ESS

FORMULAE
efficiency output
IUDUt

biomass mass of individuals of cholividuals

net
primary productivity (Npp) GPP-R/respiratory losses
old
percentage change new was increase old-new know
old
a decrease

percentage party wo

percentage of rate base 20% of

80 = 0.20180 = 16

across secondary productivity food eaten-fecall loss

not secondary productivity asp-R
efficiency of assimilation gross prod.x100
God cater

efficiency of productivity
netpod.Noone
crude birth rate ofbirths/population size x cas

crude death rate ofdeaths/population size x 1000

naturale increase rate

(BR-CDR > (n)

70
dubling time
NIR

population density pop.Size

area of card

TOPICS: 6) Atmospheric systems and soceeces

1) Foundations of
environmental systems and 6.1 Introducture
societies
1.1 EUS 6.2 Stratospheric zone

1.2 systems and models 6.3 Photochemical smog

1.3 Energy and equilibrua 6.4 Add depositi
1.4 Sustachability 1) climate change and energy product we
1.5 Humans and population 7.1 Energy choices andsecurity
2) Ecosystems and
ecology 7.2 Climate change -
causes - impacts
2.1 species and populations 7.3 Climate
change mitigation and
2.2 Communities and ecosystems adaptation
2.3 flows ofenergy and matter 5) Humal systems and resource use
2.4 Blomes, colation and successul 8.Human population
2.5 Investigating ecosystems -
practical work 8.2 Resource use in society
3) Biodiversity and conservat we 8.3 sound domestic waste
3.) An introduction to blodiversity 8.4 Human human systems and societ.
3.2 origins blodiversity
of

3.3 Threats to biodiversity

biodiversity
3.4 Conservation of

7) water, food production systems and society

4.1 introduction to water systems
4.2 Access to freshwater
2.3 Aquatic food production systems
1.2. Water pOllUtW
5) soil systems and solences
3.1 Introduction to sole systems

3.2 Terrestrual food prod systems and food chalces

3.3 5019 degradation conservation
+
 EEkkoda-tw.ms 0¥ eekkbdkmmeeaatafssgfss-EEASIssoo-ae.li -1
kt eennwtrroonnrmheennk-akwakweessyysstt.eeAmiss
↳ shape now we see the world
who's involved in the environmental movement ? ( change norms of behaviour and make political
changes)
1. influential individuals → Madha publication → eoa Greta Thornberg
.
)
2. Independent pressure groups → awareness -
)
campaigns ( non government organizations
3. corporate business → MNCs ,twos are involved ( they have impacts of production)
4. government → policy decisions and legislation
5. intergovernmental bodies/United Nations → bring together governments

Disasters in history
DDT pesticide tin human /animal tissues causing cancer)
→

Chernobyl → nuclear disaster

Bhopal disaster → pesticides industrial disaster ,

Fukushima → nuclear plant in Japan (radiation)

the spectrum of environmental value systems

is different societies holed different environmental philosophies

DEUS is influenced by cultural religious economic
, ,
and socio-political context
☐ everyone has different values
eccentric →
nature centred
Different environmental philosophies oentrophooentricnpeop.ee centred
technocentric - technology centered
eccentric :
"
ecology and nature as centre to humanity (greater self-sufficiency)
↓
deep ecologists (extreme
self reliant soft ecologists
,

cantropocentric must sustainably

: humans manage the global system (taxes legislation) nature , ,

benefit humans
exhst to
tecnocentrists : technological developments can provide solutions to environmental problems
1 environmental
cornu@plans (extreme) → think that world has infinite resources ✓

managers → world is a
garden that needs stewardship eoa edible drone .

INDUSTRIAL WORLD → anthropocentric or technocentric

1. 22 ssyysst-eernnssodnnodrmnoodee.ws
open small biosphere : fragile skin layer .
Includes atmosphere .

Why systems? closed lithosphere hydrosphere humans animals

, ,
,
.

I isolated large biosphere 2 → try to create a physical model

↳ did not work low oxygen after 2 years
living non-living ,

systems →
assemblage of parts and relationships
Types of systems between them (human body war) ,

open system exchanges matter and energy with sorrounohnods

closed system exchanges energy but not matter with environment
OPEN CLOSED ISOLATED
isolated system exchanges neither of them
boundaries energy
storages halter>
flows : -
input → processes (respiration diffusion precipitation
< >
9^084
, ,

-
output ←
Transfer and transformation
transfer: moving of material throughliving organisms
I require moving of
material in non-uring process Inputs AND oripuis
less energy moving of
energy

3
transformation:matter to matter
↓
energy to energy change in chemical properties and
processi
events ·matter to energy (burning fossil fuel) state
energy to matter (photosynthesis)

open system (most systems) closed systems extremely rare -> theplanet
c an

carbon, be considered closed

↳ hydrological,
4 all ecosystems up nitrogen cycle
most are artificual
isolated systems do not exist naturally
Is we
may consider the universe

Models of
systems - simplified version of
something (workin predictable ways
biosphere 2
↑like
1. a physical model
2. a software model Omit complexities, but
allow us to lookahead and predict
3. Mathematical equation eg. of a system diagram
4. data flow diagrams PHOTOSUNTHSIS

sonomaonposio
strengths weaknesses INPUTS

·easier to workon because

accuracy lost it's simplfred enter
predicteffects ·

wrong assumptions:wrong model

·applied to similar sit predictions may be inaccurate
help to see patterns
·used to visualize
small huge things

1.3 EMEROM AND COUIN BONON

Energy in systems - to laws of thermodinamics

always subject
1st
l aw thermodinamics:principle
of of conservation of energy. energy in an isolated system can

IMPORTANT!! be transformed butnot created or destroyed.

2nd of
lawthermodinamics:entropy of isolated sys, not
in equie, Will tend to rise. Entropy is the

·energy conversions level of disorder in a system. Mentropy from energy transfor.:N energy
are never 100%accurate &eg. disordered room

energy: workthat land other wasted energul

complexity and stability -> most ecosystems are very complex, but makes them
it more stable

↑low in ecological systems

efficiency:useful energy, workoutputdivided by amount of energy consumed (as input of output
IRPOt
equilibrium:tendency of system to return to an original state
following disturbance (ballance
A steady state equilibrium/dynamic:characteristic of
open systems where there are continuous
Inputs or puts ofenergy and matter, but
system as a whole remains in a constant state.

self-regulatenegative feedback:stabilites dynamic equilibria. Itneutralized or counteract

any deviation
2. Water tank, a market, a climax
ecosystem (forest), body welht or temperature
A static equilibrium:no change over w ill adopt
time. When disturbed, it a new equilibrium (mostly
non-huing)
i unstable and stable equilibria:In stable, equilibrium returns to the same after disturbance,
In unstable, it
returns to a new one
Feedback hoops →
systems are continually affected by information from outside and
Inside positive negative
e) positive: -

change a system to a new state -

start at
• Point
destabilizing as they increase change vicious 1
-

ends
2) negative: returns to cycle
its original state at
-

another
-

stabilizing as they reduce change

↑Temp dark surface
eg positive melting exposed = more sun
→ = ice =
.

booth captured : T temp

eeg negative → Teem p= meeting
.
ice __ more water more clouds: more suneigeen reflected falling = temperatures
Resilience of systems
↳ measures how it responds to a disturbance (more resilient = more resistant to disturb ) .

factors affecting it

☐ more complex /diverse ecosystem more resilient because = there are more interactions
☐ greater biodiversity more likely that a species replaces
,
another if it dies
D
greater genetic diversity = greater resilience
species who can shift resilient
D
geographical ranges are more
D big ecosystem : more resilience

Tipping points reached when an ecosystem experiences a shift to a new state in which there

significant changes to its biodiversity

•
>
are tipping
↳ small
.

point
changes may not make a difference,
but if it reaches tipping point , changes can be huge . a

threshold W current
^
state
characteristics :
resilience
☐ threshold point is hardly predicted ☐ involve positive feedback state

☐ changes are hard to reverse

D Changes are long wasting
examples :
D bake eutrophication is too many nutrients added → new state
↓

plants grow excessively

&

48th gets blocked

&

oxygen level fails

&

animals/ plants die

☐ extinction of animals
k " 4, Ssw Ssttoatnoalbbktt €44

sustainability → use and

management of resources that allows full natural replacement of
the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by
extraction and use .

sustainable development development that meets the head of present generation

→ without
compromising the ability of future generations to do the same
maximum sustainable yield →max amount .
of ✗ that can be used that will leave enough
to reproduce + replace
sustainability indicators

variety of life poverty , , corruption and crime health education

, , ,
coz emissions , pollution , gender parity

measure from eoaae to global

↳ more accurate ↳ whole picture
tragedy of the Commons : many

How can we change (make sustainable decisions) individuals act in self interest
-

Factors that do not make us

change : to harvest resource but , destroy
☐ inertia changing seems to difficult
→
long term future of the resources

☐ acting in self best interest and destroying future resources

Natural capital and natural income
natural capital: natural resources that have a value to humans and produce national
income sustainably ( forest (NC) produces timber (Nl) )

↳↳ no

means
manufacturing
of production (factory ,
)
tools , machines →
↳ can be used
create → sell → income
sustainably or not

natural income : annual yield from such resources

Environmental impact assessments (EIA)

' '
→ Mieeencum ecosystem assessment 2005

§
60108 world ecosystems have been degraded
•

25%08 Earth's band is cultivated

-

we use 40 -50% Of all

.

available surface water

report prepared before a development project to change the use of band
↳ shows
advantages and cdisotooentonges

D necessary to see how abiotic and biotic factors in the environment would change
↳ to do with measurements
what's the use of EIA? examine environmental impacts ( sometimes required by law
where did they come from? Us gov passed NEPAC national environmental policy act)
what do they need in them? Examples
Dudentrying impacts .
roads '
dams

☐
predicting scale of potential impacts .

airports
-

large scale housing

D limiting the effect of impacts to acceptable limits .

power stations

weaknesses
☐ different countries have different standards → hard to compare
D difficult to determine the boundary of the investigation
☐ hard to consider indirect impacts

ecological footprint is area of leaned / water required to sustainably provide all

↳ It's a resources at the rate at which they are being consumed by a given
model population →
may vary significantly in different countries
sustainable practices
·energy egg, cency and conservator
·water and wastewater systems

·green building
waste reduction and
recycling
·

·climatefriendly purchasing
renewables, how carbon frees
community and codividual actions
·

·change transportatue
 1. 5s hinunmhcaanss ☒ ☒ ppooktwtt.IQ
Andina eased after industrial revolution

Pollution : addition of a substance or an

agent to an environment by human activity ,
↓
at a rate greater than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the environ
nCh
.

inevitable 4 has an appreciable effect on the or @•msms within it

economic development
Pollutants : released by human activity
D / gases liquids or solids Can be organic or inorganic
Mother , .

D
energy ( sound Ugth heat) , ,

D
hung organisms ( massive spueaes or biological agents

Types of pollutants
1 I
primary : active secondary :
primary pollutants undergoing
on emission (carbon physical or chemical changes
monoxide from fossil
foee)

Major sources

☐ fossil fuel combustion → greenhouse gasses climate change , respiratory infection eye problems
, , ,

death and suffocation / carbon dioxide)

D domestic waste → eutrophication ( paper plastic coins) , ,

☐ industrial waste → poisoning disability ( heavy metals heat beads

,
corrosive, , ,

D agricultural waste → eutrophication accumulate up food chains (organic waste

, ,
nitrates, pesticides
Point or non point source
Pollutants from numerous spread sources (cars)
↳ release of .pm
,

pollutants hard to detect and easley spread

a single colentifioebee site (chimney automobile) ,

easier to see and manage

Persistent organic pollution (POPs) and biodegradable pollutants

Pops → resistant to breaking down ,

remain active eg .
DDT
↳ they bioaccumulate in human / animal tissue advantages disadvantages
'
effective insects became
'

res .

they have similar properties : -

high molecular Wei@th

'

cheap
-

affected birds,fish
•
not very soluble in water .
increased crop yield -
banned
-

soluble en fats and lipids '

used to fight malaria .

harmful for humans

Biodegradable pollutants D do not persist on environment and breaks down quickly

( plastic bags)

Acute or chronic pollution

acute : large amounts of pollutants released causing lot of harm lose sprees)

chronic : long term release of pollutants but in small amounts ◦

goes underdetected
↳ Usually → respiratory oleseeases '

spread wisely .
difficult to clean up
our pollution
 Detection and monitoring

D directly → (for air ) •

acidity of rainwater
•

amount of particles released by

↓ amount of diesel
-

gas in atmosphere a engine

on water , our , sole
→
(for )
side , water -

nitrates and pnospate .

heavy metal content

-

organic matter /bacteria

D indirectly -

measuring abiotic factors that change with pollutants

•

presence or absence of indicator spieces ( present only if polluted /Unpolluted)

Pollution management strategies

↳ 3 main walls
1) changing humanactivity producing it ( campaigns education laws) , ,

2) regulating / preventing release of pollutants ( legislation regulation technology)

, ,

3) working to clean up or restore damaged ecosystems ( extracting removing pollutants replanting , , ,

restocking)
EEAHyss-i-eermnsoaennodeebeoogfggeZ.li
Speechless ☒Add ☒☒ppb#Even
what is an
ecology
ecosystems made up of the and physical environment and the interactions between the
→
organisms
living and non -

living components within them

species → a group of living organisms sharing common characteristics that interbreed and produce
fertile offspring
population → group of organisms of the same species living on the same area at the same time ,

↓ and which are capable of interbreeding .

factors affecting it : natality mortality ,

and migration (immigration and migration)
habitat environment which normally Wes l (
→ in a species moving in
moving out

niche ( how an
organism makes a living) → particular set of abiotic and biotic conditions and resources

§
to which an organism population responds → no
or 2 species can occupy the same niche

fundamental niche :
range of conditions/resources in which a species could survive and reproduce

reduced niche : actual conditions in which species exist due to biotic interactions .

abiotic factors :
non-living physical factors
,
influence organisms and ecosystems /temperature pH sunbath)
that , ,

biotic factors :
living components of an ecosystem that directly or indirectly affect another organism
(organisms and their interactions and waste)

limiting factors : factors which slow down growth of a population as it reaches its carrying capacity

carrying capacity : Max ñ of species that can be sustainably supported by a given area

Population interactions
(
in or out

↳ organisms
population dynamics study of the factors that
constantly
:

change and interact →

cause

impact
changes
on other
to population

organisms and
sizes /natality ,mortality

population
, migration)

resources in an ecosystem exists in a limited supply → causes competition ( which reduces carrying capacity)
intraspecific competition : between members of the same species → stabilizes pop numbers
.

