•LIFE SCIENCE

Secondary Education
Second Year
Sciences Section

Josette Dagher (Coordinator)

Zakia Hajjar
Samir Safi
Mouna Sabeh

Center for Educational Research and Development

~ !/- Educational Company

" \\ . / ' " for Peinllfl(J. Publ$hing and DiSlribuUon S,A.R.l.
 Illustrations: Graphic Team _ CRDP
Artistic and Technical Preparation: Technical Team _ S.P.C
Edition and Distribution: ~V Educational Company
~_ / for P(ioling, Publishing and Oislributioo SARL.

- Printing: Al ARZ Printing Press

© CERD 1999, Sin-EI-Fil, Lebanon, P.O.Box: 55264

All Rights Reserved for CERD
First Edition 1999 - 91h Impression 2011
 •

•
This is the second installment of textbooks completed by the Center as part of a three­
stage effort to produce the books called for by the New Curricula. We are placing these
books in the hands of students with the great hope that we are moving, step by step,
toward the goal of acquiring sound and modern learning, using sophisticated educational
means and up-to-date methodology that encourage and reinforce individual thinking and
research, the acquisition of skills, the development of ethical and national attitudes, the
feeling of national belonging as well as the feeling of belonging to humanity at large.

The on-going revolution in information , communication and educational technology has

undoubtedly limited the role of the textbook and lowered the rank it used so recently to
occupy. However, in our society and in many other societies, the textbook remains the
basic means of education, and it is our duty to exert our utmost effort and care to come
up with the best product as to fomn and content. Yet we should not lose sight of the fact
that the textbook is not sufficient by itself but should rather be used as a stepping stone
to access other sources of information. What is important is to keep a clear vision and
maintain the right course toward our objective. The means should not turn into the end and
the student should always remain the focus of the learning/teaching process.

No one ignores or denies the fact that textbook writing requires very high academic and
educational qualifications and very wide field experience. The authors committees
undeniably possess such qualifications and qualities, yet last year's textbooks did contain
some faults and gaps which were duly pOinted out by researchers in many articles , and ,
indeed , we have benefited from some of them. Such is the nature of human work, no
matter how good the intentions or how great the effort exerted.

Constructive criticism is a real contribution to raising the standard of authorship,

minimizing errors and filling gaps. We only hope that criticism will always be objective and
motivated by a desire to enhance educational reform in order to achieve better products .

A favorite adage handed down from our old scholars: "He who criticizes you is as
helpful as a co-author" . Let all criticism directed at the Center be of this caliber.

In closing, we hope that we all will have benefited from our experience and that the
textbooks of the third and final stage be closer to realizing our hopes and more beneficial
to our students. We are now preparing ourselves to assess the parts so far achieved of
the new curricula and to assure that our educational movement is proceeding on the right
track for achieving the best results.

June 2, 1999 President, National Center tor Educational

Research and Development
Nemer FRAYHA
The curriculum of the second year of the secondary cycle in Life Science, S series,
focuses on three themes:
- functional characteristics of living things at the cellular level
- nutrition and health
- interdependence of living things and their relationships with the environment.
This textbook is conceived for science-oriented students. It favors discovery and
reasoning. It presents varied didactic aids (graphics, photographs, documents,
histograms) which lead the student from observation to conceptualisation.
Guided by the teacher in the scientific procedure step, the student can acquire
a critical thinking and an autonomy, which are the characteristics of a respon­
sible citizen and a future researcher.
At the end of the second year of the secondary cycle, the student would have
developed the following skills:
- to relate biological identity to genetic information
- to identify the functional characteristics of cells which allow the conversion of
potential energy of organic matter into ATP which is used by the cells
- to identify the interdependence between living things within an environment
- to determine the responsibility of the human being in the control of ecosy­
stems
- to relate good health to good eating habits

Each part of the book is divided into chapters which include:

- activities and their application to build up knowledge
- a "summing-up" that represents the main ideas
- a "concept-map" which summarizes the relationships between the main
concepts of the chapters
- assessment exercises
- "supplementary information," wh ich deals usua lIy with current issues
Supplementary files and a glossary complete the necessary information, which
make this textbook a working tool and a reference. The authors hope that this
textbook will be useful to the students and serve as a pedagogical aid for the
teacher.
Sincere thanks and appreciation go to all those who helped us.

The Authors

•
7
~------------------c: 0 n en t s
PART ONE:
FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING
THINGS AT THE CELLULAR LEVEL

A-BIOLOGICAL IDENTITY AND GENETIC INFORMATION

Chapten. Ji er ,I "g~n;'ms>~d the uniqueness ofthE' individua p17

Activities
1. The diversity of the living world
2. Polymorphism within a population
3- The biological identity of organisms
4. Renewal of cells and maintenance of their characteristics
Summing up
Exercises

Chapter 2. DNA, genetic information and cell cycle p33

Activities
1. The karyotype
2. Mitosis, an equal division of the chromosomal set.
3- The structure and the chemical components of chromosomes
4. Identical reproduction and cell cycle
Summing up
Exercises

Chapter 3. rot~ 'yo hesis and er'zym?tic artivity p49

Activities
1. Proteins, an association of amino acids.
2. The gene, structure and information unit
3- Transcription: first step of protein synthesis
4. Translation: second step of protein synthesis
5. Fate of synthesized proteins
6. Enzymes, proteinic biological catalysts
7- Reaction rate and optimum conditions
8. Specifity and mechanism of enzyme action
Summing up
Exercises

Chapter 4 : Biologic Identity ar'rI ~enotype p75

Activities
1. Phenotypes and proteins
2. Genes and alleles
3. The genotype
Summing up
Exercises

•
10
 8- MOLECULAR RENEWAL AND ENERGETIC METABOLISM

Chapter 5: !e(ula p ~I p89

Activities
1. The flow of matter in an organism
2. Mechanisms of molecular renewal
Summing up
t.C~ Exercises
-,...'-:.:..,;;/ ¢
.;.

Chapter 6: g e 'pi ,t,t,) e of or~ank",< p99

Activities
1. Evaluation of energy expenditure
2. Variations of energy expenditure
3. Basal metabolism
Summing up
Exercises

Chapter 7: .,e V0 th pil functioning p111

Activities:
1. Cellular respiration
2. Fermentation
......,.._..­ 3. Conversion of the energy of metabolites
4. The mitochondrion, site of cellular oxidations
Summing up
Exercises

Chapter 8: E er< -'c I-"Ii<"'''' ""an pl27

Activities
1. Nature of metabolites
2. Liver and the regulation of glycemia
3. The muscle fiber, a differentiated cell
4 . The metabolism of muscle fibers .
5. The restoration of ATP
Summing up
Exercises

11

~
 Part
One

FUNCTIONAL
CHARACTERISTICS
OF LIVING SYSTEMS AT THE
CELLULAR LEVEL.

cell membrane

"1'i~)

endoplasmic
reticulum

'nucleus

glycogen

lipids
 A- BIOLOGICAL
IDENTITY
AND GENETIC
INFORMATION

THE DIVE RSITY OF ORGAN ISMS WH ICH INHABIT THE BIOSPHE RE RE FLECTS, ON
ONE HAND, THE PARTICULAR CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH SPECIES, AND ON THE
OTHER, THE UNIQUENESS OF THE INDIVIDUAL. THESE DIFFERENT BIOLOGICAL
IDENTITIES ARE EXPRESSED, MAINTAINED AND TRANSMITTED THROUGH
GENETIC PROCESSES SUCH AS DNA REPLICATION AND THROUGH BIOCHEMI­
CAL PROCESSES SUCH AS PROTEIN SYNTHESISTHESE PROCESSES, WHICH ARE
INDUCED AND CONTROLLED BY GENETIC INFORMATION, REQUIRE THE INTER­
VENTION OF SPECIFIC ENZYMES.

o During mitosis, each daughter cell Diversity of organisms and

inherits a genetic program identical to uniqueness of the individual.
that of the mother cell. DNA, genetic information and
o Genetic information is located on cell cycle.
chromosomes. Protein synthesis and enzymatic
o Enzymes are biological catalysts needed activity.
for metabolic reactions. Biological identity and geno­
type .
......_....1...._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

•
15
 c H A P T E R

THE GENETIC INFORMATION PRESENT IN THE NUCLEUS OF THE EGG - CELL

INCLUDES THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROGRAM OF EACH LIVING BEING AND THE
, RENEWAL PROCESSES OF ITS CELLS. THIS SPECIFIC INFORMATION DETERMINES
THE UNIQUENESS OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE POLYMORPHISM OF THE
SPECIES.

16
 Diversity of organisms
and uniqueness of
the individual

Problems to be solved: Activities

What are the criteria for classification of 1. Diversity of the living wo rld
living beings? 2. Polymorphism within a population
What is a biological identity? 3- Biological identity of organisms
How does cellular renewal take place ? 4 . Renewal of cells and maintenance of
their charact eristics

17
 THE DIVERSITY OF THE LIVING WORLD

A classification system is essential to understand the great diversity

of living things in the biosphere. Biologists estimate the presence of
at least 10 million different species, but up till now they have iden­
tified only about 1 .5 million. What are the criteria for the classifi­
cation of organisms I

1. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

The biosphere is characterized by a great bio­

diversity.ln order to facilitate the study of living
things in the biosphere, a classification system
is set to arrange them into groups according to
the criteria of resemblance.

The electron microscope allowed biologists to

observe structural and fondamental differ­ 11 •
ences between bacterial cells and the cells of
higher organisms. Consequently, they classified
the organisms into eukaryotes (from Greek Doc. a The biosphere and its living things
karyon= nucleus, eu= real) and prokaryotes
(pro= before).

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

• Cells that are 1 to • Cells that are 10 to .-cytoplasm

10IJm in diameter 100IJm in diameter ..... _......,. chromosome

with a simple inter- with a complex internal
nal structure. structure. nuclear
membrane

• Free chromosome in • linear chromosomes

the cytoplasm surrounded by a B
nuclear membrane
• Cell division by binary • Cell division by mitosis.
fission. Doc. b Schematic representation of a microscopic
observation of a prokaryotic cell A and a
eukaryotic cell B (animal cell).

18
The ecologist Robert Whittaker designed a classification system based on the degree of
complexity of living things and their mode of nutrition.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
UNICELLULAR MULTICELLULAR

protozoa

bacteria algae fungi plants animals

fungi

autotrophic and/or heterotrophic saprophytic autotrophic heterotrophic

Doc. c A simplified classification of living things.

