you sort, have children try to determine what the labels
are for each of the loops. Let children who think they have guessed the labels try to place
a piece in the proper loop but avoid having them guess the labels aloud. Children who
think they know the labels can also be asked to “play teacher” and respond to the
guesses of the others. Point out that one way to test an idea about the labels is to select
a piece that you think might go in a particular section. Wait to turn the label cards up
until most children have figured out the rule.
Classifications Using Content Areas

“Guess My Rule” and “Hidden Labels” can and should be repeated with real‐world materi-
als connected to other content areas and to children’s experiences. For example, if you are
doing a unit on wildlife in the backyard, you can use pictures of creatures (see Figure 4)
372
Figure 4 Guess the rule that was used to sort these bugs.
Backyard Bugs
Fly Don't fly
to sort by relevant attributes and have children guess the sorting rule. Following are
additional ideas that can be used for classification activities related to social studies and
science.
For social studies, children could sort and eventually graph data about:
• Places in the United States and outside the United States
• Country or state of origin of classmates
• Past, present, and future events
• Goods (e.g., bread, milk, apples, pants, socks, shoes) and services (e.g., waiting tables at
a restaurant, mowing yards, repairing cars)
• Continents and oceans
For science, children might classify and graph data using the following attributes:
• Sensory descriptors for items such as sweet/sour/bitter/salty, rough/smooth, hard/soft,
cold/warm, loud/soft, high/low, and bright/dull
• Relative size or weight of a collection of objects (big/little, large/small, heavy/light,
wide/thin, long/short)
• Position of objects found in the classroom (over/under, in/out, above/below, left/right)
• Speed (fast/slow) of different animals (e.g., turtles, ants, snakes, cheetahs) or transporta-
tion (e.g., car, bicycle, airplane, walking)
• Materials or objects that float or sink in water
• Weather observations (e.g., sunny, cloudy, raining, snowing)
• Materials in the recycling bin (plastics, aluminum, glass, paper)
• Substances that will or will not dissolve in water
373
• Characteristics of plants (edible/nonedible, flowering/nonflowering, evergreen/deciduous)

• Physical characteristics of animals (body coverings or methods of movement)
• Other characteristics of animals (wild/tame, water homes/land homes, hibernate/do not
hibernate, migrate/do not migrate, camouflage/no camouflage)
To connect reading and data, children can sort and analyze data within a book (e.g.,
kinds of animals, shapes, locations). Children can also keep track of the kinds of books
they read as a class (by topic area) or the number of times different words are used in
a story.
Hopefully, these lists communicate how children can use data across content areas.
Using ideas related to content and the real world helps children understand that data analy-
sis is useful as well as engaging!

The ability to classify is an important skill for early data analysis. You can assess your children’s ability to
classify by observing them in small groups or listening to children as they participate in full‐class discus-
sions. As you discuss a particular classification with children, ask them to justify their placement of items.
Requiring children to explain their reasoning will provide you with much more information than if you
simply accept answers. Here are some suggestions for what to listen and look for:
• After gathering data, do children use categories to sort the data or do they focus on the particulars (e.g.,
list each child in the class and their favorite ice cream)?
• Are children able to place items into categories once they have been identified? Do they use valid rea-
sons for placing items in a category?
• Do children contribute to ideas for classification schemes?
• Do children understand that different classification schemes will result in a different organization of
the items being sorted? For example, children’s names may be sorted by number of letters, and they
can also be sorted by which part of the alphabet they begin with—first half or second half. These two
schemes would result in different classifications.
• Do children correctly use an overlapping category—items that belong to two different groups at the
same time?
• Can children correctly use the logical connectors and and or and the adjective not when creating
classifications?
Graphical Representations
A graph provides a visual image of the data that cannot be captured in other forms. The loops
used with the attribute materials provide a first form of graphical representation. The class can
“graph” data about themselves by placing information in loops with labels. A graph of “Our
Pets” might consist of a picture of each child’s pet or favorite stuffed animal (in lieu of a pet)
that can be affixed to a wall display showing how the pets were classified. Different classifica-
tions would produce different graphs. For example, the graphs could show pets by the number
of legs; by fur, feathers, or scales; by how long they have been with the family; and so on.
How data are organized should be directly related to the question that caused you to
collect the data in the first place. For example, suppose that children want to know how
many pockets they have on their clothing (Russell, 2006). Data collection involves each
child in the room counting his or her pockets.
374
Stop and Reflect

If your second‐grade class had collected these data, what methods might you suggest they use
for organizing and graphing them? Is one of your ideas better than others for answering the
question about how many pockets? ■
A bar graph made with one bar for every child will certainly tell how many pock-
ets each child has. However, is it the best way to answer the question? If the data
were categorized by number of pockets, then a graph showing the number of children
with no pockets, one pocket, two pockets, three pockets, and so on will easily show
which number of pockets is most common and how the number of pockets varies across
the class.
Children should be involved in deciding how they want to represent their data. How-
ever, for children with little experience with the various methods of picturing data, you will
need to introduce options. Graph the data using these options and facilitate a discussion
with the class to decide which method might be best and why.
Once children have made the display, they should discuss the meanings of various parts Standards for
of the representation. Analyzing data that are numerical (number of pockets) versus cat- Mathematical Practice
egorical (color of socks) is an added challenge for children as they struggle to make sense of
6 Attend to
the graphs. If, for example, the graph has seven stickers above the five, children may think ◀ precision
that five people have seven pockets or seven people have five pockets. Children should be
challenged to determine how this issue can be remedied.
Often young children have difficulty distinguishing between the data and the larger
event from which the data were collected. They can think of the data as triggers or
“pointers” to the event, not as abstracting specific information about the event (Konold,
Higgins, Russell, & Khalil, 2004). For example, instead of recognizing that more children
in the class have two pockets than five pockets, they may describe how they can put their Standards for
lunch money in their front pocket or that they counted their pockets by twos. Focusing
on the meaning of the symbols used in a graphical representation of the data as well as 1 Make sense
having children make comparisons between different groups (e.g., How many pockets ◀ of problems and
do fifth graders have?) can help make the intent of the graph more salient for children persevere in
solving them
(Russell, 2006).
The goal is to help children see that graphs tell information and that different types
of representations tell different things about the same data. The value of having children
actually construct their own graphs is not so much that they learn the techniques as that
they are personally invested in the data and that they learn how a graph conveys infor-
mation. Once a graph is constructed, the most important activity is discussing what it
tells the people who see it, especially those who were not involved in making the graph.
Discussions about graphs of real data that the children have themselves been involved in
gathering will help them analyze and interpret other graphs that they see in books and
newspapers and on TV.
What we should not do is only concentrate on the details of graph construction.
Your objectives should focus on the issues of analysis and communication, which are
much more important than the technique! In the real world, technology will take care of
details.
Children should construct graphs or charts by hand and with technology. First, en-
courage them to make graphs that make sense to them and that they feel communicate the
information they wish to convey. The intent is to get the children involved in accurately
communicating a message about their data.
375
Considering the complexities of graphs and the results of various research studies, Friel,
Curcio, and Bright (2001) recommend the following progression for the introduction of
different kinds of graphs in grades pre‐K–2:
• Object graphs
• Picture graphs
Figure 5 • Line plots
A graph mat for • Bar graphs
displaying real objects
These types of graphs help children focus on the count or frequency for each value
can be made from a
sheet of plastic such as
along the vertical scale. They also progress from graphs where each piece of data is evident to
a shower curtain liner. graphs where the individual data values may seem to disappear—at least from the perspective
of a child. At first glance, this progression does not follow the one recom-
mended in the Common Core State Standards (CCSSO, 2010) and the Cur-
riculum Focal Points (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2006)
because line plots appear after bar graphs in both of these documents. We
address this issue in the sections on bar graphs and line plots.
Object Graphs
An object graph uses the actual objects being graphed. Examples include
types of shoes, favorite fruit, and shapes of buttons. Figure 5 shows a graph
mat that can be used on the floor to display the objects in an organized man-
ner. The mat can be made from a sheet of plastic about 8 to 10 feet long.
Make 5 or 6 columns with 12 to 15 squares in each column. Children place
each object in a square so that comparisons and counts are easily made. No
numeric scale is necessary. Notice that an object graph is a small step from
sorting. If real objects are sorted into groups, those groups can be lined up
for comparison—an object graph!
Picture Graphs
Picture graphs (also called pictographs) move up a level of abstraction by using a drawing or pic-
ture of some sort that represents what is being graphed. The picture can represent one piece of
data or it can represent a designated quantity. For example, a picture of a book can be assigned to
mean five books in a graph of how many books were read each
day of the week. When children view the graph and see four
books for Monday, they skip count to determine that twenty
Pictographs are a great way to connect to skip counting and
books were read on Monday.
early experiences with multiplication.
Children can make their own drawings for pictographs,
but this can often become time consuming and tedious. There
are various ways to make pictographs easier to create and thereby keep the focus on the mean-
ing of the graph rather than the creation of it. You can duplicate student‐made drawings. You
can use clip art and create a full page of images that can be colored (optional) and cut out to suit
particular needs. If you have a die‐cut machine, you can use available shapes to help you pick a
topic for a graph. For example, if your die‐cut has various vehicles (cars, trains, bus, bike, boat,
etc.), children can use those shapes to indicate each of the vehicles they have ridden in this year.
Stickers can also be a quick way to make a pictograph.
Bar Graphs
After object and picture graphs, bar graphs are among the first ways used to group and pres-
ent data with children in grades pre‐K–2. The following activity can be used to introduce
children to the idea of using bar graphs to organize data.
376
Activity 4 ORGANIZING CARDS
Each pair of children needs a set of about 12 information cards that have two attributes
written on them. (See Figure 6a for examples of cards.) Tell the children that these cards
describe children from another class and their task is to sort and organize the cards so that
they can find out some things about this class. Emphasize that they need to focus on the
class and not on individual children. After pairs have organized their cards in some way,
Standards for
have the children walk around to look at the different arrangements. (See Figure 6b for Mathematical Practice
possible arrangements.) You may want to draw the different arrangements on the board
2 Reason abstractly
for children to see while the class discusses the different ways. First ask, “What can you tell ◀ and quantitatively
about the class when the cards are arranged this way or that way?”
Ask “how many” type questions, such as “Which arrangement helps us see how
many children like chocolate ice cream?” or “Can we tell how many more boys than girls
are in the class with this arrangement?” or “Which arrangement helps you see which ice
cream flavor is most liked?” You can also have pairs of children gather and organize their
cards as you ask each question so that the answer to the question is more apparent. Have
children justify how their arrangement helps to answer a given question.
Initially bar graphs should be made with each bar consisting of countable parts so that
the individual pieces of data do not seem to disappear. The information cards in the previous
activity, “Organizing Cards,” served this purpose. Having children use something to repre-
sent the pieces of data or the things being counted helps transition from object and picture
graphs to bar graphs. An easy idea is to use sticky notes to represent the individual pieces
of data. These can be posted directly to the board or to a chart and rearranged if needed.
To help children keep their notes in line you may wish to use a gridded chart similar to the
graph mat described in the section on object graphs.
Figure 6 “Organizing Cards” activity.
(a) Information cards

Girl Boy
Boy Boy
Chocolate Vanilla
Chocolate Superman
Girl
Boy
Superman
Chocolate
(b) Possible arrangements of cards
girls boys
girls boys
girls boys
girls boys
377
After identifying a question, make a quick graph of class data by following these steps:
1. Decide as a class which groups of data will make up the different bars. It is good to have
two to six different bars in a graph.
2. Have children look at the choices and decide where they will place their sticky note.
Have them write their name on the note.
3. In small groups, have children place their entry on the graph.
Figure 7 illustrates two additional quick ways to gather information (step 2 of the process of
doing statistics) and analyze it (step 3). A class of 25 to 30 children can make a graph in less than
10 minutes, leaving ample time to use the graph for questions and observations (step 4).
The next transition is to begin using rectangular bars as seen in traditional bar graphs,
but have children shade each bar with alternating colors to keep individual pieces of data vis-
ible. Friel, Curcio, and Bright (2001) also recommend using grid lines to help children read the
counts or frequencies and label the bars with numerical values.
Figure 7 Some ideas for quick graphs that can be used again and again.
Bus 417
Bus 206
Bus 63
Walk
Clip paper pictures or symbols on a chart that

has a paper clip prepared in each square.
Children in Family
Only 2 in 3 in More
you family family than 3
Hang ribbons, and students

clip on pinch-style clothespins
378
The Bar Chart applet at http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/grade_g_1.html allows children to create bar graphs of 3
to 12 columns and 5 to 20 rows of data. Each piece of data is its own block in the bar so that individual data
are visual. A numerical scale is shown along the vertical scale to help read the frequency for each category.
The following activity uses traditional bar graphs in which the individual pieces of data
(inches or centimeters) disappear and children focus on each bar as a whole.
Activity 5 STORM CHASER
This activity involves children collecting data over time about the amount of rainfall (or
snowfall) right outside their classroom. Install a rain (or snow) gauge outside the classroom
in a location where it can be easily accessed. After a heavy rain (or snow) storm, send a pair
of children outside with a piece of cash register tape. Their task is to cut the tape as long
as the height of the rain on the scale. Then they should mark the tape with the date of the
storm. Place the strips chronologically on a base line labeled with the month and day. These
strips form a bar graph that can be added to and analyzed over the year. Have children to
round to the nearest 12 or 14 inch. For example, if it rained about 1 inch on October 5, about
1 1
4 inch on October 10, and about 2 inch on October 23, there would be 3 bars with the indi-
1 1
cated heights (1 inch, 4 inch, 2 inch), each labeled with the corresponding date. If the storm
occurred over the weekend, the children can problem solve how they want to record that
observation (one strip of paper for the whole weekend if it is one storm, cut the piece in
half if there are two storms, or consult the news for approximate rainfalls). The important
components are combining and comparing the data—how does the storm total in October
compare to the total in April? Note that this paper strip to bar graph approach can also be
used with monitoring plant growth as well as other similar activities.
Bar graphs can clearly show the category that is the larg-
est and the one that is the smallest, as well as tell exactly how
large each category is. They can also be a source for creating put‐
Figure 8
together, take‐apart, and comparison word problems. Using bar graphs to create story problems.
Doll
$12
Activity 6 STORY BARS
Have children make a bar graph of some data using plastic

Football
connecting cubes such as Unifix. Choose a situation with 5 or $8 Game
6 bars with no more than 10 or 12 cubes in each. For exam- $7
ple, the graph in Figure 8 shows prices for six toys. The task
Car
for children is to use the graph itself to create at least two $5
Jump
story problems about the toy prices. For example, one problem rope
might be “How much more money does the doll cost than the $3
football?” Another problem could be “If you had $20, which Top
toys could you buy? How much change would you get back?” $1
They can swap their story problems with a partner or you can
pose some of the problems to the entire class.
379
Figure 9 Line Plots

A line plot that answers the question, “Do all the small boxes of Object, picture, and bar graphs are useful for il-
raisins have the same number of raisins?” lustrating categorical data, for example, favorite
colors or TV shows. When data are numerical
X X (i.e., grouped along a continuous scale), they
X X should be ordered along a number line.
X X X X
X X X X Line plots are counts of things along a
X X X X X X numeric scale. To make a line plot, a number
X X X X X X X X X line is drawn and an X is made above the cor-
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 responding value on the line for every corre-
Number of raisins in a small box sponding data element (in middle school and
beyond the X is replaced by dots and the graph
is then called a dot plot). One advantage of a
line plot is that every piece of data is shown on the graph. It is also a very easy type of graph
for children to make. It is essentially a bar graph arranged along a numerical scale with a
potential bar for every indicated value on the horizontal scale. A simple example is shown
in Figure 9 that answers the question, “Do all the small boxes of raisins have the same
number of raisins?” (Friel et al., 2001).
The following activity helps develop this representation of numerical information.
Activity 7 STAND BY ME
Create a line plot on the floor of the classroom. Use

Having children be “in the graph” is an important experience
masking tape to mark a line and label it with numbers
that will enable them to better understand the more abstract
ranging from 2 minutes to 20 minutes (or whatever is
representation.
appropriate for your children). Have children write on
a sticky note how many minutes it takes them to travel
to school. Then they are to stand on the location above
that number on the line. Use the sticky notes to recre-
ate the line plot above a piece of cash register tape on
the board. (Label the cash register tape with the same
numbers as the masking tape line, e.g., 2 minutes to
A common error that children make, especially when using 20 minutes.) Then children can better interpret the
technology to create graphs, is to use a line graph instead of data.
a line plot. In line graphs we assume that the points on the Ask children to draw some conclusions about the
line between the identified values are feasible values (e.g., different travel times of children in the class. What are
those temperatures were passed through on the way from the differences in times? What is the total of the five
one identified value to the next). Data used with line plots longest trips? How long does Emma travel over the five
are not continuous in that sense. days during the school week (back and forth)? You can
also use the data to create word problems.

Your goal is for children to understand that a graph helps answer a question and that different graphs tell us
different things about the data. Children should write about their graphs, explaining what the graph shows.
380
Interpreting Results Figure 10

Two bar graphs for 25 children. The shapes of the data in these
Once a graph has been constructed, it is time two graphs are quite different. One is spread equally whereas the
for the fourth step in the process of doing sta- other has two high values and three low values.
tistics: interpretation. You can start by engaging
the class in a discussion of what information
the graph shows or conveys. “What can you tell
Our Favorite Our Favorite
Spring Colors Sports
about our class by looking at this shoe graph?”
Graphs convey factual information (e.g., more
Classmates
Classmates
people wear sneakers than any other kind of
shoe) and also provide opportunities to make
inferences that are not directly observable in the
graph (e.g., kids in this class do not like to wear
leather shoes).
When asked about graphs, young children
tend to initially focus on individual pieces of
data in a data display and not on the data as a
Red
Yellow
Green
Blue
Baseball
Football
Orange
Soccer
Basketball
Swimming
whole (Clements & Sarama, 2009). So when
asked to describe something about a graph, they
may state, “There I am! I ride the bus to school.”
However, much more can be said about a set of
data than about the individual pieces of data.
The idea is to help children consider the data set as a whole. One way to accomplish this is to
try to focus their attention on the shape of data: a sense of how the data are spread or grouped.
In grades pre‐K–2 this can be discussed informally by looking at almost any graph.
Whenever there are two or more graphs of the same type, it is worth talking with chil-
dren about the overall look of the graphs—how they are alike and how they are different.
Consider, for example, the two graphs in Figure 10, showing data that have been gathered
from a class of 25 children. In Our Favorite Spring Colors graph, the children are almost
distributed equally though there is a most favored color. In Our Favorite Sports graph, two
sports received most of the votes from the class and the remainder of the class is somewhat
spread among the other three.
When data are depicted on a number line, such as on a line plot, the idea of data as
being spread out or grouped together also takes on a numeric meaning. For example, in a
measure of the heights of boys and girls in inches, we might notice that the girls’ heights
are spread over a wider range than the boys’ heights. The boys’ heights may cluster more
around a particular height.
As discussed earlier in this chapter, sometimes questions focus on mathematical ideas
rather than statistical ideas. Although it is helpful to ask mathematical questions, it is essential
to ask questions that are statistical in nature. That means the questions focus on the context of
the situation, seeing what can be learned or inferred from the data. During the interpretation
phase, children might even want to create a different data display to get a different look at the
data or gather data from a different class to see how their results compare.
Different researchers have recommended questions that focus on statistical thinking
(Franklin et al., 2005; Friel, O’Conner, & Mamer, 2006; Russell, 2006; Shaughnessy, 2006).
Here are some ideas from their lists to get you started on having meaningful discussions about
interpreting data: Standards for
• What do the numbers tell us about our class (or another class)?
3 Reason abstractly
• If we asked another class the same questions, how would that data look? What if we ◀
and quantitatively
asked a larger group, how would the data look?
381
• How do the numbers in this graph compare to this graph?