↳ as population
grows so does competition The strongest individuals claim the larger share of
,
. resources .

interspecific competition → between individuals of different species (competing for same resources) It may .
result on

balance or with one species totally out competing the other / competitive exclusion) -

predation i one animal eating another (predator vs preu) .

/ There are also plants eating insects)
' '
↳ consumption of one organism by another
herbivory : animal eating a
green plant .
Some plants have defence mechanisms ( spines stinging poisonous) ,
,

parasitism : one species Going in another . ( parasites and hosts) They gain
.
food from it . Usually there's ,
no

killing
mutualism : relationship in which all benefit and none suffer ,
a form of symbiosis (living together)

Population changes

}
5- curves :

-
start with exponential growth ( no limiting factors)
-
above certain size , growth rate slows down gradually
-
results in population at constant size ( at carrying capacity)
g. woes dear ,, a
gene,•aee• response ◦

population grows exponentially populations to set of conditions

-

suddenly collapses : diebacks (abiotic / biotic factors)

-

typical of microbes, Invertebrates fish, ,

small mammals .
2.2 COMMUNIERSS and ECOSSMSEemS
community - a group of
populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat.

↳ecosystems do independently, but

not exist interact to make boosphere.
ecosystem -
community and the physical environment interacts
it with

respiration and photosynthesis

·
respiration:conversion of organic matter into carbon dioxide and water in using
organisms, releasing energy
living processes:movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion, nutrition
G it can use oxygen (aerobic) or not
canaerobic
aerobic respiration:glucose oxygen energy water carbon +
dioxide
·
photosynthesis:process by which green plants make their own food from water and carbon dioxide using energy
from sunlight
leaves contain chloroplast with chlorophull.
green pigment
-

sunbath
energy of is used to spht water with
and combine it carbon dioxide to make glucose
·
carbon dioxide walter + ligth energy, glucose oxygen +

Food chains and trophic levels

solar energy raduation) is the start
of every food chain
food chain:flow of energy from one organism to the next. Shows feeding relationships between species in

an ecosystem

·organisms are
grouped into trophic levels:position that
organism occupies in a food chain, or group of

organisms in a community that

occupy the same position in food chains.

·usually with
start primary producer (plant) and end with top
carnivore
1) Producers
2. autotrophs (green plants):make own food from carbon dioxetwater using energy from sunligh
b. Chemosynthetic organisms:make their food from other simple compounds
2) consumers feed on autotrophs to obtain energy/herbivors, carnivors, omnivors, detrivores, decomposers)
Hierarchy of feeding
1) istT he primary producers(green plants) good chain I set
of relationships
2) 2nd in -> primary consumers (herbiores) good webs whole,more realistic pict.
3) 3rd is a
secondary consumers (carnivores and omnivores)
4) 4th TL tertuary consumers (carnivores and omnivores
5) decomposers (bacteria and fungi
3
breakdown organisms, release
6) detrivores shalls, slugs, blowfly maggots nutients, control the spread of
disease
Food webs:complex networkof interrelated food chains
species may feed at different trophic levels

ecological pyramids
ecologicalpyramids:pyramids of
numbers, blomass and productivity and are quantitative models and are

↳snows
usuallymeasured

differences
for
in
a
given
of
amount
area and

living maternal
time

stored each
at trophic level of
a food chain.

·allow easy examination of

energy transfers and losses

·give an idea of what

feeds on what Baccumulation:toxins build up in

·help
demonstrate ecosystems
that are systems that are in balance. a body over time

Buonagnification:toxin concentration
foxes up the food cha
is magnified going
rabbit relative numbers
gross
~tenata of bar gives a measure of

advantage:
·is a simple, easy method of giving an overview and is good at
comparing changes in size with time/season
disadvantages:
all orare included of their sizes
-
do not allow for juveniles or immature forms
'
number could be too
great to represent accurately
pyramid of biomass → contains biomass ( mass of each individual ✗ n' of individuals)

( Gsqty of dry organic maternal on an organism, population , trophic levee or an ecosystem

"
units = 0am / grams per square meter )
advantage:
-
overcomes some of the problems of pyramids of numbers

disadvantages :

-
uses samples of population (not exact)

Organisms must be
'

killed to measure dry mass

year affects biomass

time of
•

pyramid of productivity → rate of flow of energy or biomass through each trophic level . Shows energy
( Joules per
avoidable as food to the next trophic levee

square metre per year (Jm

-'
yr
"
)

why top carnivores are in trouble

highest trophic levee is the most susceptible to alterations on the environment
↳
always vulnerable to the effects of changes further down in the chain .
A change in their food prey has a

knock on effect
The length of food chains

trophic efficiency = 10% → only 10% of energy is passed to the next

( heat
major part of energy is lost as .

very little energy after 4 trophic levels

-

rest is:

2.33 *⑥ § ⑥ * eenneefcgqyy ☒Add Mma# /

•b bed → •↳↳ clouds

↳ Of all the solar radiation falling on the earth , plants only capture ◦ .
%
\ reflected → @road clouds
,

Productivity : conversion of energy into biomass over a

given period of time .
It is the rate of growth or
time ( m yr )
-2 "
biomass increase on plants and animals .
It is measured per unit area per unit

gross productivity : total gain in

energy or biomass per unit area per unit time It . is the biomass that
↓
could be gained by an
organism before any deductions .

total amount
made as result
of activity

net productivity : gain on energy or biomass per unit area per unit time that remains after deductions
&

amount left
due to respiration
after deductions
are made What .

is left . M measured theoretically by sugar produced

gross primary productivity: total gain energy or
in biomass per unit area per unit time by green plants .

'
to do with plants It is the energy fixed by green plants by photosynthesis .

secondary→ animals

biomass : living mass of organisms (dry mass )

provides for growth ,
maintenance and reproduction
glucose in plants (by photosynthesis)
deposited around cells

net primary productivity : tot gain on energy / biomass per unit area per unit time by green plants after
How much it the biomass
allowing for respiration .
grows and potentially available

to consumers eating the plant .

NPP = APP -
RC respiratory loss)

amount of biomass produced varies :

spatially
-

temporally: seasonal patterns linked to availability of basic resources

changing
'
.
Net secondary productivity → not all
energy that goes unto the herbivore is available to make

new biomass

NSP
energy in food ingested energy lost in
egestion energy used in resp
-
- -
_ .

asP= food eaten fecal loss _

only food that feces ( egestion) → not absorbed

'
crosses the wall no energy
of alimentary
canal is absorbed
-
cellular respiration
-
urine

-
stored in body tissue

carnivores → assimilate 80% of energy in their diets , eldest less than 20%

herbivores → assimilate 40% of energy , eldest 60% , Grace static plants

infinite finite
( /
Flows of energy and matter

transfers and transformations → transfer requires less energy

cycles and flows: energy flows through ecosystem in one direction , starting as solar radiation

and leaving as heat released through respiration of decomposer 's

↳ nutrients are absorbed and circulate through trophic levels →
biogeochemical cycles
Nutrient cycles → matter
↳ 40 element cycle through ecosystems → have both organic and inorganic phases / both vital)

major biogeochemical cycles: water carbon nitrogen sulphur and phosphorus , , ,

.

↳ similar characteristics :

☐ movement of matter is different from movement of energy

☐ energy travels from the son
, through food webs and is eventually lost to space as heat
☐ nutrients and matter are finite and are recycled and reused

☐ organism die and are decomposed and nutrients are released becoming parts of living again

The carbon cycle

where is the carbon stored?

!
sinks : organic organisms living plants and animals
!
• -

! .
fossilized life forms
!
inorganic locked / fixed into solid forms and stored as
-

!
sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels
'

shells of marine organisms

'
5011
!
atmosphere
-

carbon flows (through living and non wing organisms)

{
(
4 main storages : soil, living things, oceans and atmosphere
fixed by photosynthesis and released through respiration or combustion of fossil fuels

carbon fixation →
locking up carbon on body ( as glucose)
disrupted by increased combustion band use
carbon cycle is human activity through , changes
and deforestation .

carbon budget → available on Earth in finite amounts .

The nitrogen cycle

lessen that element in proteins and DNA
,
most abundant gas in atmosphere .

nitrogen storages or sinks : flows in the cycle Absorption

•

Organisms .
fossil fuels .
water -

nitrogen fixation .
denitrification -
feeding assimilation
consumption
.
soil .
atmosphere
- nitrification . excretion . death / decomposition
 → 3 basic fixation nitrification
stages nitrogen
denitrification
: and
,

1) nitrogen fixation → when atmospheric nitrogen is made available to

plants through the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen carried . out in

5 ways:
•

nitrogen-fixing bacteria free hung -

in soil
-
hit -

fixing bacteria living symbiotically in root nodules

by cyanobacteria
'

by 68thning also causing the oxidation of nitrogen to nitrate

•

Industrial Haber process → to make fertilizers

nitrification → some bacteria in the sole are called nitrifying bacteria and are able to convert ammonite .

to nitrites → oeuaibabe to be absorbed by plant roots

denitrification →
denitrifying bacteria in waterlogged and anaerobic conditions , by converting ammonium ,

nitrate and nitrate cons to nitrogen goes (escapes to atmosphere)

assimilation → once
living organisms have taken in nitrogen they assimilate
,
it or build it into more complex
molecules
Humans and the nitrogen cycle
-
people removing animals and plants for food for humans → extract nitrogen from cycle
'

nitrogen can be added with fertile eers

Energy flow diagrams

↳ allow easy comparisons of various ecosystems . Snow energy entering and leaving each trophic level
C
flow of energy /matter through ecosystem loss : respiration and transf .

energy > >

heat loss in
>
heat loss in
respiration respiration
material>

sonhodth >
producers
> consumers

'

↑ - ↓
heat loss
.
in
Inorganic respiration
nutrient decompose
pool

Assimilation and productivity efficiencies

2 quantities to know :

☐ what proportion of NPP from one trophic level is assimilated by the next? ( assimilation
☐ How much of this assimilated material is turned into the tissues of the organisms and how much is

respired? (used )
for productivity

Efficiency of assimilation : gross productivity ✗ 100

food eaten

Efficiency of productivity: net productivity ✗ 60

Gross product
.

Trophic efficiency (efficiency of transfer from one level to the next)

↳ about 10% ( generalteed rule)

inefficient beeaaause:
☐ not everything is eaten

A digestion is inefficient
D heat cost in respirationt .

P some energy assimilated is used on reproduction

energy budget → energy entering , staying within and leaving the animal or population
Human activities and ecosystems
↳ a
process, effect
o r activity derived from humans:antiophogenic (anthro:human)

The concept of energy subsidy

↓ much of we do
what in agriculture is aimed at
keeping things simple ↑most from foogle fuels
farming practices is require energy subsidy additional energy that we have to put
into the system above that

bro
which

re
comes from the sun's

sophisticated more energy

energy (hunal
required
labour, machines, animal labour, fertilizers, transport
↳ makes possible
it

to feed more people

maximum sustainable yield:the largest crop
or catch that can be taken from the stockof a spaces without

(often fisheries) o r NSO

↳ depleting it. used in managing =to NPP

energe has to keep flowing whether naturalor influenced by humans.

2.4 Aomness,Ecotton Game SWCGESSOR

BIOMES
How many bones are there?

65
bcomes

major
a collection

types with
of ecosystems
sub-division
sharing similar climatic conditions

1) AqUATIC
↳ freshwater is
swamp forests, lakes and ponds, streams and rivers, boas
* marine rocky short, mud flats, coral reef, mangrove swamp, deep ocean, continental shelf
2) Deserts is a nd cold
not

3) Forests is tropical, temperate and boreat (talgal

4) Grassland tropical or savanna and temperate
5) Tundra Arctic and alpine

boosphere is that of the Earth

part inhabited by organisms. Itextends from the of atmosphere down
upper part to

the deepest
parts of the oceans which life.
support
main factors governing their distribution:

3
insolation

·precipitation abolic physical factors

temperature
Why bcomes are where they are?
↳major factor factors: slope, aspecta nd
CLIMATE
+
other altitude
↓ Crain snowfall
temperature hotter a

near equator and gets

looter as we go toward poles

latitude distance north or south from equator

boets
actitude height
a bove sea level

cooter as they increase

ocean currents and winds distrubute surplus heat energy the

at equator towards the poles

they cause hair moving horizontally at the surface

ocean currents
it evaporates righth away >

increased temperature:increased evaporation plants can be short

ofwater even ifi trains, shown a lot
↳ we must consider P/E ratio (precpatue to evaporation ratio
I
approximately at i fthey're t he same
about

>1doesn't
r ain a lot, but evaporation's high Desert
> I
rains/snows a lot, but evaporation's low (Tundral
is different
blomes have differentproductivity due to limiting factors (raw maternals or energy supply)
↑productivity areater in low latitutes (near equator as high temperatures and precipitation - tal for
photosiotesis
-> cower app when amount
of sunlight decrease
- absence of moisture lowers it desert, semi-arid areas
climate change and bone shift
↳ temperatures and
precipitation changing comes moving
climate changing in these ways:

6
·greater warning at higher latitudes
-
more warming in winter than summer

·some areas became dies, other wetter

stronger storms
changes are fast, but organisms change and adaptslowly
B ↓
they can only move
↓
·
towards poles (cooter) plants can migrate slowed as seeds are dispersed by wind or animals
·
higher up mountains + natural obstacles for animals
·
toward equator (wetter)
For people aving in moving blomes (1bin), it can
bring new opportunities:
drilling for of possible with decrease in seen ice (Artic ocean)

passage for ships/trade) between north pole and north American

Tropical rainforest a hotwet, high productivity

·What not wet areas with broad leaved evergreen forest
·
where within 5North and South of
equator growth
limiting plant
limiting factors
chimalted is
high rainfall (2000-5000mm yr.), 20.28%), high insolation,rain washes nutrients out
of
soil
net
productivity season year around, fast
r ate of decompositive, respiration and photosynthesis
growing all

·structure high level of boodiversity alot of plants large mammals can getfood
human activity more than 50%of humans elves in (has
tropics. Too many exploiting forest no time to recover
issues logging, mostly in LEDCs and have been exploited for economic development

examples - Amazon rainforest, Kongo, Borneo

Deserts to few species, low boodiversity

what dry artas usually not in the day and cold at neth, little vegetation. Tropical, temperate and cold

where 20-30% of Earth surface, sonorth and south of equator. Most

are in middle ofcontinents. Driest
place
structure few species, tow boodiversity, but what had survive has adapted. Nutrients washed
not away. Mostly
cact/succulents,reptiles and small nocturnal mammals, few large mammals
climate +
limiting factors is limiting:water. Less than 250mm us rainfall. ECP

net productivity is four in primary (plants) and secondary animals) a foodchalles (water
short limited
human activity nomadic tribes. Environment high pop. Rich
cannot support in minerals toll

issues - Desertification is area desert because overgazing, overcultivating or drough

·examples ->
Sahara, Namin, Gobl

Temperate grasslands -p =

E, cereal crops
·what flat
areas dominated bygrasses and non-woody plants
·where scentres of continents a 40-60north ea.