2. The cancey t of species

I
Kingdom Animal Plant

phylum chordates spermatophytes

Many classification systems of living or division gymnospermae
things currently exist. These systems are
based on morphological, anatomical and
class mammalian coniferophytes
biochemical criteria which allow us to
understand the concept of species.
order carnivora coniferas
A species is a group of similar individuals
which share similar characteristics and
are capable of cross -breeding . family canidae abietacae

genus Canis Cedrus

species Canis canis Cedrus libani

common name dog cedar of Lebanon

Doc. d An example of a hierarchic classificati on of Lineaus

(1707-1778).

PROBING THE ACTIVITY

1. State the differences and the similarities between a prokaryotic and a eukaryotic cell.

2. Use doc. c to classify the following organisms: paramecium, amoeba, frog, cat, banana-tree,
pine-tree and bacteria.

19
 2 POLYMORPHISM WITHIN A POPULATION

A population incfudes aff the individuals of the same species

occupying a given place at a specific time. Although these indi­
viduals share similar traits, they have easily detectable morpho­
logical features that differentiate between them. In addition,
they have biochemical and immunological differences that can
be detected by molecular biological techniques.

1. Mor hological ol}'moq>hism.

DoC. a A different morphology Doc. b Genetic uniqueness excludes the morrhological

polymorphism.

The height of individuals varies according to

age and sex. However, for a given sample of
the same age and sex, this characteristic
shows the diversity within a population.

Doc. c Histogram of height distribution

in a population of French adult males. ~

20
2. Biochemical £olymorphism

In humans, the blood groups is determined by 3 These 4 blood groups are determined by the
genes namely A, Band O. Genes A and Bare presence of specific protein antigens localized
codominant and both are dominant over gene on the plasma membrane of red blood cells. In
O. Thi s results in 4 phenotypic blood groups: A, addition to these antigenic markers, there is the
B, AB and O. rhesu s group (Rh) whose presence renders the
blood group positive.

phenotype I Rh" I
(blood group)

Doc. d Blood groups and antigenic markers.

Biological identity is expressed through mor­ • The transplantation similarly succeeds when
phological and biochemical traits. It defines it is performed between identical twins.
the uniqueness of the individual in a given
species. • The transplantation of a skin fragment from
another individual or from a fraternal twin
• The transplantation of a fragment of an indi­ (allotransplant) is rejected, that is the
vidual's own skin (auto-transplant) is accepted , transplant starts to vascularize and then it is
that is the transplant vascularizes and inte­ quickly destroyed.
grates into the neighboring skin.

Doc. e Specific proteins of the cell membra nes are rna rkers of identity and constitute the "biological self."

PROBING THE ACTIVITY

1. State the cases when genetic uniqueness excludes polymorphism. Justify.

2. Formulate a hypothesis explaining the rejection or acceptance of a transplant.

3. How can we qualify the transplantation between identical twins? Explain why?

•
21
 3 BIOLOGICAL IDENTITY OF ORGANISMS

The growth of the organism and the maintenance of its charac­

teristics are dependant on a genetic program. These processes
require a nutritional intake, source of matter and energy.

1. Nuclear transplantation experiment

In 1960, the biologist Gurdon and his team con­ This animal is usu ally pigmented, but some ­
ducted a nuclear transplantation experiment time s albino individuals appear, recognizable by
on frogs' eggs, of the Xenopus laevis species. the decoloring of their skin.

an embryo of
albino Irog (tadpole)

nucleus
egg-laYing\
unfertilized 0 /o .&v / ..... cytoplasm
isolate
intestine cells
eggs o rich in nutritional
reserves (nutritional yolk)

o o
nuclear enucleation
destruction
by irradiating
the ovum
ovum without
a nucleus
nucleus injected into
2 cells
enucleated ovum
stage

< •

morula
4 cells
albino adult albino tadpole stage
stage

Doc.a The growth of an organism from an egg-cell w ith a transplanted nucleus.

22
 2. Nutritional intake

• Placental development uterus

\
Placenta Includin g
- - <:horlo....;c vi lli
In mammals, placenta formation corresponds to
the embryo's need for nutrition. The placenta Inlervllil blood
splices
originates from both embryonic cells and from J (1)(&1
~ c apillaries
maternal uterine mucosa cells. Blood vessels
develop in this organ and fuse with umbilic al
. vein
vesse ls of the embryo. But the two blood
streams are always separated by the placental ' . matern al
arlery
membrane through which fetal and maternal
exchanges occur. vein
. chorlon ~
villi

lelal perl materMI part

of Ih' place nta cllhe place nta
(with chorionic villi) (without ch ori on ic villi)

Doc.b The placenta, fetal-maternal exchange area.

maternal placenta fetal

• Nutrients required for development blood blood
amino-acids amino-acids
The placental barrier is impermeable to the H2 O H2 O
majority of microbes. Nevertheless, it allows
ions ions
the passage of some medicines, drugs, nicotine
and alcohol. glucose glucose
vitamins vitamins

lipids • enzymatic ~ fatty

transformation acids and
glycerol
Doc.e Placental exchanges provide the nutrients ~
necessary for deve lopment.
oxyhemoglobin .. °2
CO 2 CO 2
metabolic metabolic
waste waste

PROBING HE ACTIVITY

1. What nuclear characteristic is demonstrated by the nuclear transplantation experiment?

2 What are the features of the placenta?

3. Kittens of the same litter have received at the embryonic stage the sam e nutrients from
their mother, however they are different. Why?

23
 4 RENEWAL OF CELLS AND MAINTENANCE
OF THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Most cells in an organism have a limited life span and are per­
manently renewed: epidermal cells of the skin, blood cells... nev­
ertheless, they maintain the same characteristics.

1. Renew al of blood cells

blood cells life span functions

The formed elements of the blood have a limited

life span and are continually replaced from the red blood about 125 days transport of
unique stem cells of the bone marrow. These cells CO 2 and 02
cells divide and differentiate to produce cells of white blood 1 to 2 weeks phagocytosis
diverse structure and function . cells and immunity
blood 10 to 12 days blood
platelets clotting

Do(,o life span and functions of blood cells.

lymp~OCYle @
lymphoid pru ripotenlla l bone
lymphocyte
stem cell marrow
T stem ce ll

eosinophil basophil
granulocytes granulocytes

neulrophll
granulocytes erythrocytes monocyte platelets

Doc.b Formation of blood cells from bone marrow stem cells.

24
2. Renewal of e(>idermal cells

The skin's epidermis has a profound basal layer

composed of stem cells capable of continuous cornified layer

division. The resulting daughter cel ls called

kera tlnocyles
keratinocytes are pushed to the surface while without a nutleus
u
synthetizing a specialized protein named
keratin. These cell s progressively lose their
nucleu s, die and are then sloughed off at the
kerallnDcytes

basal layer
;
.. ..
...,
,,~
I
~

~ -"" I

surface. dermis

Doc.e Schematic represe ntation of a section of human

skin observed under an optical microscope.

3. Tissue culture

In vitro cell cultures show that cells and their

descendants generally retain their original
cha racteristics.
Thus, when epithelial cells of the retina pig­
mented layer are cultured, they proliferate,
keeping the same characteristics. Thus is also
the case of cardiac cells . This technique, applied
to epidermal cells, ha s led to the reconstruction
of skin's fragments, m aking possible the treat­
ment of severe third degree burns through
autotra n spla ntation.

Doc.d Tissue culture

PROBING THE ACTIVITY

1. Compare the potentiality of basal stem cells of the epidermis with that of bone marrow
cells.

2. Wh at is the biological process which maintains the characteristics of epidermal cells

during cellular renewal?

25
 SUMMING UP
THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES IS ONE OF THE MULTIPLE FACETS OF THE
DIVERSITY OF THE LIVING WORLD. IN ADDITION TO THE POLYMORPHISM EXISTING BETWEEN POPULATIONS,
WE OBSERVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS OFTHE SAME SPECIES.
THE BIOLOGICAL IDENTITY OF LIVING THINGS DEPENDS ON THE GENETIC INSTRUCTIONS LO CALI ZED IN
CHROMOSOMES. THESE INSTRUCTIONS ARE RESPONSIBLE FO R THE GROWTH OF THE ORGANISM, THE
RENEWAL OF THE CELLS AND THE MAINTENANCE OF THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.

I - Diversity of living things II - Population polymorphism

The present nomenclature and classification Individuals within a species have traits that
system of living things into five kingdoms, distinguish each from the others. In humans,
reflects their great diversity. This does not the descendants of a couple (with the excep­
exclude the distinction established earlier tion of identical twins) are different from each
between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. other and from their parents. Nevertheless,
they show "family traits."
• Prokaryotes are unicellular living things This diversity could be extrapolated at the
whose cell lacks a nuclear membrane which population level and even more at the species
separates their chromosome from the cyto­ level.
plasm. At the organism level, the uniqueness of the
individual is characterized by " phenotypic
• Eukaryotes are unicellular or multicellular markers" such as skin pigmentation, hair
living things whose cells have a nuclear mem­ color...
brane surrounding their hereditary material , At the cellular level, biochemical characteristics
thus separating it from the cytop lasm . allow to distinguish each of us from the ot h­
ers. This is the case for red blood cell markers,
On the other hand, the species is always con­ which are glycoproteins localized on their plas­
sidered the basic unit of any classification. It is ma membranes. These markers determine our
defined as a group of living things possessing blood group (A, B, AS and 0).
morphological, anatomical and physiological Other markers provide additional particulari­
resemblances and whose individu als are ties to the individual. That is why tissue and
capable of cross-breeding. organ transplantations succeed in identical
twins but are rejected in fraternal twins. All of
these markers define the individual and allow
the establishment of a "molecular identity
card" for each of us. The biological identity of
an organism is determined by the specific
traits (of the species) and by individual, mor­
phological and molecular traits.

•
26
 III - Biological identity and genetic In the course of the embryonic development of
mammals, the supply of nutrients is achieved
information
through the placenta which is an organ of
selective exchanges between the mother and
the embryo.
Nuclear transplantation experiments show
that :
• the nucleus of a differentiated cell can be the
IV - Renewal of cells and maintenance
origin of an adult organism .
of their characteristics
• all adult cells contain the same genetic infor­
mation as the zygote from which they are
formed.
Cellular renewal, imposed by the limited life
Thus, the nucleus holds the power to define span of certain cells, is achieved through stem
the species and the biological identity of the cells, which are capable of division and differ­
individual. enciation while keeping their characteristics.

For the bUilding, growth and renewal of its

cells, the organism needs nutrients which are a
source of matter and energy.

Mice constitute a perferred genetiC material. Several research laboratories select and breed them
in a specific manner.