• Where are the data “clustering”? Where are the data that are not in the cluster?
• What does the graph not tell us?
• What new questions arise from these data?
• What is the maker of the graph trying to tell us?
These prompts apply across many data displays. It certainly should be a major focus of your
instruction. Consider it the After phase of your lesson, although some of these questions will
be integrated in the During phase as well. The emphasis of the questions in this phase is on
getting children to notice differences in the data and provide possible reasons for those dif-
ferences (Franklin & Mewborn, 2008).
Our world is inundated with data. It is essential that we prepare our children to be liter-
ate about what can be interpreted from data and what cannot be interpreted from data. It is
not too early to start this preparation in grades pre‐K–2.
382
Using Data to Answer a Question
Content and Task Decisions • Model the process of gathering data using children
from the class. You can model “how to” and “how not
Grade Level: K–2 to” as a way to help all the children (particularly ELLs)
comprehend the process.
Mathematics Goals
• In selecting how the data will be displayed, show il-
• To determine a question that can be answered through lustrations of different options and have them labeled
gathering data with the appropriate terminology.
• To determine how to gather the data
• To use data to create graphs For Children with Disabilities
• To use graphs to answer questions concerning a • Provide a table with the possible answers for children
population with disabilities if they are collecting data from another
class. This will support them in organizing the tallies.
Grade Level Guide • When the children are creating a bar graph, have them
make an X in the grid prior to coloring. This will help
NCTM Common them focus on the quantity to ensure accuracy.
• When analyzing the data, pose some questions that
Children in kindergarten First graders organize, repre- will help the children compare data points in a think-
collect data and use counting sent, and interpret data. They aloud mode. Some children with disabilities may need
to answer questions. By first are able to ask and answer to hear the way you compare data to help them draw
grade, children are represent- questions by comparing data. conclusions and answer the question.
ing data in picture graphs By second grade, children are
and bar graphs. able to draw picture graphs
and bar graphs (using a
Materials
single unit scale) to represent • Large pieces of paper, such as chart paper
data. They are also able • Grid paper, such as a 1‐cm grid (see Black- BLM
to use the information in line Master 31)
a bar graph to answer
• Chart grid paper (optional)
problems.
• Markers/crayons
• Connecting cubes or other manipulatives for graphing
Consider Your Children’s Needs data
This lesson assumes that the children have had experi- • Computers (visit http://nlvm.usu.edu for free graph‐
ences with several different types of graphs, including making programs)
Venn diagrams and some form of bar graph, and that they
are able to use tallies or numbers for gathering data. You
may also want to allow the children to do this phase of Lesson
the lesson using appropriate graphing programs on the This lesson may require several days to complete. It em-
computer. Involve the children in selecting questions that ploys the four‐step process of doing statistics: (1) What
are of interest to them and are culturally relevant. question do we want to answer? (2) How will we collect
the data? (3) What type of analysis (e.g., a graph) should
For English Language Learners we use to view our data? (4) What do the data tell us
• Include written prompts and pair‐share for the discus- about our question? In this lesson, the process is split into
sions at the start of this lesson as a way to increase the two tasks with the fourth phase addressed in the After
participation of ELLs. portion of the second task.
383
LESSON PART I After

Before Bring the class together to share and discuss the task:
Present the first task to the class: • When the data have been collected, briefly discuss what
• Engage the children in a discussion of what question data the class, groups, or individuals have gathered.
they would like to answer. How you guide this discus- • Ask the children what they notice about their data.
sion will vary with the age of the children and per- They might be able to say some comparison statements.
haps their recent experiences, such as a field trip, a Can they answer the question(s) they posed? What new
unit of study in science, or a book that has been read questions might emerge?
to the class. Consider such ideas as favorites (books, • Suggest to the children that they might be able to learn
food, etc.), nature or science (weather, what lives in more about their question if they display their data in
our yards), comparisons (something about your class some kind of graph. At this point, a new problem de-
as compared with another class, children compared velops, as presented in the second task.
to adults), measures (heights, arm spans), how many
(pets, hours watching TV, minutes spent brushing LESSON PART II
teeth), and so on.
• Once a question or questions are determined, talk
Before
about how information (data) can be collected. If a sur- • Decide on a type of graph to make with the data that
vey is required, you will probably need to help the chil- will help answer your question. Make the graph.
dren formulate one to three questions that have simple • Engage the class in thinking about the various types of
responses—not full sentences or explanations. What is graphs that they know how to make and ask for ideas
important is that the children are personally invested about matching a type of graph with the question to
in the decisions. Remember to limit options to a rea- be answered and the data gathered. You may need to
sonable amount when deciding on choices for answers remind the children about techniques they have seen
(such as in a question about favorites). or that are available on the computer.
• Discuss how they can gather data to answer the ques- • Show the children the types of materials available to
tion. This is not easy, as the children will need to think them, including the computer. They are to select a type
about ways to get data from all classmates without of graph, then use the data they have collected to cre-
duplicating, for example. Set the children to gathering ate a presentation of the data in a way that they be-
the data. If the collection involves getting data from lieve answers the question.
home or from another class, you will need to help the
children be very organized about doing this so that real During
data are available when you need them.
Initially:
• Be sure the children are productively working. Move
around to the groups to answer any questions.
• The children may be working in groups to answer dif-
ferent questions, or this may be a whole‐class project. Ongoing:
During the second task, the children will work best in
• Have the children use the grid paper to create bar
groups of two or three. This may mean that there will
graphs. Try to make sure the graphs represent the data
be multiple groups working on the same question and/
and will not distort conclusions.
or with the same data.
• Encourage the children to add titles (linked to the
• Materials should be available for the children to select
question answered) and labels to their posters or pre-
what they desire for their group when they are orga-
sentations to help explain the data shown in the graph.
nizing and displaying their data.
• Children may use computer graphing to display their After
data.
• Have groups display their graphs. Take turns having
children explain their graphs and what their graph tells
During us related to the original questions.
• Monitor the data collection to be sure it is being gath- • Discuss which graphs best answered the question and
ered appropriately and recorded such that the children why, or what advantages one graph (e.g., Venn dia-
will know what the data mean. gram) has over another (e.g., bar).
384
• Ask the children whether they can answer other ques- • Are the children able to actually create the graph?
tions using the data. • Do the children know how to interpret the data in the
• Finally, ask the children what new questions might be graph? Can they make conjectures?
asked, having learned what they did from this question.
Ask
Assessment • What do we need to consider when planning a survey
or question?
Observe • What do you need to do to gather data correctly?
• Are the children using a table, checklist, or tally to • How did you decide on the type of graph to make?
gather their data? Do they have a process in place to • How did you create your graph?
ensure they gather data from each person only once?
• What does (indicate specific data point) mean on the
• Are the children considering appropriate types of graph?
graphs? Do they understand how the type of data lim-
• What do the data tell us about the question posed?
its what makes sense for a graph?
385
References
Brown, M. (2005). Goodnight moon. New York, NY: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Harper Collins. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics.
Reston, VA: Author.
teaching early math: The learning trajectories approach. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
New York, NY: Routledge. (2006). Curriculum focal points for prekindergarten
Cook, C. D. (2008). I scream, you scream: Data
Reston, VA: Author.
analysis with kindergartners. Teaching Children
Mathematics, 14(9), 538–540. Niezgoda, D. A., & Moyer‐Packenham, P. S.
(2005). Hickory, dickory, dock: Navigating through
Franklin, C. A., & Mewborn, D. S. (2008). Statistics
data analysis. Teaching Children Mathematics, 11(6),
in the elementary grades: Exploring distribution of
292–300.
data. Teaching Children Mathematics, 15(1), 10–16.
Russell, S. J. (2006). What does it mean that “5 has
Franklin, C. A., Kader, G., Mewborn, D., Moreno,
a lot”? From the world to data and back. In G. F.
J., Peck, R., Perry, M., & Scheaffer, R. (2005).
Burrill & P. C. Elliott (Eds.), Thinking and reasoning
Guidelines for assessment and instruction in statistics
about data and chance: 68th NCTM yearbook (pp.
education (GAISE) report. Alexandria, VA: American
17–30). Reston VA: National Council of Teachers of
Statistical Association.
Mathematics.
Friel, S. N., Curcio, F. R., & Bright, G. W.
Seuss, Dr. (1960). Green eggs and ham. New York,
(2001). Making sense of graphs: Critical factors
NY: Random House.
influencing comprehension and instructional
implications. Journal for Research in Mathematics Shaughnessy, J. M. (2006). Research on students’
Education, 32, 124–158. understanding of some big concepts in statistics.
In G. F. Burrill & P. C. Elliott (Eds.), Thinking
Friel, S. N., O’Conner, W., & Mamer, J. D. (2006).
and reasoning about data and chance: 68th NCTM
More than “meanmedianmode” and a bar graph:
yearbook (pp. 77–98). Reston, VA: National Council
What’s needed to have a statistical conversation?
of Teachers of Mathematics.
In G. F. Burrill & P. C. Elliott (Eds.), Thinking
and reasoning about data and chance: 68th NCTM Shaughnessy, J. M. (2007). Research on statistics
yearbook (pp. 117–138). Reston, VA: National learning and reasoning. In F. Lester, Jr. (Ed.),
Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching
and learning (pp. 957–1010). Reston, VA: National
Konold, C., Higgins, T., Russell, S., & Khalil, K.
(2004). Data seen through different lenses. Amherst,
MA: University of Massachusetts. Retrieved from
www.srri.umass.edu/publications/konold‐2004dst
Mokros, J., & Wright, T. (2009). Zoos, aquariums,
and expanding students’ data literacy. Teaching
386
Appendix
Common Core State Standards

Standards for Mathematical Practice
The Standards for Mathematical Practice describe varieties of expertise that math-
ematics educators at all levels should seek to develop in their students. These prac-
tices rest on important “processes and proficiencies” with longstanding importance in
mathematics education. The first of these are the NCTM process standards of problem
solving, reasoning and proof, communication, representation, and connections. The
second are the strands of mathematical proficiency specified in the National Research
Council’s report Adding It Up: adaptive reasoning, strategic competence, conceptual
understanding (comprehension of mathematical concepts, operations and relations),
procedural fluency (skill in carrying out procedures flexibly, accurately, efficiently and
appropriately), and productive disposition (habitual inclination to see mathematics
as sensible, useful, and worthwhile, coupled with a belief in diligence and one’s own
efficacy).
Make sense of problems and persevere

1 in solving them.
Mathematically proficient students start by explaining to themselves the meaning of
a problem and looking for entry points to its solution. They analyze givens, constraints,
relationships, and goals. They make conjectures about the form and meaning of the solution
and plan a solution pathway rather than simply jumping into a solution attempt. They con-
sider analogous problems, and try special cases and simpler forms of the original problem
in order to gain insight into its solution. They monitor and evaluate their progress and
change course if necessary. Older students might, depending on the context of the problem,
transform algebraic expressions or change the viewing window on their graphing calcula-
tor to get the information they need. Mathematically proficient students can explain cor-
respondences between equations, verbal descriptions, tables, and graphs or draw diagrams
of important features and relationships, graph data, and search for regularity or trends.
Younger students might rely on using concrete objects or pictures to help conceptualize and
solve a problem. Mathematically proficient students check their answers to problems using
a different method, and they continually ask themselves, “Does this make sense?” They can
understand the approaches of others to solving complex problems and identify correspon-
dences between different approaches.
Source: © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of
Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.
From Appendix A of Teaching Student‐Centered Mathematics, Developmentally Appropriate Instruction for Grades Pre‐K–2, Second Edition.
387
Appendix: Common Core State Standards: Standards for Mathematical Practice
2 Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

Mathematically proficient students make sense of quantities and their relationships in prob-
lem situations. They bring two complementary abilities to bear on problems involving
quantitative relationships: the ability to decontextualize—to abstract a given situation and
represent it symbolically and manipulate the representing symbols as if they have a life of
their own, without necessarily attending to their referents—and the ability to contextualize,
to pause as needed during the manipulation process in order to probe into the referents for
the symbols involved. Quantitative reasoning entails habits of creating a coherent represen-
tation of the problem at hand; considering the units involved; attending to the meaning of
quantities, not just how to compute them; and knowing and flexibly using different proper-
ties of operations and objects.
Construct viable arguments and critique

3 the reasoning of others.
Mathematically proficient students understand and use stated assumptions, definitions, and
previously established results in constructing arguments. They make conjectures and build
a logical progression of statements to explore the truth of their conjectures. They are able
to analyze situations by breaking them into cases, and can recognize and use counterex-
amples. They justify their conclusions, communicate them to others, and respond to the
arguments of others. They reason inductively about data, making plausible arguments that
take into account the context from which the data arose. Mathematically proficient students
are also able to compare the effectiveness of two plausible arguments, distinguish correct
logic or reasoning from that which is flawed, and—if there is a flaw in an argument—explain
what it is. Elementary students can construct arguments using concrete referents such as
objects, drawings, diagrams, and actions. Such arguments can make sense and be correct,
even though they are not generalized or made formal until later grades. Later, students learn
to determine domains to which an argument applies. Students at all grades can listen or read
the arguments of others, decide whether they make sense, and ask useful questions to clarify
or improve the arguments.
4 Model with mathematics.

Mathematically proficient students can apply the mathematics they know to solve problems
arising in everyday life, society, and the workplace. In early grades, this might be as simple
as writing an addition equation to describe a situation. In middle grades, a student might
apply proportional reasoning to plan a school event or analyze a problem in the com-
munity. By high school, a student might use geometry to solve a design problem or use a
function to describe how one quantity of interest depends on another. Mathematically pro-
ficient students who can apply what they know are comfortable making assumptions and
approximations to simplify a complicated situation, realizing that these may need revision
later. They are able to identify important quantities in a practical situation and map their
relationships using such tools as diagrams, two‐way tables, graphs, flowcharts and formulas.
They can analyze those relationships mathematically to draw conclusions. They routinely
interpret their mathematical results in the context of the situation and reflect on whether
the results make sense, possibly improving the model if it has not served its purpose.
388
5 Use appropriate tools strategically.

Mathematically proficient students consider the available tools when solving a mathematical
problem. These tools might include pencil and paper, concrete models, a ruler, a protractor, a cal-
culator, a spreadsheet, a computer algebra system, a statistical package, or dynamic geometry soft-
ware. Proficient students are sufficiently familiar with tools appropriate for their grade or course
to make sound decisions about when each of these tools might be helpful, recognizing both the
insight to be gained and their limitations. For example, mathematically proficient high school
students analyze graphs of functions and solutions generated using a graphing calculator. They
detect possible errors by strategically using estimation and other mathematical knowledge. When
making mathematical models, they know that technology can enable them to visualize the results
of varying assumptions, explore consequences, and compare predictions with data. Mathemati-
cally proficient students at various grade levels are able to identify relevant external mathematical
resources, such as digital content located on a website, and use them to pose or solve problems.
They are able to use technological tools to explore and deepen their understanding of concepts.
6 Attend to precision.
Mathematically proficient students try to communicate precisely to others. They try to use
clear definitions in discussion with others and in their own reasoning. They state the mean-
ing of the symbols they choose, including using the equal sign consistently and appropriately.
They are careful about specifying units of measure, and labeling axes to clarify the correspon-
dence with quantities in a problem. They calculate accurately and efficiently, express numeri-
cal answers with a degree of precision appropriate for the problem context. In the elementary
grades, students give carefully formulated explanations to each other. By the time they reach
high school they have learned to examine claims and make explicit use of definitions.
7 Look for and make use of structure.

Mathematically proficient students look closely to discern a pattern or structure. Young stu-
dents, for example, might notice that three and seven more is the same amount as seven and
three more, or they may sort a collection of shapes according to how many sides the shapes
have. Later, students will see 7 * 8 equals the well remembered 7 * 5 + 7 * 3, in preparation
for learning about the distributive property. In the expression x 2 + 9x + 14, older students can
see the 14 as 2 * 7 and the 9 as 2 + 7. They recognize the significance of an existing line in a
geometric figure and can use the strategy of drawing an auxiliary line for solving problems.
They also can step back for an overview and shift perspective. They can see complicated
things, such as some algebraic expressions, as single objects or as being composed of several
objects. For example, they can see 5 - 3(x - y)2 as 5 minus a positive number times a square
and use that to realize that its value cannot be more than 5 for any real numbers x and y.
8 inLook for and express regularity

repeated reasoning.
Mathematically proficient students notice if calculations are repeated, and look both for
general methods and for shortcuts. Upper elementary students might notice when dividing
25 by 11 that they are repeating the same calculations over and over again, and conclude
389
they have a repeating decimal. By paying attention to the calculation of slope as they re-
peatedly check whether points are on the line through (1, 2) with slope 3, middle school
students might abstract the equation ( y - 2)/(x - 1) = 3. Noticing the regularity in the way
terms cancel when expanding (x - 1)(x + 1), (x - 1)(x 2 + x + 1), and (x - 1)(x 3 + x 2 + x + 1)
might lead them to the general formula for the sum of a geometric series. As they work to
solve a problem, mathematically proficient students maintain oversight of the process, while
attending to the details. They continually evaluate the reasonableness of their intermediate
results.
Connecting the Standards for Mathematical Practice

to the Standards for Mathematical Content
The Standards for Mathematical Practice describe ways in which developing student
practitioners of the discipline of mathematics increasingly ought to engage with the
subject matter as they grow in mathematical maturity and expertise throughout the
elementary, middle and high school years. Designers of curricula, assessments, and
professional development should all attend to the need to connect the mathematical
practices to mathematical content in mathematics instruction.
The Standards for Mathematical Content are a balanced combination of pro-
cedure and understanding. Expectations that begin with the word “understand” are
often especially good opportunities to connect the practices to the content. Students
who lack understanding of a topic may rely on procedures too heavily. Without a flex-
ible base from which to work, they may be less likely to consider analogous problems,
represent problems coherently, justify conclusions, apply the mathematics to practi-
cal situations, use technology mindfully to work with the mathematics, explain the
mathematics accurately to other students, step back for an overview, or deviate from a
known procedure to find a shortcut. In short, a lack of understanding effectively pre-
vents a student from engaging in the mathematical practices.
In this respect, those content standards which set an expectation of understand-
ing are potential “points of intersection” between the Standards for Mathematical
Content and the Standards for Mathematical Practice. These points of intersection
are intended to be weighted toward central and generative concepts in the school
mathematics curriculum that most merit the time, resources, innovative energies, and
focus necessary to qualitatively improve the curriculum, instruction, assessment, pro-
fessional development, and student achievement in mathematics.
390
Appendix
Common Core State Standards

Grades K–2 Critical Content
Areas and Overviews
CCSS Mathematics | Grade Kindergarten Critical Areas

In Kindergarten, instructional time should focus on two critical areas:
1. representing and comparing whole numbers, initially with sets of objects;
2. describing shapes and space.
More learning time in Kindergarten should be devoted to number than to other topics.
1. Students use numbers, including written numerals, to represent quantities and to solve
quantitative problems, such as counting objects in a set; counting out a given number of
objects; comparing sets or numerals; and modeling simple joining and separating situations
with sets of objects, or eventually with equations such as 5 + 2 = 7 and 7 − 2 = 5.
(Kindergarten students should see addition and subtraction equations, and student writing of
equations in kindergarten is encouraged, but it is not required.) Students choose, combine, and
apply effective strategies for answering quantitative questions, including quickly recognizing
the cardinalities of small sets of objects, counting and producing sets of given sizes, counting
the number of objects in combined sets, or counting the number of objects that remain in a
set after some are taken away.
2. Students describe their physical world using geometric ideas (e.g., shape, orientation,
spatial relations) and vocabulary. They identify, name, and describe basic two‐dimensional
shapes, such as squares, triangles, circles, rectangles, and hexagons, presented in a variety of
ways (e.g., with different sizes and orientations), as well as three‐dimensional shapes such as
cubes, cones, cylinders, and spheres. They use basic shapes and spatial reasoning to model
objects in their environment and to construct more complex shapes.
Grade K Overview
Counting and Cardinality
• Know number names and the count sequence.
• Count to tell the number of objects.
• Compare numbers.
Source: © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of
Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.
From Appendix B of Teaching Student‐Centered Mathematics, Developmentally Appropriate Instruction for Grades Pre‐K–2, Second Edition.
391
Appendix: Common Core State Standards: Grades K–2 Critical Content Areas and Overviews
Operations and Algebraic Thinking

• Understand addition as putting together and adding to, and understand subtraction as
taking apart and taking from.
Number and Operations in Base Ten

• Work with numbers 11–19 to gain foundations for place value.
Measurement and Data

• Describe and compare measurable attributes.
• Classify objects and count the number of objects in each category.
Geometry
• Identify and describe shapes.
• Analyze, compare, create, and compose shapes.
CCSS Mathematics | Grade 1 Critical Areas

In Grade 1, instructional time should focus on four critical areas:
1. developing understanding of addition, subtraction, and strategies for addition and
subtraction within 20;
2. developing understanding of whole number relationships and place value, including
grouping in tens and ones;
3. developing understanding of linear measurement and measuring lengths as iterating
length units; and
4. reasoning about attributes of, and composing and decomposing geometric shapes.
1. Students develop strategies for adding and subtracting whole numbers based on their
prior work with small numbers. They use a variety of models, including discrete objects and
length‐based models (e.g., cubes connected to form lengths), to model add‐to, take‐from,
put‐together, take‐apart, and compare situations to develop meaning for the operations
of addition and subtraction, and to develop strategies to solve arithmetic problems with
these operations. Students understand connections between counting and addition and
subtraction (e.g., adding two is the same as counting on two). They use properties of addition
to add whole numbers and to create and use increasingly sophisticated strategies based on
these properties (e.g., “making tens”) to solve addition and subtraction problems within
20. By comparing a variety of solution strategies, children build their understanding of the
relationship between addition and subtraction.
2. Students develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate, and generalizable methods to
add within 100 and subtract multiples of 10. They compare whole numbers (at least
to 100) to develop understanding of and solve problems involving their relative sizes.
They think of whole numbers between 10 and 100 in terms of tens and ones (especially
recognizing the numbers 11 to 19 as composed of a ten and some ones). Through activities
that build number sense, they understand the order of the counting numbers and their
relative magnitudes.
392
3. Students develop an understanding of the meaning and processes of measurement,

including underlying concepts such as iterating (the mental activity of building up the length
of an object with equal‐sized units) and the transitivity principle for indirect measurement.1
4. Students compose and decompose plane or solid figures (e.g., put two triangles together
to make a quadrilateral) and build understanding of part‐whole relationships as well as
the properties of the original and composite shapes. As they combine shapes, they recognize
them from different perspectives and orientations, describe their geometric attributes, and
determine how they are alike and different, to develop the background for measurement and
for initial understandings of properties such as congruence and symmetry.
Grade 1 Overview
• Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction.
• Understand and apply properties of operations and the relationship between addition
and subtraction.
• Add and subtract within 20.
• Work with addition and subtraction equations.