Climate LF
+ i pE=

. char skies, low rainfall, drough thath, tempranges

structure grasses die on winter, but
roots survive. Burrowing animals (Kangaroos, bison, rabbits) No trees
net productivity -
high
not 600gm-yr-
·human activity cereal crops, not
d eal for agriculture. They add fermenters
issues is
overcropping, drought a sole Bowl
blown away (Dust

examples -> worth American prairies, pampas Argentina

 low bleed iv.
Artie Thanda
Temperate forests →
permafrost Deep oceans

succession and zonation

succession →
process of change over time in an ecosystem involving pioneer, intermediate and climax commune .

↳
'
'
now ecosystem changes in time

zonation →
change on community along an environmental gradient due to factors such as
changes in altitude ,

↳latitude fudai levee

'
now
,

ecosystem
or distance from shore /coverage

changes along enver .

gradient
'

eg.
by water

altitude

Zonation
↳ abiotic and biotic factors influence boundary limits outside which species cannot live
most important :

temperatures decreases with increasing alt .

-
cat .

precipitation → higher dry /cold for trees

-

up , air to
-

solar cnsoeeat was more intense at higher altitudes

•
sole type
•

interactions between species

D human activities alter zonation → road building on mountains → tourism in inaccessible areas, defo .
, agriculture

→ duaegroems are usually drawn with kites

their width correspond

to the number of that species

1) colonization
2) establishment
succession 3) competition
D Change in species composition 4) stabilization
D primary succession → on bare
groundfood formation starts process) 5) climax community
☐ secondary succession → sole already formed but vegetation removed

Dearly → low appt respiration , NPP is high as biomass accumulates .

Later → high ape , low NPP

D Climax community reached at the end of succession → species composition stops changing
 D the more complex, the more stable
☐
agricultural systems→ humans slop succession when WPP is high and crops are harvested
☐ humans intercept it also by deforestation controlled burning and grazing
,

☐ some times ecosystem recovers, other times, the interruption's too great
☐
higher diversity higher = resilience
D biodiversity low with succession
species in early stages ,
increases

Primary succession → colonization of newly created band by organisms Bare hand . on planet doesn't stay long
↳ results in natural increase in complexity of structure 1- species

composition of a community
Stooges:
+ a nyolrosere is a succession on water

secondary succession → when can already established community is destroyed (fire flood
, ,
human activity)
↳ dormant seeds are left on sole

changes occur ing en a succession

site 08 organisms increase → trees create more hospitable environment

-

-
more complex energy flow → complex food webs
-

biodiversity increases→ more niches → than falls on climax community

NPP and GPP rise and fall
-

.
Productivity : respiration ratio falls
Biomass accumulation
Early stage Middle stage Late stage
low GPP but high high UPP trees reach Max Size
'
- .
.

percentage NPP '

increased photosynthesis .

ratio of NPP and R is

-
little biomass increase -
increases biomass as roughly equal
-
few species plant forms become -
increase in species untie
-
low mineral cycling bugger balance is found
increased mineral cycling
-

N of species increase
'
-

Arrested and deflected successions

'
SOC .
may be stopped by abiotic or biotic factors
-
Ewb -
Climax community or arrested → only continue development if em fac . . is removed
•
SOC .
may be stopped by natural event or human activity
-

tpuaegcocamax or deflected

'
K and -
r -

strategists reproductive strategies

↳2 variables that determine shape of population growth curve

Kb carrying capacity
r → describes shape 0s exponential part of growth curve

☐ diff . species vary in amount of time and energy used to raise offspring
K -

strategists : eg .
humans +
large mammals

Offspring good competitors

'

small n 08
- •

most survive pop size close carrying capacity

•

to
•

large amount of time /energy in parental care .

in stable ecosystems, K out compete r
r -

strategists : eg . invertebrates ,
fishes
use eats 08 energy→vast n' 08 eggs exceed
carrying capacity
•

may
•

energy used raising /after hatching) opportunistic of short-lived resources

-

no in -
use

reproduce quickly -
able to colonize new habitats rapidly
-
leave eggs forever

survivorship curve → shows fate of groups of ChotiVictuals

 INeSsEIGHIME
2.5 EGOBUBEeMB prOCEICIe =
WOSE
Techniquesfor data collection
-
where to collect the data:

i quadants
i transects
- to measure
what

* abotic factors
a marche

↑freshwater
i terrestral

* bOOtICS
blomass and productivity
·
catching small motive animals
↑terrestrial
is aquatic
keys

measuring abundance
& LinCO index
↑ Jumpson diversity index
where to
collect the data

a quadrats:frame of
a specific size (depend on what is being studed), which may be divided
into subjections
·how many, of what size?
↳depends on size oft he organism sampled

1 There's
Zomaioloro-apoionomercanansamizamioen,ter
balance strike and time dolla.
a to between increasing accuracy with increasing size

and the oftimes quadrat

is placed.
↳ vary depending on:ecosystem, site, distribution
i ifyou chatase the size of
t he quadrat and plot the number of
species found, when this n

reaches a constant, that is the s ize to

quadrant use.

How to place quadrats:

las randomly, continously, systematically (according a
to pattern
1) Random quadrants (you decide where

conventionalmethod use random ritables:

map out study area

·draw a grud over study area

number each square

use a random number table to identify which squares you need sample
to

2) stratified random (obvious difference within an area to be sampled and two sets ofsamples

are taken

deal with each area separately

·draw a
gold for each area

r oft he squares in each area

use a random number identify which squares

table to you need sample
to as each anal

a transects:sample path/une/strip along which you record the occurrence and or distribution of

plants and animals in a particular study area

icontinous and systematic sampling along transect
one.

i use to look
at of
changes as a result changes along environ. Gradient
I quickand relatively simple
2 types:
1. Line transect
is
string measuring tape aloud in direction of
envir. graudent and species touching and rec

2. Belt transect
a strip of
c hose whith through ecosys. laying parallel lines,between which undiv.'re rec
may be continuous or interrupted:
1. continuous is the whole une/belt is sampled
2. Interrupted is samples taken at points (at
along une/belt reqular horizontal vertical intervals
measure
whatto

measurabotic components ofthe system

↑each ecosystem type ofabotic factors. Should be
has diff. Set able to:

1) Describe and evaluate methods of

measuring
2 // 11 "how to measure spectualtemporal variations on abotic factors.

Marine ecosystems
Abrotic factors:salinity/ph/temp./dissolved oxygen, wave action
saunity:concentration ofsalts expressed on parts of salt thousands parts water
of

PLUSUMIG 7

Temperator:
affects metabolic rates (many are ecothermices LOWT=cow metab.rates
Dissolved oxygen: (organisms rely for
on a respiration)
affected by:
a temp. i NT =
dissolved
concentration of oxygen
i pollution. * concentration of
water dissolved oxygen
wave action:
↑wave action concentration of
dissolved oxygen
Freshwater ecosystem
abotic factors: turbidity, flow velocta, pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen
Torbuity:Clmuts penetration ofsunligth-depth ofphotosynthesis)
High:cloudly water
Low:clear water
measurewith secid1 dlc
Flow velocia:determines who can are there)
varies with:time, depth, position on the river
3 basic methods to measure it:
1) Flow meter (expensive cathable +

2) Compellers
3) Floats (how much does an object
take to move from one place to another
pH:
depending on surrounding sale,rockand vegetation
Terrestrual ecosystem:

abiotic factors:temperature,ngth intensity, wind speed, solt texture, scope, sole molture, drachage and mentral

air temperature:varies temporally and spatially

ngtle intensity:varves with time
wind speed:variety of techniques to measure at
rainfall:collected
using a rack gauge.
sole:impact
on plantgrowth. We can measure:

↓ texture (particle size) grave, sand, sit, clay

* sole moisture (water in soil
ofdecay. Functions:supples
organiccontent:plantanimal residues in stages nutrients, holds water,
infiltration, reduce compaction and
mineral content
and pH:with some testing huts
measuring blotic components of the system
observe and question:
why it
is is?
as it

whathas changed recent

Why does grow here and notthere?
this
What
impactdo more people walking here have?
is there a playing field?
is there a footpath on or rather than concrete
Does the ground slope?
shady or most?
measuring blomass and productivity
blorass is simple but destructive
plant
low vegetation/grass
trees and bushes

primary productivity - will ength and darkbottle

is
oxygen concentration on bottle

ngth - photoslathesis
·darkis respiration
·secondary productivity
1) Herbwor fed with known offood.
amount
2) Food thermore are weighted
3) After some time, feces, remaining food and the herbwore are weighted.
Catching small motte animals
a terrestrade profell traps, sweep nets, free beating unsects and invertebrates

aquatic to
is kicksamples, nets, plastic scenes (some may kill the animal
keys
CD
ecologists make those to identify speac
c formats:dudgrammatic dichotomous "spuder"key or paired key (more
statement professional)
·measuring abundance
plants:density, frequence, percentage cover
mark, release and receptone
alrecochIndex(capture,
doesn't
mark disappear
mixing is complete
marks are not harmine
·easy to catch

no immigration, magnation, births or deaths between times ofsampling

FORMULA m N 1, x12
(or,
=
= =

12 mz

, ranches first marked and released me=nmarred animals as secondl sample

nir animals captasted as second sample cold Index
w= of tot.pop
i simpson diversity Index
species diversity is function of
n species and their
of abundance
FORMULA:D =NCN-1 N: total of
organisms ofall spects fand
InCA-1)
n individuals of
r of particular species
=

most used for vegetation

 Pbzodiversity and conservator B the

33.I AM IRENONUGENON to BOOdIVeSSIEM

10
high diversity - healthy ecosystem
BIODIVERSITY
genetic diversity range of
genetic material present
in a
gene
pool or population of a species
genetic species habitat ·small population lower genetic diversity because of the
diversity diversity diversity smaller gene pool
individuals
species: and populations
brouversity amountof ↳each has slightly different
sets of genes
blological wing diversity seafo small genetic diversity
grey
per area. Includes
unit ·humans high genetic diversity
geneticspecies/habitat ·for conservation - maximise genetic diversity - better chance
of adapting to
change

species diversity (in communities) to a product of two variables, the number of species
crichness) and their relative proportions (evenness).
the number of organisms within each of the different species
alters from habitat
to habitat
correct reefs and rainforests -> high species diversity
urban habitats and polar requons of lower species diversity

habitat
diversity - therange of different habitats area
per unit in a particular
ecosystem or boome

Bodiversity -
an of ecosystem health
indicator
Is it is difficult
to o ne ecosystem is healthier
if
determine than others

advantages of high biodiversity:

resitance and stability range of plants present of which some will survive

drough, floods, insect

a ttack, disease
diversity - resistance to diseases
genetic
some plants with deep roots cycle nutrients and bring them to surface making
them available to other phants

high biodiversity:not always means healthy

·diversity could be the result of fragmentation (break up) of a habitant
or

degradation when species richness is due to pioneer species invading bare

areas quickly
managing grazing can be difficult as plant
spaces have different
require.
ments and tolerance to
grazing
some stable and healthy communities have few plant
species so are
an exception to the rule.
sumpsed diversity index:
Diversity indices A N(N-1)
=
N.ncd.
i community [n(n-1
compared by the use of diversity indices
are niaMali.
ofpartic. Spec.
within an ecosystem
in accurately only if
w of species often used to indicate patterns of budiversity only tells us part
of the story
important
to repeat
investigations over time and to know if
change is natural
due to either: succession
I could
or
increase or decrease bordersity
·human impact
Hotspots bodiversity equally distributed
not

GOTSPOTS is a
regloe with a
high level of boodiversity that is under threath
from human activities
endemic species - those who only exist in one place
the location ofhotspots is debated but30 areas have been recognized:
iten in tropical rainforest
i near fewer limiting factors in lower altitudes
tropics, because of
a threathend areas where 70%ofhabitat has already been lost.
↑ habitatcontains more than 1,500 species of plants which are endemic
A cover only 2.3%of the land surface
is
large densities human habitation
of nearby

they contain 60%of the world's species every high species oliversity
hotspots say that they can be misleading because they:
critics of
focus on vascular plants and ignore animals

3 do notrepresent totalspecies diversity or richness

focus on regloes where habitats, usually forests, have been and
lost
ignore
wheter thatloss is still happening
I do not consider
genetic diversity
do consider the value of resources
is not services, eg. water

hotspots are a useful model is focus attention on habitant

destruction
on threats to unique ecos.
and species within them

33.2
oflghmss of broodwesslEM
How new species form
charles Darwin to the theory of evolution, outlined in the origin of species
↓

·each individualis different (except volentical twins) due to their particular of

set
inherited genes and to mutations
each will be shathly differently adapt to its environment
resources are limited and there will be competition between andviduals - survival
over time these changes show and the whole population gradually changes
concepts of:
↓

have an advantage
naltural selection those more adapted to their environment
and reproduce, while those who can't
will not
survive. Survival to the fittest

speciation is the gradual change of species over a long time. When populations
of the same species become separated, they cannot interbreed and if
the
environment they inhabit change they may start to
diverge and a new
species forms. Humans can speed up speciation by artificial selection ofanimally
and plants and by
genetic engineering but the naturalprocess of speciation is
a slow one. Separation may have geographical or reproductive causes.
, some populations mix freely but they are isolated in other ways: their
mating seeds not synchronize or flowers mature at different times

physical barriers
↳ causes develop
bag
species to into two or more new species
. mountain / ocean
the mixing anymore and
.
it will split gene pool : genes will not be populations
can different directions
grow on

Land bridges
Gallow species to invade new areas .

eg. North and South America were separated but now , the band bridge of
,

central America allowed species to move

. they may result from the lowering of sea levels

Continental drift → also resulted on new and diverse habitats .

-
during drifting ,
continents moved to differ)t climate zones .

.
The changed conditions and food supplies forced species to adapt and
resulted in an increase in biodiversity .

eg. Antarctic once had a tropical climate and forests

How plate activity influences biodiversity

↳ lithosphere's deviated in 7 large tectonic plates that drift ( 50-100mm a year)
called continental drift as

↳ its study's called plate tectonics

where plates meet they may:
☐ slide past each other
☐ diverge ( cooled cause physical separation)
☐
converge → they may :
.
collide and be forced upwards as mountains (physical )
barriers
- could and the heavier sinks underneath the leather (subduction zone ) → hand bridge .

Similar groups of animals

↳ there are similarities between groups of animals on various continents

eoa .