27
 CONCEPT MAPPING ' - - - - - .

rn
01

-
s:::

®®
J::
01
s:::

-~
"~

-, ~ tJ~
0
:!::
>­
...rn
Q)
""" ..
~,
c"~ ~ ~

Igenetic information I
t/)
E
t/)
"iii "i:
Q) m
I: 01
Q) ....
010
Q) I:
.r: m
1-0
... fetus
"",

•
'""
~
';:
Q) '
U
~ E
.c
co ,­'"
"Q) I: cellular loss cellular
co
.ci2' renewal
- 0
01: skin
,,­0
Q) .,

I:
desquamation maintenance
co the generic
!
I:
accidents information

'cu senescence
:r;

Diversity of organisms and bioiogicai identity

•
28
 EXERCISES

. _ EXERCISE 3~--------,
_EXERCISE 1
The seaweed Acetabularia is an algae
Mark the true statements and correct the
consisting of a sing le giant cell. Various
false ones.
sectioning and grafting experiments were
performed on this algae.
1. There are not two human beings w ith the
same genetic program.
2. Tran splant rejection is caused by the similarity
of markers between the donor and the recipient. 1S1 experiment 2nd experiment
3. The identity markers exist in all our cells.
4. The bone marrow contains stem cells for red
blood cells only. section
.. .. ­
section
..
. . . -..

EXERCISE 2 crenelled
cap A
rounded
cap B

A and B are two different specie

Choose the correct answer(s)

:.-- stalk from B

1. Fetal and maternal blood gra ft

a- mix at the placental level.

b- mix at the umbilical cord level. ~
c- do not mix.
d- are not in direct contact.
l ot.Ii.e
holdfast from A
l

2. The prokaryotic cell has

a- a nuclear membrane.
b- many linear chromosome s.
c- one free chromosome.
d- a cytoplasmic membrane.

3. The gen etic information of eukaryotic cells is

found in
a- the cytoplasm . 1. Analyse the above experiments.
b- the chromosomes. 2. What can one deduce?
c- the cytoplasmic membrane.
d- the nucleus.
29
. _ EXERCISE 4 ._EXERCISE

Microsurgery experiments were performed on Nuclear transplantation experiments on mice

amoeba (unicellular eukaryote). have led to the following results:

female gray mouse A female balck mouse B

nucleated amoeba pure variety greeded pure variety greeded
+"
c:
Q)
fragment with a male ollhe
same genotype
with a male 01 Ihe
same genotype
E
.;:
Q)
Co
)(
Q)

amoeba anucleated

~
fragment dead

+" enucleaHan
c:
Q) 1· enucleation
E
.;:
Q)
Co
~ embryo A dissociation
2- nuclear 01 cells
transplantion amoeba A
amoeba A
Injccllon olllle nucleus

+"
amoeba B
c:
Q)
(diHerent species from A)
white femal e

W!.tflIJ ~u"u"
1 ~ enucleation
E
.;:
Q)
mouse C
C\ In "!co
(4days)

tJt""" em~ryon
Co
~
M 2- nuclear dead Implonatioll of Ihe embryo
amoeba A transplantion in lhe ulero" cavity

birth ola
1. Describe and interpret the first experiment. gray mouse

2. Compare and explain the results of the second ..,.....c;:.

and the third experiments.
1. How could we obtain a clone of individuals ?
2. What is the role of each of the three mice
used in this experiment?
3. What is the main information given by the
birth of a grey baby mouse?
4. What are the aspired advantages of the
mammal cloning technique?

30
 Supplementary
information
Species classification

Aristotle's system with two kingdoms

Plants Animals

Terrestrial Plants Animals

Algae
Fungi

Three kingdoms system depending on the distinction between prokaryotes

and eukaryotes

Plants Animals Monera

Terrestrial Plants Animals Proka ryotes

Algae Protozoa
Fungi

Five-kingdom system

Mode of Plants Fungi Animals Protista Proca ryotes

nutrition
Photosynthesis Terrestrial Plan Unicellular Bacteria
L Absorption and multicellular algae
Ingestion algae
Fungi Bacteria

I Animals Protozoa

•
31
 c H A P T E R

THE CHROMOSOMES, CARRIERS OF GENETIC INFORMATION, ARE MADE UP OF

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (OR DNA) ASSOCIATED TO PROTEINS, THE DNA
HAS A STRUCTURE THAT ALLOWS TO UNDERSTAND ITS CAPABILITY TO REPL/­
, CATE AND TRANSMIT THE GENETIC INFORMATION FAITHFULLY.

MITOSIS IS THE DIVISION PROCESS THAT ENSURES EQUAL REPARTITION OF

THIS INFORMATION BETWEEN THE 2 DAUGHTER CELLS.

32
 DNA, genetic
information and
cell cycle

Problems to be solved Activities

What is a karyotype? 1. The karyotype
How does mitosis ensure the transmission 2. Mitosis, an equal division of the
of genetic information? chromosomal set
What are the chemical components of 3. The structure and the chemical components
chromosomes? of chromosomes
What is the relationship between DNA and 4. Identical reproduction and cell cycle
the genetic information?

33
 1 TH E KARYOTYPE

All individuals of the same species have, in their cells, the

same chromosomal set which carries the genetic informa­
tion. The karyotype is the arranged set of homologous
chromosomes; it allows the detection of chromosomal
"errors" using nucleated cells either from an individual or
from the amniotic fluid of a pregnant female.

1. Karyoty(>ing
Karyotyping is based on a special technique criteria: the size of the chromosome, the position
which determines the count of the chromo­ of the centromere and the white and dark
somes ofa species and allows their arrangement banding patterns.
in homologous pairs depending on different

CColchicine

Collecting
~~ ~ ~Culturing the cells Metaphase locking
blood
---
Hypotonic solution

A pair of homologous
'XX
CC:--XX
- -­
XX 1J ICI chromosomes

1 2 3 4 5

Cutting oul the chromosomes

and ka~otyp ing
I Spreading the
cells on a slide

/ 7
Treating the cells
to obtain bands
then staining them
Observation of
the chromosomes

Doc. a Karyotyping technique.

34
2. Each s ecies has its own kar)'ot)'~e

Doc. b human male karyotype Doc. c human female karyotype

\. I
,1 ,
"
~,
II
., ..
2
II
\"
·3 4
,• mouse
animals

40
plants

pea 14

I
at, .,lq" {(
..iii
rat 42 onion 16
II
...
11 t\
i.\ ij 7 ~ . 9 '0
rhesus
monkey 42 corn 20
~ t 1:: i~
..••
'" . ~
' . ~u 10 man 46 24
"•
tomato
II ,.I~ II -#

" )3, " 11 "

,
chimpanzee 48 rice 24
v8~"
&\
"
II
"17
.. u
ia
..
'
"
."
~
R\
x dog 78 tobacco 48

19 20

Doc. d Chimpanzee karyotype

"" hen 78 potato

Doc.e Chromosome number in some specie s

48

PROBING ~T HE1 ACTIVITY

Why are human red blood cells not suitable for karyotyping?

2 Which informations can be concluded from the study of a karyotype? Answer after analyzing
documents a, band c.

3 Some species have the same chromosome number, but they are different . Suggest an
explanation.

•
35
 2 MITOSIS, AN EQ.UAL DIVISION OF THE
CHROMOSOMAL SET

The chromosomes, observed in the karyotype, are only visible

during cell division, although they are always present in the
nucleus. Mitosis is the process of cell division which ensures the
build up and growth of the organism, its cellular renewal as well
as the maintenance of its biological identity

1. Observation of dividing cells

Doc.Q A longitudinal axial section of the garlic root tip Doc.b Meristematic area at high magnification power.
observed under an optical microscope at low Some cells are not dividing; they are said to be in the
magnification. interphase .

interphase

anaphase
Doc.c Mitosis phases of a plant cell.

•
36
2. Schematic re()resentation of mitosis

Interphase Prophase Metaphase

desintegration of spindle
membrane aster
cytoplasmic nuclear membrane fiber
centro~om~_ ___ --..:/
., .
\ . ,.

equatorial
chromatin plale
chromosome made up
of 2 sister-chromatids
membrane

Anaphase Telophase

cleavage •
furrow - e;: .;:;:~%:#!;:;>

sister chromati :Jl>-._~

move toward chromosome made up
the opposite poles of one chromatid

Doc.d Mitosis of an animal cell

PROBING

What can we say about the chromosomal set of a cell in interphase and that of the 2
daughter cells resulting from mitosis?

Give the differences between mitosis of an animal cell and that of a plant cell.

Compare the metaphasic chromosome to the ana phasic chromosome.

•
37
 3 THE STRUCTURE AND THE CHEMICAL
COMPONENTS OF CHROMOSOMES

Using the electron microscope, chromosomes at metaphase appear

very condensed. On the other hand a nucleus at interphase shows a
diffuse mass of chromatin. How does a chromosome take its shape?
What are its chemical components?

1. DNA identification by Feulgen reaction

After the fixation and spreading of cells on a

slide, the latter is dipped in hyd roc hloric acid
(Hel) at 60'( for 15 minutes then rinsed with
water. Upon addition of Schiff's reagent, DNA is
colored red. Microscopic observation shows red
colored chromosomes and chromatin.

Doc.a Cells colored red by the Feul gen's method

Chromosom! l

\ \ ,\
1mOUOOOO \
f'
! ! 1
I
'!
I J
I
'

"breads on a string"
D~A pj'oleins
chromatin fiber
nucleosome molecule (his1ooes)
Doc.b Electron micrography
of a human chromo­ Doc.e From chro mosome to chromati n and from chromatin to chromosome.
som e No 12 (without
rrotein s)

•
38
2. DNA structure

In 1953, Watson and Crick suggested a structu­ • the upright sides are made up of a succession of
ral model for the DNA macromolecule. In this phosphoric acid and deoxyribose, a C5 sugar.
model, the arrangement of nucleotidesleads to • the steps are made up of the four paired nitroge­
the formation of two chains (strands) twisted nous bases, two by two complementary as
to form a double helix. Uncoiled and flattened, follows: Adenine with Thymine and Guanine with
DNA has the shape of a big ladder whereby: Cytosine.

,,,. -- ------ -- ---- ---,,'

,,, ,,
, ,,

Il.\-~_....""_ --, i 0 - G-r--

c- D
: 1
lone
•_ __ ___nucleotide:
_____ _ _____ J

: phosphoric acid
: deoxyribose sugar

: Adenine}
: Cytosine nitrogenous
: Guanine

I
bases
: Thymine

Chromosome The arrangement of

fragment A portion of the molecule chemical components
Doed The double helix of the DNA molecule.