• Extend the counting sequence.
• Understand place value.
• Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract.

• Measure lengths indirectly and by iterating length units.
• Tell and write time.
• Represent and interpret data.
Geometry
• Reason with shapes and their attributes.
CCSS Mathematics | Grade 2 Critical Areas

In Grade 2, instructional time should focus on four critical areas:
1. extending understanding of base‐ten notation;
2. building fluency with addition and subtraction;
3. using standard units of measure; and
4. describing and analyzing shapes.
1
Students should apply the principle of transitivity of measurement to make indirect comparisons, but
they need not use this technical term.
393
1. Students extend their understanding of the base‐ten system. This includes ideas
of counting in fives, tens, and multiples of hundreds, tens, and ones, as well as number
relationships involving these units, including comparing. Students understand multi‐digit
numbers (up to 1000) written in base‐ten notation, recognizing that the digits in each place
represent amounts of thousands, hundreds, tens, or ones (e.g., 853 is 8 hundreds + 5 tens +
3 ones).
2. Students use their understanding of addition to develop fluency with addition and
subtraction within 100. They solve problems within 1000 by applying their understanding
of models for addition and subtraction, and they develop, discuss, and use efficient, accurate,
and generalizable methods to compute sums and differences of whole numbers in base‐ten
notation, using their understanding of place value and the properties of operations. They
select and accurately apply methods that are appropriate for the context and the numbers
involved to mentally calculate sums and differences for numbers with only tens or only
hundreds.
3. Students recognize the need for standard units of measure (centimeter and inch) and
they use rulers and other measurement tools with the understanding that linear measure
involves an iteration of units. They recognize that the smaller the unit, the more iterations
they need to cover a given length.
4. Students describe and analyze shapes by examining their sides and angles. Students
investigate, describe, and reason about decomposing and combining shapes to make other
shapes. Through building, drawing, and analyzing two‐ and three‐dimensional shapes,
students develop a foundation for understanding area, volume, congruence, similarity, and
symmetry in later grades.
Grade 2 Overview
• Represent and solve problems involving addition and subtraction.
• Add and subtract within 20.
• Work with equal groups of objects to gain foundations for multiplication.

• Understand place value.
• Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract.

• Measure and estimate lengths in standard units.
• Relate addition and subtraction to length.
• Work with time and money.
• Represent and interpret data.
Geometry
• Reason with shapes and their attributes.
394
Appendix
A Guide to the Blackline Masters

This appendix contains thumbnails of all of the Blackline Masters that are referenced
throughout the book. Each full‐size master can easily be downloaded from the PDToolkit at
http://pdtoolkit.pearson.com. Once downloaded, you may print as many copies as you need.
Keep the files on your computer.
Ten‐Frame 1 Assorted Shapes (g) 26

Five‐Frame 2 Tangram 27
Dot Cards (a) 3 Geoboard Pattern 28
Dot Cards (b) 4 Geoboard Recording Sheets 29
Dot Cards (c) 5 2‐cm Square Grid 30
Dot Cards (d) 6 1‐cm Square Grid 31
Dot Cards (e) 7 0.5‐cm Square Grid 32
Dot Cards (f) 8 1‐cm Square Dot Grid 33
Blank Hundreds Chart Two‐Column Cards 34
(10 * 10 Square) 9 Circular Fraction Pieces (a) 35
Hundreds Chart 10 Circular Fraction Pieces (b) 36
Missing‐Number Cards 11 Assorted Triangles 37
10 * 10 Multiplication Array 12 Property Lists for Quadrilaterals
Base‐Ten Materials Grid 13 (Parallelograms) 38
Double Ten‐Frame 14 Property Lists for Quadrilaterals
Place‐Value Mat (with Double (Rhombuses) 39
Ten‐Frames) 15 Property Lists for Quadrilaterals
Addition and Subtraction (Rectangles) 40
Recording Charts 16 Property Lists for Quadrilaterals
Little Ten‐Frames (a) 17 (Squares) 41
Little Ten‐Frames (b) 18 Motion Flag (Side 1) 42
Base‐Ten Grid Paper 19 Motion Flag (Side 2) 43
Assorted Shapes (a) 20 Coordinate Grid 44
Assorted Shapes (b) 21 How Long? 45
Assorted Shapes (c) 22 Looking at Collections 46
Assorted Shapes (d) 23 Clock Faces 47
Assorted Shapes (e) 24 Crooked Paths 48
Assorted Shapes (f) 25 Woozle Cards 49
Tips for the Use of the Blackline Masters

When a blackline is to be used either as a workmat for children or will be cut apart into
smaller pieces, the best advice is to duplicate the master on card stock. Card stock (also
known as index stock) is heavy paper that comes in a variety of colors and can be found at
copy or office supply stores.
From Appendix C of Teaching Student‐Centered Mathematics, Developmentally Appropriate Instruction for Grades Pre‐K–2, Second Edition.
395
Appendix: A Guide to the Blackline Masters
Workmats such as the ten‐frame mat and the place‐value mat are best if not laminated.
Lamination makes the mats slippery so that counters slide around or off.
With materials that require cutting into smaller pieces, we suggest that you laminate
the card stock before you cut out the pieces. This will preserve the materials for several
years and save valuable time in the future. Here are some additional, specific instructions for
certain masters.
• Dot Cards (BLMs 3–8): Make each set of six pages a different color. Otherwise, it is
difficult to tell to which set a stray card belongs.
• Little Ten‐Frames (BLMs 17 and 18): Make the full ten‐frames on one color of card
stock and the less‐than‐ten sheet on another. One set consists of the ten cards of each
type, cut from a strip of ten on the master.
• Assorted Shapes (BLMs 20–26): Make each set of seven pages a different color.
Otherwise, it is very difficult to tell to which set a stray shape belongs.
BLM 1 BLM 2 BLM 3

Ten-Frame Five-Frame Dot Cards (a)
BLM 4 BLM 5 BLM 6

Dot Cards (b) Dot Cards (c) Dot Cards (d)
396
BLM 9
BLM 7 BLM 8 Blank Hundreds
Dot Cards (e) Dot Cards (f) Chart (10 × 10 Square)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
BLM 10 BLM 11 BLM 12

Hundreds Chart Missing-Number Cards 10 × 10 Multiplication Array
ONES
TENS
1. Make two copies of this page. Cut out the grid from each copy.
2. Overlap the two grids, and tape onto a blank sheet
to form a 20-by-25-cm grid with 4 complete
hundreds squares and 2 rows of 5 tens each.
3. Use this as a master to make copies on card stock.

Base-Ten Materials Grid Double Ten-Frame Place-Value Mat (with Double Ten-Frames)
397

Addition and Subtraction Recording Charts Little Ten-Frames (a) Little Ten-Frames (b)

Base-Ten Grid Paper Assorted Shapes (a) Assorted Shapes (b)

Assorted Shapes (c) Assorted Shapes (d) Assorted Shapes (e)
398

Assorted Shapes (f) Assorted Shapes (g) Tangram

Geoboard Pattern Geoboard Recording Sheets 2-cm Square Grid

1-cm Square Grid 0.5-cm Square Grid 1-cm Square Dot Grid
399
1. Make three copies of this page.

2. Cut disks apart and make new masters with 1. Make three copies of this page.
three disks of the same type on each page. 2. Cut disks apart and make new masters with
3. Duplicate each fraction on a different color three disks of the same type on each page.
card stock. 3. Duplicate each fraction on a different color
card stock.

Two-Column Cards Circular Fraction Pieces (a) Circular Fraction Pieces (b)
Parallelograms Rhombuses
E J
F
Properties of sides: Properties of sides:

I
C L
B
G
N
Properties of angles: Properties of angles:
M K
BLM 38 BLM 39
BLM 37 Property Lists for Property Lists for
Assorted Triangles Quadrilaterals (Parallelograms) Quadrilaterals (Rhombuses)
Rectangles Squares
Properties of sides: Properties of sides:
Properties of angles: Properties of angles:
Directions: Make copies of side 1.

Then copy side 2 on the reverse of side 1.
Check the orientation and alignment with
one copy. When oriented and aligned correctly,
BLM 40 BLM 41 the two sides will line up when held to the light.
Property Lists for Property Lists for BLM 42
Quadrilaterals (Rectangles) Quadrilaterals (Squares) Motion Flag (Side 1)
400
Name
Object Object
Estimate Estimate
tens ones tens ones
4 Actual Actual
tens ones tens ones
number word number word

3
number number
Object Object
2 Estimate Estimate
tens ones tens ones
Actual Actual
tens ones tens ones

1
number word number word
0 number number
0 1 2 3 4

Motion Flag (Side 2) Coordinate Grid How Long?
Name
Name
Name
12 12
11 1 11 1
Collection #1
10 2 10 2
Danielle has 72 baseball cards in her collection. She has already put 35 of them into
the plastic holders. How many more cards need to be placed in plastic holders? 9 3 9 3
8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6
Circle the longer path. If they are the same, circle both.
Collection #2 11
12
1 11
12
1 How we decided: (Draw pictures)
Timothy collects Matchbox cars and has them on two shelves in his bedroom. He has 10 2 10 2
24 Matchbox cars in all. On the top shelf he has put 16 of the cars. How many will be
placed on the bottom shelf? 9 3 9 3
8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6
Collection #3
12 12
Danielle and Timothy both like to collect state quarters. When they last visited, Danielle 11 1 11 1
had 32 quarters and Timothy had 24 quarters. How many more does Danielle have than 10 2 10 2
Timothy?
9 3 9 3
8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5
6 6