Llamas ( South America) and (Africa / central Asia) → distant cousins Both
domesticated
• camels .

and pack used as animals

.
Kangaroos (Australia) and cattle ( world) → similar ecological role : herbivores , eating
grass and converting it to meat .

.
African and Indian elephants

A little bit about the geological timescale

☐ earth formed 4.6 billion years ago .

☐ first life forms were bacteria

☐ 65 million years ago dinosaurs extincted

☐ human species 200, ooo years ago

Background and mass extinctions

the natural 1 species
☐ background extinction rate is rate of call species →

per million species per year ( between w and woo species ✗ year)
as if species extinct at a rate greater than the background one
,
mass

extinctions are happening . ( there have been 5)

↳ this is due to rapid climate natural disaster
a
change cn or a
' '

☐ biologists think we're in the sixth mass extinction -

Holocene extinction
'
↳ it
may be due to climate change but ,
the '
Romo sapiens caused it .

D 5,000 mammals species alive today

is 89 extinctions on the last 400 years
☐ 169 are critically endangered (living dead)

☐ the last 5 mass extinctions were spread over 500 million years ..

dinosaurs extinction → why? :

.
volcanic eruption

.
meteor impact putting huge amounts of dust in atmosphere
.
resultof climate change over a long period → eruption + dust blocked
solar radiation → plants died and food webs collapsed .

mass extinctions
/

The sixth mass extinction ( we're currently in )

it
↳ caused by actions of humans ,
who are pushing more animals to extinction
faster than happened in any of the previous mass extinctions .

[email protected]
.
we have wiped out many large mammals and
plant species gone
all and animal between 1985-2015
.
humans outer landscape on big scale ,
some organisms do well in our environment
(urban rats, domesticated animals), but most do not .

•
successful species are called weedy species ( they'll survive the mass extinction)

.
are we a weedy species?
• previous mass extinctions were due to physical (abiotic) factors The current mass .

extinction is caused by anthropogenic factors ( biotic) and is happening at a

much faster rate .

.
humans are the direct cause of ecosystem stress because we:

•
transform the environment (cities roads, industry , agriculture)
,

.
over expat other species (fishing hunting harvesting) , ,

. Introduce alien species Which may not

-
have natural predators
• pollute the environment which may -
kill species directly or indirectly

☐ WWF produces a periodic report called Living Planet Report on the state of the
world's ecosystems → dearne of 30^1 . between 197012008
3.3 FANGRESS HO DWODIVENSIEM
Totalworld biodiversity
very little when about and
we have many groups of
organisms no clear idea of

how many are becoming extinct.

An estimatetoday is smillion species excluding bacteria:
most
a re animals and most are terrestrial

2/3 are in the tropics (mostly tropical rainforests)

50% Nopical rainforests have been cleared by humans, we're clearing million km"
every 5-10 years of
the 18km'
original

↑only about 18 million species have been described and named.

↑It's easier to identiful big animals, butharder for big ones

is mammals
most and birds are known

↑ easy to find plants (don't movel

↑ some insects, funal, bacter have not been found
1 Beetles insects) are the group with the identified
most species
inof
species alive has not been constant.
extinction - when a spaces ceases to exist after the individual
last in

that natural process

G the species dies, is a

rate at which they occure is not constant

current extinction rates ↑ prior to people it

was 1 x million species xur.
100 species per million species year
a

Da biologist
suggests that30-50% of
species could be extinct within 30 years
↑ the rate is not spread
equally over the Earth is
greater in hotspots
there are them
30 of - especies are

together they only make up 21. 4) concentrated in areas

of land.
shotsposts are very vulnerable to habitat loss and many spects are endemic
* species are eat, hunt, wear, those who are dangerous to uskrops, are more
volnerable to extinction than others.

Factors thathelp to maintain bodiversity

a complexity ofthe ecosystem
the more complex, the more resident
itis to the loss of
o ne species or reduction of
population size

complex communities are good

i
stage of
succession
species diversity increases with time until a climax community is reached and
composition is stable.

Communities in young ecosystems that are undergoing succession may be more

vulnerable than those in older ones
a limiting factors
for
·difficult organisms to enough
get raw materials for growth, then any change
thatmakes harder
it
may risult
in disappearance
ifabiotic factors required are in abundance, the system is more likely to
manage
ifone is reduced
is inertia property of
an ecosystem to resist change when subjected to a disruptive force.
is key to
helping planners know how to manage them.
 Factors that lead to loss of biodiversity
natural hazards → naturally occurring events that may have a
negative impact on

the environment Above certain levels their called natural disasters

↳ outside
. .
,

the control of humans ,

we can
mitigate ,
but not stop them
↳ usually caused by human activity → loss of tropical rainforest on a massive

scale and oil spills .

major cause of biodiversity is loss of habitat (humans destroy it)

☐ habitat destruction and degradation occur when we develop or build on a

piece of land

fragmentation of habitat → process

whereby a large area is divided up into a

patchwork fragments separated by roads towns, factories , fences, power lines etc
OF , , .

pollution by Roman activities Can or destroy habitats and make

Dadused .

degrade
them unsuitable to support the range of species
.
local pollution →
spraying of pesticides
.
environmental from factories / transport → smog
pollution → emissions

.
run-off fertilizerseutrophication toxic chemicals in food chains
can cause ,

Climate change shifts biomes away from the equator

.

)
overexploitation → escalated as humans expanded technology (hunting and harvesting
if we exceed the maximum sustainable yekd of any species then the population is
.
,

not sustainable

.
we also now have
pet trade
introducing non native-
(exotic/ alien) species → humans did this through colonization of
different countries , bringing their own crop or livestock .

it works sometimes:

•
potatoes .
America → Europe
.
rubber trees .
Amazon → south east - Asia

sometimes it doesn't :
. Rhododendron m Europe have escaped onto the wild
.
sudden oak death
sometimes species is introduced by accident or escapes from gardens /zoos
spread of disease may decrease biodiversity
-
diseases of domesticated animals can spread to wild and uiceoersoi

.
in coos disease is a constant threat were species are kept close together
-
diseases species specific but they can mutate and spread
tend to be ,

ecg Swine flu in pigs (to humans) bird flu (to humans
.
) ,

modern agricultural practices → reduce biodiversity variety of species are grown .

commercially

Vulnerability of tropical rainforests

'

tropical rainforests → 50% Of Dell species of plants and animals , yet only covers 6% Of
hand
' '
-

produce about 40% Of Oxygen lungs the Earth

of
'

high species diversity and habitat diversity but some ,

areas have more→ hotspots
.
have been lost at a massive rate within the last 50 years + some think they'll
disappear in another 50
-
1.5 he cleared per second
.
50% timber is there .

.
Ranching and
logging are not the problem people are ,
.

.
much is spoken about them because of their biodiversity and venerability .

-
Forest regrow , but it takes woo years co recover biodiversity .
- diverse because of the many niches they provide
.
all year round
growth
what makes a species prone to extinction
↳ some species are more vulnerable to extinction than others even in the same

ecosystem .

more likely to become extinct :

narrow geographical range
if species only eve that place destroyed the
. a on one place and is
damaged or
,

habitat has
gone
the species
.
possible to keep breeding populations of in zoos or reserves but
it's not a solution
small population site or declining numbers low genetic diversity
-

.
small population = small genetic diversity = less resilient to change
.
Ewing dead (very small) or extinct
low population densities and large territories
.
if an individual Of a species requires a barge territory or range over which to

hunt
fragmentation breeding
and only meets others of the species for ,
then habitat
territory can restrict its

few populations of the species

.
1 or 2 populations left , that is their only chance of survival . Only takes one
population to be wiped out and the species has gone .

• barge body
. 10% rule of
energy to next trophic levee Top large .
predators are rare .

-
also compete with humans for food may be ,
a
danger to humans and are
hunted for sport
low reproductive potential
reproducing slowly and cnfeoyventcealy means the population takes
. a
long
time to recover
<
G. whales
seasonal migrants
.
tough for who migrate (often long foraarolous
,
routes + need habitat at both
end of migration ,
no food if one is destroyed)
poor dispersers
. species 00hable to change easily to new habitats are also in trouble .

.
plants can only rely on seed dispersal or vegetative growth to move .

cannot
. non -

flying animal escape

specialized feeder or niche requirements
.
the
@want panda mostly eats bamboo , koala only eukorlyptos
edible to humans and Reardon @ together
.
overhunting and overhandsting can eradicate species quickly,
especially if that species Goes in large groups
.
once located , many can be aaucgth Wich technologies
. body parts used for medicines
. more than one pressure operates on an organism
island organisms
→
dependent on island size

•
POD . tend to be small ,
islands have a higher degree of endemic species ,
,

genetic diversity tends to be low in small unique island populations ,

islands end co be vulnerable to intro of non -

native predators
.
eg .
oooo endemic species
minimum viable population see → needed for a species to survive in the Wild
is a
figure scientists and conservationist consider .

The IUCN Red List ( International Union for the conservation of Nature)
Enternational agency that bring together 83 States, no gov .
agencies 800 ,

non
gov or@ woo scientists
-

. mission → influence , encourage and conserve integrity and diversity of nature

and to ensure use of natural resources sustainably
RED list of threatened Species
based on several criteria : pop size,
.
degree of specialization distribution reproduce
,
,
.

potential and behaviour , geographic range and degree of fragmentation atty ,

of habitat ,
lfssopic level and probability of extinction
↓

varying levels of threat to survival +

regularly updated
40000 species
-EXTINCT (EX) → no doubt least individual died Trailed .
to record one .

• EXTINCT IN THE WILD (Ecu) → only survive on cultivation / captivity

. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED → facing an extremely risk Of extinction in the wild
. ENDANGERED (EN) → very high risk of extinction in wild
- VULNERABLE (VU) → high risk OF extinction in the wild
- NEAR THREATT ENEDCNT) → close to qualifying for a tfsreeaeene category
-
LEAST CONCERN (LC) → widespread and abundant
-
)
DATA DEFICLENTCDD → inadequate info to make assessment
.
NOT EVACUATED (NE) → not yet bees evaluated against the criteria

3.3.44 ☒☒⑤Eef QQ#☒ 00¥ ③⑥Odd week #☒

↓

brought together experts concerned about loss of biodiversity and who want CO

save species/ communities

their rationale is:

• diversity of organisms and ecological complexity are good things;

.
untimely extinction of species is a bad thing
. evolutionary adaptation is good
.
biological diversity has intrinsic value and we should try to conserve it

acronyms:
.VN (United Nations .
UNDP (United nations development proper)
.
IUCN (Int . Union for cons Of . )
Nature . WWF (worldwide fund for Nature)
.
UNEP ( United nations env .
programme) . WRI (world resources Institute)
-
CITES (convention of Int .
trade in endian )
species . NGO /non
-

gov .
Organization
- 60 (gov .
organization . MDA )
(millennium development goals

why conserve biodiversity?

economic , ecological ,
social and aesthetic reasons
the value of biodiversity
Direct :

1) food sources → we eat animals and plants ,

we must preserve species as we may need them

eg .
Wheat , rice and make provide one half of the world's food and mare is particularly
vulnerable to disease .

2) natural products → medicines fertilizers pesticides , , .

 eg. guano is a fertilizer conning from seabird droppings ,
01C palms , rubber (latex) from rubber

trees rope from hemp Colton from cotton plants etc

,
, .

Indirect :
1) Environmental services → we
give them monetary value sometimes

.
eg .
Sou aeration depending on worms
,
insects fertilizing or pollinating plants capture
,
carbon ,

agriculture is 40% of productivity ,

climate regulated by rainforests /
vegetation , waste recycled
decomposes
by .

. preservation of as many species as possible ,

may render the environment more stable
and less affected by diseases .

2) scientific and educational value → we investigate and research on the diversity of point:
and animals

3) biological control agents → help us control invasive species without use of chemicals
2) gene pools → wild animals + plants are gene sources for hybridization and genetic eng .

5) future potential for even more use → more practical reasons to appreciate biodiversity
ed .
environmental monitors as early warning system (birds dying meant toxic gas)
6) Human health → antibiotics from fungi
-

. Species of yew has been found to produce chemicals for cancer treatment
. rosy periwinkle curing children with leukemia
7) Human rigtens → indigenous people in native bands
8) Recreational → vacations in areas beauty / national parks ski hiking swimming) of natural , , ,

9) Ecotourism → people rely on wild places and living things for spiritual fulfilment
D) Ethical / intrinsic value → each species have rights to exist + humans have a responsibility to
act as stewards of the Earth
a) Bwrioafrts self -
perpetuation →
biologically diverse ecosystems help to preserve component
species reducing need for future conservation efforts on single species .

Conservation and preservation of biodiversity

conservation biology → sustainable use and managemement of natural resources .

preservation biology → • Hemps to exclude human activity in areas where humans have not

yet encroached
conservation biologists :
- don't want to exclude humans from reserves or from interacting with other organisms
.
consider harvesting / hunting as long as it is sustainable
.
recognize is hard to develop and erase poverty while excluding humans from habitats
.
ecotourism or management of a reserve co allow education of the public by opening it

preservation biologists :

.
eccentric view → value on nature for lntclstic value not
,
as resource exploitable by humans
.
species should be preserved regardless of their value or usefulness to humans
.
More difficult t less Realistic

is Efforts to conserve / preserve species and habitats rely on citizens , Conservation org . and

governments .

D seen as public good → politicians work on it .

human needs and

☐ tension between what is seen as
good for economy and
good for
the environment
'

☐ 1% of GDP pa should be
'
cnvesleot on climate change mitigation
D
'
think globally , act badly

impression chat they have changed their practices to have less

greenwash →
org give . an

impact on one environment , but in fact they changed nothing .

 local and / or global
HOW conservation organizations work -
160 , 40s and NGOs

1) Intergovernmental organisations( laos)

composed of and answering to group of member
. states
'
'
. called international
- ON
,
IPCC
2) Governormental organisations (Gis)
.
funded by national government
.
highly bureaucratic
. research regulation monitoring
, ,
and control activities
. EPA

3) Non-governmental organizations ( naos)

.
not part of gov .