PROBING ACTIVITY

The analysis of the nitrogenous base composition of a DNA molecule gave the following results:
A = 22%; T = 24%; C = 27%; G = 28%. Comment.

Name the four nucleotides which compose the DNA.

What is the chemical constitution of a chromosome?

39
 4 IDENTICAL REPRODUCTION AND CELL
CYCLE

DNA, which is the carrier of the genetic information, undergoes

replication during interphase.
The amount of the DNA during the life of a celf reflects the
existence of a celf cycle.

1. DNA replication
The initial DNA double heli x opens during inter­ Thus, the DNA daughter molecules consist of an
phase. Each strand acts as a mold or template for original strand and a newly sy nthesized one.
the formation of a new complementary strand, This replication is said to be "semi-conserva­
by the sequential addition of complementary tive" and it requires the intervention of
nucleotides available in the nucleus. enzymes such as the DNA polymerase .

..
•

'wo
original
DNA
molecule ;.;;~..;..oo..;:;~~
DNA

. .£ . ;
~ r ~__ ___ __ • •
nudeotides
fre e In (he
nucleus replication dbe<:lion

Doc.a Electron micrography of a chromosomal replication Doc.b The DNA "semi-co nservative" replication

1S! slep 2nd step

RoolS
, -' - -)4 .- ,----. "-' -­

mediumcon,laining / ", ~ i ) I rools are washed \ .....---- -..:..:....

imedium contalnlng
- i" ,
radioactive ~ ~. / L._ _';';";';";";';";';';"___'" \~ '.. : .'
1< -nonradioactive
thymldtne (DNA ~ - _ ' - . ---~ . __/ thymidine
precursors) . - - - the time 01 exposure
correSJ,.londs
to a mitosis
+
Cc

a uloradlography

observation
of chromosomes
at metaphase

... :~::.
\/
Doc.c Taylor's ex pe riment

40
2. The cell c de and the variation of the DNA content

Amount of DNA per cell

20

10
G1 5 G2 G1 S G2

.!!! <II
interphase <II interphase 'iii
0 0
.~ ~
E E
1st cell cycle 2nd cell cycle

Doc.d Variation of the amount of DNA during a cell cycle.

A cell cycle is composed of an

interphase and a cell division
phase or mitosis.
The interphase is divided into
three successive phases: G,-S-G,.
G stands for Gap of time inter­
val.
The length of the cell cycle and
each of its phases vary according
to the cell's nature.

Doc.e Cell cycle

PROBING THE ACTIVITY

1. To which phases of the cell cycle do documents a and b correspond?

2. Describe the experimental steps ofTaylor's experiment and interpret it.

3. lf we carryon Taylor's experiment for a third time in a normal medium, what do we get?
Give a representation of the replication of the DNA molecule from the 1" culture to the
third one in Taylor's experiment. In what proportions would the labelled and non labelled
DNA molecules be?

•
41
 SUMMING UP
THE KARYOTYPE IS THE ARRANGED SET OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES PRESENT IN A CELL. THESE
CHROMOSOMES ARE COMPOSED MAINLY OF DNA OR DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID, ASSOCIATED TO PRO­
TEINS, THE HISTONES. DURING INTERPHASE, DNA IS COPIED THROUGH A REPLICATION MECHANISM
WHICH IS SAID TO BE SEMI -CONSERVATIVE. MITOSIS ENSURES AN EQUAL REPARTITION OF THAT DNA
BETWEEN THE TWO DAUGHTER CELLS.

4. Telophase
I - The karyotype of the species. It is characterized by the presence of two new
nuclei : the chromosomes uncoil and change
back to the diffuse form of chromatin . The
Chromosomes are permanent elements of the spindle apparatus disappears. The nucleolus
cell , which are clearly observed during cell divi­ and the nuclear membrane reappear.
sion. Their arrangement into homologous pairs The division of the cytoplasm or cytokinesis
constitutes the karyotype . The latter is specific often starts at this moment . The two daughter
for each species. All nucleated cells of an indi ­ cells separate and start interphase. Each has
vidual , except mature sexual cells, have the inherited from the mother cell one chromatid
same karyotype. from each chromosome, thus the entire genet­
ic information is transmitted faithfully to the
II - Mitosis, an identical two daughter cells. The mitosis is called identi­
reproduction cal reproduction

Mitosis consists of four stages:

III - Structure and chemical
1. Prophase constituents of chromosomes
The chromatin, which is in the diffuse form in
interphase, condenses, and forms chromo­
somes. The latter are cleaved longitudinally The chromosomes, which are permanent struc­
and now consist of two filaments, the chro­ tures present in the nucleus, appear in two
matids, which are joined at a specific region, forms:
known as the centromere. The nucleoli and the • filamentous during interphase, forming the
nuclear membrane disappear. Chromatin. The latter has a "bead -on-a-string"
form, where the string is the DNA and the
2. Metaphase beads are the proteins (histones).
The spindle fibers are formed . The chromo­ • condensed during mitosis. This condensation
somes move towards the cell center, halfway corresponds to a progreSSive coiling of DNA,
between the spindle poles . They form the and each chromosome appears to consist of
equatorial plate. two chromatids.
The DNA molecule is a macromolecule formed
3. Anaphase by a large number of nucleotides which are
The centromeres divide allowing sister chromatids Jrranged in the two coiled stranus of the dou­
to be pulled slowly towards the opposite ble helix.
spindle pole s. This is the polar ascension.

•
42
Each nucleotide is made up of a molecule of • G" a cellular growth phase where the DNA
phosphoric acid and, of a sugar, the deoxyri­ content stays constant.
bose, associated to one of the four nitroge­ • S, a synthesis phase where the DNA amount
nous bases. These bases are as sociated in pairs increa ses progressively till it becomes double
according to their chemical complementarity: the initial value.
thymine with adenine • G" a growth phase and a preparation for cell
guanine with cytosine division

The nucleotide sequence of DNA is responsible Mitosis is divided into 4 phases:

for the coded information. • prophase and metaphase, where chromo­
somes are formed of two chromatids.
• anaphase, where the DNA amount is distri­
IV - Identical reproduction and
buted into two identical sets.
cell cycle • Telophase, where the separation of the two
daughter cells takes place.
1. "SEMI-CONSERVATIVE" REPLICATION The coding of the genetiC information and the
maintenance of the biological identity of
The two fundamental properties of DNA are organism are preserved in the process of cell
due tothe ordered sequence of the different division.
nucleotides in the two complementary
strands .
• DNA is the carrier of the coded information
which determines the characteristics of each
individual.
• It is able to duplicate, that is to generate two
molecules having the same nucleotide
se quence as one another and as the original
molecule.
•
In fact, the two strands open, and the comple­
mentary nitrogenous bases are added to form
a new stand facing each of the templates. This
is the semi-conservative replication; it ensures,
on the one hand, the exact copy of the coded
information and, on the other, the mainte­
nance of thi s information during cell division.
Thi s replication takes place simultaneously in
all the DNA molecules of the cell . This process
is under the control of specific enzymes specif­
ically the DNA polymerase.

2. THE CELL CYCLE

The cell cycle is divided into interphase and a
ce ll division pha se or mitosis.
The interphase, which is the longest phase, is
divided into three successive phases:

Process of semi-conservative replication of

DNA

•
43
 CONCEPT MAPPING I.---~~~

new cell
new cycle

cell cycle

replication bubble

DNA amount
per cell

cell state
chromosome state
DNA state

The different states of the nuclear material during a cell cycle

•
44
 EXERCISES

·_EXERCISE :1-------
Mark the true statements and correct the false 2.A cell is said to be at metapase when:
ones. a- its chromosomes look like distinct thread-like
structures.
b- the nuclear envelop is apparent.
1. The karyotype of a cell is an arranged set of c- the chromosomes are aligned at the equator of
homologous chromosomes during anaphase. the cell.
2.DNA content per cell doubles when the cell d- the chromosomes are attached to the spindle
passes from Gl phase to 5 or synthesis phase. fibers and separated into 2 distinct groups
3. Chromosomes located at the equatorial plate
of the cell are formed of one chromatid. 3- The period between the end of mitosis and the
4. The nitrogenous bases of DNA beginning of DNA synthesis is called:
are complementary pairs: A with G and T with a- 5 phase
C. b- G2 phase
5. The chromatid results from the condensation
c- M phase
of many DNA molecules.
d- G, phase

4. DNA is
a- the sole chemical component of a chromo­
some.

._EXERCISE ..,.,_ _ _ _ _ _____ b- formed of two complementary strands

c- the carrier of the genetic information
Choose the correct answer(s) d- composed of 4 types of nucleotides

1. The cell cycle is

a- the time between the formation and the EXERCISE l -'" -_ _ _ _ _ _....
death of the cell
b- the succession of events, starting from the
The reading of one of the two strands of a DNA
formation of a cell to its division
segment gives the following sequence:
c- the sequence of events which ensures that
each daughter cell receives a chromosomal set ...ATTAGCCATG ...
identical to that of the mother cell
1. What is a nucleotide?
d- the growth of a cell up to a sufficient size
2. How many nucleotides are there in this segment?
that enables it to divide
3. Reconstitute and draw this segment.

•
45
._EXERCISE ~~====:::J 1. Present these two documents as two sorted
karyotypes. What is the chromosomal
The two documents a and b below represent number of this animal?
two states of a ch romosome 2. What would you name the black chromoso­
mal set? and the white chromosomal set?
The
latter is individually designated by letters.
What are these letters?
3. At which precise moment of the cell cycle can
we observe such chromosomes?

._EXERCISE [O=====::J
a b
The human embryo, 72 hours after fertiliza­
tion , has 16 cells.

1. To which phase of the cell cycle do they 1. How many times did mitosis occur since the
correspond? Annotate them. fertiliztion of the egg ?
2. Draw a chromosome at the phase which 2. How long is the cell cycle ?
follows the mentioned phases of the first 3. What is the chromosomal number in each
question. cell ?

. _ EXERCISE r ....'- - - - - - . . , ._EXERCISE 7:..- -------.

The figure below represents the chromosomal Pneumococcus, a bacterium that causes pneu­
sets of ce lls removed from the body of two monia in mammals, exists as 2 types:
drosophila: female and male.
• Type 5 is a virulent strain surrounded by a
capsule. Upon the injection of mice with this
strain, pneumonia was observed and the
death of the mice followed (5 st rand s for
smooth)

• Type R is a non-virulent strain that lacks a

capsule (R stands for Rough).
In 1944, Avery and his team performed again
these experiments. The results are mentioned
below.