Looking at Collections Clock Faces Crooked Paths
Make two copies

for each set of
Woozle Cards.
Use white or
off-white card
stock. Before
laminating, color
the bodies in one
set light blue and
the other set red.
Cut into individual
cards.
BLM 49
Woozle Cards
401
Index
Page references followed by "f" indicate illustrated problem structures, 143, 156, 317, 319 139, 153, 162, 166, 168, 174, 184, 188-189,
figures or photographs; followed by "t" indicates a properties of, 87, 225, 228, 245, 263-264, 388, 192, 196, 204, 211, 219, 222-223, 235, 246,
table. 392-394 252, 260, 274, 282, 286, 294-295, 307, 310,
Addition and subtraction, 29, 48-49, 66, 91, 99-100, 312, 314, 318, 326-327, 330, 335, 340, 362,
102-103, 106-107, 121, 128, 130, 138, 367, 374, 380, 385-386, 390
A 143-146, 148, 150, 152-153, 157, 162, Assessment:, 48
Abbreviations, 302 171-172, 174, 182, 184, 186, 191-193, alternative, 86, 139
Abilities, 32, 49, 93, 274, 326, 388 196-197, 215-216, 219, 223, 225-226, 228, community, 335
Abstract symbols, 3 230, 232, 240, 244-245, 247, 255, 264, 273, components of, 211
Abstraction, 88, 376 317-319, 391-394, 395, 398 continuous, 380
Academic achievement, 68, 186 standard algorithm for subtraction, 103 culturally responsive, 77
academic language, 68, 71, 73 Additions, 251 curriculum materials, 327
development, 68, 71 Adjustment, 234 decision making, 53, 86
importance, 68 Adjustments, 59 definitions, 162, 362
in classroom discourse, 73 Administrators, 29, 109-111 demand for, 60
Academic performance, 111 educational, 111 descriptive, 362
Academies, 2, 12, 95, 140, 193, 247 school, 29, 109-111 differentiated instruction, 37
ACCESS, 18, 36-37, 49, 63, 70-71, 77, 81, 87-88, 92, Adults, 107, 114, 143, 146, 198, 227, 280, 369, 384 direct, 10, 166, 174
106, 219, 246, 255, 274, 338, 361, 369, 371 Advertisements, 368 ecological, 327
Accommodation, 4-5, 81, 117 Advertising, 365, 367 family, 153, 188-189, 192, 282, 374
Accommodations, 70, 75-76, 81-82, 94 advice, 395 formal, 330
accommodations, 70, 75-76, 81-82, 94 Advocacy, 111 formative, 16, 47-48, 51, 53, 60, 70, 75, 77, 86,
Accountability, 45, 101 Affect, 8-9, 37, 143, 171, 274, 275, 321, 365 115, 120, 130, 132, 134, 153, 162, 166,
of teachers, 45 Age, 67, 91, 111, 114, 140, 169, 223, 279, 334, 384 174, 184, 188-189, 196, 204, 211, 219,
Accuracy, 175, 307, 383 mental, 91 235, 252, 260, 282, 286, 307, 310, 312,
Achieve, 34, 102, 104 Agreement, 97, 202, 291 314, 318, 340, 374, 380
Achievement, 60, 67-68, 81-83, 97, 104-105, 111, 186, AIDS, 2, 85, 152 fractions and, 295
295, 363, 390 Algebra, 29, 92, 94-95, 99, 104, 191, 249-250, 252, gathering data, 367, 374
academic, 68, 82, 111, 186 254, 262, 273, 275, 337, 355, 389 group, 37, 48, 51, 53, 55, 115, 139, 184, 196, 204,
in mathematics, 60, 68, 104, 111, 295, 390 Algebraic reasoning, 100, 249-272, 274-275 222, 246, 318, 327, 335, 340, 362
influences on, 111 generalization from arithmetic, 250 guidelines for, 367, 386
Acquisition, 247 patterns in, 268-272 HELPING, 75, 120, 174, 184, 188-189, 192, 282,
ACT, 1, 16, 19, 27, 62, 102, 104, 146, 148-149, 238, Algorithms, 63-65, 103, 121, 148, 193, 225-227, 367, 374, 380, 385-386
275, 279, 283, 294 229-231, 238, 240, 244-245, 247 in geometry, 330
Acting out, 177, 256 cultural differences in, 231 in grades, 223, 282
actions, 26-27, 52, 63, 148-149, 279, 315, 357, 388 Alternative assessments, 86 informal, 295, 330
Activities, 6, 10, 14, 16, 27, 35, 41, 45, 58, 83, 85-87, Alternative strategies, 101, 226 integrated, 295
91-92, 99-100, 102, 115-119, 121-131, 133, Alternatives, 89 interpretation of, 76
135-136, 139, 153, 161, 176-177, 186, Ambiguity, 18 math, 85, 327, 386
188-190, 199-205, 207-211, 214-215, 219, American Educational Research Association, 12, 223, mathematics, 10, 16, 47, 53, 55, 58, 60, 70, 75-77,
226, 235, 239, 253, 256, 265, 267, 269, 287, 327 86, 166, 174, 188-189, 223, 282, 295,
299, 301, 304-308, 310, 312, 315, 318, 321, Analysis, 51, 55, 92, 95, 149, 164, 295, 332-335, 346, 307, 318, 327, 330, 335, 367, 386, 390
323-324, 334-339, 341-346, 350, 352-353, 365-367, 370, 374-375, 383, 386 mathematics instruction, 390
355-360, 369-373, 379, 392 story, 55, 149, 164, 374 measurement principles, 327
bridging, 219 Anecdotal notes, 48 methods, 10, 16, 50, 53, 58-59, 86, 139, 153, 166,
developmental, 118, 334 Angles, 71, 329-330, 332-333, 336, 338-339, 346, 174, 196, 235, 246, 326, 367, 374
initiating, 14 350-352, 362, 394, 400 methods of, 196, 374
instructional, 6, 10, 83, 86, 118, 189, 200, 304, 392 units of, 394 misunderstandings, 47, 58-59, 168
learning, 6, 10, 14, 16, 27, 35, 41, 45, 58, 83, animals, 120, 136, 152, 183-184, 278, 285, 303, 368, monitoring, 86, 189
85-87, 91-92, 99-100, 102, 115, 118, 122, 370, 373-374 monitoring and, 86
131, 186, 189-190, 200, 215, 253, 267, anxiety, 6, 95, 107, 110, 173, 187, 189-190 need for, 10
287, 308, 315, 335-336, 352, 355, 357 Application, 73, 94, 114, 176, 304 objective, 50, 85, 162
ongoing, 139, 307 Applications, 36, 41, 60, 93, 106, 172 observation, 48, 50, 58, 166, 312
planning, 35, 83, 85-87, 91-92 Appreciation, 333 plan for, 48, 59, 189
space for, 209 Apprehension, 98 planning and, 76
varying, 41, 91, 116, 130 Approaches, 7-11, 19-21, 27, 34, 47-48, 50, 53, 56, principles, 47, 86, 223, 327, 330, 335, 367, 386
Adaptation, 35-36, 51, 54, 241 65-66, 76, 82-83, 86, 88-89, 93, 101, 103, problem, 10, 16, 37, 47-48, 50-51, 53, 55, 59, 70,
Adaptations, 94 172, 175, 198, 215, 219, 228, 230, 232, 252, 75-77, 85, 120, 130, 153, 166, 168, 189,
Adaptive reasoning, 2, 387 256, 294, 306, 345, 387 192, 204, 219, 223, 235, 246, 260, 274,
Addition, 3-4, 6, 8-10, 15, 19-23, 26-27, 29, 33, 36-38, brief, 48, 175 282, 294, 318, 367, 390
43-44, 48-50, 53-54, 58, 64, 66-68, 71, 76, Appropriate language, 73 procedures, 51, 390
85, 87, 91, 99-103, 106-107, 121, 123, 128, Area, 54, 66, 68, 83, 88, 91-92, 100, 117, 138, 250, purpose of, 70
130, 138, 140, 142-146, 148, 150-157, 159, 278, 280-281, 286, 288-289, 293, 297-298, purposes, 53, 166, 189
161-162, 164, 166-169, 171-174, 176-179, 301, 304, 306-307, 321-323, 327, 330, 336, reasons for, 58, 374
181-187, 191-193, 196-197, 199, 214-219, 355, 368, 370-371, 374, 394 rubric for, 58
223, 225-226, 228, 230-232, 234-238, Arguments, 2-3, 125, 136, 143, 163-164, 175-176, rubrics for, 58
240-241, 243-245, 247, 250-252, 254-255, 218, 230, 232, 264, 285-286, 333, 345, 352, scoring, 55
258, 263-264, 273-274, 282, 295, 317-319, 388 service, 223
322, 367, 388, 391-394, 395, 398 examining, 143 social studies, 367
comparison models, 153 Array Multiplication, 395, 397 software, 85-86
contextual problems, 36, 142-143, 155 Art, 66, 85, 297, 330, 376 student achievement, 295, 390
implied, 76, 143 defining, 330 summative, 47-48
invented strategies for, 219, 232, 236-238, 245 music, 297 technology, 189, 380, 390
number line, 3, 6, 8, 43, 67, 91, 148, 151-152, 162, standards for, 330 terms in, 70
177, 214, 217, 219, 234-235, 245, 247, Assessing, 47-60, 61-78, 79-95, 130, 231 transition, 86, 211, 235
273 Assessment, 10, 16, 37, 47-48, 50-51, 53, 55, 58-60, work samples, 58
of fractions, 282, 295 70, 75-77, 85-86, 115, 120, 130, 132, 134, Assessments, 34, 47-48, 53-54, 58-59, 75, 82-83,
403
85-86, 88-89, 104, 109, 366, 390 recorded, 384 293-294, 330-331, 336, 391
classroom, 34, 82, 104, 109 talking, 76 fraction, 277, 280, 289, 294
comprehensive, 83 Borrowing, 240 Citizenship, 365
quality, 82 Boys, 377, 381 Clarifying, 3, 11, 21, 258
Assets, 94 Brain, 4-5, 46, 186 Clarity, 85, 351
Assignments, 56, 106 research, 4 Class discussions, 41, 58, 65, 218, 374
Assimilation, 4-5 Bridging, 219, 240, 295 Class list, 352, 369
Assistance, 41, 82, 88-89, 94, 105 Budgets, 107 Classification, 339, 344, 347, 365, 370-374
cards, 41 Buildings, 346 Classroom, 4, 6, 8-11, 14, 16, 19-22, 24-29, 32-35, 37,
Association, 1, 12, 46, 78, 94-95, 99, 103, 223, 327, Bulletin boards, 322 39-40, 45-46, 50-51, 63-68, 70, 73, 77-78,
366-367, 386, 387, 391 81-82, 84, 87, 92-94, 98, 102, 104, 106,
Association for Supervision and Curriculum C 109-111, 116-117, 119, 133-134, 140, 149,
Development, 12 Calculator use, 190 152, 173, 177, 202, 220, 228, 231-232, 249,
Associative property, 155, 225 Calculators, 102, 210, 272-274 256, 275, 278, 299, 302, 307, 309, 324, 327,
in addition, 155 California, 77, 95 335-336, 338, 343, 355, 359, 369, 373,
assumptions, 388-389 Capacities, 323 379-380
conclusions, 388 Capacity, 2, 298, 301, 323-324 arrangements, 82
atmosphere, 231 Cardinality, 17, 38, 53, 115, 121, 391 conference, 327
Attending, 32-33, 37, 201, 388, 390 Cards, 35, 41-43, 49, 71, 84, 100, 116, 118-120, 124, displays, 93
Attention, 1, 4, 6, 15, 18, 21, 23-24, 32, 34, 49, 62, 69, 126, 129-130, 132-134, 137-139, 146, 172, environment in, 232
71-72, 81, 83, 85, 94, 125, 128, 136, 139, 178-181, 187-192, 200-201, 210-214, 216, language in, 70, 110, 327
160, 162, 164, 176, 179, 184, 204, 210, 212, 235-237, 239-240, 249, 254-255, 258, 262, organizing, 35, 81, 92, 228
222, 228, 234, 241-242, 250-252, 267, 280, 266, 269, 271, 298, 304, 322, 343, 352, 360, classroom discourse, 21, 27, 66, 73
286, 305, 316, 319-320, 327, 331, 334, 337, 371-372, 377, 395-397, 400-401 Classroom environment, 37, 65, 67-68, 232
341, 345-346, 350, 355, 381, 390 Career, 104 time, 67-68
and learning, 34 coaching, 104 Classrooms, 6-10, 15, 68, 73, 77, 82, 93, 109, 147,
negative, 23 Categories, 47-48, 56-57, 68, 91, 99, 105, 172, 331, 212, 278, 334
positive, 350 340, 346, 348, 351, 360-361, 370, 374 for grades, 278
student, 1, 21, 24, 81, 139, 334, 390 Categorization, 144, 265 regular, 93, 109
theories, 4 Census, 365, 367 special, 93, 212, 334
Attitudes, 10, 104 Centers, 37, 40-41 Cleanup, 91
teacher, 10, 104 computer, 40 CLEAR, 3, 27, 34, 58, 68, 71-72, 76, 82, 85, 97, 126,
Attraction, 34 Cerebral palsy, 89 128, 139, 154, 162, 165, 168, 192, 205, 210,
Attribute materials, 370, 374 Chains, 205, 310 222, 245, 264, 269, 273-274, 291-292, 294,
Audio, 41, 54, 106 Chalk, 309 299, 304, 326, 329, 362, 371, 384, 389
online, 106 Change, 3-4, 26, 38, 40, 42-43, 45, 80, 103, 115, Climate, 11
Austin, 111, 193 125-127, 129, 144-145, 147, 149, 152, 178, Clip art, 85, 376
Authenticity, 34 182, 205-206, 210-214, 216, 222, 226, 229, Clips, 111, 205, 221, 301, 308, 310-311, 324, 326
AUTHOR, 12, 78, 140, 193, 223, 247, 275, 295, 303, 231, 233-234, 237, 250-252, 254, 256, 261, Clock reading, 315-316
315, 327, 363, 386 272, 274-275, 281, 286, 292, 303, 308, 314, Clothing, 368, 372, 374
Authors, 81 316-317, 319-321, 326, 335, 352, 362, 379, Clues, 52, 87, 153, 211, 360
Autism, 89 387 Clustering, 382
Autonomy, 29 continuing, 272 Clusters, 186, 188
Average, 104, 303, 305, 365-366 facilitating, 40 Coaching, 10, 98, 104, 232
Averages, 366 planned, 43 Codes, 49
Avoiding, 6, 177, 190 problems with, 145, 147, 149, 182, 226, 237, 379 Cognates, 70, 77
Awareness, 34, 47, 361 stages of, 211 Cognition, 50, 275
Changes, 26, 36, 40, 81, 98, 109, 208, 211, 225, 252, Cognitive demand, 18, 21, 33, 39
B 267, 270-271, 273-274, 316-317, 335, 352, Cognitive dissonance, 51
Back, 4, 11, 27-28, 48, 51, 59, 66, 82, 84, 98, 101, 354 Coherence, 140, 193, 275, 295, 327, 363, 386
103, 109, 115-116, 120-121, 123, 129, 145, Charting, 86 COIN, 55, 201, 317-318, 321
152, 168, 183, 211, 219, 230, 232-234, Charts, 86, 133, 214, 218, 241-242, 375, 395, 398 Collaboration, 44, 84
237-239, 246, 252, 255, 263, 269, 286, data, 86, 375 small groups, 44, 84
319-320, 322, 353-354, 359, 379-380, 386, feedback, 86 understanding, 44
389-390 Checklist, 35, 49-50, 59, 246, 252, 307, 314, 326, 385 Collecting, 117, 220, 365, 367, 369-370, 379, 383
Background, 4, 35, 37, 41, 63, 69, 72, 74, 78, 232, Checklists, 49, 90 color, 71, 85, 99, 126-127, 131, 136, 201, 253,
291, 332, 393 Chicago, 95, 347 267-268, 270, 280-282, 287, 313, 322, 330,
Background knowledge, 4, 72 Child development, 295 335, 337, 361, 367, 370-371, 375, 381, 396,
Balance, 65, 90, 256-258, 273, 302, 324 curriculum, 295 400-401
Bar graphs, 136, 366, 376-381, 383-384 Child needs, 148, 186, 362 Colors, 15, 122-123, 126-128, 150-152, 269, 289, 313,
BASIC, 1, 8-9, 15, 34, 49, 83, 88, 90-91, 99-104, 114, Children, 1-12, 14-29, 32-45, 47-60, 61-78, 79-95, 337, 369, 371, 378, 380-381, 395
119-121, 127, 130-131, 142-143, 153-154, 97-111, 114-139, 142-143, 145-169, Com, 152, 186, 233, 251, 370, 395
163, 165, 171-193, 208, 234, 237, 250-251, 171-193, 195-223, 225-247, 249-275, Commitment, 97
254-255, 263, 302, 304, 311, 324, 352, 277-291, 293-295, 297-327, 329-348, Communication, 2, 14-15, 23, 36, 57, 68, 97-98, 108,
365-366, 370, 391 350-363, 365-386, 392, 395 183, 186, 375, 387
Basic skills, 99 bilingual, 68, 70, 73, 77-78, 111 good, 108, 183, 186
Behavior, 169, 327 constructivist approach, 10 language development, 68
Behaviors, 84 focus on, 17-18, 25, 37-39, 41, 43, 48-49, 53, language development and, 68
Benchmarks, 56, 121, 126, 297, 303, 305-306, 327 65-66, 68, 71, 84-86, 88, 93, 99-100, 103, parents, 97-98, 108
Benefits, 52, 101, 229, 301 109, 120, 127, 129, 143, 148, 151, 154, selection of, 23
Best practice, 95 156, 161, 164, 174, 176-177, 180-181, Communication skills, 183
Best practices, 1, 77, 103, 111, 387, 391 185-186, 189, 205, 207, 209, 215, 228, Communications, 104-105
Big ideas, 34-36, 49, 65-66, 84, 86, 289 235, 241, 256, 274, 278, 281-282, 293, Community, 3, 9, 11, 14, 27-28, 64-65, 67, 93, 97-111,
Bilingual, 68, 70, 73, 77-78, 111 302, 304, 306, 311, 315-317, 321, 323, 335-336, 368, 388
Bilingual education, 68, 78 332-333, 335-336, 341, 350, 370, and principals, 97-111
Bills, 318, 321 374-377, 379, 381, 383, 392 groups, 27-28, 64, 99, 101, 106, 335
Birthday, 15, 67, 76, 148-149 Children with disabilities, 41, 81, 83-90, 119-120, 129, Community of learners, 9, 27-28
Blocks, 8, 25-26, 55, 90, 106, 128, 135, 146, 159, 173, 138, 167, 175-177, 180, 183, 186-187, 191, Comparison, 92, 137, 144-145, 147, 153-154, 182,
197, 200-201, 204, 208-211, 229, 243-244, 203, 208-209, 211, 213, 215, 217, 221, 236, 297-301, 308, 315, 317, 319, 321, 323-324,
267-270, 280-281, 287, 303, 315, 322-326, 239, 241, 245, 256, 258-259, 268, 273, 286, 376, 379, 384
341-344, 354, 356, 371 291, 304, 309, 318, 325, 336, 340, 350, 353, Comparisons, 117, 119, 136, 190, 220, 256, 282, 288,
Body language, 52 356, 359, 361, 371-372, 383 290, 299-300, 302, 304, 308-309, 315, 325,
Bookmark, 50 Children with special needs, 22, 88-89, 293 369, 375-376, 384, 393
Books, 36, 73, 76-77, 106, 117, 129, 152, 161, 196, Chip, 49 Compensation, 233, 235, 255
269, 275, 295, 305, 319, 322, 349, 369-370, Chips, 41, 150, 201, 203, 241, 322 Competence, 2, 387
374-376, 384 Choice, 9, 27, 35-36, 38, 45, 65, 68, 88, 100, 108, mathematical, 2, 387
aids in, 152 183, 219, 240, 244, 311, 365 strategic, 2, 387
multicultural, 77 Chunking, 240, 305-306 Competency, 225
picture, 305, 374, 376 Circles, 38-39, 55, 58, 66, 166, 277, 280, 289, Competing, 4, 85, 108
404
Competition, 189-190 Context, 3, 15-17, 20, 24, 26, 34, 36, 66-67, 69, 71-73, trends, 104, 365
Complexity, 35, 41-43, 91, 93 76, 82, 102-103, 129, 131, 138-139, 143, Curriculum development, 12, 46, 78
Components, 45, 53, 66, 87, 98, 105, 108, 145, 199, 150, 152-154, 158, 161, 164, 175, 215, 226, Curriculum Focal Points for Prekindergarten Through
210-211, 250, 379 236, 247, 251, 255, 262, 273, 286-290, 293, Grade 8 Mathematics, 140, 193, 275, 295,
Composition, 26 304, 317, 325, 353, 366, 369, 381, 387-389, 327, 363, 386
Comprehensible input, 72-73, 75 394
Comprehension, 2, 21, 149, 245, 386, 387 Contextual problems, 36, 142-143, 149, 155 D
knowledge and, 2 Conventions, 23, 149, 207, 231, 304, 317, 349 Daily instruction, 5
Computation, 3, 27, 38, 85, 102, 104, 107, 114, 124, Conversations, 88, 109, 367 Daily living, 227
131, 148, 150, 153, 163-164, 185, 190, beginning, 88 Data, 1, 16, 24, 35-36, 47-48, 50, 53, 67, 82, 86, 92,
195-196, 212, 214-215, 219, 225-244, Cooperative groups, 48, 73, 101 103, 136, 220-221, 297, 330, 365-386,
246-247, 249-250, 254, 258, 260, 263 Cooperative learning, 10, 101 387-389, 392-394
instruction, 38, 131, 195-196, 215, 225, 229, 240, approaches, 10, 101 Data:, 381
249, 254 Coordination, 199 Data analysis, 92, 365, 367, 370, 374, 386
computation instruction, 196 Copyright, 1-2, 13, 18-20, 31, 47, 61, 79-80, 97, 99, Data analysis and probability standard, 367
Computational estimation, 195 103, 113, 141, 171-172, 174, 195, 215, 225, probability, 367
Computational skills, 19, 102, 225 249, 277, 297, 329, 337, 365, 367, 387, 391, Data collection, 82, 367, 369, 374, 384
for addition and subtraction, 102 395 data sources, 369
Computer programs, 353 Costs, 164, 262 Data points, 383
Computers, 102, 383 Council of Chief State School Officers, 1, 29, 45, 60, Databases, 369
Computing, 121, 148, 163-165, 225-227, 239, 249, 94, 103, 111, 140, 169, 193, 387, 391 Dating, 49, 254
255, 259, 366 Counting, 5-6, 8, 19-20, 33, 38, 40-41, 48-51, 67, Decimals, 121, 295, 369
Concept, 1, 5, 10, 16-17, 22-25, 36-37, 40-41, 45, 50, 90-91, 114-123, 125, 127, 129-131, 133, number sense, 121, 295
53-54, 57-58, 60, 65, 68-69, 71, 75, 85, 139, 142-143, 146, 148, 150-151, 155, 157, Decision making, 53, 86, 293
88-89, 114, 118-119, 121, 125, 131-132, 135, 160, 163, 171-179, 181, 183-186, 188, 192, shared, 293
142, 151, 167, 195-199, 204, 206, 209-210, 196-199, 202-204, 207-209, 211-212, Deck, The, 255
215, 219, 237, 240, 250, 266-268, 280, 286, 217-219, 221-222, 227-228, 232, 234-235, Deduction, 332-333
292, 299-301, 315, 318, 322-324, 331, 334, 237-241, 245-246, 252-253, 271-272, 274, Definition, 150, 265-266, 346-351
344, 351 277, 279-280, 288, 291-292, 299-300, Definitions, 18, 27-28, 87, 145, 162, 265, 333,
Concept development, 125, 142, 204, 351 308-309, 314, 317-318, 320, 350, 374, 376, 346-347, 349-351, 362, 388-389
Concept maps, 69 383, 391-394 Democracy, 77
Concepts, 2, 4-8, 14-15, 17-18, 23-25, 36, 40, 45, 48, counting on, 40, 48, 50, 118-119, 122-123, 129, demonstrations, 73, 87, 353
51, 53-54, 65, 69, 71, 73, 82-91, 95, 100, 139, 146, 148, 174, 176-177, 211, 218, Denominators, 291
103-104, 110, 113-137, 139-140, 153, 158, 232, 234, 245, 392 density, 85
163, 167, 169, 172, 185, 193, 195-223, skip counting, 33, 90, 157, 160, 184, 217, 246, 253, Dependency, 88
228-229, 241, 247, 249-250, 252-253, 271-272, 318, 376 Depth, 35, 59, 91, 93-94, 100, 298
277-292, 294-295, 297-324, 326-327, Counting all, 174, 177, 222 Derived facts, 146, 157, 166, 174
329-360, 362-363, 365, 386, 387, 389-390, Counting on, 40, 48, 50, 118-119, 122-123, 129, 139, Description, 53, 332, 346, 348
393 146, 148, 174, 176-177, 211, 218, 232, 234, Descriptions, 103, 330, 334-335, 352, 355, 387
circles, 277, 280, 289, 294, 330-331, 336 245, 392 Descriptors, 335, 373
guides, 8, 86 Counting skills, 121 Design, 10, 12, 20, 41, 50, 69, 75, 85, 118, 128, 151,
introducing, 4, 73, 200, 205, 221, 282, 291, 320, Courses, 334 173, 176, 269, 341, 353-355, 359, 366-367,
324, 340 Courtesy, 2 388
teaching of, 83 Creating, 5-6, 25, 29, 41, 68, 77, 86, 119, 122, 128, Designs, 93, 128, 341, 343, 353-354, 359
Conceptual knowledge, 63 131, 158, 178, 180, 205, 214, 232, 270, 295, Development, 2-3, 6-7, 9, 12, 18, 20, 27, 29, 32-33,
lack of, 63 310, 317, 320, 343, 350, 357, 360, 362, 367, 36, 46, 48, 55, 68, 70-71, 78, 87, 94,
Conceptual understanding, 1-2, 4, 49, 52, 85, 90, 94, 374, 379, 383, 388 108-109, 111, 114, 122, 124-125, 127, 130,
102, 190, 201, 226, 297, 387 Critical period, 195 135-136, 142, 148, 153, 155, 163, 172-173,
Conclusions, 75, 98, 266, 333, 380, 383-384, 388, 390 Critiquing, 58 175-176, 189, 193, 195-197, 202, 204,
Conferences, 48, 98, 107, 153 Cubes, 27, 42-43, 48, 85, 87, 89, 117, 127-129, 135, 211-212, 214, 223, 226-231, 275, 282, 295,
families, 98, 107, 153 138-139, 151, 154, 200, 202-204, 209, 297, 301, 304, 318, 327, 329-330, 351, 354,
parent, 48, 98 221-222, 228, 256, 265-270, 289, 293, 298, 390
Confidence, 16, 23, 39, 44-45, 58, 73, 98, 104, 107, 301, 310, 323-324, 330, 333-334, 379, 383, Development of children, 223, 327
123, 149, 171, 173, 240 391-392 Developmental approach, 101
Conflict, 5 Cue, 41, 67 Developmental disabilities, 193