.
not 4 profit
. international or wool

-
run by volunteers (sone)
. very diverse
. Greenpeace
 The good news -
international conventions on biodiversity
NO nation can ignore the rest of the world
☐ rise of information age and freedom of info via worldwide web , human rigors and Olemocf .

mean that Individuals have more power than ever before

.
UNEP set up IPCC lent @OU .
panel on )
cl.cn

.
UNEP drove the Montreal Protocol for phasing out production of CFCs

. Complemented by NGOs

☐ Institutional inertia can inability to get going) has been a block to change but, power
of people wanting to change may be able to stop the swing of the pendulum and
slow down degradation

The world conservation strategy Cwcs) and subsequent milestones

published by IUCN, UNEP and WWF in 1980

I

waited for international national ,

and regional efforts to balance development with
conservation of the world's living resources .

aims:

i
preserve genetic diversity
.
maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems
.
ensure sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems

•
In 1982 the , un world charter for Nature was adopted
•
In 1991 , Caring for the Earth : A strategy for sustainable Living was updated
↳ stated benefits of sustainable of natural of resources
use resources and sharing
.
1992 → Rio Earth Summit . conservation of biological variation

.
Sustainable use of its components
. equitable snoring of benefits of genetic resources .

Approaches to conservation
3 : species based -

,
habitat based -
and mixture of both
1) species based conservation → does not look at conserving the habitat in which

it lives

examples: mi of the most effective

1) CITES → reduced trade in
endangered species of both Que animals and animal parts
'
grouped in appendices
•

Appendix I → cannot be traded as they're threatened with extinction

-

Appendix II → can be traded sustainably with strict restrictions

-

Appendix →
species included at the request of a country ,
which then needs
other counts's
cooperation of to prevent illegal exploitation
2) Captive breeding and 200s

. Keep many examples species , but

of cannot keep every one

. breed the species and keep their DNA

.
hard to reintroduce specie in wild if they 're wiped out on their native habitat t it

is hard and expensive

.
released animals may need extra feeding / Care or to be recaptured
.
less successful programs are those where the animals have become used to humans

.
Sometimes It Is impossible to reintroduce species
the
.
best zoos look after animal and exchange animals to widen the
gene pool
. cos preserve frozen tissues that can raise extinct species
3) Botanical gardens and seed banks → for plants threatened in the wild .

of
preserving the variation of species
• a way genetic a

. tend to be in MEDCS yet may contain seeds from many countries

4) Flagship species
.
Charismatic , Instantly recognized , popular and can capture our imagination
.
most are large and furry but may not have significant role in ecosystem
.
used to ask for funds from the public these,
funds are Chen used to protect the
habitat which will include other species
DISADVANTAGES!
, take priority over others
. if they were to become extinct ,
the message is that we failed
. may be in conflict with local people
'
'

.
also called umbrella species
5) Keystone species → one that plays a critical role CD maintaining structure of ECOSUS .

disappearance from have far greater than their number

-
an
ecosystem can an impact
Of biomass
.
Could destroy / unbalance the ecosystem

.
hard to odentify but ,
are usually predators or
engineer
.bg Elephant
.
,
Beavers and sea ◦Her

Habitat conservation
the
is
designing protected areas :
surrounding band use for conservation area and dist .

from urban centres are important factors to consider

. many were set up in the past on hand no one else wanted ( poor agricultural land
or degradation Gana)
QUESTIONS TO ASK:

-
How Paige? Do other species need protection en che middle of barge reserves ?

•
Better one large or many small ? Edge effects?
-
How many?
. If there are several ,
how close should they be ? Should they be Joined
SLOSS DEBATE / single barge or several small )

EDGE EFFECTS occur at ecotone's (where 2 habitats meet)

corridors : spread diseases ,

corridor is harder to protect t exotic or invasive species may
reserve them
get into via .
 Water, food photo
the systems and
B0Ee: Gye
:I GknFfOdOGEct FO WoFeeN SUSEemS
The Earth's water budget
about
70% of the Earth's surface is covered by water
2.61. 1s fresh water

97% is ocean (Sat) water

Fresh water is in quite short supple:

·
60.51. 1s in polar ice caps and gladers
30.11. in ground water

0.31. is in lakes, rivers and swamps

In the atmosphere:
0.0011. 1s water vapour in the atmosphere

turnover times: times it takes for a molecule of water to enter and leave that part
↓of the system
variable:

occes *37000 up

groundwater a 300 up

rivers -12-20 days

atmosphere is a days
water can be considered renewable or non renewable depending on where it is

stored

The water (audiological) cucle

↳ drown by from solar radiative force of Gravity.
energy and

consists of storages and flowstransfers and transformations)

Transfers: (slaus in same state
advection (wind-blown movement. Infiltration + percolation (water runs into and

flooding through sail or rocks)

surface run-off stream flow and current

Transformation: I changes state

evapotranspiration: equid to water vapours
condensation: water vapour into equid
freezing:into sound snow or ice

storages:
oceans eakes
sole rivers and streams

groundwater · atmosphere
·glacers and ice caps

Human impact on the water cycle -

change the landscape
1. Withdrawals: domestic use, irrigation in agriculture and industry
2. discharges: adding pollutants (chemicals, fertilizers, serange
3. Changing water flow speed:

by building roads rivers

a. +
channeling
b. Cnauzing: straightening large sections of rivers in concrete channels to faculate flow
c. dams, barrages and dukes, making reservoirs
 rivers
2. Diverting rivers or sections of

a. diverted away from important areas to avoid flood damage

b. Some are diverted towards dams to improve storage
Examples of major changes caused by humans:
Aral bea irrigation stopped river flow into bea

hanges basing deforestation increased flooding as precipitation is not absorbed

Urbanization and flash floods
↳flash floods to when rainfall of snowmelt cannot infiltrate the soil and runs off on the surf.
↑mostdue to impermeable surfaces in alies

Ocean currents and energy distribution surface

3 with
in
specific directions
↳movements of water bothvertically and horizontally in deep water

Important role in globaldistribution of energy

surface currents (hoom) are moved by wind + earth's rotation increases movement
Deep water currents (90%) cause the oceanic conveyor belt
· due to differences in water density caused by salt and temperature
A warm water holds less balt: less dense
. when warm water rises, cold was to come up from depth to replace it: upwellings
A when cold water rises, it too has to be replaced by warm water: downwellings

-cold ocean currents run from poles to equator

a warm currents flow from equator to poles

Ocean currents and climat

↳higher specific heat capacity than land (more blow)

↳land close to see has mild climate with moderate winters and cool summers
↳ also affect local climate

↳I access to fresh water

distributed
water as a critical resource not evenly
Lot of water on Earth, but most is saline and desalination is expensive look a wealthy countries
balt is a by-product often returned to the ocean, increasing density of water
NOT ENOUGH Usable water and can be very polluted. 40% humans live with scarcin
Humans use fresh water for:
domestic purposes (drinking, washing, cleaning
agriculture (irrigation, drinking animals)
·industry (manufacturing)

EUdBeReCIUC
powergeneracoresistakes
·with states humans should have access to a min of 20 utresxday, Agenda 21 bays 40
a water scarcity is not just a measure of how much, but of how we use It UNEVEN DISTRIBUTION
1 Who ownes the Walter TRAGEDU OF THE Commons + wars
sustainability of freshwater resource usage
buse that allows full and natural replacement of resources exploited and full recovery of the
ecosystem affected by extraction and use.

sources: surface freshwater (rivers, streams, reservoirs and lakes and underground acquifers
alquifers player of porous rock sandwiched between two layers of impermeable rock. Are continuosia
filled by infiltration of precipitation where porus rock reaches the surface. Flow is slow and
are mostly used unsustainably
he
some are no
longer exposed and never refilled.
9a. of water is unusable

a Global freshwater consumption is increasing strongly because the human population is

increasing
and because average quality of life is
improving
2 problems:
water scarcity
water degradation: water quality deteriorates, making it less suitable for use

133eS:

↓climate change may be disrupting rainfall patterns, even changing monsoon rains, causing further
inequality of supplies
a low water levels in rivers and streams

a blow water flow in lower courses usedimentation (makes it shallower

I underground acquirers exhausted a cannot be used anymore
rates from aquifers too fast
i
pumping are

a freshwater becomes contaminated and unusable

↓Irrigation is soil degradation + much evaporates before being absorbed. Dissolved minerals stall
on top making it to saline (ballinizatue)
a fertilizers/pesticles pollute streams and rivers

b industries release warm water which holds less oxuged to aquatic organisms are negatively
affected
Solutions

1) Increase freshwater supplies bu: water stress - Demand for

reservoirs water, available water

redistribution
desalination plants removing salt from seawater

rainwater harvesting systems large -

and small scale

artifically recharging aquifers

2) Reduce domestic use of freshwater by using more walter-efficient showers, dishwashers, tollets
was
3) cars in places with closed waller system (also reduces pollution by all
↳ Grew water recalling a reused for flushing tirriganti
was

3) selecting drough resistant crops + closed pipes instead of open canals

6)Reduce pesticides and percenters

7) Replace chemical fertilizers with
organic ones

8) Prevent over-oproul
a) use algaly selective pesticudes instead of generic ones

10) Industries removing pollutants from wastewater with treatments

11) Regulate maximum temperatures of released coding water

water wars asarath of waiter resources can head to woflict between human populations
particularly where sources are shared.
↳: 3 AQwatl food produtoo SUBEemS
Marine ecosystems and food webs
↳oceans, mangroves, estuaries, lagoons, coral reefs, deep ocean floor
↳usually blodiverse and highly stable + resilient
continental shelf nextension of continents under the seas and oceans create shallow wat,
because:
important
30% of oceanic productivity, but 15% of its area

upwellings bring nutrient rich water up to the continental shelf

lath reaches shallow seas so producers can photosunthesize

contries can claim it as theirs to exploit and harvest
a width averages 80km but varies from at 1600
nisom is the depth at which the shelf stops and sea bed slopes more steeply
↑ there are international waters which no one country controls

"huge impact on fishing a

tragedy of the commons

phytoplankton a
single-celled organisms that can photostasize and are the most import

Co
producers in oceans producing 99% of productivity - they float
coplankton is also single-celled and hat pathoplankton + waste (Rom
I support complex oceans' food webs

marine organisms can be classified as:

benthic: living on or in the sea bed
pelagic: living surrounded by water from above the sea bed to the surface

Fisheries -
industrial farming and
hunting
90%. fishery activity - oceans + 10% in freshwater
fishery - when fish are harvested in some way. It includes capture of wild fish (also
called capture fishinal and aquaculture or fish farming
they include:
A shellfish: ousters, mussels, molluscs
a vertebrates: eels, tuna
·half a billion people make a nullhood in fisheries
sblu gain 20% of protein intake from fish and the rest 15% a very important (vitamins,
low lat, high protein
70%. fisheries are fully exploited, in decline, seriously depleted or too low to allow recovery
Demand rises, but fishermen cannot find enough fish
Aquacultur
aquaculture a
farming of aquatic organisms in both coastal and inland areas involving
interventions in the
rearing process to enhance production.
↑diets change, MEDIs people eat less meat and more fish as this lowers hat intakes

↑ saturated fat untake cholesterol build up in arteries + "risk of heart attacks and strokes.

naverage loke fish and 8kg meat eatte yearly

ways in which fish farming is
becoming more sustainable:
a fishmeal uses more
trimmings and swaps which would have been wasted in the past
· lvestock and poultry processing waste is substituted for fistment
United States Department of Agriculture proved - species of carnivorous fish can
get enough
nutrients from alternative sources without eating other fist

China is produces 62of farmed fish worldwide. They are grown in rice paddles and

their waste is used as fertilizer for the rice

other acquaculture (salmon/shrimp) feed fish or fishmeal or fish all

impacts of fishfarm
loss of habitats
pollution (feed, antifouling agents, antibiotics and other medianes)
spead of disease
modified which may survive to uncerbreed
escaped species including genetically organisms
with Wild fist
escaped species may outcompete native species and cause the pop. To case

Unsustainable wild fishing industry

fisheries were once thought to be inexhaustible, but now 75% are at risk of over

exploitation
a we find it, catch it, and not give it time to mature and reproduce. You an
ale
industil
FISH STOCKS: UNDER PRESSURE (FISZing UnUstalinab(y)
comercal fishing informed by latest satellite technology and fish scanning technology
larger fishing fleets+ modern refrigeration techniques,they can stay at sea for weeks

within a fleet there will be a suite of vessels (fishing, supply, factory ships
indiscriminate fishing year will take all organisms (including not targeted ones
trawlers drag huge nets over the seabed virtually clearcutting it.
a we can talk about fishing 'wars' (international crises

What happens to the fish?

world fish catch is to million tonnes per year of which 20 millions tonnes are not wild fist,

but from aquaculture

·
15%. Of animal protein eaten by us comes from fish. For Japan 50%

"4 olobal catchgoesintofamedandfishalltofeedyourse

·

back into the ocean, an

wrong species, fish that's legally too small or fish over alloted quota most of them alle

Issues and solutions

fish stocks are shrinking because:
industrialized nations subsidize fleet by an estimated US$50 billon/us
demand-supply

The tragedy of the commons

tensue between common good and the needs of the individual and how they're in confect
resource to exploit lower-exploit
belongs all: we it

↑because individual's advantage of

taking it lost to individual. You take everything you

me or someone else will

shows how selfish we are

solution is often regulation/legislation (permits, limits and cooperation
so far, there has been attle,if any,recovery of fish numbers.
Maximum sustainable yield (n54)
by increase in natural capital, le natural income that can be exploited each year without

depleting the original stock or its polectual for replenishment.

msy -max amount that can be taken without permanently depleting stock /rucal for
fisheries(

carrying capacity depends on:

reproductive strategy
·
eongevity
Indigenous resources of the habitat/ecosystem

a each breeding season/year,new individuals enter population (born or

migrating).
If no recruited in leaving: net increase in population
if n recruited inleaving ipop stays the same - MSU
tot. blomass at time +1 tot.blom. At t
34 = -

energy
or 34: annual growth and recruitment
energy
annual death and
emigratial
harvesting as leads to pop.decane + loss of resource base + unsustainable industry
Reasons:
i impossible to be precise about size population
↓ estimates based or previous experience
i diseases may strike population
↑pop.dynamics are predicted rather than measured
i model does not allow monitoring
for in terms of age/sexratco. If harvest targets more

reproductive females, the impact will be greater (same for young immature fist

so if you harvest at rsy, you will deplete a population in poor recruitment years.
u safer optimal sustainable yield (osu)
to adopt harvesting of an greater safety margin,
but may still have to impact on pop. Size if there are other environmental pressures
us set Quoits (weight not catch
4. I WOEEF PONIU EGO M
water pollution + contamination of bodies of water by pollutants either directly or indirectio
↳kills over 14,000 people per day through waterbone disease and
poisoning
/billon people do not have access to clean, safe
drinking water to affects both MEDCs and LEDC

Types of water pollution

Both sea and freshwater can become polluted

pollutants can be:

1) anthropogenic or natural
(1.5)
i organic
point source or non-point source

or morganic
direct
4) or undirect

sources of freshwater pollution:

1.
Agriculturalrun-off, sewage, industrial discharge, saw
sources of marae pollution:
2. Rivers, pipelines, the atmosphere and human activit
les at sea, both operational and accidental dlls.