•
46
 ----+~ .
-~~~ @
( )1Z injection
AON 5
+
R alive
A+some S
derived from the
transformation
5

R A + ONAS+S

Doc.a Two strains of bacteria having different features Doc.b The experiment of Avery and his team: bacterial
tra nsformation.

1. Give an interpretation to this experiment. 2. What is the hypothesis that could be drawn
about the origin of virulence in pneumococci
having a capsule in comparison with the
other strain?

. _ EXERCISE L,",~_ _ _ _ _...J

The table below represents, in arbitrary units, the amount of DNA in a cellular nucleus
obtained by specific measuring methods.

Time
(hours) 0 1 2 6 10 11 13 16 18 21 22 24 29

DNA
(arbitrary 6.6 6.6 3.2 3.3 3.3 4 5.1 6.5 6.6 6.6 3.2 3.3 3.2
units)

1. Draw the graph showing the variation of the 3. Knowing that mitosis has a duration of one
amount of DNA. hour, and that the prophase and the
2. Find, on the graph, the duration of a cell cycle. metapha se make up 75% of the length of
mitosis, localize this latter on the graph.
4. Draw a chromosome at the 11th hour, 21st
hour and 29th hour.

•
47
 c H A p T E R

PROTEINS ARE THE INITIAL EXPRESSION OF GENETIC INFORMATION . THEY

ARE THE MOST ABUNDANT ORGANIC MOLECULES IN LIVING ORGANISMS,
CONSTITUTING 50 PERCENT OR MORE OF THE CELLS DRY WEIGHT.
PROTEINS ARE CELLULAR MARKERS AND THUS THE MAIN INSTRUMENTS IN
• MOLECULAR RECOGNITION ; THEY ARE ALSO IMPLICATED IN ALL THE REAC­
TIONS OF META­
BOLISM .
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS TAKES PLACE IN TWO STEPS: TRANSCRIPTION AND
TRANSLATION . THIS SYNTHESIS REQUIRES THE PRESENCE OF SPECIFIC
ENZYMES CATALYZING ALL BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS.

48
 Protein synthesis
and enzymatic
activity

Problems to be solved Activities

• What is the relationship between DNA, 1. Proteins, an association of amino acids

carrier of the genetic information, and the 2. The gene, structure and information unit
synthesized protei ns? 3. Transcription:first step in protein synthesis
4. Translation: second step in protein synthesis
• How does protein synthesis take place?
5. Fate of synthesized proteins
• What becomes of the synthesized proteins? 6. Enzymes, proteinic biological catalysts
7. Reaction rate and optimum conditions
• Howdo the enzymes intervene in the reactions 8. Specificity and mechanism of enzyme
of cellular metabolism? action

•
49
~ U C A G
letter
3 rd letter
1"
letter l' t
UU ~ phenylalanine UA~J tyrosine (Tyr) UG~cysteine (Cy s) U

U UUC
UU~
UUG
leucin e
(Phe)
(leu)
UCUJ
~2;
UCG
serine (Sor)
UAC
UA~ stop
UA
UGC
UGA stop
UGG tryptophane (Trp
C
A
G
CUU CCU CAU] hIStidine (HIS) CGU U .
C CUC leucine (leu)
CUA
CUG
CCC proline (P ro)
CCA
CCG
CAC
CA~l
CAG
CGC arginine (Arg)
glutamine (Gin) CGA
CGG
C
A
G
AUUJ isoleucine (lie) AA~] asparagine (Asn) AGUJ serine (Ser) U

A AUC
AUA
ACUJ
~2; threonine (T hr)
AUG] methionine (Met ACG
AAC
AAAJ lys ine (Lys)
AAG
AGC
AG~ arginine (Arg)
AGG
C
A
G
GAUJ aspartique U

G ~~;
GU ]

GUG
vali ne (Val)
GCUJ
~2;
GCG
alanine (Ala)
GAC acide (As p)
GA~ glutamique
GA acide (Glu)
GGUJ
~~;
GGG
glycine (Gly)
C
A
G

Genetic code

IV . Fate of synthesized proteins V - The enzymes

The proteins synthesized by the ribosomes can Enzymes are proteins which function as biological
be exported or used by the cell. The protein s catalysts, and are synthe sized by living cells. They
destined to be exported (hormones, enzymes) are necessary to the react ions of metabolism in
move through the endoplasmic reticulum to living organisms: they activate the reaction s at
the Golgi apparatus, where they are modified body temperature and act in small concentration s.
by a number of enzymes: splitting,glycosylation ...
They are then transported within secretory 1. ENZYMATIC CATALYSIS
vesi cles which fuse with the pla sma membrane
releasing their contents into the extracellular The enzyme acts on a specifi c molecule ca lled sub­
space. This is termed exocytosis, which also strate on which it performs one type of specific
allows the recon stituti on of the plasma reactions. It is named after the substrate on which
membrane. The protein s destined to remain in it acts (amylase, lactase) or after t he reaction it
the cells are either incorporated into the mem­ catalyzes: dehydrogenase, decarboxylase, RNA- ­
branes of organelles (mitochondrion, endoplas­ polymera se. Each cell has its ow n specific battery
mic reticulum, chloroplast) or distributed in the of enzymes.
cytopla sm as structural or functional protein s:
enzymes, hemoglobin...

68
2. RATE OF REACTIONS AND OPTIMUM CONDITIONS the rate of reaction increases with time and
then levels off. For higher concentrations of
The rate of reaction is expressed as th e am ount substrate, the initial rate increases and levels
of substrate modified or product formed in a off at a higher value than the preceding ones.
unit time . This rate is affected by certain physi­
cal and chemical factors. 3. How ENZYMES WORK

• Temperature An enzyme recognizes its substrate among

Temperature has an influence on enzy matic closely related molecules. As any protein, the
catalysis. At O'C the enzyme is inactive; its enzyme has a unique spatial configuration. On
activity and thus its rate of reaction increases its surface the enzyme has a cavity called active
with the rise in temperature, until it reaches site, the configuration of which is complemen­
an optimum value of 40'C. Beyond this tem ­ tary to that of the su bstrate. Thi s cleft, contain­
perature the rate of the reaction decreases ing some of the amino acid of the enzyme, has
and becomes null at 60'(. As any protein, the two sites: a binding site and a catalytic site. In
enzyme is denatured by heat and loses its an enzymatic reaction the substrate binds to
properties irreversibly. the active si te of the enzyme, with the help of
• pH binding amino acids, to form the enzyme-sub­
strate complex.
Experiments in artificial digestion, carried out
on a solution of starch in the presence of sa li­
va amylase, reveal that the activity of this
enzyme varies according to the pH of the
medium. Each enzyme is only active within
the limits of well-defined pH values. Small Other amino acid s belonging to the catalytic site
variations of the pH from the optimum value help modify the substrate to give the product.
are sufficient to decrease the rate of the enzy­ Once free, the enzyme can accept a new mole­
matic reaction. cule of substrate into its active site. When all the
• Substrate concentration molecules of the enzyme are associated with
For a given initial substrate concentration, substrate molecules, the rate of the reaction is
maximal and the enzyme is said to be saturated .
This rate is proportion al to the available amount
of the enzyme.

Hair and callogen are examples of proteins synthe sized in our organism .
There are thousands more.

•
69
' - - - - - - --. CONCEPT MAPPING

eukaryotic
cell

. ,

nuclear
pore
nucleus ....."""''''''''- RNA polymerase
/
DNA

cytoplasm

m'ochood,;oo ; RNA ~ mJ ____ ____.

precursor
energy i 1-;
tRN~l-
~:-----.L._
9=:>
!
0 aCtiVated
amino aci:9s 0 0

,~~\
t RNA- aa
rough
o endoplasmic
~~, reticulum
/:~~
e:- ~~
\

I ,.y
Cyt?Plasmic(
or ribosomal

p<O<';" ",:A" )ctivated

Y
/
~

, polysome maturation

Ir' ' ®
@ secretory
~-----~~L~~:Jll;§....-:m::::embrane
- =--­ released proteins
(digestive enzymes)
proteins

From the gen e to the protein

•
70
 EXERCISES

· _ EXERCISE r:t=====:::::J
Mark the true statements and correct the
false ones. 2. An enzyme
a· must necessarily bind a substrate to perform
1. Translation of a molecule of RNA allows the catalysis
synthesis of ca rbohyd rates. b- acts uniquely outside cells
2. Synthesis of a protein always requires the c- catalyzes uniquely reactions of hydrolysis
translation of a DNA into mRNA. d- increases the rate of a metabolic reaction
3. The different codons in the genetic code are
written using the 1st letter of the name of the 3. The active site
four bases in RNA: A, T, C, G. a- is a defined region of the enzyme molecule
4. The synthesis of a polypeptide chain always b- is a part of the substrate molecule that
starts with the amino acid methionine. binds to the enzyme
5. Reactions of hydrolysis catalyzed by an enzyme c- its sole function is to bind a specific substrate
are modified by pH conditions. d- loses its function at temperatures and pH
6. Enzymatic specificity is a substrate specificity values far from the optimum values
and not a specificity of action.
4. Translation
a- needs the presence of tRNA and ribosome

~=====::J
b· takes place in the nucleus
._EXERCISE c· allows the synthesis of lipids
d- translates mRNA into DNA
Choose the correct answer(s)
5. Exocytosis of proteins
1. During protein synthesis amino acids a- takes place in the cytoplasm
a- can be directly bound to the codon in b- is carried out by the endoplasmic reticulum
mRNA vesicles
b- are directly bound to P site of the ribo· c- is achieved due to the fusion of secretory
some vesicles with the plasma membrane
c- are bound to a specific site on tRNA d- takes place in the nucleus
d· can be directly bound to triplets of DNA

•
71
·_EXERCISE a=====::J intensity of radioactivity
(arbitrary units)
time in mn A B C 0
The document below shows the sequence of
amino acids in a segment of the A chain of the 0.15 0.15
5 30 0.2
molecule of insuline found in two species of 10 0.15 12 5 0.2
mammals. 20 0.15 28
6 0.3
30 0.15 3 20 0.5
40 0.15 2.5 10 11
50 0.15 2.5 5 22
...Gly - Cys - Cys - Ala - Gly - Val - Cys ­ 60 0.15 2 0.3 27
5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Whale 1. Draw on the same graph the change of

radioactivity in the different parts of the cell.
...Gly - Cys - Cys - Thr - Ser - lie - Cys ­ 2. Analyze the curves, deduce the passage of
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 the synthesized protein through these diffe­
rent parts and give their names.
Pig
3. What is the fate of proteins contained in
secretory vesicles?
1. With the help of the genetic code, find one of
the sequences of mRNA coding for the vari ­
able part in each fragment of insu lin.
2. Find the sequence of the corresponding DNA. ._EXERCISE Q=====:::::J
3. Compare the sequence of nitrogenous bases
The study of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction at
coding forthe chains A of insulin of the whale
different temperatures has allowed the drawing
and the pig to that of human insulin (Act.1,
of the different curves shown in the figure
doc. d). What can you conclude?
below, indicating the amount of product formed
as a function of time.

amount of product formed

._EXERCISE r!:f:=====::J 3
J..~---
50·

To study the biosynthesis and the secretion of -?_--->l---_;::_60·

insulin, a solution containing a radioactive
amino acid (phenylalanine) is injected intra­
venously into an animal. Samples of pancreatic
cells secreting insulin are taken at regular time
time
intervals, then the radioactive intensity is mea­ 0_""""""""1'_...,.._..,.-_.,.----,_......_...,... . .
sured in the nucleus and in different cellular t1 t2 t3 t4 ts ts t7
organelles. The values recorded are shown in
the table thereafter.
1. Analyze the three curves.
2. Determine the optimum cond itions and
justify.