Confusion, 5, 51-52, 58, 85, 232-233, 307 Cues, 82, 85, 119 Developmental perspective, 223, 334
congruence, 352, 393-394 visual, 82, 85 Devices, 67, 299, 343
Conjectures, 21, 103, 232, 263-264, 312, 372, 385, Cuisenaire rods, 280-281, 287-289, 310, 312, 322 Diagnosis, 54
387-388 Cultural, 4, 62-67, 69-70, 199, 231 Diagnostic assessment, 60
justifying, 263 Cultural differences, 231 Diagnostic interview, 50-52, 75, 184, 204, 219, 310,
Connections, 2-6, 8-10, 14-15, 18, 21, 23, 25, 27-28, Cultural diversity, 64 335, 340
36, 40-41, 56, 65-66, 72, 85, 88, 91, Cultural practices, 62, 67 Diagrams, 2-4, 16, 24, 69, 103, 150, 310, 383,
100-102, 104, 106, 111, 121, 142, 190-191, Culturally responsive instruction, 64-65 387-388
199, 210-211, 220, 222, 240, 278, 283, 387, Culturally responsive teaching, 77 Venn, 383
392 Culture, 10, 37, 62-65, 67, 72, 77, 111 Dialogue, 11, 22, 89, 101, 264
Consequence, 19, 254 high, 62-63, 65 Dictionaries, 71
Consequences, 389 meaning of, 72 Differences, 8, 32, 39-40, 63, 80-81, 109, 115, 137,
Conservation, 321 Curiosity, 232 146, 228-229, 231, 235, 267, 323-324, 331,
Consideration, 64, 72, 105, 303 Curriculum, 12, 44, 46, 60, 78, 82, 84, 89, 91-95, 337, 339, 361, 380, 382, 394
Consistency, 85 98-100, 102, 104, 108-109, 111, 114, 138, Differentiated classroom, 37, 46, 78
Constructivism, 4, 6, 10, 29 140, 158, 163, 167, 191, 193, 221, 225, 245, Differentiated instruction, 37, 46
and teaching, 29 249-250, 272-273, 275, 277, 293, 295, 297, Differentiation, 32-37, 44, 46, 65
Constructivist approach, 10 304, 307, 325, 327, 329-330, 361, 363, 365, Digit Correspondence Task, 211
Constructivist theory, 81 367, 370, 376, 383, 386, 390 Diligence, 2, 387
Constructs, 5, 127 adaptations, 94 Dimensions, 321-322, 324, 331, 335, 348
Content, 2, 9, 15-16, 28, 34-37, 40-41, 45, 49, 53, aligned, 109 Direct instruction, 10-11, 100
56-57, 64-66, 68-70, 72, 75, 77, 89, 91-93, basic skills, 99 Directions, 9, 16, 25, 32, 41, 81, 83-85, 155, 168, 211,
97, 99, 101, 103, 105-106, 109, 133, 136, challenges to, 272 221, 258, 356-357, 400
138, 167, 191, 221, 245, 273, 286, 293, 295, compacting, 92, 95 Directives, 72, 89, 329
297, 325, 327, 329-331, 334-336, 344, 357, differentiated, 46, 78 Disabilities, 41, 81, 83-92, 94-95, 105, 117, 119-120,
361, 367-368, 372, 374, 383, 389-390, explicit, 84, 89, 100 122, 129, 138, 167-168, 172, 175-177, 180,
391-394 implementing, 91, 98, 108-109 183, 186-187, 191, 193, 201, 203, 208-209,
expectations, 45, 65, 72, 75, 245, 273, 390 kinds of, 94, 104, 250, 376 211, 213, 215, 217, 221, 236, 239, 241, 245,
knowledge, 2, 9, 28, 34, 36, 53, 64-65, 69, 72, 77, manipulatives, 12, 82, 84, 98-99, 167, 245, 293, 256, 258-259, 268, 273, 286, 291, 304, 309,
91, 93, 101, 136, 295, 361, 389 383 318, 325, 336, 340, 350, 353, 356, 359, 361,
meaningful, 15, 34, 66, 69, 106, 297, 330, 367 options for, 82, 91, 93 371-372, 383
Content knowledge, 295 parallel, 89, 329-330 intellectual, 89, 186
Content objectives, 49 relationships and, 249, 272 Disability, 81-82, 95
Content standards, 390 structured, 44 Discipline, 9, 16, 390
405
Discipline issues, 16 English Language Learners, 21, 63, 68, 74, 77, 81, 94, Falls, 193, 246, 270, 280, 291, 305
Discipline problems, 16 116, 138, 149, 167, 191, 197, 221, 231, 245, Families, 84, 97-111, 114, 153, 187-189, 191-192,
Discourse, 14, 16, 21, 27, 29, 66, 71, 73 273, 293, 325, 361, 383 230-232, 250, 344, 367, 369
practice, 14, 16, 29, 73 bilingual education, 68 children with disabilities, 84, 187, 191
Discussion, 2, 7, 9-11, 21-22, 26, 28, 37-38, 40, 44, English language learners (ELLs), 21, 63, 149, 197, involving, 107-108, 111, 153
53, 55, 58, 66-68, 70, 73, 75, 83-84, 100, 231 needs, 108-109, 191
105-106, 109, 125-126, 132, 134, 136, 143, English learners, 73, 77-78 step, 109, 188, 367
149, 153, 155, 161, 166, 175, 177, 182, 186, Enrichment, 81, 91-94 Family, 63, 67, 98, 100-101, 105, 107-108, 111,
202, 206, 212, 217-218, 240-241, 243, 252, Enrichment activities, 92 144-145, 153, 177, 187-189, 191-192, 231,
255, 259, 262-263, 265, 267-268, 270, Enthusiasm, 16 282, 365, 374, 378
285-286, 294, 301, 303, 312, 324, 326, 335, Environment, 34-35, 37, 41, 65, 67-68, 81, 85, 104, PET, 374
338, 344, 367, 369, 375, 381, 384, 389 136, 232, 317, 331, 343, 355, 391 Family history, 67
guided, 10, 301 arranging, 343 Family members, 67, 177, 189, 231
Discussion groups, 106 home, 67, 104, 136 Family support, 111
Discussions, 6-7, 11, 21-22, 25-27, 29, 40-41, 58, 65, Equal opportunity, 62, 80 schooling, 111
73, 77, 90, 126, 177, 209, 218, 232, 249, Equal sign, 90, 146, 150, 249, 254-256, 258-260, 273, fear, 267
282, 294, 334-335, 359, 368, 374-375, 381, 275, 389 Feedback, 10, 14-15, 48, 51, 57-58, 86, 108, 189, 321
383 relational thinking and, 260 facilitative, 10
conceptual, 90 Equality, 17, 249, 275, 282 immediate, 189
issue, 375 Equations, 53, 66, 88, 100, 103, 128, 146, 150-151, feelings, 267
Disequilibrium, 5, 11, 29 153-154, 157-158, 161-162, 165, 168, 178, Field trips, 369
Dispositions, 101 185, 233, 245-246, 254-255, 258-259, File, 126, 128-129, 314, 340
Distracting, 52 261-262, 273, 275, 387, 391, 393 Files, 395
Distraction, 106 Equity, 62-63, 77, 80-81, 94, 140 Findings, 4, 44, 70
Distribution, 366, 386 gender equity, 77 fire, 368
District of Columbia, 1 Equity principle, 62, 80 First grade, 57, 133, 164-165, 195, 202, 207, 212-213,
Diversity, 19, 45, 62, 64, 77-78, 111, 193, 295 Equivalent groupings, 197-199 220-221, 273, 277, 282, 297, 308, 315, 330,
pairing, 45 Erlbaum, Lawrence, 12, 29, 77, 275 383
Division, 58, 63, 67, 142, 155-161, 167, 169, 229, 278, Error, 51, 88, 147, 157, 168, 227, 246, 267, 285, 290, Fish, 148, 182
293 301, 305, 380 Flash cards, 100, 126, 172, 179, 181, 189-192
measurement division, 156-157 error analysis, 51 Flexibility:, 12, 193
partition division, 156-157, 160 Error correction, 88 Flexible grouping, 44-45, 84
Domain, 138, 221, 250, 273, 295 Errors, 11, 51, 57, 90, 215, 229, 231, 233, 241-242, Floors, 17
Dominoes, 123-124 244, 297, 311, 389 Flow, 48, 52
Dot Cards, 119-120, 124, 129, 395-397 computational, 229, 233, 244 Fluency, 2, 49, 51-52, 83, 94, 101, 148, 155, 163,
Doubling, 122 Estimation, 107, 135, 195, 204-205, 214, 221, 230, 171-172, 183, 190-191, 193, 226, 245, 304,
Doubt, 15 297, 304-307, 311, 327, 389 387, 393-394
Drawing, 20, 22-23, 26, 34, 36-37, 41, 55, 73, 75, 77, tips for teaching, 306, 311 calculating, 51
106, 143, 151, 166, 280, 283-284, 286-287, Estimation skills, 306 FOCUS, 1, 8-9, 17-18, 25, 32, 37-41, 43, 48-49, 53,
294, 322, 338, 350, 354-355, 376, 389, 394 Ethnic, 64 65-66, 68-69, 71-72, 76, 84-86, 88, 93,
Duration, 314-315 Ethnic groups, 64 99-100, 103, 109, 120, 125, 127, 129, 136,
Dynamic geometry software, 389 Evaluation, 27, 47, 53, 77, 83, 94, 294 139, 143, 148, 151, 154, 156, 161, 164, 168,
Events, 34, 65, 67-68, 91, 107-108, 148, 315, 370, 174, 176-177, 180-181, 185-186, 189, 191,
E 373 205, 207, 209, 215, 222, 228, 231, 235, 241,
Early childhood, 114, 140, 169, 193, 278, 329, 334 Evidence, 6-7, 14, 32, 34, 47-48, 52, 57-58, 70, 83, 250, 252, 256, 267, 273-274, 278, 281-282,
Earth, 324, 370 88, 99, 104, 110-111, 114, 117, 172-173, 293-294, 300-302, 304, 306, 308, 311,
Education, 1, 12, 13, 29, 31-32, 44, 47, 60, 61-62, 68, 182, 229, 275, 280, 312, 340 315-317, 321, 323, 326, 332-337, 341, 350,
77-78, 79-80, 83-84, 88-89, 94-95, 97, 108, Excellence and equity, 140 359, 361-362, 366, 370, 374-377, 379,
111, 113, 141, 146, 171, 174, 193, 195, 225, Exceptional, 94 381-383, 390, 391-393
247, 249, 275, 277-278, 295, 297, 327, 329, Exceptions, 207, 300 Folders, 153, 340
365, 367, 386, 387, 391, 395 Exemplars, 264, 269, 366 work, 153
at home, 62, 84, 111 Exercise, 116, 215, 360 Food, 91, 93, 367-368, 370, 384
benchmarks for, 297 Exercises, 2, 51, 57, 116, 153, 161, 206, 242 Formal thinking, 330
for teachers, 108, 295 Expectation gaps, 81 Formative assessment, 16, 47-48, 51, 53, 60, 70, 75,
prevention and, 83, 94 Expectations, 27, 45, 62, 65, 71-72, 74-75, 80-82, 84, 77, 86, 115, 120, 130, 132, 134, 153, 162,
supports, 44, 47, 84, 89, 329 116, 139, 168, 192, 222, 225, 228, 245, 273, 166, 174, 184, 188-189, 196, 204, 211, 219,
Education evaluation, 83, 94 294, 324, 326, 362, 384, 390 235, 252, 260, 282, 286, 307, 310, 312, 314,
Education for gifted, 94 Experience, 3-4, 16, 34, 36-37, 41, 55, 63, 88, 98-101, 318, 340, 374, 380
equity in, 94 103, 105, 109, 127, 131, 143, 145, 159, 201, Formative assessments, 48, 75, 82
Educational research, 12, 60, 77, 111, 193, 223, 327 228, 244-245, 254, 264, 267, 275, 294, 302, Forms, 54, 88, 103, 146, 210, 374, 387
basic, 193 321, 324, 337-338, 355, 367, 375, 380 Formula, 390
Educators, 97, 102, 163, 173, 331, 387 experiences, 5, 27, 41, 63, 65, 69, 73-74, 93-94, 97, Formulas, 18, 388
Effective instruction, 82 100-102, 105, 107, 114-115, 131, 139, Forum, 98, 106
Effectiveness, 45, 51, 57, 98, 388 146-147, 149, 155, 162, 174, 179, 186, 188, Forward, 28, 47, 91, 115-116, 131, 152, 268, 294
Efficiency, 175, 230 190, 199, 206, 221, 231-232, 249, 258-259, Foundations, 100, 163, 167, 293, 392, 394
Effort, 1, 4, 15, 18, 56-58, 81, 89, 108, 115, 119, 202, 261, 277-278, 282, 289, 299, 301, 304, 318, Fowler, 111
204, 251 320-321, 323, 330-331, 334-336, 352, Fraction Bars, 280
Eighth grade, 99, 334 361-362, 372, 376, 383-384 Fractions, 29, 121, 158, 277-283, 285, 287-293, 295,
Elementary grades, 60, 275, 330, 386, 389 in school, 94, 97, 107, 320 369
Elementary school, 12, 47, 95, 98, 110, 225, 254, 275 Experiments, 93, 368 and decimals, 295
Elementary schools, 300 Expert, 88-89 improper, 291, 295
Elementary students, 388-389 Explanation, 2, 25, 54, 57, 63-64, 87, 119, 143, 259, Frames, 90, 124-126, 128, 130, 132, 139, 178-180,
Emotions, 104, 111 265, 294, 307 188-189, 191-192, 201, 203, 209-210, 216,
Empty number line, 233-234, 245-247 Extensions, 16, 27, 69, 88, 100, 195, 240 219, 234, 236, 239, 395-398
Encouragement, 89, 228 Extracurricular activities, 35 France, 64
Energy, 185 eyes, 152, 268, 337 Free time, 93
Engagement, 9, 20, 34-36, 44, 108, 111 Freedom, 66, 78
in learning, 9 F Frequency, 101, 193, 376, 379
English, 21, 36, 62-63, 66, 68, 70, 72-78, 81, 84, 94, Face value, 211 Fun, 16, 107, 116, 126, 128, 162, 186, 193, 271, 290,
106, 108, 115-116, 138, 149, 167, 180, 191, FACES, 66, 316, 333, 341, 348-350, 360, 395, 401 315, 360
197, 207, 221, 231, 245, 273, 293, 316, 325, Facilitating, 25, 34, 40, 71, 279 Functioning, 146, 335
361, 372, 383 Facilities, 108 Functions, 55, 249-250, 267, 315, 389
Middle, 94, 273 Factors, 95, 158, 162, 232, 386 Funds of knowledge, 63, 77
nonstandard, 74, 221, 325 Facts, 1, 15, 18, 49, 83, 90-91, 95, 99-103, 114, 121,
Standard, 36, 74, 207, 231, 245 130-131, 146, 153-155, 157, 163, 165-166, G
English language, 21, 63, 68, 70, 74, 76-77, 81, 84, 171-193, 234, 237, 245, 247, 250-251, 254, Galen, 173, 193, 229, 233, 247
94, 116, 138, 149, 167, 191, 197, 221, 231, 262-263, 370 Games, 36, 71, 92, 102, 122, 186, 188-189, 193, 295
245, 273, 293, 325, 361, 383 Fading, 88, 226, 228 Gasoline, 370
correct, 21, 116, 167 Failure, 57, 302, 318 Gender, 62, 77, 371
406
General education, 44 Height, 298, 300, 303, 305-307, 324, 368, 370-371, targeted, 48, 51, 83, 88, 105
Generalizability, 252 379, 381 tiered, 37, 41, 43-45, 82, 95
Generalization, 186, 249-251, 264, 269 Helping, 2-3, 12, 14, 25, 27, 66, 73, 75, 95, 102, 106, unit, 32, 34, 47, 77, 98, 131, 195-196, 277,
Generalizations, 87, 249-250, 252, 261, 366 108, 111, 120-121, 123-124, 131, 135, 142, 279-280, 297, 299-301
from arithmetic, 250 152, 154-155, 171-190, 192-193, 198-199, Instructional activities, 83, 200
Generic rubrics, 56 207, 212, 240, 244, 247, 249, 256, 258, 262, Instructional design, 10
Genres, 370 282, 291, 297, 300, 355, 365-382, 384-386 Instructional gaps, 81
Geoboard, 281, 343-344, 350, 395, 399 Hierarchy, 331, 333 Instructional objectives, 6
Geometric concepts, 335 Highly qualified, 84 Instructional strategies, 81, 83-84, 88, 295
Geometry, 67, 91-92, 297, 327, 329-331, 333-334, Hints, 28, 69, 242 Integration, 193, 197-199, 211
355, 357, 360, 363, 388-389, 392-394 History, 67 Intellectual disabilities, 89, 186
spatial sense, 91, 330 Holes, 341, 357-358 moderate, 89
Gestalt, 332 Home, 62-63, 67, 71, 73, 76, 84, 98, 101, 104-108, severe, 89
Giant journal, 55-56 111, 136, 220, 302-303, 306, 315, 344, 365, Intensity, 83, 297
Gifted programs, 93 384 Interaction, 9, 11, 81, 98, 101, 186
Gifted students, 93-95 Home visits, 98 Interactions, 21, 107, 232
Giftedness, 91 Homework, 29, 97-99, 104-106, 108, 111, 315 Interference, 29
Girls, 3, 12, 81, 377, 381 sharing, 98, 105 Internalization, 193
Glossaries, 106 Homework assignments, 106 Internet, 94, 106, 369-370
Goals, 9-10, 15, 19, 34, 41, 69-71, 85-86, 89, 97-98, homework completion, 104 Interpretation, 76, 366-367, 381
103, 109, 138, 163, 167, 190-191, 221, 245, Homonyms, 69 Interpreting, 23, 35-36, 91, 365, 367, 381
273, 293, 302, 325, 330, 335, 361, 383, 387 Hope, 110, 173, 198 Intervention, 44, 82-83, 88, 94
chart, 86, 191, 221, 245, 273, 383 Humor, 105 Interventions, 76, 82-84, 86, 94-95
lesson, 9, 15, 34, 41, 69-71, 85-86, 109, 138, 167, Hundreds chart, 3, 6-8, 22, 40, 43, 87, 133-134, 191, Interviews, 48, 50-51, 75-77, 83-84, 184, 211, 312
190-191, 221, 245, 273, 293, 325, 361, 212-214, 218-219, 221, 234, 245-246, intrinsic motivation, 305
383 252-253, 318, 395, 397 Introduction, 40, 100, 158, 288, 352, 356, 376
modifying, 10, 34 Intuition, 121, 330, 333
Google, 370 I Intuitive, 91, 115, 121-122, 135, 231, 240, 333, 346
Google Earth, 370 Id, 40, 120, 125, 133, 258, 267, 321, 327, 343-344, Invented strategies, 63, 103, 215, 219, 225, 227-232,
Government, 247, 368-369 350, 353, 357, 370 236-240, 244-245, 272
Governors, 1, 103, 387, 391 IDEAL, 99, 281 for addition, 230, 232, 236, 240, 244-245
Grades, 1, 12, 13, 29, 31, 45, 47-48, 53-55, 60, 61, Ideas, 2-11, 14-16, 18, 20-28, 32-38, 40-41, 43, 47, for multiplication, 272
66-67, 71, 77-78, 79, 93-95, 97, 99-100, 102, 49, 52-56, 65-67, 70, 73-75, 81, 83-84, 86, for subtraction, 103, 238, 240, 244
113, 135-136, 141-142, 145, 147-148, 88, 90-91, 93, 97, 99, 101-102, 104, 106, models to support, 232
155-156, 158, 162, 164, 171-172, 191, 193, 109, 114-115, 117, 120-123, 127-128, 132, Issues, 16, 65, 90, 103, 106, 109, 135, 149, 166, 231,
195, 212, 223, 225-226, 247, 249-250, 134-137, 142-143, 153, 158, 161-163, 240, 370, 375
254-257, 261, 267, 269, 274-275, 277-279, 166-169, 171, 173, 175, 179, 183, 189, Items, 67, 85, 92, 118, 158, 160, 196, 198, 203,
281-282, 284, 293, 297, 301, 304, 309, 317, 196-199, 202, 206, 212, 217, 219-220, 205-206, 256, 268, 282, 284, 303, 306-307,
321, 327, 329-331, 334-335, 341, 351, 361, 228-229, 232-233, 243, 245-246, 249, 251, 313, 320, 336, 367, 373-374
365, 369-370, 376, 381-382, 386, 387-389, 254-256, 263, 265-266, 273-274, 279, 285,
391-394, 395 287, 289, 291-294, 303, 307, 317, 321-322, J
Graph, 23-24, 90, 92, 103, 136-137, 367, 369, 326, 330-331, 334-335, 338-339, 351-352, Japan, 158
373-386, 387 354, 357, 361-363, 367, 373-375, 378, 381, Join problems, 145, 149
Graph paper, 90 384, 391, 394 Joint, 345
Graphic organizer, 69, 82, 102 sequence of, 34, 321 Judging, 27, 164, 302
Graphic organizers, 36, 84, 86 identity, 264 Judgment, 57, 215
Graphical representations, 374 Illustration, 5, 54-55, 128, 186 Justice, 62
Graphs, 2, 91, 103, 136, 220, 365-366, 374-381, Illustrations, 76, 85, 90, 105, 186, 265, 351, 383
383-386, 387-389 Immersion, 186
Grass, 302 K
Immigrant students, 78 Key words, 71, 85, 163-164
gravity, 324 Immigration, 111
Grid, The, 49, 356-357, 383-384, 397 Kim, 21, 29
Implementation, 111 Kindergarten, 38, 56, 71, 78, 109, 116, 119, 124, 130,
Grids, 86, 281, 356-357, 359, 397 Importance, 3, 8-9, 68, 97-98, 101-103, 107, 114, 209,
Group discussion, 44 132-133, 138, 155, 164, 166, 172, 184,
279, 387 195-196, 207, 212-213, 250, 254, 267, 273,
Groupable models, 200-201 Improper fractions, 295
Grouping, 5, 37, 44-45, 73, 84, 120, 131, 155, 191, 295, 324-325, 330, 338, 355, 362, 369, 383,
Income, 295 391
196-199, 201-202, 204-205, 219-220, 228, independent practice, 87
348, 392 Kindergarten students, 78, 325, 391
Independent study, 92 Knowledge, 2, 4-6, 9, 18, 25, 27-28, 34, 36, 43, 53, 58,
by ability, 44 Individual differences, 80-81
flexible, 44-45, 84, 196 63-65, 69, 72, 77, 81-85, 87-88, 91, 93, 95,
Influence, 23, 148, 163, 234, 284, 295 101, 115, 122, 124, 128, 131, 135-136, 173,
Groups, 5-6, 20-22, 27-28, 34-35, 41, 43-45, 48, 55, Information, 1, 3-5, 10, 16, 20, 25, 33-36, 47-48,
64, 68, 70, 73, 75, 81-82, 84, 87, 91, 99, 175, 178, 182-183, 188, 193, 197, 204, 215,
51-52, 54-55, 59, 63, 67, 77, 80, 83-85, 231, 234, 275, 277, 279, 283, 295, 302, 307,
101, 106, 122-123, 125, 131, 135, 142, 90-91, 98-99, 103, 106, 111, 140, 153, 164,
155-157, 160-161, 167, 171, 178, 184, 361-362, 389
166, 169, 177, 212, 223, 246, 257, 265, 275, prior, 4-5, 9, 18, 27-28, 43, 65, 69, 72, 82, 84-85,
186-187, 192, 195-200, 202-207, 210-211, 290, 304, 307, 365, 367, 369-370, 374-375,
213-214, 221-222, 257, 266, 268, 271, 286, 101, 115, 361
377-378, 380-381, 383-384, 387 prior knowledge, 4-5, 9, 18, 27-28, 43, 65, 72, 82,
288, 293, 304, 323, 325, 335, 339, 344, Information age, 111, 140, 169, 223, 275
351-352, 355, 362, 369, 374-376, 378, 384, 84-85, 101
Initiative, 97 topic, 6, 93
394 In/out, 373
Groups:, 222 vertical, 115
Inquiry, 10, 87, 91, 119 Knowledge of mathematics, 81
focal, 84, 99, 167, 221, 293, 325, 376 Instincts, 243
Growing pattern, 269-270 Institute of Education Sciences, 94, 278
Growth, 11, 47-48, 59, 83, 86, 92-93, 303, 379 Institute of Education Sciences (IES), 278 L
Guessing, 162 Instruction, 1, 5, 10-11, 13, 16, 18, 29, 31-46, 47-48, Labels, 369, 371-372, 374, 384
Guidance, 89, 105, 173, 227 50-52, 58-60, 61, 64-66, 68, 71, 73, 75-77, Landmark numbers, 246
guided practice, 10 79, 81-84, 86-89, 91-92, 94-95, 97-98, 100, Language, 21, 26, 36, 43-44, 52, 55-56, 59, 62-65,
Guidelines, 55, 367, 386 105, 113, 131, 135, 141, 143, 171-173, 68-78, 81, 84-85, 94, 100, 102, 105, 108,
Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics 195-196, 215, 225, 229, 240, 249, 254, 275, 110, 116, 123, 138, 147, 149, 161, 167, 176,
Education (GAISE), 386 277-281, 283, 295, 297, 299-301, 329, 334, 180, 191, 195, 197-200, 206-207, 209-211,
Guides, 8, 86 346, 365, 367, 382, 386, 387, 390, 391, 395 221, 231, 245, 259, 261, 263, 266, 273, 282,
and gender, 77 288, 291, 293, 300, 302, 305, 307, 315-316,
H balanced, 390 325, 327, 329-330, 334, 340, 355, 361-362,
Handling, 160 differentiating, 31-46, 65, 95 372, 383
Handouts, 188, 351 indirect, 300 body, 52
Hard copy, 252 individualized, 33, 89 clear, 68, 71-72, 76, 85, 210, 245, 273, 291, 329,
Hardware, 324 learning strategies, 94 362
Harvard University, 12, 94 metacognitive, 89 delay, 231
Health, 365 strategy, 38-40, 50, 66, 73, 75, 81, 84, 86-89, 95, difference, 26, 68, 71-72, 74, 100, 105, 197, 207,
heart, 4, 34, 104, 109, 264 105, 173, 229, 240, 254 231, 261
407
receptive, 73 Library, 106, 243-244, 267, 309, 316, 336, 343-344 227, 238, 240, 249, 251, 254, 258, 260-262,
written, 36, 63, 69-70, 76, 84-85, 102, 105, 116, life experiences, 149, 186 273, 275, 278, 287, 293, 298, 300-302, 313,
138, 161, 197, 199, 207, 209-210, 261, life skills, 89, 91, 101 325, 347, 351, 375-376, 381, 387-389,
291, 361, 383 Lighting, 37 392-393
Language and culture, 62, 72, 77 Limitations, 89, 172, 389 of words, 85
and assessment, 77 Limits, 385 search for, 103, 302, 387
Language development, 68, 70 Line graphs, 380 Meanings, 3, 71, 85, 90, 140, 141-166, 168-169, 173,
use, 68, 70 Line symmetry, 354, 362 226, 250, 278, 291-292, 375
Language experience approach, 55 Linear measurement, 279, 303, 309, 392 Measurement, 6, 39, 67, 72, 89, 92, 107, 135,
Language instruction, 77 Lines, 5, 89, 110, 150-151, 156, 159, 207, 214, 221, 156-158, 161, 167, 221, 278-279, 281, 293,
Language learning, 77 233, 298-299, 309, 311, 325, 330, 334, 336, 297-327, 355, 366, 392-394
Language skills, 68, 73 344, 346, 348-350, 362, 378 attribute, 297-302, 304, 307-308, 310, 315, 321,