directly
Measuring water pollution
all rector
3 sampling

1) brochemicat oxygen demand (Bob) > amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down the

organic material in a given volume of water through aerobic biological activity by

microorganisms.
buotic
2) indices - indirectly measures pollution by assaying the impact on species within the
community according to their tolerance, diversity and relative abundance (scale of 110
indicator species -> plants/animals that show something about the environment by their
presence, absence, abundance or scarcity.
-

most sensitive to change early warning slons (eg. If gas is present bird one
blotic (etext quality of an ecosystem
the pollutants are not directly measured, but their effect on biodiversity is

invertebrates used to estimate levels of pollution (sensitive to decrease an oxygen concentration)

buotic indices usually used the same
based on malicator species are at time as BOD.
C

summary of recent history measure of pol. at the mst-

ant water is collected

Eutrophication
eutrophication + can occur when takes, estuaries and coastal waters receive inputs of nutrients
Initiates and phosphateswhich result on an excess growth of plants and phytoplankton
excess nutrients in aquatic ecosystem (more common is because of anthropogenic
if severe dead zones (not enough oxygen to support life
If less severe >
blodegradation of
organic material - anoxic(less oxuger) -> anaerobic decompos.
It wont could release methane, hydrogen sulphide and ammonia which are all toxic gases.
Impacts of eutrophication

antrophogenic eutrophication leads to unsightly rivers, ponds and lakes covered by

green
duckweed foul-smelling gases Innorogen sulphide
algot son and +

other:

oxygen deficent (anaerobic water

loss of biodiversity and shortened food chains

death of higher plants

death aerobic organisms invertebrates,fish
-
and amphibians
increased turbudicy/cloudiness) of water
+ phosphates and
excess nutrients they come from:

3
delergents may be point sources
·
fertilizers harderto identiful non-point: may be

·sewage runoff from crops and grassland, urban

damage(unlensive a festock rearing units run-off or leaching (tanks, mines etc.)
increased erosion of topsale into the walter
The process of eutrophical
1. Fertilizers wash into the river or lake
2. 4 phosphate
algae = ↑
grow faster
3. Palae growth: block out eight to plants -
plants one

L.Talgoe= ↑ food for zooplankton + other animals: + more food for fist=↑fish=+zeophankton eat all
3. die and are decomposed by aerobic bactercan
algae
6. Noxugen: food chain collapse: everything dues
7. Noxugen:
↓ dead organic material forms sediments on lake/riverbed= turbulity increases
a ll
8 life is gone : sediment settles: clear blue lake

Gulf of Mexicolargest dead zone in USA t caused by excess nitrates/phospettes from MiSSSC
River Basin agriculture
solutcost reduction of nutrient use
water quality trading schemet those that can reduce nutrients at low cost to sell credits to

those facing higher cost nutrient reduction options. A

-
COST-EFFECTIVE
R
ed Tides
wastal waters, algal blooms (in of phutoplankton) are caused by excess nutrients.
↳if phytoplankton are
amoflagellate -
bloom is red-b DANGEROUS

algae produce toxins which kill fish and accumulate in shellfish - humans get sick

eutrophication in lakes/slow moving water bodies, leads to a series of damaging changes that reduce

brodiversity.
eutrophicative in fast moving water, leads to a temporary reduction in brodiversity can be followed

by a recovery and restoration of clean water.

 GOIG SYSTEMSs aUne SOCEEM
5.1 InFNQOUUCCION
=
FO SOI SYSHMS
What
is sole?
↳complex
ecosystem (made up ofmunerals, organic maternal gases and inquids which forms
the habitat for animals plants
+

pall food we consume depends upon sole

↑ plants grow in sole (we them or
eat animals that
e at them
↑ for
habitat many organisms
& acts as enormous filter for any walter that passed through it lanters chemistry ofH20
i store and transfer heat
so affecting atmospheric temperature, which in turn can affect
the interactions between ale and atmospheric moistut.

↑ part
ofutosphere where are processes and sole forming processes both take place
is the pedosphere exists thin bridge between boosphere and utosphere acted upon and influenced

by the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and litosphere

The components:
STORAGES -
OrgaNIC menter, organisms, nutrients, minerals, air and water
TRANSFERS -
bOLGICal mIXUG, tanSLoCatIO (MOV. OfsoUparticles in suspensual and
reaching (dissowee
minerals in water, moved throughsole

INPUT
organic material (healfutter morganic monter
from parent maternalpreputation
+
and energy

OUTPUTS uptake by plants solt proscr +

TRANSFORMATIONS - decomposition, weathering and cycling

nutment

is
What sole made from?
soles are made four male
up of components:
minerals particles mainly from the underlying BCk

organic remains that have come from the plants and animals

water within spaces between sole graces

·our also within the sole grams
a soit is a highcyporous medium typically with a ofsounds
50:50 mix and pore spaces
↑ soul within an environment
a re the result
of a mix of
complex solt formula processes

What does sore looklike?

↳the profit changes as
goes
it down from the surface towards the
underlying base rock.

soul to rich an organic material cover layers- morganic maternal value to weatherin.
Horizons to top layer of
Nanslocation is monteca're sorted and layers are formed by Walter arychg particles up/down
sounization dissolved mantrals and takes them to the surface, where minerals are left
behand when
water evaporates.
Leaching precipitation (p) > Evaporation(E)
HORIZONS:
0 Horizon a leafutter (fings, bacters etc. decompose
A-Horicon is mcherous horizon at surface showing organic matter enrichment (HUMUS LAUER)
Horizon - subsurface is depletion of
E organic matter,clay, con and aluminum compounds
-

B.Horizon subsalt is enrichment ofclay masternal, con, almonica or organic compounds

Horizon is consented or
hortions of unconsolidated
3
·

- Horizon is hard bedroch

sole structure
monerate portion sole three
of particles:sand, sick,clay. Mostsoles are a mixture of
those
particle alcameter: PONGCE:
10.002 nm
0.002-0.05 mM
0.05-2mm
clau
slet
sand
3 sole texture
on this
depends their proportion gives texture

solt texture to important

property ofsole determines fertility and primary producturity
ploam solesis for agriculture
·sand ensures dochage +
ar supply a fertile
particle hold said
silt and day is can be worked easily

PorOSOU, permeaDIIIt
porosity amountofspace between particles
permeabilityease gases and aquids
at which can pass
(low permeablu
micropores
clay a lots of
sand a few microposes higher permeabillful
hi adoutu effect
o n chemical characteristics
audification of
soil impact offorestry is add mach caused
by mdstrual polition (raced soil

soit sustachablulty
PFERTICE
S OIL is a non-renewable resource (hard to replace)
sole renewaldate:
a tonne conditions)
hat' yr" (under best +0.05-0.1mmx year
·solt use often exceeds sole formation
·fertile sole has enough nutrients for healthy plant growth. Main nutcents: nitrates, phosphates.
POTASS(M
nutrients can be reached out
ofsole or removed when a crop is harvested.

↳replaced via chemical ferriners, growing requires, crop rotation or trough application ofbra.Matter
5.2 =

EHfeffCSApalfDN pNMURION SUSES ONO

LEBCS FOW/ moderate industrialization (GDPXcocial
Capital
MEACShughly industried country (GBPx
Agribusiness a business of agriculture production
commercial agriculture large scale production crops and
of avestockfor safe
agriculture of farming for self-sufficiency to
subsistence grow enough for a foamul

Types farming systems

of
a subsistence is no surplus, mixed crops and lot of human labour. Low inputs tow chemicals hw +

ReChr1G4/Storage +

is cash yourself
cropping for market, not
a commercialmonoculture croplania. High technology,energy and chemicals high outputs
is extensive:more land lower
at density ofstockma/planting lower inputs/outputs
↑ Intensue:hand used more intensively thigh levels ofunpuls/outputs
a pastoral is anomalls (grass or landl
↑ arable farming a growing crops on good sole least onrectly or feed anomalls
is mixed farming a crops animals to animal waste is used as fertilizer crops
+
to feed them

& Factors
influencing sustamabluth ofagriculture

Food facts
malnutrition as nutrients may be:

alackman undernarishment
is excessive - arhourishment
a unbalanced a
wrong proportion /lacks nutrients
925 million people undernourished in 2%.MEDCs.98%
Africa,China,oceania 200 million children (perman
ent damagel
MEDCs
large surpluses offood on
seasonality in MEDCs disappeared as foods away!
all years thanks to technology/ transportation
(EPCs struggle to produce enough food
The choices offood are determined by:
1) Climate local
+

ecological conditions.Adapt
with

irrigation greenhouses (noteverywhere

2) Culturaland religious - some prescribe certain food
traditions determine preferences
+

3) poutical subsudies or tariffoods to

discour
or
encourage consumption
4) soco-economic market forces determine supply and
demand on free-markets
Food productionand distribution around the world
there should be 2700 calories of
food available each day for every human in the planet
Food production has up with increase on would
kept population. Why is there still hunger, malnutrition?
poutics of
food supply

many unanswered questions

differences between allets U MEDCs and LEDCS

Recent
doubts
Good supply has kept up with population growth, confounding
Malthusians theory
·
some doubt that technology and innovation will feed
allow us to a world ofa billion
·we demand too much,degrade and overuse.... LIMIT?
brief
A history ofagriculture
avestockfarming why farm animals?
·animals domestication came before crop farming (chogs, sheep, goats etc.)for various needs

they were more relable sources of food convenient decoration +

uvestock usefull means of

converting plant material usuitable for human digestion into prot
is waste
plusprocess protect
+

growing crops
arable farming a seeds of
crop a sort cleared of
plants sown into natural regetation conditioned
· monoculture (all of
o ne species) grown
+
in high density. High growth rate
harvesting a requires removal of
biomass from field, sole and ecosystem. I underfile sale

crop rotation is sole

to address loss of fertility. Grown every fourth year, an a rotation

comparing farming systems

Farming's energy budget

Effluency measured on different
ways
Energy contacted
1) within cross ofharvested productper area
unit

problematica does it consider boomass harvested or does it consider only marketableedible

portion ofharvest?
2) Effluenc
calculate enerall contained in a food per volume
unit

there's usually more input that output

quality energy is
of differents:
fats+ protect contain more energy content gram than carbonadrates
and fish
eat less meat than reveals to same
get amount of
energy
higher food costs less
energy content to (lower volume)
transport
1 to equate measures is grace equivalent in va
& city of
grain thatwould have to be used produce 1kg
to ofthat product
Rice production in sorned and califoruco
i traditional, extensive rice product in (Borned

2) intensive rice production (Californial

traditional-how inputs, energy and chemicals thigh labour intensity. Energy effluency is high.

intensive ->
high inputs + chemicals, low labour intensity and high productivity. Pestiades fertile. +

lower energy efficiency

Terrestual food production systems
terrestrialharvested at 1st/2nd trophic level-efficient use of
solar energy, buthigher losses
Iskeleton waste
aquatic -from higher trophic level (or 4)beficency is lower energy costoutNophic levels
the intake labsorbtion reflection on water
ofsolar energy is less efficient +

increasing sustachability offood supples

·many to feed on need ofbetter quality foods.
bucon more people by 2030 - need to uncrease food productivity of70%

Factors thatcontribute the

to decrease us agricultural land:
sall erosion

·saunization
desertification
urbanization

improve sustainability by:

is maximise yield offood production:
now?
a. unprove techn1QU.
i. mixed cropping interplanting
ii. buffer zones around land to
absorb nutrient
run-off
iii. bological control of
pests
iv. trickle ifugation is less wastefull ofwater
3) After we
what grow and how
i.GM none for
ncirogenous fertilizers
ii. Aquaculture and hydroponics
iii. sol conservation measles
1)a new green revolution

agroecology
i recycled on farms
nutrients energy are within closed systems
ii. techlques of
breeding plants adopted to drough
2) Reduce food waste comprove storage distribution
2. (EDCs - most a production storage
+

b. MEDCs
mostly - on consumption
3) monitoring and control
2. by gou,or non you bodies (regulate x-m)

b. by multimational rational corporations

c. by dividuals in NGO
↓) change our altitudes towards food and our duets

a. edt diff. crops

l ess
b. But meat

C. improve education on food

6. UCSC COMS. OF UNSCCS

& Ifwe obtack more food from lower trophic levels, amount of food will increase.
too
DMEDCS eat much meat
D MEDCs more
eat than needed
5) reduce food processing, packaging and transport more
+
aware food
of prod efficienc
(eg. with cabels
predictions for future food supplies
FAD's predictions:
1) Pop.grOW to 8 billion by 2030. D for agricultural produ (not
in (EDCS)
2) more people will eat more meat
3) rofhungry people will decrease somewhere
7) pop. Increasily daut
well fed (3000Kalx
3) Extra billion deals
tonnes of grow
to

import deals
6) LEDCs will have to
7) mostincreased productive will be from higher yield and more urigation,not more land.
8) GM crops, no tillage planting, sole conserv, umproved pest context is productivity
9) aquaculture will increase

5.3:SOHC OEDNOUNATION ORUnd COMSSrWaGN

soil degradation
I there are environment related issues, but hand
of
a lot degradation is the pressing,especial
most

I for the poor.

a bug area (like chinatIndua together) has damaged ecosystem structure due to poor land managem.
is demand's too high
MEDCS has the knowledge+ act
power to sustainably, but
still brings unprecedented levels of
soll eroswr
Two types ofprocesses can give rise to sole degradation:
·processes that take away the sole prosons to no vegetation on the sole. Wind water simply
take it away
a processes make the
that solt less suitable for use. Chemicals and up as are and third it

↑wealthhowmanysee
useless in
congrue - 30
asof human activity:
overgrazing too
many animals grace in the same area happened in Arical nigh stacking
deforestation the more -

vegetation removed, more sale erosion

prone to (especially tropical reques
overcroppendepletes nutrients fruable infertilitysoil falls is
and makes it susceptible costl
to

unsustachable agriculture techniques I cannotbe applied over a long period oftime

withoutdecrease a productivity or increased use ofchemicals

↳examples that result

a sole degradation:
removal of
crops after harvest
with uncovered some on between
growing crops on rows

plowing in the direction ofthe scope (leaves channels for rackwater

·excessure use of pesticides (5011 to toxic for use) "salinization
&

Negationmineralsonthat waterremarkonopenerandformahard
saltyorthe

Burbanization land in at les is upon (remove agric. Candla increase runoff

paved and built
solt erosion
&eliminated if
n atural vegetation covers it
leaves deflect
heavy rac
roots hold soil together
humus absorbs water

1501) prone erosion

to when there's agricultural regulation
3 processes of
s oil eroscon:
sheet surface sole washed
wash:areas of away during heavy storms, mountal areas