•
72
 Supplementary
Information

Molecular models of a protein and

their schematic diagrams.

A primary
V structure

h. tertiary
V structure

A quaternary
~ structure

a- The primary structure of a protein is the (- Tertiary structure is the global conformation
unique linear sequence of its amino acids. of the polypeptide.
b- Secondary structure is a regular arrangement d- Quaternary structure lies in the relationship
in space due to hydrogen-bonds formed between two or more polypeptide chains
between amino acid to give a-he lices and constituting a protein.
p-pleated sheets.

•
73
 c H A P T E R

PROTEINS, WHICH ARE THE PRODUCTS OF GENE EXPRESSION, DETERMINE THE

PHENOTYPE OF AN INDIVIDUAL. RARE AND IMPREDICTABLE MUTATIONS
OCCURRING IN THE DNA MOLECULE, CAN AFFECT DRAMATICALLY ITS GENETIC
INFORMATION, LEADING TO THE APPEARANCE OF VARIOUS MODIFIED VERSIONS
OF THE SAME GENE: THE ALLELES.
THE UNIQUE COMBINATION OF THE DIFFERENT INHERITED ALLELES DETERMINE
THE GENOTYPE OF AN INDIVIDUAL AND DEFINE ITS BIOLOGICAL IDENTITY.

74
 Biological
identity
and genotype

Problems to be solved Activities

How is the individual's phenotype 1. Phenotypes and proteins
expressed?
2. Genes and alleles
What is a mutation?
3. The genotype
What are the consequences of mutations?

•
75
 1 PHENOTYPES AND PROTEINS

An individual's phenotype is the set of characteristics that are

either visible and easily discernible (like skin color) or hidden at
the cellular level (like sickle cell anemia) and molecular level (like
blood groups, identity markers).
On what does the phenotype depend?

1. Functional roteins

Melanin is a pigment responsible for hair and

skin color. It is synthesized in the organism from
tyrosine, an amino acid precursor. Absence of
melanin leads to albinism.

The metabolic chain of melanin synthesis is:

________ phenylalanine
food I
~ ,. enzyme 1
Doc a An albino
~ tyrosine .. melanin
enzyme 2

2 . Structural roteins:

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD).

It is a herditary disease characterized by mus­
cular degeneration and atrophy. By the age of
two, the affected individual develops walking
difficulties and becomes condemned to the
wheelchair. This disease attacks mainly boys. It
is due to the lack of dystrophin, a protein that
contributes to building the membrane of mus­
cle fibers.

Doc b A child showing DMD.

76

•
 ..

Sickle cell anemia.

It is a severe hereditary disease characterized Like normal hemoglobin, HbS transports 02'
by an abnormal sickle shaped appearance of but once 0, is liberated at the level of tissues,
red blood cells.
the HbS becomes insoluble and precipitates in
Normal hemoglobin consists of four polypep­ the red blood cells altering their shape and
tide chains : 2 (J.- globins and 2 ~- globins. ultimately destroying them. Thus the affected
Affected individuals carry an abnormal hemo­ indi viduals have a decreased number of red
globin known as HbS. This latter differs from
blood cells, and consequently a hemoglobin
the normal hemoglobin, known as HbA, at the
deficiency.
level of a single amino acid in the ~- peptide
chain .

Doc c Normal red bl ood cells Doc d Sickled and deformed red blood cells.

PROBING THE ACTIVITY

1. Compare the cause of the appearance of albinism to that of the two other abnorma litie s.

2. Are the three abnormalities hereditary? Justify your answer.

3. How can we explain the distortion of red blood cells in sickle cell anemia?

77
 2 GENES AND ALLELES

Since proteins determining the phenotype are coded by

genes, how can we explain the appearance of modified pro­
teins and consequently of new phenotypes?

1. Modified roteins

Studies done on the hemoglobin of normal or

affected individuals, gave evidence of modifica­
tions at the level of the ~-chain of this molecule.
All these altered cha ins are under the control of a
gene located on the short arm of chromosome
NO.11.

Doc.a Three dimensional configuration of the ~

~- c hain of a normal human HbA hemoglobin.

~
types acids
of hemoglobin

HbA
1

Val
2 3 4 5 6

His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Lys

7 8

HbS Val His Leu Thr Pro Val Glu Lys

HbC Val His Leu Thr Pro Lys Glu Lys

.... Ooc.b Four different versions of
HbG Val His Leu Thr Pro Glu Gly Lys
the i3-globin chain.

•
78
2. Genetic mutations and gene

Any accidental modification in the nucleotide

DNA transcribed strand
sequence of a gene is called a mutation. This
... TGA - GGT - CTC - CTC - ne...
hereditary change results in various forms of
4 5 6 7 8
the same gene, called alleles, leading to poly­
morphism of species.
mRNA
Mutation can occur in one or more nucleotides
of the DNA molecule. If only one codon is I ...ACU - CCA - GAG - GAG - AAG ...
I
affected it is called a point mutation.
amino acids
... thr - pro - glu - glu -Iys ...
Mutation by substitutions Doc.c Normal hemoglobin HbA.

normal DNA transcribed strand Mutation by deletion

... TGA - GGT - CTC - CTC - ne...
4 5 6 7 8 normal DNA transcribed strand
... TGA ­ GGT ­ CTC ­ CTC ­ nc
mutated DNA strand 4 5 6 7 8
... TGA - GGT - CAC - CTC - ne...
4 5 6 7 8
mutated DNA strand
... TGA ­ GGT ­ CCC ­ TCT ­ TC
I ARNm 4 5 6 7 8
. ... ACU - CCA - GUG - GAG - AAG ...
I
Doc.e Mutated hemoglobin, fJ-thalassemia
amino acids
... thr - pro - val - glu -Iys... Mutation by insertion

Doc.d Mutated hemoglobin HbS, sickle cell anemia. normal DNA transcribed strand
...CGG ­ m - TCA ­ CTA...
70 71 72 73
Rarely, there exist "silent mutations" where the
mutated DNA strand
mutated codon does not alter the sequence of
...CGG ­ nT - nc- ACT...
amino acids, thus remaining similar to the
70 71 72 73
original one.
DOC.! Chinese fJ-thalassemia

PROBING ITHEl ACTIVITY

1. Find and compare, for doc. b, one of the possible DNA chains coding for HbA and HbS.

2 Reconstitute the amino acid sequence corresponding to doc. e. Are the results of the muta ­
tion identical to those observed in HbS?

_. What amino acid is coded by the triplet ACT of DNA? What is then the consequence of a
mutation by insertion in the Chinese ~-thalassemia?
'­
79

•
 3 THE GENOTYPE

In a species, the different alleles of a gene produce different phe­

notypes. Except for identical twins, experiments of tissue grafts
showed that each individual is unique within his species. What is
the reason of this uniqueness?

1. PhenotYJ>e and genotype

The genotype is the whole set of genes or the The phenotype is the expression either of one
combination of different alleles, carried by an of the two alleles, when dominant, or of both
individual. when codominant or of intermediary domi­
Most living beings are diploid and carry two nance. The allele which is not expressed is
copies, or alleles, of the same gene, each present called recessive.
on an homologous chromosome.

Do(.o The genotype A B A 0 Rh· Rh-

determines the
A au B au B 0 Rh+ou Rh-
A B Rh·
phenotype. 0 0 Rh­
- ._ '-­
pool of alleles
c...
• The ABO blood group system is determined by
F.
markers present on the membranes of red
blood cells. This system is governed by three
versions of the same gene_ The individual is
homozygote when the two alleles are identical,
and heterozygote when they are different .

• The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC).

Specific glycoproteins present on the mem­
branes of an individual's cells are the identity
markers that constitute the MHC.

Doc.b The MHC is a biochemical unique characteristic for

There are 6 gene codings for the MHC proteins each individual.

and which are located on the short arm of

MHC markers, since each genetic allele is
chromosome No.6. Each gene possesses several
derived from either parent.
alleles. That is why it is practically impossible
for two individuals to possess the same

80
2. Biological identity and genetic rinting

Like a fingerprint that identifies an individual,

nowadays it has become possible to trace his
genetic print with a lot of certainty.

In 1980, the British scientist Jeffreys developed

this highly complex technique.

- The DNA is fragmented by a specifi c enzyme.

- The fragments are separated by gel elec­

trophoresis . The electric field spreads these
charged fragments according to their sizes.

- A radioactive molecule that recognizes a

short sequence of nucleotides is added to the
medium and will bind to the sequence under
search.

- Autoradiography then reveals a succession of

dark and light bands characteristic for each
individual.

Doc.( Autoradiograms of 4 individuals: A & Bare identical

twin brothers of C and unrelated to D. ..
A B c D

PROBING ITHEJ ACTIVITY

Under what condition is a recessive allele expressed?

Which of the four blood group phenotypes confirm the genotype without any additional
investigation? Justify your answer..
. By using Doc. b, explain why grafting succeeds only in identical twins.
4. Analyze the autoradiagrams of doc. c to confirm that the genetic print is unique for each
individual.