Languages, 62-63, 68, 70, 73, 77, 115, 199 Liquids, 323, 368 324-325
Large group, 53 Listening, 4, 7, 10, 33-34, 48, 55, 64, 69, 73, 87, 134, composite, 393
Latinos, 111 204, 213, 237, 339, 374 meaning and process of, 298
Leaders, 98 to understand, 7 models for fractions, 281
Leadership, 46, 77, 99, 111 Literacy, 106, 135, 247, 365, 386 of area, 297, 321-322
Leading questions, 52 Literature, 65, 68, 303, 369 of mass, 324
Leads, 32, 82, 164, 229, 269, 271 Local government, 368 of time, 92, 135, 279, 297, 299, 314-315, 317
Learners, 4, 6, 9-10, 16, 19, 21, 23, 27-28, 34-35, logical reasoning, 56 proficiency, 92
37-38, 42, 45-46, 47-48, 55, 63-64, 68, Longitudinal study, 247 terms, 167, 221, 279, 293, 301-302, 306-307, 320,
73-74, 77-78, 80-82, 85-89, 91-94, 98, 116, Lunchtime, 93 323-325, 355, 392
135, 138, 149, 167, 187, 189, 191, 197, 221, variables, 366
230-231, 245, 273-274, 293-294, 325, 361, M Measurements, 6, 22, 74, 91, 220, 280, 297, 300-301,
383 Magnitude, 295 304-307, 312, 322, 367
active, 48 Main ideas, 27-28, 47, 84 Measures, 67, 74, 82, 135-136, 151, 221, 230, 279,
Learning, 2, 4-6, 9-12, 14, 16, 19-21, 23, 25, 27-29, Management, 85 297-298, 300-301, 303-307, 311, 314,
34-38, 40-41, 43-45, 47-60, 63, 65-66, Manipulative materials, 88 323-324, 367-368, 384
68-70, 73-74, 77, 80-89, 91-92, 94-95, Manipulatives, 2-3, 8, 12, 16, 18-19, 24-26, 36-37, Media, 365
97-108, 111, 115, 118, 122, 131, 134, 140, 53-56, 69, 73, 82, 84, 87, 98-99, 106, 152, advertising, 365
143, 148, 155, 157, 167-169, 172-174, 178, 166-167, 183, 201, 227, 243-246, 262, 265, Median, 365
180, 182, 184, 186, 189-190, 193, 200, 215, 267-268, 270, 283, 287, 293-294, 316, Meetings, 98
223, 231, 234, 247, 251, 253, 267, 275, 343-344, 383 class, 98
279-280, 287, 295, 302-303, 308, 315, 325, Maps, 69, 355, 369 Memories, 97
327, 329, 331, 335-336, 352, 355, 357, 363, Marking, 214 Memorization, 18, 100, 103, 171-174, 186, 189-190,
366-367, 386, 389, 391 Massachusetts, 386 193
Learning:, 60, 94, 275 Mastery, 54, 60, 101-102, 130, 163, 171-174, 181-182, Memory, 35, 67, 85, 90, 174-175, 186, 191, 228, 359
and problem solving, 29, 102 184, 186, 190, 192-193 constructed, 228
connected, 5, 9, 52, 66, 91, 104-105, 200 Mastery of basic facts, 130, 163, 186 Memory aids, 85
contexts for, 35 Matching, 55, 89, 115, 120, 123-124, 131, 156, 200, Mental models, 234
distance, 59, 303, 325, 355 208, 210, 299-301, 360, 384 Messages, 68, 102, 111
enjoyable, 189 Materials, 3-4, 8, 25, 35-37, 51-52, 54, 84-85, 88, 109, Metric system, 304, 327
events, 34, 65, 68, 91, 107-108, 148, 315 117, 122-123, 127, 131-132, 138-139, 143, Mexico, 64, 74
in small groups, 21, 27-28, 41, 70, 84, 178 161, 167, 191, 196-197, 201-202, 204-213, Middle grades, 94-95, 195, 277, 327, 388
mastery, 54, 60, 101-102, 172-174, 182, 184, 186, 221, 227-228, 241, 243, 245-246, 265, Middle school, 12, 29, 45, 80, 94-95, 99, 111, 254,
190, 193 267-270, 273-274, 293, 312, 325-327, 335, 275, 277, 295, 300, 327, 363, 380, 390
readiness, 34-37, 41, 43-45 339, 341-342, 345, 361, 370-374, 383-384, Midpoint, 34
scaffold, 74 395-397 Milk, 158, 220, 303, 368, 373
strengths and weaknesses, 82, 84 adaptation of, 51, 54 Minority students, 77
to learn, 4, 6, 10-11, 14, 20-21, 34-35, 44, 65-66, for children with special needs, 293 Misconceptions, 20, 27-28, 47, 49, 53-54, 56, 189,
68, 74, 77, 80, 89, 91, 104, 108, 148, manipulative materials, 88 254, 294, 308
172-173, 189, 315, 367 Math standards, 145, 156 Mnemonics, 84-85
Learning activities, 86 Mathematical knowledge, 2, 25, 87, 389 Mode, 383
Learning center, 40, 134 Mathematical power, 94 Modeling, 8, 14, 21, 29, 86, 88, 146-147, 153, 157,
Learning disabilities, 83-86, 94-95, 105, 172, 193 Mathematical processes, 15, 48, 53 166, 174, 210, 227-228, 230, 242, 250-251,
instructional strategies for, 83 Mathematical understanding, 1, 10, 16, 18, 24, 45, 75 283, 291, 345, 391
Learning disability, 82, 95 Mathematics, 1-12, 13-29, 31-35, 39-40, 44-45, 47, Models, 7, 10, 14, 23, 25, 29, 43, 49, 52, 57-58, 65,
Learning environment, 34-35, 37 49, 53, 55, 58, 60, 61-73, 75-78, 79-84, 86, 67, 69, 73-74, 77, 82, 84-88, 95, 124, 129,
Learning environment:, 37 88-89, 91-95, 97-111, 113-114, 127, 135, 138, 142, 150-154, 159, 161, 164, 178,
Learning environments, 45, 102 138, 140, 141, 146, 149, 154, 163, 166-167, 195-196, 199-201, 205, 207-211, 213, 218,
Learning experiences, 101 169, 171-174, 177, 179, 185, 188-191, 193, 226-228, 232, 234-235, 240-243, 245-246,
Learning goals, 9, 19, 34, 41, 69-70, 86, 190 195, 209, 215, 220-221, 223, 225-226, 280-282, 286-289, 295, 299-301, 309,
Learning objectives, 36, 69, 91 230-232, 241, 245, 247, 249-250, 254, 262, 322-324, 335, 340, 345-346, 389, 392, 394
Learning opportunities, 51, 68, 100, 190 264, 267, 271-273, 275, 277, 282, 291, 293, to support invented strategies, 232
Learning outcomes, 34 295, 297, 304, 307-308, 318, 325, 327, Modification, 81-82
Learning process, 6, 34, 47, 87, 89 329-330, 335, 337, 347, 355, 357-358, 361, Money, 55, 67, 89, 91, 148-149, 164, 201, 234, 298,
Learning stations, 308, 325 363, 365-368, 370, 376, 383, 386, 387-388, 307, 317-321, 375, 379, 394
Learning Strategies, 9, 94 390, 391-393, 395 counting sets of coins, 318
Learning targets, 53-54 alternative assessments, 86 Monitoring, 18, 82-83, 86, 90, 189, 379
Learning theories, 9 center, 1, 6, 40, 60, 62, 77-78, 94-95, 103, 108, progress, 82-83, 86
Lecture, 4, 10 387, 391 Monitoring assessments, 82
Lenses, 386 lessons, 8-9, 27, 29, 32-35, 44, 69, 76, 83-84, 105, Monitors, 84
Lesson planning, 35, 249 111, 247, 308 motion, 72, 353-354, 357, 395, 400-401
Lessons, 8-9, 27, 29, 32-35, 41, 43-44, 48, 54, 69, 76, virtual manipulatives, 26, 106, 267 Motivation, 34-35, 38, 45, 305, 343
83-84, 105, 111, 123, 143, 176, 247, 285, Mathematics instruction, 1, 18, 32-33, 45, 64-65, 68, intrinsic, 305
301, 308, 317, 360 71, 73, 83, 135, 390 Mouse, 201, 269, 275, 303
scripted, 54 cooperative groups, 73 Movement, 41, 89, 116, 152, 273, 374
structuring, 54 diverse learners, 64 Movies, 370
Letters, 86, 93, 98, 101, 106, 108, 214, 261, 368, 374 Mathematics performance, 78 Multimedia, 73
to parents, 106 matter, 10, 28, 74, 104, 107, 115, 153-155, 214, 226, Multiple disabilities, 89
Level, 18, 20, 23, 32, 35, 38-40, 42, 44, 56-58, 60, 231, 243, 263-265, 275, 313, 324, 390 Multiple entry points, 9, 19
62-63, 69, 82-84, 89, 91-94, 97, 99, 102, Mean, 3, 7, 25, 27, 52, 69, 74, 76-77, 81, 93, 101, 109, Multiplication, 1, 67, 95, 142, 155-162, 164, 167-168,
104, 109, 111, 116, 118, 120, 123, 128, 131-132, 135, 158, 163, 168, 177, 225, 228, 171, 184-185, 193, 200, 263, 272, 295, 366,
131-134, 136, 138, 143, 146, 152, 157-158, 258, 265, 267, 275, 277, 286, 313, 325, 365, 376, 394, 395, 397
163, 167, 185, 191, 196, 213, 217, 221, 376, 384-386 Multiplication and division, 155-159, 161
225-226, 243, 245, 250, 256, 273, 279, 293, Meaning, 4-6, 9, 14, 16, 24-25, 36, 44, 63, 65, 69, Multiplicative situations, 167
300-302, 304, 308, 317, 319, 324-325, 72-74, 76-77, 83, 85, 87-88, 90, 101, 103, Multitasking, 34
331-341, 343, 345-347, 350, 352-356, 131, 142, 149-150, 152-153, 156, 161, Music, 35, 93, 297
358-359, 361, 365-367, 376, 383 163-164, 169, 177, 191, 199, 202, 209, 211,
408
Objectives, 6, 36, 49-50, 58, 69-71, 82, 91, 163, Pictures, 43, 55-56, 58, 69, 71, 73-75, 85, 88, 100,
N 301-302, 330, 375 103, 106, 109, 119-120, 123, 143, 149, 152,
Names for numbers, 198-199, 202, 207 Observation, 35, 48-50, 58, 125, 166, 262, 266, 312, 160-161, 166, 206, 266, 268, 273, 284, 286,
National Academy of Sciences, 2 351, 369, 379 289, 294, 308, 321, 336, 353, 355, 372, 378,
National Assessment of Educational Progress, 295, focused, 49 387, 401
327, 330 Observations, 48, 50, 59, 130, 256, 262, 265, 326, Place value, 6, 8, 49, 51, 72, 75, 92-93, 99, 107, 121,
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 333, 335, 361, 373, 378 131, 133, 155, 195-197, 199, 201, 204, 209,
330 oceans, 373 211, 215, 221, 223, 225-226, 228-229,
National Association of Secondary School Principals, Odd and even relationships, 265 244-245, 252, 318, 392-394
99 open questions, 37, 39-41 Place values, 199, 201, 318
National Center for Education Statistics, 62, 77 openness, 232 Placement, 168, 374
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1-2, 12, Opinions, 98 Planning, 11, 34-35, 37, 48, 52, 56, 61-78, 79-95, 159,
18, 29, 40, 45, 47, 62, 77-78, 80, 83, 94-95, Oral language, 206 231, 249, 385
106, 111, 114, 140, 169, 172, 174, 191, 193, Order property, 154, 162 for assessment, 75
215, 223, 226, 247, 249, 275, 293, 295, 297, Org, 29, 40, 45, 60, 94, 99, 103-104, 106, 111, 120, learning activities, 86
304, 308, 327, 329-330, 337, 358, 363, 365, 125-126, 128-129, 133, 140, 169, 193, 258, plants, 374
367, 370, 376, 386 267, 286, 314, 321, 327, 343-344, 350, 353, Play, 10, 27, 40, 42, 102, 119-120, 123-125, 131, 152,
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 357, 370 160, 169, 199, 232, 255, 271, 356, 372
106 Organization, 68, 119, 374 blocks, 356
National Governors Association, 1, 103, 387, 391 Organizers, 36, 84, 86 Plays, 68, 108, 121, 125, 198-199
National Research Council, 1-2, 12, 81, 95, 115, 135, study, 86 Plot, 367, 380-381
140, 175, 193, 226, 247, 300, 329, 387 Organizing, 35-36, 81, 86, 92, 160, 186, 195, 228, Plots, 366, 376, 380
Native language, 36, 68, 70, 72, 75, 108, 138, 180, 295, 370, 375, 377, 383-384 Pockets, 133, 202, 374-375
207, 293, 325, 372 Orientation, 229, 330, 332, 335, 352-353, 391, 400 Podcasts, 106
Nature, 10, 18, 44-45, 103, 106, 173, 279, 306, 330, Outcomes, 34, 51, 80-82, 93, 111, 258 Pointing, 74, 91, 106, 118, 172, 263, 315-317, 337,
366, 381, 384 Outlines, 81, 174, 342-344 356, 362
NCES, 77, 247 Overlap, 6, 299, 310-311, 347, 397 Policy, 60, 102
needs, 18, 22-23, 33, 37, 41, 43, 45, 58, 65, 68-69, Polyhedron, 348
72-74, 76, 81-83, 86, 88-89, 91, 95, 108-109, P Population, 89, 365, 370, 383
125, 138, 148, 160, 164, 167, 186, 191, 210, Pacing, 186 Portfolio, 37
221, 245, 273, 293, 311, 319, 325, 361-362, Painting, 307 Position statements, 68
376-377, 383 Palm, 130, 307 Posters, 84, 384
Negative numbers, 23, 64 PANs, 257, 324 Pot, 270
Net, 26, 60 Paradigm, 15 Potential, 11, 16, 18-19, 45, 51, 74, 85, 95, 100, 148,
Neuroscience, 46 Parallel lines, 330, 348-350, 362 201-202, 240, 331, 380, 390
New Math, 109 Parent conferences, 48 Poverty, 108
New York, 29, 60, 77, 95, 111, 140, 169, 193, 223, Parental Involvement, 97 power, 12, 26, 45, 64-65, 68, 78, 94, 102, 297, 317,
275, 295, 327, 363, 386 Parents, 29, 58, 91, 97-111, 136, 153, 302-303, 369 331, 340, 367
News, 111, 220, 370, 379 communication with, 97, 108 balance of, 65
Newsletters, 98, 106 involvement, 97, 111 Power Solids, 340
Newspapers, 304, 365, 369, 375 Parking lot, 100, 147, 369 Practice, 2-4, 10, 14, 16, 18, 22, 25, 29, 36, 40, 57-58,
Noise, 35, 37 Participants, 21, 100 64, 70, 73, 77, 82, 86-88, 94-95, 100,
Nonproportional models, 201 Participation, 21, 72, 105, 187, 383 102-103, 105-106, 108-109, 111, 115, 122,
Norm, 230 Partitioning, 54, 58, 66, 99, 168, 251, 277-279, 282, 125-127, 130-132, 136, 138, 143-144, 146,
Norms, 29 284-287, 289-290, 293-295, 300 149-150, 152, 154-159, 162-164, 166, 173,
Notebooks, 106 Partnerships, 65 175-180, 184, 188-189, 191-193, 197,
Notes, 48-49, 72, 84, 108, 172, 299, 366, 377, 380 Path, 40-41, 52, 89, 92, 309, 313-315, 325-326, 200-202, 206, 208-209, 213, 216, 218-219,
anecdotal, 48 355-356, 359, 401 231-235, 237, 241, 251-252, 255-256, 259,
sticky, 377, 380 Patience, 122 261-262, 264, 267-268, 272, 275, 278,
Novice, 89 Pattern recognition, 122 282-283, 285-286, 289, 291, 295, 300,
Number and operations, 92, 100-101, 167, 169, 191, Patterned set recognition, 122 302-303, 305, 312, 337-338, 345, 350,
392-394 Patterning, 267 352-353, 355, 359, 371-372, 375, 377, 381,
Number line, 3, 6-8, 43, 67, 90-91, 115-116, 148, Patterns, 4, 36, 54, 56, 66, 100, 102, 116, 121-123, 387-390
151-152, 162, 177, 214, 217, 219, 233-235, 130, 133-134, 172, 190, 195, 207, 212-214, Preassessments, 34
245-247, 273, 280, 313, 369, 380-381 217, 221, 249-253, 261, 267-273, 275, 343, Predicting, 56, 316, 329, 357
Number lines, 150-151, 156, 159, 214, 221, 298 353 Prediction, 86
Number patterns, 133, 212, 221, 271, 273 growing, 249, 267, 269-271 Pregrouped models, 200
Number relationships, 6, 9, 19, 114-115, 119, 121, number, 4, 100, 102, 116, 121-123, 130, 133-134, Prekindergarten, 140, 193, 223, 275, 295, 325, 327,
127, 130, 136, 171, 173, 176, 178, 188, 213, 172, 195, 207, 212-214, 217, 221, 363, 386
221, 244, 252, 259, 271-272, 392, 394 249-253, 261, 269, 271-273, 343 Prerequisite knowledge, 182, 361
Number sense, 3, 19-20, 29, 90-91, 102-104, 113-137, repeating, 249, 267-269, 271 Preschoolers, 295
139-140, 155, 169, 172, 177-178, 182, 195, Paying attention, 21, 160, 234, 355, 390 Presentation, 60, 70, 327, 352, 384
204, 214, 226-227, 229, 295, 316, 320, 392 Peak, 94-95 prevention, 82-83, 94-95
decimal, 195 Peck, 367, 386 Pride, 65, 105, 110
Numbers, 4-9, 15, 17-19, 22-23, 26-27, 38-40, 42-43, Pedagogy, 12, 60, 99-100 Primary language, 68, 77
49-51, 53-54, 58, 64, 66, 72, 85, 89-91, Pencils, 117, 228 Principals, 97-111
101-102, 104, 107, 114-122, 124-128, Pentominoes, 359 Print, 369, 395
130-139, 143, 145-146, 148, 150-155, 158, Perception, 16 Printing, 247
160, 162-166, 171, 174, 178-179, 185, Performance, 10, 47-49, 51, 53, 55-59, 78, 82, 88, 95, Prior experiences, 115
187-188, 190-193, 195-202, 204-205, 207, 105, 111, 193, 226, 247, 314, 327 Probability, 92, 148, 182, 367
209-221, 225-238, 240, 244-246, 250-253, level of, 56, 82 Problem solving, 2, 13-29, 32, 36, 45, 48, 65, 69, 75,
255, 257-258, 260-261, 263-266, 269, Performance assessment, 314 85, 87, 90-91, 102, 111, 142, 153-154, 223,
271-274, 277-280, 283-285, 288-289, 291, Performance indicators, 55, 57 360, 387
294-295, 298-299, 301, 303, 305, 313-315, Period, 28, 48, 91, 104, 121, 195, 228, 289, 307, 314, teaching through, 14-15, 20
317-320, 355-356, 365-366, 368, 380-383, 352, 369 Problem-solving, 14, 16, 27, 102
389, 391-392, 394 Perseverance, 103 Procedural fluency, 2, 52, 101, 387
Numeration, 93, 121, 195, 201, 215, 221, 223 Personal characteristics, 80 Procedural knowledge, 193, 197, 215
Numeration concepts, 223 Personal experience, 324 Procedures, 1-2, 5-6, 8-9, 17-18, 51, 63, 65, 78, 90,
Numerators, 291 Personnel, 368 101-102, 226, 230, 387, 390
Numerical representations, 85 Pets, 35-36, 67, 136, 314, 367-368, 370, 374, 384 Processing, 89
Phi Delta Kappan, 60, 111 task, 89
Philadelphia, 60 Product, 34-35, 37, 41, 45, 56, 65, 142, 156, 162, 268,
O 352, 370
Object, 25, 39, 115, 117-118, 136, 204, 221-222, 256, Philosophy, 15
Photographs, 67 Productive disposition, 2, 34, 387
277, 279, 284, 286, 297-300, 302, 306-312, Products, 37, 53, 86, 99, 193, 247, 251, 332-334
314, 324-325, 336, 352, 355, 365, 376-377, Picture, 17, 19, 33-34, 48, 50, 52-54, 57, 70-72, 86-87,
91, 100, 102, 107, 119, 162, 166, 168, 180, Professional development, 18, 108-109, 111, 390
380, 393, 401 Profiles, 34-35, 41, 44-45
Objective, 8-9, 36, 38, 43-44, 50, 57, 85, 162, 190, 210, 294, 305, 307, 326, 365-366, 374,
376-377, 380, 383 Programs, 93, 95, 98, 186, 232, 353, 383
198, 208, 323 Progress monitoring, 83
Picture dictionary, 70
409
Project, 4, 37, 91, 111, 178, 216, 237, 244, 258, 275, 151, 155, 161-164, 166, 168, 171, 173-178, risks, 3, 232, 365
293, 347, 384 181-184, 186, 188-190, 192, 206, 218-219, Role-play, 27
Projection, 133, 139, 168, 201, 221 232-234, 249-272, 274-275, 285-286, 288, Roles, 45, 65, 89, 101, 180, 241, 354, 356
Projects, 93, 136 290, 305, 312, 326, 329-363, 366, 370, 374, Roots, 70
Prompts, 22, 55, 66, 82-83, 87-88, 90, 102, 105, 152, 386, 387-389, 391-392 Rotational symmetry, 346, 354, 362
217, 382-383 Reasoning and proof, 2, 387 Rotations, 329, 331, 352
dependency on, 88 Recall, 9, 39, 97, 171, 173, 175, 185, 188-191, 245, Rounding, 305
Property, 4, 15, 154-155, 162, 174, 184, 225, 252, 300, 360 Routines, 29, 90-91
263-265, 321, 339-340, 351-352, 362, 389, Receiving, 137, 167, 321 Rubber band, 56, 200, 324
395, 400 Receptive language, 73 Rubric, 49, 55-59
Proportional reasoning, 388 Recognition, 33, 86, 122-123, 197, 331-332, 334-337, Rubrics, 55-56, 58
Psychologists, 173 355, 358 generic rubrics, 56
Psychology, 94-95, 295, 327 Recommendations, 21, 27, 105, 189 performance indicators, 55
Publications, 94, 369, 386 Recording, 35, 48, 52, 59, 63, 67, 69, 102, 135, 143, Rulers, 297-299, 301, 312-314, 325, 394
Publishing, 111, 140, 169, 223, 275 190-192, 199, 203-204, 206, 221-222, Rules, 9, 11, 16, 18, 24, 32, 90, 104, 155, 162, 185,
Puzzles, 341-342, 352 230-231, 233, 235, 241-245, 270, 316, 241, 271, 273, 333, 362, 372
322-323, 325, 344, 357, 359, 395, 398-399 Rush, 73, 231
Q Records, 7, 87, 184, 228, 241, 271, 370
Quality, 15, 17, 44, 82, 84, 91, 97 Recycling, 154, 368, 373 S
Quantitative reasoning, 388 Reference, 51, 72, 90, 130, 263, 293, 303, 305, 353, Samples, 58-59
Quantities, 3, 54, 91, 115, 120, 122, 130, 133, 372 SAT, 55, 104, 116
135-136, 138, 142, 145, 147-149, 153, 156, Referral, 83 Scaffold, 74
160-161, 183, 196-199, 208, 220-221, 251, Reflecting, 15, 19, 29, 32, 201, 300, 357 Scaffolding, 41, 82
255, 259, 261-263, 277-280, 284-285, 288, break, 201 Scale, 52, 55-57, 59, 93, 256, 258, 298, 302, 324, 342,
293-294, 310, 317, 388-389, 391 Reflective thinking, 9, 122 376, 379-380, 383
Quantity, 5, 67, 85, 107, 114, 124, 127, 137, 142, Register, 214, 313, 379-380 Scales, 93, 299, 324, 374
145-147, 158, 168, 182, 196-198, 201-202, Regrouping, 8, 38, 197, 215, 219, 225, 235, 240-242 Schema, 5, 60
204-206, 209, 255, 262-263, 277-280, 286, Regularity, 4, 54, 103, 132, 155, 162, 177-178, 206, Schemas, 4, 10
289-290, 309-310, 376, 383, 388 251-252, 267, 387, 389-390 Schemes, 118, 243, 295, 372, 374
Question mark, 39-40, 147, 187 Reinforcement, 105, 186, 189, 201 School, 1, 12, 26, 29, 35, 38, 45, 47, 60, 62-63, 65, 73,
Questioning, 11, 19, 29, 50, 87, 105, 107, 232, 241, RELATE, 10, 15, 22, 26, 83-84, 87-89, 120, 124, 214, 78, 80-81, 92-95, 97-99, 101-104, 107-111,
260, 294 222, 279, 285, 303, 315-316, 367, 394 114-115, 117, 121, 131, 133, 140, 148, 155,
for understanding, 11, 29 Relational understanding, 5-6, 8-12, 14, 18, 23-24, 32, 169, 193, 215, 220, 223, 225-226, 229, 247,
Questionnaires, 35 34, 45, 199 254, 275, 277, 295, 297, 300, 302, 307-308,
Question(s), 384 Relationship, 8, 25, 97, 103-104, 122, 125, 127, 314-315, 317, 320, 327, 329-330, 333-336,
Questions, 1, 3, 7-8, 10-11, 15-16, 21, 27, 36-42, 130-131, 138, 147, 150, 153-154, 182-183, 347, 357, 363, 367-370, 380-381, 386,
45-46, 50, 52, 54, 65, 68-70, 72, 83-85, 87, 198-199, 228, 245, 249-250, 253-254, 260, 387-390, 391
90, 98-102, 105-107, 109-110, 114, 116, 119, 264, 269-270, 273, 278, 280, 283, 286-288, School day, 308, 315
125, 133, 135-137, 164, 166, 192, 206, 217, 298, 300, 304, 312, 316, 334, 392-393 School district, 47
232, 245, 249-250, 252-253, 255, 270, 274, Relationships, 3, 5-6, 8-10, 18-19, 25, 54, 56, 64, 66, School leaders, 98
279, 291, 294, 303, 311, 313, 340, 365-370, 88, 92, 103, 114-115, 119, 121-124, 126-128, School lunch, 92, 117
377-378, 381-385, 388, 391 130-133, 135-138, 142-144, 147, 149, 157, School mathematics, 12, 47, 62, 65, 78, 80, 94-95,
closed, 10 171, 173, 176, 178, 188, 193, 200-201, 97-98, 104, 110-111, 193, 215, 223, 226,
easy, 274, 369, 377, 384 212-214, 217, 221, 244, 249, 252, 255, 247, 275, 327, 329-330, 335, 347, 357, 363,
encouraging, 11, 21, 217, 245 258-260, 262, 265, 271-273, 293, 302, 304, 367, 386, 390
formulating, 365, 367 330-334, 346, 348, 352, 387-388, 392-394 NCTM principles, 80, 98, 215, 329, 335
generating, 10, 101, 250, 366 Remembering, 83, 120 Schooling, 77, 97-98, 111
harder, 68 Reminders, 85 Schools, 47, 62, 82, 94, 108, 298, 300, 365
ideas for, 114, 279, 378 Repeating patterns, 267-269, 271 Science, 36, 92, 95, 104, 247, 297, 367-368, 373, 384
leading, 52, 250 Reports, 1, 16 new, 36, 95, 384
leads, 164 Representation, 2-3, 15, 23-25, 36, 40, 48, 54, 90, Sciences, 2, 94, 278
on tests, 84 124, 201, 206, 209, 218, 246, 252, 264, 273, Scope, 334