·gullying:channels develop on hillsides following rackfall

wind erosion:word removes surface layer ofdry soles

Improving the soil-sole conservation

addition sale
of conditioners

e.g. li met organic maternal uncreas pH+counter soil addification

↳helps day particles sticktogether (more free draching trap more air
soles become addic because:
1) acal precipitation rain or snowl
 2) some sole processes make sat more addic:

nitrification ofammonium ions to

nitrates (quality,
removal ofbask was through reaching addital
breakdown of
organic matter releases Cozy dissolves atatul carbonic and

organic materials(eg. staw, green manure crops) pumprove texture supply nutrients+

·wind reduction planting trees or bushes between fields or alternating low/high crops
sole conservation techniques
growing cover crops (fastgrowingbetween main rows/harvest
·terracing reduce steepness (eg. A scan rice fields)
plowing a breaks up sole structure temporarily increases dramage. (Sometimes bad for sail
can tour farming to plowing coltivating along contour ones (eg. perpedicular to scope
in furrows and
ridges acta s small terraces trapple soil and water

technical problems:heavy machinery tends to tip over when used parallel to scope
improved vrigation systems evaporation saunization can be reduced
+

covering irrigation canals

trickle flow irrigation
stop plowing marginal lands as poor land is suitable for crops, but
not could be used
for cattle grazing
crop rotation allows sell to recover

Sustamabulty ofsoles

saving soils
humans can have positive and negative impacts on solltertutu
Gunmanaged ignorantuse
sollodynamic state -> imbalances:
changes physically and chemically
Itis fundamental so requires informed conservation

erosion is a natural process, however, in natural systems, it

i s off by
s et new soll formaltio.
I will end up in Walter courses, estuaries and coastal waters a provides munerals/nutrient
for aquatic ecosystem.
AGEADEAACCC IITASTEAM a BONEER =
6
6:1 ImFNBOCION #O the OAMOSSPpMENE
=

The atmospheric system

↳ dynamic
system with input/outputs, storages and flows
·carry and
heat pollutants across the Earth by air currents

composition changes over time

21%.*0X480d
78%2Dutogen
17.20CO2, argon, water vapour, ozone + others

3
atmosphere - 1100km in depth stratosphere (10150km) where reactions
most

troposphere (wkm) occur

composition (alter input/outputs

oduman activity impact -

Datmospheric composition-alters activities of

humans

Past atmospheric changes

I always have unstable fluctuates
changed a is
climate +

factors influencing climate:

abstIC MP. preUpIatIN
+

-
botic plants apunals +

from are hard to concentration preapltation

↑measurements the past get
a
gas
measurements
↳direct mallest taken on seduments/fossils
is no free oxuged before plants protoscitefused
frequently asked questions:
1) What's the relationship between carbon dioxcole and temperature on the grapd?
2) What factors besides atmospheric carbon may
other influence Earth temperatures?
3) can we fell on the data collection methods used?
The
greenhouse effect
o natural necessary phenomenon - maintacts suctable temperatures
I no life without
It

occused by gasses an atmosphere reducing losses

heat by raduation strap heat +

revadicate it
↑
incoming solar raduation mostly made up
is of
visible ligth, ultravioletpath and
infrared lighth -
passes trough atmosphere
30%absorbed shattered or reflected by atm. / clouds before it reaches Earth.
surface of
↳31%. ↳47.
& ifwe had no greenhouse gasses, this would
heat go backinto space on Earth temp ↓
is many atta can do this main ones:Water vapour, carbon oxide and methane.
is only molecules with 200 bonds forking atoms can absorb re-emit.

initrogent oxygen are not green house gases.

66.z SANTOSPMENIC
=
OZON
introduction to ozone
 ultimate age and energyproduct
E. emergy aholces and security
Y
-

Energy security is
ability to secure affordable, reliable and sufficient energy supplies for the needs of

6
a particular country
, we rely on
energy from electricity, gas and one to function in our daily lives

issue that national governments wrestle with so that they can make the best choices of use of

resources

n energy price fluctuations can be risky for governments together with political changes
a energy sources are not spread equally around the world

energy choices made by a society depend on many factors:

iavailability of supply
technological developments (to harness energu) fossle i
a politics (conflicts over energy supplies(
soels
* economics relationship with suppliers
A cultural attitudes

A sustainability only renewables are sustainable but we keep using nor sustainable sources

penvironmental considerations

THE NEED FOR ENERGY IS RISINGDPOWER GLOBAL ECONOMY

↳we keep burning fossil fuels - we will run out even with improvements in
energy efficiency
energy conservation to limit
grow in demand, but only has small impact on total use

Examples of energy security choices

1) Ukraine. Russia gas dispute ukraine reliant or Russia's gas after break-up of USSR*RU.Cut sup.

2) Usa shale of pole discovered and extracted with new technologies

3) Wind turbines in denmark

Energy and energy resources

pall of our energy comes from the sun without it there would be no life.

③ The sun drives everything

↓ Fossil fuels are stored solar energy
↳non-renewable

↳extracted
sources of
energy in they are compressed, decomposed remains of organic life from

millions of years ago

and is release
burned carbon dioxide (CHG
How much longer for fossie frees
↳only estimates of when
1) Come on 230

2) Gas in 170 as population increases, we use more energy ->NOTEVENCY DISTRIBUTED

3) One in 100 richer countries use more (especially after industrial revolution
Energy consumptu
l we are in an energy crisis, yet we keep using non-renewable frees
a we should use other sources (renewable
'possiblutces: flammable
whighly
-hydrogen economy ->hydrogen being the fuel that provides energy for transport, industry and electric.

nuclear fusion ->

extracting heavy water and fusing two hydrogen atoms to make believe

Renewable energy sources

↳in theory, we could
get the energy we need from renewable sources, but in practice we obtain a

small percentage from them

NEU plans to get 20% of its energy needs from renewable sources by 2020

investment in research on renewables is smaller than that on finding more one or gas
'WHY?
↓
☐ TNC's (transnational ) are
corporations commuted to the carbon economy -
☐ scale of change is huge
☐ Cheaper to use fossil fuels (for now )
☐ countries are locked into resource currently used by agreements or convenience

☐ renewable sources are location for climate) dependent

carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning

↳ carbon dioxide 213 the enhanced effect
is responsible for of anthropogenic greenhouse
who produces carbon emissions?

China USA produce the most China has overtake not us This reflects their rapid
and .
now .

industri lization
Indonesia → deforestation

Evaluation of energy sources → pro + cons

NON -
RENEWABLE

1) coal ( fossil fuel) fossilised coiled down carboniferous period Burned provide heat directly
→
plants in . to

or electricity by burning to create steam driven turbines

advantages : disadvantages:
-
plentiful supply .
non renewable
-
-

pollution

needs no processing cannot be replaced less energy released per unit of mass
- - .

Cheap to mine and convert releases coz (GHA) smog and lung disease
• -
-

easy to transport '

contains 10% Sulphur
-

250 years left -

sulphur causes acted deposition

2) 011 ( fossil fuel) → fossilized plants and microorganisms → refined by frictional1 distillation .
Many oil

fields are under the oceans ( dangerous) →

generate electricity transport , industry

advantages : disadvantages :
-

high heat of combustion .

Limited supply
-

oil spill danger ( tanker acid ).

Cheap to mine and convert out 20-50 years risk of terrorism

-
.

may run in -

.
releases coz

3) naturae gas ( fossil fuel) → methane

gas trapped between rocks ,
extracted by drilling . Used
'

directly cn homes for heating and cooking

advantages: disadvantages :
-

highest heat of combustion '

limited supply
lot energy gained 70
years left
• '

of

ready made fuee coz emissions ( less)

'
•

cheap
.
Clearer than oil / coal
the
pronuclear weapons work same

4) nuclear fission → uranium is the raw material .

Is radioactive and it is split in reactors .
Energy is

released during spats

advantages : disadvantages:
-

Cheap (once reactor is )

built
'

high extraction costs -

accidents (Chernobyl) Dolevasterting
amountsblot of energy expensive Cbuikd ) terrorism threat
'

small reactors + run

-
.

NO 02 / pollutants . Waste is conductive + Eoxis

RENEWABLE → it doesn't mean they're too -1.

good for the environment

1) hydroelectric power (HEP) → energy from movement of water through rivers

,
lakes and
dorms to power turbines to
generate electricity
advantages: disadvantages:
high quality output low input costly to boiled
- -

creates water reserves flooding

-

+ energy supply can cause

-

hydrology
-
'
reserves 0hamSD ecological impact on

Silting
'

Safety of dams
'

downstream back of water

a­
2) biomass →
decaying organic plant or animal waste used to produce methane → can

be used as fuel Cbcofoee)

advantages: disadvantages:
cheap + readily available be replacing food crops ☐ starwort .
•
-

may -

if crops replanted it can be long term when burned it pollutes (GHGs)

-

are a
-
-

, ,

sustainable energy source . if not replanted Dnot sustainable

3) wood → burned to
generate heat

advantages: disadvantages:
low heat of
_

Cheap + readily available combustion →not much energy

-

trees are replaced sustainable when burned , it pollutes Camas)

- -

trees not replanted → unsustainable

high cost of transportation

a) solar -

photovoltaic cells → solar radiation to electricity

advantages: disadvantages:
potentially infinite manufacture + implementation costs
- '

safe Clean regularly

.
-

low quality energy into high need sunshine

'
-

5) concentrated solar power → mirror focus solar energy on a point where heat energy generated
drives a steam turbine

advantages: disadvantages:
'

renewable -

requires area of high )

insolation ( tropics

cost equal to fossil fuels new ,but

improving technologies
' '

G) solar -
passive →
buildings or panels to capture + store heat

advantage: disadvantage:
minimal cost if properly designed architects who can design for
•
-

7) wind → wind energy into electricity with turbines → usually many tocgethe solar passive technology
advantages: disadvantages
-

little maintenance -

need wind

clean windy sites not populated areas

energy supply near
'
-

•
costs of manufacture + complementation
noise pollution (decreasing)
'

-
visual pollution
-
birds killed ??
8) tidore → movement of sea water → built across estuaries

advantages: disadvantages:
-

coterie for islands '

costly construction

generates lot of energy few estuaries are suitable

-
-

prevent flooding opposed by negative impact

-

some → on
-

disrupt
'

shipping
a) wave → movement of sea water in and out of turbines

advantages : disadvantages : wild are

bdeidl island cost OF construction

'

for
-

small operations Opposed by some

-
.

damaged by storms
•

D) geothermal → heat under earth in volcanic

regions
advantages :
disadvantages:
potentially infinite supply expensive to set up dangerous underground gases
' -
•
.

used successfully somewhere areas of volcanic activity

'

works in
-
 77.22 6611Manatee ☒Rod kmMpp☒E€§
Ehhotanncggee ↳Uusseess
-

Climate and weather → they're not the same

weather → daily result of
changes of temperature pressure and precipitation in our
, atmosphere .
It varies

from place to place It can fluctuate widely but it can be predicted

.
, .

Climate → is the average weather pattern over time for a location on earth . Shows long-term trends and

changes if records are kept for long enough .

difference : timescale

similarity : both affected by ocean and atmospheric circulatory system

both affected by :

clouds trap heat underneath reflect sunk th

D → or @ away
☐ forest fires → release carbon dioxide ( Gita)
☐ volcanic eruption→ release lot of ash which circulates cooling the Earth .

D human activities → burn fossil fuels and keep livestock

climate change →
longterm change which has always happened .

( factors
influencing it :

1) fluctuations in solar insolation affecting temperature

2) changing proportions of gases in the atmosphere released by organisms

↳
for climate change to occur on global scale, inputs and outputs have to change
↑
greenhouse gases = Wheat is lost

global average surface temperature of Earth is increasing although there are fluctuations from year to yr .

Global climate models

↳ simple models of climate system
↳ to of GHGs
predict changes with range a of emissions
↳ solve complex equations , but have to use approximation

Greenhouse gases deforestation reduces intake

↳ atmosphere
very little carbon dioxide in

↳ increasing with other GHGs are increasing due to

anthropogenic activities
GHGs : carbon dioxide water vapour , methane , ,
chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide and ozone .

The effect
enhanced greenhouse
↳ increased by humans → enhanced or exaggerated effect
emissions greenhouse
↳ causing global warming and climate change .

Global warming potentate (awp)

GWP → is a relative measure of how much heat a known mass of GHGs traps over a ri of yrs
compared to the same mass of carbon dioxide .

•
effect of a molecule of GHGs depends on what goes it IS .

CFC → chemicals made by human . Break down ozone cn stratosphere ,

but are GHGs in the troposphere .

↳ enhance
greenhouse gas effect
↳ each molecule has high awe
•
most greenhouse gases in atmosphere are there through natural process (not )
CFC
,
it is the increase
in these due to human activity that is dangerous .

↳ amount of carbon dioxide emitted is extremely high (by humans)

The climate change debate

↳ cause of debate → human population growth → more people wanting to use more resources from a

finite stock .
non -
debatable facts:
-
there is a greenhouse gas effect
-

average global temperatures are

increasing
•
GHGs emissions are increasing due to human activities →
increasing greenhouse effect

there's no total agreement on the cause and on what should be done → majority blame increased GHGs

emissions for climate

change
RD hundreds of scientists from around the world .

Intergovernmental panel on climate

change Kpcc) → 5th assessment

☐ atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide methane, and nitrous

,
oxide have increased
continued emissions will cause further warming and in climate system
☐
changes
☐ dominant cause : human influence

what is climate change and what will happen ?

↳ may be in form of changed temperatures or rainfall patterns ,
severe storms, ice sheet -

thinning
or
thickening and sea levees rising
5 ways in which climate can change ( due to change in greenhouse gas levels)

e) direct relationship → more forcing ,

more change
2) buffering action → forcing increases but climate change does not follow in linear
way
3) respond slowly at first and then accelerating .

4) may reach a tipping point reaches threshold

-
and changes rapidly afterwards (new equilibrium)
5) get stuck at the new equilibrium

what is the consensus view ?

+

greenhouse gasses concentrations have increased since industrial revolution ,

caused by human activity .

-
climate/ weather patterns are complex → some respond quickly others slowly ,

Impacts of climate change → some win others ,

lose

e) on oceans and sea levels → water expands as it heats and ice melting slips off the hand .
loss
of land area (covered by sea) . Affects marine ecosystem (corals)
2) on polar ice caps D melting of hand ice → sea level rises .
Makes travelling on the
region easier +

exploitation of undersea minerals and fossil fuels Methane . is on ice → if reaches surface → temper ↑ .

3) on glaciersD flooding and hand slides . Sommer melts provides a fresh water supply .
Droeugt.RS
because lose volume
glaciers
4) on weather patterns → more heat= more energy is more violent weather (storms hurricanes, draw@tens)
,
.