•
81
 SUMMING UP
IN A GIVEN POPULATION, EACH INDIVIDUAL IS UNIQUE. HE POSSESSES A UNIQUE SUM OF MORPHOLO ­
GICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT DETERMINE HIS PHENOTYPE. THE CASE OF IDENTICAL
TWINS CONFIRMS THAT PHENOTYPIC DIVERSITY IS A REFLECTION OF GENOTYPIC DIVERSITY.
THIS LATTER RESULTS FROM THE COMBINATION OF GENETIC INFORMATION IN A POPULATION, AS WELL
AS MUTATIONS, HEREDITARY AND UNPREDICTABLE ACCIDENTS , THAT ALL TOGETHER MODIFY THE GENES.

The affected individuals develop oxygen insuffi­

I - Phenotypes et proteins ciencies, which in severe cases may lead to
death.

Blood group is one of the biochemical charac­

terics of an individual. It is determined by the
II - Genes and alleles
presence of cellular markers, glycoproteins in
nature, on the surface of red blood cells. other
examples can prove the relation between pro­
teins and phenotype.
Proteins, being the products of gene expression,
can differ depending on the different versions
,- FUNCTIONAL PROTEINS
of the same gene coding for them. These diffe­
rent versions of the same gene are called alleles.
Melanin is a pigment responsible for hair, skin
In a population , the frequent polyallelism is the
and eye colors. It is synthesized by the action of
reason of the polymorphism of species: eye, skin
an enzyme on tyroSine, an amino acid present
and hair colors, also blood groups and MHc...
in food. Absence of melanin leads to albinism.
The origin of this genetic diversity is a
Biochemical analysis of affected individuals
mutation, a rare, unpredictable and hereditary
demonstrates that either the enzyme is absent
accident, that affects the sequence of
or it is nonfunctional.
nucleotides of a gene. If only one codon is
affected it is called point mutation. Other errors
are chromosomal resulting in the disapperance,
2- STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
addition or replacement of one or several
genes.
Sickle cell anemia is a severe hereditary disease.
It is caused by HbS hemoglobin which differs
We have three different types of point muta­
from normal hemoglobin HbA by a single
tions:
amino acid of the 6th ~-peptide chain. The
altered three- dimensional configuration of the - MUTATION BY SUBSTITUTION:
hemoglobin makes it insoluble, thus giving the A nucleotide is substituded by another one in
red blood cells a sickle or crescent shape. the transcribed DNA strand. If the resulting
codon produces the same amino acid as the
initial one, the mutation is called a silent
mutation. If, like in sickle-cell anemia, a new

82
amino acid is produced, the sequence of the A good example is blood group 0, determined
protein will be altered. by a recessive allele in relation to A and B. If
both alleles are expressed in the same pheno­
• MUTATION BY DElETION: type, they are called codominant.
Like in b-thalassemia, the omission of one
nucleotide will displace the reading of all the This is best illustrated by the Major
following codons. Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) or the
Human Leucoyte Antigen (HLA). This system in
• MUTATION BY INSERTION: man, responsible for graft rejection, is
The addition of a simple nucleotide will also composed of a series of highly polymorphic
lead to a displaced reading like in Chinese ~­ genes (10 - 50 by locus) all present on the short
thalassemia, or may lead to a "stop" or termi­ arm of chromosome No.6. The polypeptides
nating codon that will interrupt the protein coded by each allele become fixed on the
chain. nucleated cell membranes and constitute the
"markers of self". The probability for two
111- Phenotype and genotype individuals to possess the same assortment of
alleles is thus very weak.

Due to the polymorphism of the sum of the

genes in a genome, it is thus impossible to have
Genotype is the whole set of the genes of an
two genetically identical individuals. The true
individual. Living beings are diploid, since by
biological identity of an individual has been
sexual reproduction, they inherit two sets of
established by the use of the modern tech­
homologous chromosomes, each derived from
niques of DNA sequencing and genetic printing.
one parent. Thus, they possess two alleles for
Only identical twins present similar autoradio­
the same gene, each present on a chromosome
grams, thus confirming the fact that each indi­
of the same pair. The individual is called
vidual is genetically unique.
homozygote if the two alleles are identical, and
a heterozygote if they are different.

The allele that determines the phenotype is

called dominant and the other recessive.
Therefore, the recessive alleles are only
expressed when present in duplicate.

Modern techniques to isolate DNA.

•
83
 CONCEPT MAPPING L---~

genetic pool
of alleles

'\~t~'1
(§),
E, E­
F, F7

--­
--­
--­== ­
== -
--­
--­
- = uniqueness of
the individual
genetic print

Biological identity and genotype

•
84
 EXERCISES

_ EXERCISE 40&.- - - - - - - - - ' 3. The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

a- is a characteristic of an individual's
genome
Mark the true statements and correct the false b- presents common traits in two brothers
ones. c- presents different traits in two unrelated
individuals
d- defines the genetic identity of each
1. By successive mutations, a given gene may be
individual
the origin of several alleles.
2. A point mutation always leads to the synthesis 4 Th h t
eno
of a protein that differs from the normal one by . e Ph ype. f h
. I . 'd a- IS t e expression 0 t e genotype
a smg e ammo aCI . . .
· . b- IS always the expression of two alleles of a
. h
3 Two et erozygo t e paren t s, carrying a recess ive
gene
allele, cannot have a child whose phenotype
c- directly reveals the genotype
express by thi s allele.
d- is the su m ofthe observed characteristics
4. An impredictable modification in the amino
of an individual
acid se quence of the DNA, is the basis of
mutations.

EXERCISE -2.- --------. _EXERCISE 3---------.

Choose the correct answer(s) Indicated below is the beginning of the DNA
sequence coding for dystrophine:
1.The Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
a- is caused by the absence of an enzyme. TAC-GAA-ACC-ACC-CTT. ..
b- is caused by the presence of the 1 2 3 4 5
dystrophine protein
c- is a disease transmitted by blood 1. By the help of the genetic code, indicate
d- is a phenotype dependent on a structural precisely the fir st amino acids that the
protein molecule of dystrophine is composed of.

2. A mutation by substitution 2. If in the 3rd triplet, the 3rd nucleotide is

a- consists of a replacement of an amino acid replaced by another nucleotide containing
for another thymine base, what would be the conse­
b- is a mutation that affects only one quences on the organism? Justify your
nucleotide answer. What is the name of this DNA modifi­
c- displaces the readings frame cation?
d- is a predictablle mutation

•
85
 EXERCISE 4------­ 1. Find, is the text, the normal an d the mutated
phenotypes of the virus.
Two enzymes El & E2 catalyze the synthesis of
2.Write a paragraph explaining why the t reat­
the pigment melanin from a P precursor.
ment of AIDS include s 3 or 4 medicines given
simultaneously.
Precursor - tyrosine _ melanin

The analysis of the root hair of two albino indi­

viduals A & B, indicate the presence of this pre­
cursor. We plun ge a few of the root hairs of A & EXERCISE ~"',--------,
B in tyrosine . The root hair from A becomes
dark, that of B remains colorless.
A couple having three children, one of them
Is the cause of albinism the same in both indi­
affected by a hereditary disease, is expecting a
viduals?
4th child. In order to know whether this latter
has a disease or not, a physician performs a
prenatal diagnosis.
According to Jeffrey's method a DNA analysis is
performed on each individua l. Re su lts are given
in the table below. Bands A & B correspond to
_ _ EXERCISE ....'--_ _ _ _ __ two alleles of the gene.

"Viruses are the simplest organisms that we Alleles father mother childl child2 child3 fetus

- -- - -
know of. Th ey reproduce rapidly within host stick
cells. An avarage virus can thus produce 10,000
viruses per day. If only one virus is prese nt the A
- -
first day, there will be 10,000 the second day,
then 10,000 x 10,000, th at is one hundred mil­
lions the third day, and so on.
B
- -
A viral genome is relatively short; that of 1. What is the allele of the disease? Justify your
B-hepatitis contains 3200 nucleotides, that of answer.
AIDS 10,000 nucleotides (genomes of animal 2. Why are the father, the mother and child 2 not

cells are 100,000 times longer). sick ? Justify your answers.

3. What is the diagnosis concerning the fetus?
It has been noted that the number of mutation s
for a gi ven virus is inverse ly proportional to the
length of its genome. Thu s, for the AIDS virus,
the rate of "error" is 1/10000, per vrius and per
generation . If a mutant virus becomes resistant
to treatment, it will be favored, and its descen­
._EXERCISE 7---------,
dants will invade the viral population". Illustrate by a simple diagram, the steps leading
"Sciences et Vie, n° 193, De ce mber 1995" from a genotype to a phenotype.

86
B-MOLECU LAR
RENEWAL AND
ENERGETIC
METABOLISM

CELLULAR ACTIVITY IS REVEALED BY A SET OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS , NAMED META­

BOLIC REACTIONS. DURING THIS PROCESS, NEW MOLECULES ARE SYNTHESIZED,
AND OTHERS ARE DEGRADED, WHICH INVOLVES CONTINUOUS ENERGETICAL
EXCHANGES.

EACH CELL NEEDS MATERIALS FOR ITS GROWTH, AND ENERGY FOR ITS ACTIVITIES.
EVEN THOUGH THESE NEEDS ARE PERMANENT, YET THEY ARE VARIABLE.
How ARE THESE NEEDS PROVIDED? How ARE THEY ASSESSED?

Molecular renewal
• Living matter is composed of mineral
and organic material.
Energy expenditure of organisms
• Proteins are formed of specific
sequences of amino acids.
Energy of cell functionning
• Cellular metabolism consists of syn­
thetic, or anabolic reactions, and
Energetic metabolism in Man
degradative, or catabolic reactions.

•
87
 c H A P T E R

THE RENEWAL OF CELLS IS A PERMANENT PROCESS. THE ORGANISM IS IN

CONSTANT EVOLUTION EVEN WHEN GROWTH HAS ENDED: IT LOSES CELLS AND
REPLACES THEM BY OTHERS, WHICH ALWAYS HAVE THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS.

THIS CELLULAR RENEWAL IMPLIES A MOLECULAR RENEWAL WHICH ENSURES

THE PERMANENCE OF THE ORGANISM'S STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
CHARACTERISTICS.

88
 Molecular
renewal

cytoplasm: - water
- mineral salts
- proteins
- amino acids

/ vacuole: - water
/ - mineral salts

ribosomes: RNA

nucleus: nucleic acids

(DNA & RNA)

, reserves: glycogen

reserves: lipids

Problems to be solved: Activities

• How are the needs of the organism 1. Matter flow in the organism .
provided?
2. Mechanisms of cellular renewal.
How to detect molecular renewal?

•
89
 1 THE FLOW OF MATTER IN AN ORGANISM

The human body is formed of water (60 - 65%), proteins (15%),

lipids (12%), carbohydrates (0.3%) and mineral salts (5%).
In which forms and structures do we find these constituents in
the organism? What are the changes they undergo?