probing, 50 291, 294-295, 314, 365, 370, 374-375, 380, Scores, 47, 57, 357
purposeful, 16, 36, 366 387-388 Scoring, 55, 57
scaffolding, 41 Representations, 2-3, 8, 14, 23-26, 28-29, 36, 54, 56, rubric, 55, 57
what if, 16, 27, 274, 313, 381 58, 73, 84-86, 88-90, 120, 127-128, 130-131, Search, 85, 103, 107, 202, 253, 302, 309, 336, 387
190, 197, 201, 205-206, 217, 246, 249, 261, Searches, 216
266, 287, 294-295, 365, 374-375 Seating, 37
R of mathematical ideas, 24
Race, 62, 366 Second Step, 48, 270
reproduction, 18, 78, 223 Secondary school, 99
Rand Corporation, 275 Research, 1-4, 12, 18, 21, 29, 32, 47, 51, 60, 70, 73,
Random numbers, 125 Section, 27, 55, 68, 81, 109, 125, 149, 201, 207, 215,
75, 77-78, 81-82, 86, 92, 94-95, 102, 219, 238, 246, 254, 311, 313, 357, 372, 377
Random selection, 134 104-105, 108-109, 111, 115, 118, 130, 135,
Range, 6, 9, 16, 32, 69, 82, 94, 116-117, 130, 147, Self, 18, 22, 38, 53, 57-58, 70, 75, 77, 84, 86-88,
140, 143, 146, 169, 174-176, 189, 193, 223, 90-91, 105, 122, 152, 189, 368
164, 226, 229, 305-306, 335, 342, 381 226, 228-229, 247, 254, 275, 284, 295,
Rates, 186 self-monitoring, 18
300-301, 305, 314, 327, 329, 331, 363, 376, Self-regulation, 18
Rational numbers, 295 386, 387
ratios, 295 Selling, 131
findings, 4, 70 Sense of self, 22
Reaching, 71, 135, 181, 334 theory and, 60
Readiness, 34-37, 39, 41, 43-45, 126, 162 Sentences, 68, 72, 74, 142, 149-150, 258-261, 263,
Research in education, 60 384
Reading, 7, 32, 41, 57, 67, 69, 73, 76, 81, 95, 99, 102, Resilience, 81
106-107, 124, 126-127, 135, 166, 176, 182, Separation, 130
Resources, 40, 73, 98, 104-106, 267, 331, 369, Sequence, 34, 85-88, 114-116, 118, 133-134, 146,
226, 245, 247, 253, 262, 270, 283, 291, 389-390
315-317, 319, 327, 366, 374 151, 195, 213, 227, 269, 272, 299, 315, 321,
Respect, 11, 38, 62, 390 391, 393
aloud, 102 Responding, 27, 32, 45, 50-51, 54, 77-78, 193, 231,
choral, 73 Setting, 9, 21, 37, 44, 56, 100, 110, 174
366 Severe disabilities, 89, 91-92
difficulties, 32, 95, 166 Response, 27, 44-45, 52, 54, 56, 58, 73, 75-76, 81-82,
ELLs, 69, 73, 76, 176, 245, 291, 316 Shadow, 368
86, 94-95, 109, 111, 171, 187, 208, 215, 258, Shapes, 43-44, 55-56, 67, 81-82, 86-87, 91-92, 107,
partner, 41, 124 286, 369-370
pointed, 135 109, 128, 139, 256-258, 267-269, 277, 280,
Response to Intervention (RTI), 44, 82, 94 289, 293, 321-323, 329-348, 350-353,
to students, 95 Responses, 15, 20, 27, 29, 56-59, 63, 74, 83-84, 87,
wide, 127, 135 356-363, 372, 374, 376, 381, 389, 391-394,
100, 110, 139, 177, 205, 208, 211, 217, 254, 395-396, 398-399
Reading comprehension, 245 260, 284, 288, 322, 368-369, 384
Reading skills, 81 cubes, 43, 87, 128, 139, 256, 267-269, 289, 293,
Responsive teaching, 46, 77-78 323, 330, 333-334, 391-392
Real numbers, 220, 389 Retention, 24, 189
Reasonableness, 49, 85, 215, 390 sorting and classifying, 339, 350
Retrieval, 174, 186 two-dimensional, 293, 337, 339-341, 343, 345-347,
Reasoning, 2-4, 7, 10, 14-15, 17-18, 21-23, 25, 27, 36, Revision, 5, 388
39, 41, 44, 48, 53-54, 56, 66, 68, 70, 87-89, 350
Rigidity, 345 Shared responsibility, 45, 101
93, 100-103, 121, 125, 132, 136, 143, 146, Rigor, 332-333 Sharing, 16, 22, 28, 35, 53, 57, 59, 64, 74, 88, 98,
410
102, 105, 107, 142, 155-156, 158, 160-161, linking, 200, 202, 209 Support, 3, 6, 14, 20, 22, 25-28, 32, 36, 40-41, 44-45,
168, 243, 259, 266, 278-279, 282-290, Standards-based, 18, 98 48, 55, 59, 62, 64, 69-71, 73-75, 78, 80-90,
293-294 State and local, 368 94, 97, 100-102, 105-106, 108, 111, 118-119,
Siblings, 35, 67, 231, 367-368 State standards, 1-2, 15, 29, 36, 45, 60, 65, 73, 84, 122, 135, 138, 148-149, 172-173, 175,
Significance, 4, 6, 15, 125, 389 89, 94, 97-100, 103-104, 109, 111, 114, 133, 177-178, 183, 186, 189, 203, 211, 226, 228,
statistical, 389 138, 140, 145, 148, 155-157, 159, 164, 167, 232-234, 239, 245, 255, 261, 267-268, 272,
Signifying, 254 169, 171-172, 185-186, 191, 193, 195, 221, 275, 291, 304, 325, 330, 335, 340, 346, 383
Signs, 48, 91, 107, 254, 273, 304 226, 228, 240, 245, 250, 261, 267, 273, 277, Support system, 44, 82, 86
Silence, 22 279, 286, 293, 297, 300, 304, 312, 317, Supporting, 22, 63, 75, 95, 97, 105, 168, 175, 182,
Simulations, 93 324-325, 329-331, 341, 361, 365, 370, 376, 186, 231, 329
Singing, 267 383, 387-390, 391-394 Surveys, 34-35
Size, 26, 39, 44, 71, 85, 123, 126, 135, 142, 148, 156, States, 4, 48, 59, 63-64, 74, 80, 82-84, 158, 167, 184, Susceptible, 227
161, 164, 184, 195, 202, 229, 239-240, 265, 232, 251, 297, 303, 331, 369, 373 Sweden, 60
277, 280-282, 286, 288, 290, 298, 300-303, Statistics, 62, 77, 365-367, 378, 381, 383, 386 Switch, 70, 139, 180, 356
305, 308, 310, 312, 321, 323, 327, 330, 332, Sticky notes, 377, 380 Symbolic representation, 264
335, 343, 346, 352, 356, 370-371, 373, 395 Stop, 7, 11, 15-16, 20, 28, 38-39, 43, 45, 57, 59, 71, Symbolism, 23, 149, 151, 157-158, 161, 167-168, 217,
Skill development, 87 74-75, 77, 89, 94, 99, 110-111, 124, 126, 249-250, 268, 282, 291
Skills, 1, 4, 15, 19, 32, 34, 36, 41, 47-49, 53, 68, 71, 131, 139, 145, 147, 160, 175, 182-183, 192, equal sign, 249
73, 81, 83-85, 88-92, 99-103, 105, 110, 114, 197, 215-216, 226, 230, 236, 239, 242, Symbols, 2-3, 18, 23-24, 26-28, 63, 66, 84-85, 88, 90,
121, 124, 153, 163, 174, 183, 193, 217, 223, 252-254, 257, 260, 262, 266, 270, 283-284, 102, 149, 155, 197-198, 209-210, 231, 243,
225-226, 267, 277, 299, 306, 315-317, 321, 291, 305, 319, 354, 358, 366, 375 249-252, 254, 263, 283, 291-292, 375, 378,
330, 355, 357-361 Storage, 138, 172 388-389
attending, 32 Stories, 26, 65-67, 73, 76, 104, 107, 110, 167-168, Symmetry, 330, 338, 341, 346, 350, 352, 354, 362,
practicing, 73 178, 220, 245, 293, 368 393-394
receiving, 321 interest in, 104, 220 line, 354, 362
speaking, 73 Storms, 379 Synthesis, 60, 111
thinking and reasoning, 48 Story Problems, 29, 65, 68, 76, 102, 104, 121, 130, System, 4, 44, 48, 59, 66, 72, 82-84, 86, 93, 121, 148,
Skip counting, 33, 90, 157, 160, 184, 217, 246, 253, 143, 149-150, 153-155, 157-158, 162-164, 197, 200-201, 209, 212, 221, 226, 229, 234,
271-272, 318, 376 167-168, 175-176, 178, 180, 182-185, 232, 249-250, 255, 263, 265, 271, 304, 317, 327,
Sleep, 368 234, 237, 261-262, 278-279, 282-285, 289, 333, 345, 355-357, 389, 394
Slides, 329, 331, 352-353 293, 317, 319-320, 379 Systems, 82, 93, 95, 304, 329, 332-334
Slope, 390 Strands, 2, 89, 172, 191, 250, 297, 329, 387
Small group, 35-36, 45, 87, 115, 139, 246, 362 Strategic competence, 2, 387 T
Small groups, 21-22, 27-28, 41, 44, 70, 75, 82, 84, Strategies, 3, 7-10, 14-17, 19-21, 27-28, 36-40, 44-46, Tables, 54, 69, 101, 103, 278, 309, 363, 373, 387-388
122-123, 125, 161, 178, 192, 271, 374, 378 55-56, 63-65, 68-69, 73-76, 78, 81-84, Tabs, 134
Snacks, 19-20, 117, 160-161 86-90, 93-94, 97-103, 106, 108, 119, 131, Talking, 11, 34, 58, 76, 89, 291-292, 332, 337, 381
Social studies, 297, 367-368, 370, 373 138, 140, 146, 149, 153, 155, 157, 160-161, Tangrams, 92, 341, 343
Sociocultural theories, 10 166, 171-178, 181, 183-184, 186, 188-192, Target strategy, 175
Software, 85-86, 186, 389 196, 215-216, 219, 223, 225-247, 263, 272, Targeted instruction, 48, 51, 83
Software programs, 186 284-286, 290, 293-295, 305-306, 311, 320, Tasks, 1-3, 6, 14-21, 23, 25-29, 34, 36-41, 43-44,
Solutions, 2-3, 6, 10, 14-16, 21-22, 27-29, 37, 45-46, 391-392 47-48, 51, 53-55, 57-58, 62, 72, 75, 82,
58, 65, 101-102, 106, 109, 111, 155, 165, Strategy instruction, 84, 86-89, 95, 173 84-85, 87, 89, 91-92, 98-103, 107-110, 115,
211, 216, 244, 250-251, 278, 282, 284-285, Stress, 285 118, 123-124, 126, 131, 136, 166, 173, 209,
289-290, 293-294, 319-320, 350, 353, 389 Strips, 127, 129, 151, 200, 210, 268-269, 280-281, 211, 252-253, 258, 260, 280, 282-284, 289,
Sorting, 56, 93, 324, 335, 339-340, 350, 362, 370, 288-289, 299, 304, 313, 379 294, 307, 311-312, 315, 321-322, 324, 335,
373, 376 Structure, 4, 20, 26-27, 34, 36, 39, 41, 43-44, 52-53, 350, 383
Sound, 33, 55, 72, 109, 182, 191, 202, 232, 389 56, 76, 82, 85, 87, 115, 122, 126, 131, 138, Teacher, 2, 6-12, 14-17, 19-22, 25, 27, 32-33, 35, 39,
Sounds, 287 144-146, 148-149, 156, 162-163, 166, 173, 42, 44-45, 47-48, 51-52, 54-57, 63, 65-68,
Space, 37, 41, 56, 59, 92, 116, 119, 125, 155, 192, 184, 197, 200, 204, 219, 226, 234, 249, 252, 72-75, 80, 82, 84-88, 93, 98-99, 101,
209, 242, 261-262, 304, 321, 329-331, 255, 263-265, 267-269, 283, 289, 305, 333, 104-110, 115, 117, 125-126, 128, 131, 136,
355-356, 391 337, 359, 389 139-140, 143, 161, 191, 202, 221, 223, 225,
Space in the classroom, 116 Student achievement, 67, 104-105, 111, 295, 363, 390 231-232, 251, 263-264, 293, 295, 310-311,
Spatial relations, 391 Student involvement, 45 338-339, 343, 367, 369, 371-372
Spatial relationships, 92, 121, 330 Student outcomes, 111 Teacher observation, 35
Spatial sense, 91, 330 Student performance, 59 Teachers, 1-3, 6, 9-12, 15-16, 18, 20, 23, 25, 29, 32,
Speaking, 64, 69-70, 73, 259 Student strategies, 84 36, 40, 45, 47-48, 51, 58-59, 62, 65-68, 70,
Special education, 44, 83-84, 94 Student success, 41 72, 75, 77-78, 80-81, 83-84, 86, 89, 91-92,
Special education services, 83 Students, 3, 6, 8, 29, 32, 34, 47, 62, 73, 77-78, 80, 82, 94-95, 97-98, 101-102, 104, 106-108,
Special education teacher, 44, 84 86, 88, 93-95, 97, 102-104, 106, 111, 143, 110-111, 114, 117-118, 121, 140, 143, 163,
Special needs, 22, 86, 88-89, 95, 293 181, 183, 193, 215, 238, 247, 254, 256, 275, 169, 172-174, 176, 191, 193, 215, 223, 226,
speed, 103, 123, 187, 189, 373 277, 301, 304, 325, 330, 333-334, 336, 365, 229, 232, 247, 249, 254, 267, 275, 277, 293,
Splitting, 19, 183, 233, 235, 277, 279 378, 386, 387-390, 391-394 295, 297, 304, 308, 311, 327, 329-330, 334,
Sports, 36, 136, 367-369, 381 distinctions, 333 337, 358, 363, 365, 367, 370, 376, 386
Stages, 84, 136, 171, 211, 229, 315 exceptional, 94 educators, 97, 102, 163, 173
Stakeholders, 110-111 Students with disabilities, 94 ESL, 66
collaborating with, 110-111 Students with special needs, 95 head, 102, 104, 311
Standard units, 74, 107, 299-305, 308, 311, 322-323, gifted students, 95 highly qualified, 84
393-394 Studies, 51, 77, 97, 143, 172, 228, 247, 297, 301, Teaching, 1-12, 13-29, 31-32, 45-46, 47, 50, 55, 57,
choosing appropriate, 303 366-368, 370, 373, 376 60, 61-78, 79-95, 97, 99-101, 105, 108-111,
familiarity with, 74, 302-303, 305, 308 D, 77, 247, 366-367 113, 132, 135, 140, 141, 143, 164, 169,
important, 300-302, 304-305, 308, 311 G, 77, 97, 172, 247, 297, 301, 367-368, 373 171-174, 176, 189, 193, 195, 199, 207, 216,
Standardized tests, 99 Study guides, 86 223, 225, 230-231, 240, 247, 249, 254, 275,
Standards, 1-2, 4, 10, 12, 15, 18, 29, 36, 40, 45, 47, Style, 123, 378 277, 285, 295, 297, 302, 306-307, 311, 327,
58, 60, 62, 65-66, 68-69, 73, 77-78, 80, 82, Subdivisions, 306, 335 329, 334, 363, 365, 386, 387, 391, 395
84, 89, 94, 97-100, 102-104, 108-109, 111, Subitizing, 115, 120, 122-123 Teaching:, 46, 77
114-115, 122, 125-127, 130-133, 136, 138, Subtraction, 3, 6, 17, 19-20, 26, 29, 37-38, 48-49, 51, Teaching strategies, 64
140, 143-146, 148-150, 152, 154-159, 63-64, 66, 68, 76, 91, 99-103, 106-107, 121, Teams, 98, 307
162-164, 167, 169, 171-173, 175-179, 128, 130, 138, 140, 142-146, 148-150, Techniques, 29, 45, 60, 105, 143, 148, 153, 163-164,
184-186, 188, 191, 193, 195, 197, 200-202, 152-157, 162, 167-169, 171-172, 174, 197, 306, 367, 375, 384
206, 208-209, 213, 215, 218, 221, 223, 226, 181-184, 186, 188, 191-193, 196-197, Technology, 26, 40, 92, 102, 189, 353, 375, 380,
228, 231-235, 237, 240-241, 245, 247, 215-216, 218-219, 223, 225-226, 228, 389-390
250-252, 255-256, 259, 261-262, 264, 230-232, 234, 238-241, 243-245, 247, 251, computers, 102
267-268, 272-273, 275, 277-279, 282-283, 255, 258, 263-264, 273-274, 295, 317-319, temperature, 92, 300, 368-369
285-286, 289, 291, 293, 297, 300, 303-305, 391-394, 395, 398 Ten-frames, 203, 210, 397-398
312, 317, 324-325, 327, 329-331, 335, as think-addition, 153 Tens method, 202
337-338, 341, 344-345, 350, 352, 355, Suggestions, 23, 28, 52, 58, 68, 84, 106, 108, 149, Terminology, 4, 23, 27-28, 68, 71, 87, 156, 162, 199,
357-359, 361, 363, 365, 367, 370-372, 202, 214, 235, 307, 309, 315, 322, 374 214, 266, 331, 351-352, 362, 383
375-377, 381, 383, 386, 387-390, 391-394 Summative assessment, 47-48 Tessellation, 359
content in, 68, 136, 330, 390 Supervision, 12, 46, 78 Test, 24, 37, 47, 75, 78, 84, 189, 251, 267, 269, 312,
411
335, 353, 372 Truth, 225, 275, 333, 388 292-294, 298, 303, 305, 314, 319, 338, 379,
testing, 52, 60 Turns, 40, 67, 74, 87, 107, 117-118, 124, 216, 307, 381, 384, 391-394
Tests, 53, 84, 99, 172, 189, 232 329, 331, 336, 346, 352-353, 356-357, 359, Whole-class discussion, 22, 38, 294
select, 53 362, 384 Windows, 306, 362
Text, 11, 36, 99, 191, 334 Tutorials, 106 Word order, 149
Textbooks, 98, 109, 124, 163-164, 172-173, 200, 205, Tutors, 89 Word prediction, 86
209-210, 238, 254, 267, 280, 295, 349 Two-digit numbers, 221 word problems, 14, 48, 81, 130, 148, 163-164,
adapted, 109, 254 166-167, 177, 317, 379-380
The Parent, 110 U Word Wall, 87, 208, 302, 338, 351
Theme, 66 Underground Railroad, 66, 78 Word walls, 71, 90
theories, 4, 9-10 Understanding, 1-12, 14-21, 23-25, 27-29, 32, 34-37, Words, 7, 10, 16-18, 21-22, 24, 28, 43-44, 50, 52-55,
Theory, 4, 6, 9-10, 60, 81, 88, 94, 111, 331-332, 334, 39-41, 44-45, 47, 49-55, 57-58, 66, 70-71, 58, 68-73, 75, 85, 87, 106, 115-116, 120,
336 73, 75-76, 81, 85-87, 89-90, 93-94, 97, 123, 131, 138, 143, 149, 163-165, 185,
Think, 1-2, 4, 7-8, 11, 14-17, 19-20, 22-24, 27-28, 99-104, 114-115, 117, 119-121, 131-134, 196-198, 202-204, 207-208, 210, 221, 235,
34-36, 38-39, 41-43, 45, 49, 51-52, 54, 57, 137, 142-143, 145, 150-151, 162-163, 167, 245, 251-252, 255, 259, 263-266, 273, 282,
62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 73-75, 81, 84-86, 89, 100, 176, 184, 190, 195-197, 199-201, 210-215, 286-287, 289, 291, 293-294, 297, 305, 308,
106-107, 110-111, 114, 124, 127, 131, 219, 221-223, 225-226, 228-229, 231, 240, 320, 329, 336, 352, 356, 359, 369-370, 374
134-136, 139, 143, 145-150, 153, 155, 244-245, 247, 252-254, 256, 259-260, 263, base, 7, 54, 85, 196-198, 202, 204, 207-208, 210,
157-158, 163-167, 171, 173, 178, 182-183, 272, 274-275, 277-278, 280, 282-285, 287, 221, 235, 263
187, 191-192, 195, 197-198, 201-202, 204, 289, 291, 293-295, 297, 299-302, 304, 307, categorization of, 265
209-210, 212-216, 222, 225, 229-238, 240, 309, 312, 314-315, 317, 323, 327, 330-331, classes of, 336
249-252, 254, 256, 261, 264-266, 271, 335, 346, 365, 386, 387, 389-390, 392-394 Work, 3, 6, 8, 15, 19-20, 26-29, 32, 35-41, 43-45,
273-274, 278, 280, 282, 284, 287, 291, Undoing, 252 50-51, 53, 55, 57-59, 69-70, 77, 81, 83, 86,
293-294, 303-307, 312, 315-317, 319-320, Unit iteration, 327 89, 91, 93, 98-102, 105, 107, 110, 115-116,
323, 325-326, 330-332, 337-339, 353, 355, UNIT test, 47 119-120, 123, 127, 130-131, 134, 140, 153,
357, 359-362, 369, 372, 375, 384, 392 United States, 63-64, 74, 158, 297, 303, 331, 373 155-156, 160-165, 167, 169, 172-175, 180,
Think-aloud, 293 Units, 3, 6, 56, 74, 101, 107, 131, 136, 151-152, 160, 183-184, 186, 188-190, 192, 195-197, 202,
Thinking, 7, 9-11, 15, 18, 21-24, 26-29, 34, 36, 38-39, 195-196, 199-201, 204, 221-222, 235, 204, 206-207, 211, 214, 216-218, 222,
42, 44, 47-48, 50-54, 56, 59, 63, 66-67, 69, 279-280, 295, 297-315, 322-326, 356, 225-226, 228, 230-231, 234-236, 239-242,
75-76, 84-89, 93-94, 101-102, 105-106, 108, 388-389, 392-394 244-246, 249, 251-253, 260-263, 265, 268,
111, 117, 122, 124, 130, 138, 142, 150, 152, University of Wisconsin, 60 273-275, 277, 284-286, 293-295, 297, 302,
158, 162, 166, 173, 184, 187, 191-193, 196, U.S. Department of Education, 78, 94 304, 315, 321-322, 324, 326, 330, 333, 337,
208, 219-221, 223, 228, 230, 232-234, 239, 339, 351, 353-354, 362, 366, 368, 370, 384,
245-246, 249-250, 256, 259-261, 263, 265, 390, 392-394
267, 273-275, 290, 293-295, 319, 325, V Workforce, 97, 225
329-331, 333-335, 340, 346-347, 352, 357, Vacations, 67 Working memory, 90, 175
359, 366, 381, 384, 386, 392-394 Validity, 9 Working through, 18
algebraic, 67, 138, 249-250, 256, 259-261, 263, Values, 27, 51, 75-76, 103, 177, 191, 199, 201, 245, Workplace, 92, 102, 304, 388
265, 267, 273-275, 392-394 253, 256-257, 260-261, 263, 279, 288, Worksheets, 188, 213, 267, 314, 326
possibility, 48, 52, 56, 130, 267 317-321, 371, 376, 378, 380-381 Writers, 55
Thompson, 71, 76-77, 295, 297, 327 Variables, 249, 254, 257-259, 261-263, 350, 366 Writing, 2-3, 26, 34, 37, 49, 51, 53-55, 57, 59, 69,
Thousands chart, 214, 218 as quantities that vary, 261-263 71-73, 84, 90, 93, 99, 102, 104, 108, 110,
Three-phase lesson format, 26 measurement, 366 115, 127, 146, 153, 196, 199, 209, 217, 254,
Tiered instruction, 45 Venn diagram, 371-372, 384 262-264, 291, 294, 388, 391
Tiered lessons, 41, 43-44 Venn diagrams, 383 form of, 37, 127, 146, 264
Time, 3-5, 10, 16, 20-22, 24-28, 32-34, 40-42, 47-48, Verbal skills, 361 kid, 59
51-53, 67-68, 70, 72-73, 76-77, 85-86, Vermont, 47 numeral, 196
88-93, 98, 100-102, 104, 106, 108-109, Verse, 370 purpose for, 57
114-117, 121-123, 125-129, 131, 135-138, Video, 48, 106, 367 right, 115, 199, 209
146, 148, 150-151, 154-155, 157, 160-161, Videos, 106 structures in, 72
166-168, 173, 177, 179, 181, 184-186, 189, Virtual manipulatives, 26, 106, 243-244, 267, 343-344 to solve, 3, 26, 51, 59, 72, 102, 104, 146, 153, 254,
196, 206-207, 209-210, 215-218, 221, Virtue, 197 262, 294, 388, 391
225-227, 229-231, 233, 237, 241, 261, 263, Vision, 105, 108 Writing prompts, 55
266, 269, 277, 279, 282, 289, 291, 297-300, Visual cues, 85 Written records, 228
303, 307, 311, 314-319, 321, 324, 330, 341, Visual displays, 85, 93
356, 359-360, 366-369, 372, 374, 376, Visual information, 304
Visual learners, 85 Y
378-379, 381, 389-390, 391-394, 396 Young children, 6, 14, 18, 26, 56, 102, 106, 115, 119,
elapsed, 317 Visual memory, 359
Visualization, 125, 329, 331-332, 334-335, 338, 122, 135, 143, 149, 155, 169, 193, 223, 240,
engaged, 10, 16, 40, 98, 161, 186, 279 250, 265, 267, 272, 278-282, 284-286, 288,
to think, 20, 22, 24, 34, 51-52, 100, 127, 131, 135, 357-360
Visualizing, 121 300, 305, 308, 311, 321, 323-324, 331, 334,
146, 148, 150, 167, 209-210, 225, 233, 339, 352-353, 355, 360, 363, 367, 369-370,
237, 315-316, 330, 359-360, 369 Vocabulary, 27, 44, 68-69, 71-72, 75-76, 82, 84-85, 87,
102, 149, 277, 282, 293, 361-362, 391 375, 381
units, 3, 101, 131, 136, 151, 160, 196, 221, 279, Ysseldyke, J., 95
297-300, 303, 307, 311, 314-315, 324, ideas and, 27
356, 389, 392-394 Vocabulary Development, 71
Title, 102 Vocabulary instruction, 71 Z
Tone, 37, 52 Voice, 52, 85-86, 125 Zero, 4, 51, 151-152, 154-155, 162, 177-178, 185,
Tone of voice, 52 Voice recognition, 86 209-211, 242-243, 250, 252, 263-264, 298
Tools, 3-4, 14, 18, 23-25, 42-43, 46, 49, 53-54, 56, 59, Volume, 67, 92, 298, 301, 303, 306-307, 321, 323, Zone of proximal development, 6
73, 78, 86-88, 91, 105-106, 150, 159, 178, 327, 394
201, 212, 233, 252, 254, 263, 295, 297-300, volunteering, 97
303, 327, 352-353, 388-389, 394 Volunteers, 103
for teaching, 86, 91
Topics, 34-35, 40-41, 47, 49, 65, 91, 93, 99, 104, 106, W
121, 167, 189, 250, 368, 370, 391 Wait time, 52, 70, 72
touch, 4, 85, 115, 337, 360 Walls, 71, 90, 337
Touching, 128, 338 wants, 15, 75, 156-158, 167, 178
Toys, 114, 262, 379 Washington, 2, 12, 78, 94-95, 140, 193, 247
Traits, 34 Wealth, 106
Transfer, 228, 343 Websites, 26, 71, 98, 106, 186, 267, 368, 370
Transformation, 331, 352-354, 360 Weight, 135, 273, 297-298, 300-301, 304-305, 307,
Transitions, 85, 225 321, 324, 366, 369, 373
Transitivity, 309, 393 of matter, 324
Translation, 54-55, 75, 78, 138, 352 Whole, 17, 21-22, 37-38, 41, 45, 51, 54, 64-66, 76, 86,
Travel, 59, 326, 357, 380 94, 102, 110, 116, 121-122, 125-130,
Triangles, 40, 43-44, 53, 56, 86, 128, 322, 330-331, 138-139, 142, 144-145, 147-148, 150-154,
334-338, 340, 344-348, 351-352, 360, 371, 156, 158-159, 161, 169, 174, 178, 182,
391, 393, 395, 400 191-193, 195-220, 222-223, 225-247, 259,
area of, 330 261, 271, 273-274, 277-285, 287-289,
412