Precipitation increases → soil erosion ,

back of water .

5) on food production →
may be no cncreoise in NPP Dheaf- rate of biochemical reactions together with
increased respiration .
Pests could spread Got killed by winters ) .
Kill plankton (base of many food W ) .

6) on biodiversity and ecosystems → houses shifting as permafrost melt . Animals move but plants cannot ,
.

Some species have nowhere to go → extinction Wildfires . are more likely to wipe out species and
hospitals + add significant carbon to atmosphere .

7) on water supplies Drivers or bakes drying up (evaporation) → populations have to move (find water supply)
8) on human health → insect diseases will spread Go winters to kill them) Fungal diseases dust leading .

to asthma/ infections .
Warmer tempo reducing deaths for cold
temperature ,
but increase those for heat Reduced bills for heating , lower deaths
.
on the roads
(not icy)

8) on human migration Dmoue to find food /water Implications

. for services economic and , security
policies
10 ) on national economies → some would suffer from from droughts others would gain from
, exploiting mineral
reserves .
Hydroelectric power generation is possible at higher altitudes .
Agricultural prod .
rise in higher batt .

but fall cn tropics 1% Of GDP should go

. on mitigating effects .
Feedback mechanisms and climate change
feedback → return of part of the output from a system as input ,
so as to affect succeeding outputs .

two kinds :

negative : feedback that tends to dampen down , reduce or counteract any deviation from an equilibrium promotes ,

stability → create balance

positive: amplifies or increases

change Exponential deviation away
.
from an equilibrium
climate modelling
GCM (general circulation modee) b predictions ( including human impacts
what next on climate change?
↳ it won't human specie extinct but it'll possibilities
↳ make

It is a moral as well as an economic

,

and
alter

environmental
lifestyle
issue
choices and .

↳ do not have put efforts into fossil fuels

we the collective will to this as long as we can burn .

77.33 EHimmaat-eecchaaanfgee-mmt-kkogda.li☒A beaded ☒l☒ppE⑥A

strategies to alleviate climate change
↳ either reducing impacts adapting or both ,

3 options: do nothing wait and see take precautions now

, .

☐ it is possible that while waiting we will reach a tipping point

☐ The precautionary strategy is the majority choice
Precautions divided in 3 groups:
international commitments
•

•
national actions
•

personae lifestyle changes

mitigation → reduction and/or stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions . Antropnooaenic intervention to reduce

oentropocgenic forcing of climate system →

reducing GHG sources and emission

adaptation → adjustment in naturae or human systems in response to actual or expected climate effects

which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities .

Mitigation strategies
A. Stoebiliee or reduce GHG emissions

i. reduction of energy consumption

ii. reduction of emissions of nitrogen oxide and methane from agriculture
iii. Use of alternatives to fossil fuels
B. Remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
C. Geo - en@erring

☐ we use technology and substitutions

☐
implementing policies to reduce Gita

☐ reduce future emissions, but past emissions will keep having effects .

☐ human activity aided GHGs to oetmospner faster than natural processes can remove them
A. Stabia ce or reduce emissions

1) Reduction of energy consumption

•
reduce waste by using it more efficiently
-
reduce overall demand for energy and electricity by being more efficient and
using less (changing
lifestyle)
-

adopt carbon taxes and remove fossil fuel subsidy

'

set national limits on Gita 1- carbon credit system

.

personae carbon credits ( tradable)

change gov priorities and educate

-
.

improve efficiency of energy production

-

2) Reduction of emissions of nitrous oxides and methane from agriculture

reduce methane production (change cow diet) sustainable agriculture
'
-

capture more methane produced from handful sites

3) Use of alternatives to fossil fuels
replace high Alta emission energy sources with cow aaa emissions
-

B. Remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (CDR ☐ removal) -

1) Increase amount of photosynthesis → decrease deforestation .

Eq . UN -
REDD (Reducing emission from

Deforestation and forest degradation)

2) Carbon capture and storage .
→ need to transport CO2 and transport it into suitable rocks or

mineral carbonates .

3) Use more biomass as source of fuel

a. directly by burning it to generate neat or electricity

b. indirectly produce biofuels from animal waste biodiesel from waste matter
to → biogas , organic
C. Geo engineering
-

large scale intervention projects → they are hypotetiaal ,

not tried

Adaptation strategies
and effects vaccinations flood
desalinization
reduce eg adverse effects maximise positive . . ,
defences ,

Plantin@ ,
Of crops .

↳ reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems

1) Change hand use through planning legislation
a. do not allow building on flood plains
2) Bulled to resist flooding
a. paan water catchment and run-off to minimice flooding
b. build houses on stilts or with garages that can be flooded underneath

3) Change agricultural production

a. irrigate more efficiently in drought areas

b. Store rainwater for times of water

shortage
c. breed drought tolerant crops
d. different crops
grow
4) Manage the weather

a. seed clouds to encourage rainfall

b. plant trees to encourage rainfall

5) Migrate to other areas

G) vaccinate against waterborne diseases

7) Manage water supplies

a. desalination plants
b. increase reservists

C. harvest run-Off more effectively

d. use water harvesting from clouds areas
in
higher

International action : a timeline of agreements and commitments for action

D 1979 ☐ First
-
World Climate Conference .
Recognised climate change
is 10188 → lnte Vernamental Parsee on Canale change lipped provide assessments of climate change

☐ I -990 → First PCC report DCC is real and supported by evidence

is 1992 → United Nations Framework Convention On Climate change (UNFCCC) t NAPA (National program )of
Acton
D 1995 → Second IPCC report

D 1997 → The Kyoto Protocol → first legally bending cometmerits to reduce coz

D 2001 → Third IPCC Report

D 2004 → Ineffective Kyoto protocol
D 2005 → Kyoto into effect
goes
p 2007 →
Fourth PCC report → Ball road map

is 2008 D Global economic crisis

D zoa → China has higher CO2 emissions than us

D 2014 → Fifth IPCC report → strongest warning .

↓hhkkaAnNe SYSTEM AnNoD Wattley 8
8

¥ I hnuumm☒A ☒☒ppb↳€60Bn ☒HA☒AtEss

.

until now 't had an exponential curve

demographics →
study of the dynamics of population change
/population follows ,

an accelerating rate of
growth proportional
to
population size

7. 1 billion people today i

{ lives in poverty ,
we ene un sustainably
↳ we can only estimate for the future

measuring population changes

) : n' of births per thousand individuals in a

crude birthrate (CBR population per year
crude death rate (CDR) : n' of deaths per thousand Indiduals in a population per year
↳ n
-

births or deaths : population size × 1000

natural increase rate (WIR) : rate of human growth expressed as -1 .

✗
year → (CBR -
)
CDR :-D (no migration)
doubling time(DT) time in years it takes for population to double in sleep 70 / NIR
total fertility rate (TFR) average number
: of children each woman has over her lifetime
4 main factors affecting population size :
D birth rate
D death rate If fertility rate :

2. ◦ pop Increase
D
immigration → .

D
emigration
2. ON pop decrease
.

LEDCS and MEDCS

Human development Index (HDI)

' '
→ measure of well-being of country .
It considers:
•
life expectancy
-
education

gross domestic product (GDP per capita) used to rank countries

•

MEDCS ( Europe North America Japan)

, ,
LEDCS ( Africa ,
Asia South
,
)
America
with
'
industrialized and high GDP .
less industrialised
'
rich population .
lower GDP and higher poverty
•

individuals unlikely to starve <

more poor and low standards of living
-
low population growth rates (↓ CBR ,
↑ CDR ) .

high population growth

'

very high footprints ,

-
lower carbon and
ecological footprints

human population growth and resources

Demography : study of statistical

human population causes environmental impacts : characteristics of population (Slee Onge , ,
)
sex

more people need more resources

-

-
more people produce more waste stable population : death rate = birth rate

people want to improve standards of living

-

↳ different resource use ME DCs vs LEDCS

20% of us 80% of us

young vs old urban ,

vs rural) → Impact varies in scale
,

population growth and food shortages 2 main theories

Malthusian theory ( pessimistic view of over population) →
consequences: deseoeses war ,

food supply = main limit to population growth famine

population increases geometrically (2,4 8,16) while food supply arithmetically (2. 4,6 8) ↳restibillzez
-

, ,

law of nature beyond food supply

POP .

-
→ population cannot increase
-

food production is limited because of productive capacity of band and level of technology
LIMITATIONS
•
too simplistic
•

Only poor go hungry → poverty is because of bad distribution ,

not DM Staal limits
' '
-
considers closed community
'
did not expect globalisation

Boserup's theory
-

increase in population would be an incentive to produce more

'
↑ pop =P demand for food = ↑ more produced and better technologies
' '
'

necessity is the mother of invention

LIMITATIONS
-
closed community considered
-

overpopulation can lead to unsustainable farming practices

•
certain types of environment cannot support too many people

application of the theories

•
LEDCS's suffering and famine supports Malthus
-
on national scale ,
↑ pop = develop resources (Boserup)

when is a country overpopulated?

optimum population : pop produces the highest economic return per capita using all available
resources ( differs in )
countries

Why do people have large families?

NIMR
1. high infant and child mortality → insurance that at least one will reach adulthood
2. security in old age : help for parents
3. Children are economic assets

4. status of women

5. Unavailability of contraception's
6 . no sex education
ways to reduce family sizes

7. provide education
2. Improve health
3. contraceptives
4. enhance income

5. Improve resource management

Demographic transition model ( DTM) :

patter of decline in mortality / fertility as a result of
economic development is 5
stages
•

stage 1 : pre industrial Society (high birth / death rates)

growth
-

rapid slow grow stable shrinking

.

stage 2 : early expanding (LEDCS) → drop in CDR

stage 3 : hate expanding (wealthier CEDCS) → CBR ↓ and CDR ↓
-

stage 4: how stationary (MEDGDD stable

'

) blow fertility rate

stages : declining CMEDCS
 Influencing human population growth

f.
policies to reduce policies to increase

pension schemes improved sanitation to decrease death rates

- -

pay more tax with more children .

lower taxes + incentives + free education and health care
.

pouaes to stimulate economic growth encouraging immigration

.
Urbanization
.
contraceptives
enabling women to have more molepend
'

08.22 free⑤⑥⑥FEE ☒ee Ann 800818€44

natural capital and natural income
↓ I
natural resources which rate of replacement of particular resource
have value to humans LEDCS have
AND not
more

eg trees .
,

↳ soil water miner

, ,
manufactured
esthetic , cultural economic, ethical social , spiritual
,
,

renewable natural capital can be regenerated and/or replaced as fast as it is being used
non renewable-
capital is either irreplaceable or only replaceable over geological timescale

renewable natural capital:

living species and ecosystems that use solar energy and photosinless
} can be used sustainably
-

groundwater or onsustainably /if beyond

impacts of extraction , processing )
natural income
non renewable-
natural capital and transport → can cause damage
-
exhst in finite amounts ↳ minerals ( phones pencils)
,

-
need to find alternatives
-

they sometimes can be recycled after being processed → becomes renewable

Dinamic nature of natural capital

•
a resource available today may not be available in the future Cor uioeuersa )
-
technocentrists believe that new discoveries will provide new solutions

examples of of band
changing value natural capital ( for more

1. Cork forests → to close wine bottles , but is now replaced by plastic ( losing value and cut down )
2. Lithium → now used a lot in devices but nearly unused before
,

Valuing natural capital

use -
validation ( we can put a price)
economic price of marketable goods
-

-
recreational functions ( tourism or hatsure)

non use-
Validation ( impossible to put price)

☒ 33 $00kidol old⑥Mmeess# ☒
" www.ttee
solid domestic waste CSDW) : our garbage / trash from residential to urban areas ( collected from
homes and shops) → we can control it

different types
-

biodegradable .
waste )
electrical equipment (WEEE
-

medical '

inert
•
recyclable . hazardous .
toxic . mixed
when is something waste?
-

waste may still have a value (people searching in )

trash
' '
-
waste is when it has no value to its producer

The circular economy

raw materials discard and replace
(
most Goods are produced in linear model
/
take make dump
,/
, , ,

unsustainable lose of energy to produce

'
instead sustainable
'
circular economy is
,
buy ,
use , recycle

aims to : -
be restorative of the environment .
use renewable energy sources
.
eliminate or reduce toxic
waste -

eradicate waste through careful design

→
principles :
-

design out waste

•
.
build resilience through diversity
-

Use renewable energy sources

-
think in systems
do not produce waste use it
-

Managing SDW

1.
strategies to minimize waste
D reduce : use fewer resources /maintain well , buy lasting stuff less packaging , made ,
from recycle avoid imports)
,

D reuse : use repeatedly or for other purposes (reusable bottles ,

e-book , old clothes as rags ,
hire instead of boy compost
,
)
D recycle : sorting waste into separate containers → processed for re use
-

2. strategies for waste disposal

D landfill : waste taken to suitable site and buried .
Holes carefully selected to be not too close to popular .

band can be reused Produces methane

.

'
Can cause
'
☐ incinerators : burn waste at high temperatures Heat used .
to
generate steam .
waste-to-energy .

pollution and release of chemicals They're expensive .

☐ anaerobic digestion : biodegradable matter broken down by microrodnism In the absence of oxygen .

produces methane
D domestic organic waste :
composted (also at home) or put into anaerobic biddingesters

selecting SDW
management strategies
choice is hard, we may not be willing or financially be able to
change Pollution.
is inevitable

88.4 hnwmmannssyysstt.ee Ss ☒Dod fee#FEE Uossee

Human carrying capacity is the maximum number of species or

'
toad
'
that can be sustainably
supported by a given area
↳ possible to estimate but problematic because:
☐ humans use greater range of resources

☐ we substitute resources when they run out

D
depending on lifestyles culture and money resource
, ,
use varies
D We import resources

☐ development in technologies change use of resources

Ways to change human carrying capacity
believe is fixed
eco centrists → reduce use of non -
renewable resources and minimise use of renewable
technocentrists → can be expanded through innovation / development

Reuse , recycling , manufacturing

re and absolute reductions

reuse : use more than once

recycling : object's material used again for something else

remanufacture ng : ↳ same but to create the same object
absolute reduction : use less

limits to human
carrying capacity
past predictions of lower carrying capacity were wrong .
We may be wrong again

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS EF of band and water required defined human population

fat
-
area to support a

b a model to estimate a given standard of living .

the demands on the environment

placed by humans . EF > area available = unsustainablety
*
varies significs .

From country to country and person to person

earthshare band each person would get e- all the ecologically productive hand on earth were
divided evenly among world .

EF depends on : (of a country)

population Slee
'

consumption per capita