Teaching Student-Centered Mathematics

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Teaching Student-Centered Mathematics:

Developmentally Appropriate Instruction

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© Pearson Education Limited 2014

ISBN 10: 1-292-02205-1

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Printed in the United States of America

1. Teaching Mathematics for Understanding

Teachers generally agree that teaching for understanding is a good

Understanding and Doing Mathematics

children’s attention to precision by introducing, highlighting, and encouraging the use of

How Do Children Learn?

Teaching for Understanding

Stop and Reflect

Stop and Reflect

Teaching toward Instrumental Understanding

The Importance of Children’s Ideas

Mathematics Classrooms That

Stop and Reflect

Teaching mathematics through problem solving is a method of teaching

Stop and Reflect

Using Problems to Teach

CONCEPTS: Cardinality (how many), Decomposition of numbers

PROCEDURE: Subtracting two-digit whole numbers

Selecting Worthwhile Tasks

Level of Cognitive Demand

Figure 1 Levels of cognitive demand.

Low-Level Cognitive Demand Tasks High-Level Cognitive Demand Tasks

Procedures without Connections Doing Mathematics

Multiple Entry and Exit Points

Stop and Reflect

Relevant and Well-Designed Contexts

Orchestrating Classroom Discourse

Figure 2 Examples of teacher prompts for supporting classroom discussions.

Encourage Student–Student Dialogue “Who has a question for Vivian?”

How Much to Tell and Not to Tell

Representations: Tools for Problem Solving,

Tips for Using Representations in the Classroom

Draw a Write using

“Hundred” Ten “tens”

There are other ways for children to represent and

A Three-Phase Lesson Format

Lesson Phase Teacher Actions in a Teaching Mathematics through Problem-Solving Lesson

What Do I Do When a Task Doesn’t Work?

Stop and Reflect

Figure 1 How many dogs are there? Nora’s solution: 3 and 3 is 6.

The Nuts and Bolts of Differentiating Instruction

Planning Meaningful Content, Grounded

Recognizing Children as Learners

Figure 2 Learning profile inventory.

n sit at my desk n with a partner n warm n quiet n hear about it n talk

n sit somewhere other n in a small n cool n noise n read about it n show

Connecting Content and Learners

Content: What You Want Each Child to Learn

Process: How Children Engage in Thinking about Content

Product: How Children Demonstrate What They Know, Understand,

Learning Environment: The Logistics, Physical Configuration, and

Examples of Differentiated Instruction

Stop and Reflect

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Represent and solve problems involving addition. (Grade 1)