1. Molecular constituents of the living matter

The chemical analysis of blood plasma shows constituents content g.l-1

that it has a constant molecular composition. In
addition, the analysis of the cellular
water 900
constituents after cell fractioning, reveals that
molecules of the same nature are present in all mineral salts 9
parts of the cell. glucose 1
lipids (triglycerides) 8
The study of an electron micrography of the
plasma membrane shows how these molecules proteins (albumine) 80
are arranged within this cellular structure. nitrogenous waste (urea) 0.3

Doc. a Main constituents of human plasma

glycoprotein extracellular
liquid

carbohydrate cholesterol
membrane proteins
side chair.
cytoplasm
Doc. b Schematic interpretation of an electron micrography of the plasma membrane.

90

•
2. Losses and compensation

An individual daily loses water (about 2500 ml),

mineral salts, organic materials (45 g of which
respiratory
losses, water,
rl
)
skin Waste
(nalls, hair,
CO, sweat, saliva)
20 g are nitrogenous wastes).
These losses come from:

• dead cells (cells of the skin, leukocytes)

-­bronchial aliif"'
nosal expec· Huma
-
dead cells

toratlon dead body fecal matters

• whole proteins (nails, hair) celles water,
• waste molecules produced during cellular minerai sail
metabolism organic
matters
menslurallon .'
blood loss
Even in the absence of food supply the orga­
nism continues to undergo losses, of the same urlne:water,
ejaculation minerai salts,
composition but in smaller quantities. The (seminal fluid,
nitrogenous
presence of nitrogenous wastes shows that the spermatozoa)
wastes
organism degrades its own proteins.

Doc.c Forms and composition of waste products in a

human being.

complex carbohydrates proteins lipids

........
organic
food ~
~~ W
digestion degradation of complex mol ecules
exergonic catabolic reactions

nutrients simple carbohydrates amino acids fatty acids and alcohol

•• • • 0
. .0 • • • •
o.
0 0
•
O. 0
synthesis, endergonic anabolic reactions

structural proteins membranous lipids

........
structure glycogen
and function storage functional proteins storage
of the cell ~ W
Doc. d Through digestion, food provides the necessary molecules.

PROBING HE ACTIVITY

1. Write down a small text describing the structure of the plasmic membrane.
2. Where do the nitrogenous wastes of the human body come from?

3. State the relationship which exists between catabolic and anabolic reactions.

4. How do we make our muscle proteins from beef muscle proteins?

•
91
 2 MECHANISMS OF MOLECULAR
RENEWAL

Despite the continous 1055 of matter, the organism maintains its

structural and functional characteristics.
How does the molecular renewal ensure the permanence of the
structure?

1. Evidence of molecular renewal

Proteins are organic molecules which are

always renewed.
level of registered radioactivity

Each protein is characterized by a specific 100

sequence of amino acids. The labeling of an __ plasma proteins
amino acid with a radioactive element, al lows
__ liver proteins
the follow-up of a protein from its synthesis to
its degradation. 50.

The opposite graph shows the variation of

radioactivity between the liver and the plasma
time
proteins in a rat which has received an injection (in days)
of the amino acid glycine, labeled with "c. The O +-~_~~~ ___ __ ~ ~

100% level of radioactivity is an arbitrary value. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

injection of
the labeled
amino acid
DoC. a The labeling of amino acids allows the foll ow-up
of the radioactive proteins

2. Life sean of molecules and seeed of renewal

The appearance of radioactivity and then its • The renewal rate is the percentage of the pro­
disapparance leads to the conclusion that pro­ teins renewed per day.
teins have a determined life span . In addition, • The renewal speed, or the half-life of a protein
since the total mass of a protein in an individ­ is the time re quired for half its molecules to be
ual is constant, there is a dynamic equilibrium destroyed.
between the synthesis and the degradation of
molecules of the same nature.

•
92
.3. Conditions of molecular renewal

The metabolic synthetic and degradative reac­ Like all other proteins, these molecules are
tions are catalyzed by specific functional pro­ degraded, and constantly renewed, while kee­
teins: the enzymes. ping the same structure and function.

growth
digestion pool of proteosynthesis
degradative amino acid
reactions degradatklon development

oxydatlon , renewal and

degradative repair
reactions

functioning
nitrogenous (enzymes,
wastes antibodies,
urine, sweat hormones)

Doc. b Flow of proteins through cells: The metabolism mobilizes amino acids of an exergonic or endergonic origin.

PROBING ~T HEJ ACTIVITY

. Give an interpretation of the graph in doc. a. Evaluate the life span of the studied proteins,
and their renewal speed.

2. The degradation of 6.25 g of proteins produces 2.15 g of nitrogenous wastes. A 70 kg man

loses every day 35 g of nitrogenous wastes. Evaluate the renewal rate of his proteins,
knowing that they make up 117 of his body weight.

Proteins, unlike carbohydrates (glycogen) and lipids (adipose tissue) are not stored in the
organism. Then, what does the pool of amino acids represent?

14. How does the organism maintain its structural and functional characteristics despite the
renewal mechanisms?

--
93
 1 EVALUATION OF ENERGY
EXPENDITURE

Oxidation of nutrients releases their potential energy. In vivo, the

whole oxygen consumed by respiration is used to degrade organic
molecules. The volume ofoxygen consumed permit indirectly the
evaluation of the energy released through these reactions. Can
we use this volume to evaluate the energy expenditure of the
organism?

1. Energetic value of foods

A known mass of an organic food placed in a

crucible of a bomb calorimeter is oxidized when thermometer mixer
the crucible gets red after heating.
The released heat (calorific energy) is evaluated
from the temparature rise in the calorimeter.
This value is very close to that released by cellu­
lar oxidation.

filament
foods mean energetic value kJ. g-1
- IJ,I-I-t- t- bomb
(steel recipient
bomb organism tightly closed
And having
calorimeter thick walls)

crucible
carbohydrates 17 17
proteins 23 17
lipids 39 38
Doc. a The bomb calorimeter measures the energy
content in foods.
2. The energy coefficient of oxygen
The quantity of energy released by combustion nutrient oxidized. It permits the evaluation of
is proportional to the volume of oxygen the energy coefficient of oxygen gas, i.e. the
required in this reaction and vary with the energy released by consuming 1 liter ofthis gas.

• C6H,,06 (glucose) + 60 2 ------l.~ 6C0 2 + 6H,o + 2860kJ ;If

/ COOH
• CH 3-CH \ (alanine) + 602 _ SC0 2 + SH 20 + CO(NH 2)2 + 2696 kJ ;If
NH2
• CS7HI0406 (trioleine) + 8002---;.~S7C02 + S2H 20 + 35230 kJ ;If

•
100
 . Gas exchange and energl' ex enditure

The respirometer permits the evaluation of the

volume of oxygen consumed by a small
mammal. The consumption of oxygen present graduated )._.
burette '
in the air of the enclosed chamber (1) and the al H10 mJ
absorption by limewater of the expired carbon
dioxide, lead s to a difference in levels (p) in the ~- waler
two arms of the manometer (2). The water in
the burette (3) restores the balance by moving,
-:;.--­
into the enclos~d chamber a volume (v) of pure
_ vOlumeler @
oxygen equivalent to that consumed.
This setup allows the evaluation of the respira­
tory quotient (RQ) :
yureoxygen
RO= veo, expired reservoir

- VO, consumed
- water
In order to calculate the volume of eo, expired,
"
two measurements of the same length of time enclosed
"­
chamber thermostatlc
are made, one (V,) in the presence of the carbon I
manometer CD co, bath
dioxide absorber and the other (V,) without it. absorber
CZl
V, - V, = veo, expired.

Doc. b Volumetric re spirator.

Correspondence between RQ and the energy
coefficient of oxygen gas RQ Energy coefficient of oxygen gas
kl.L"'
The RQ of an animal varies according to its
nutrition. Since, in the organism, oxygen 0.70 19.58
degrades simu ltaneous ly different nutrients, a 0.71 19.63
correspondence table between RQ and the 0.80 20.09
energy coefficient is used as a reference. For a 0.83 20.24
balanced diet, a value of 0.8 for RQ and a mean 1 21.12
value of 20 kJ. L"for energy coefficient are used.
Doc. c Correspondence table between RQ and en ergy
coefficient of oxygen gas.

PROBING

. Why do we use the mean energy values of foods?

. Use the chemical reactions of paragraph (2) to evaluate the energy value of each food item,
and the energy coefficient of oxygen.
3 Evaluate the RQs of a mouse if it is fed solely on carbohydrates (glucose), proteins (alanine)
or lipids (trioleine).

~ Evalu ate the energy expenditure of a mouse which receives a balanced diet and which I
consumes 6,3 liters of oxygen gas. Kg-" h-'. --.J

•
101
 2 VARIATIONS OF ENERGY EXPENDITURE

The various activities of the organism require a variable con­

sumption of energy. What are the variation factors of energy
expenditure?

1. Intensity of res iration (IR), a variable value

VO,(L)
It is the volume of oxygen gas consumed by a 2,99
living organism per kilogram of mass during O 2 volume (in L) IR(L.h"'.kg")
one hour.
period
According to the need of the organism , the 1,02
respiratory rythm varies to ensure the neces­ E.M.in (kJ ,h'
sary intake of oxygen gas. 1537
Any increase in the energy expenditure leads to IR mean
an increase in the intensity of respiration. o~ ____ ~ __ ~ ________ ~+
0,80
1 exercise 2 3 time
(in minutes)

Doc. Q Measurement of the intensity of respiration in

man, using CASE (Computer Assisted Scientific
Experimentation).

2. Variation factors

activities I.R. (L.kg-'.h- T)

02volume (in millimeters per minute).

at rest 0.25

slow walking 0040

quick walking 0.90

time
(in minutes) jogging 1.50

o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 running 2.50
physical
at rest activity at rest
sprint 3

Doc. b The consumption of oxygen gas va ries with a Doc. c Different consumption rates of oxygen gas according
physical activity, t o sporting activities.

•
102
A homeothermic organism expends energy for The ingestion of an organic meal is followed by
thermoregulation, i.e for maintaining a cons­ different activities: digestion, assimilati on and
tant body temperature, despite variations in the storage in different organs (liver, muscle ...)
external temperature.

I.R. ( in L.kg'.h ')

externel I.R.
temperature L.kg-'.h-'

rat{150g) 18°C 2.46 0,21 -­

2°C 3.33
0,

mouse{15g) 18°C 6.40

2°C 10.10 01234567
t time (In hours)
meal

DOc. d Va riations of the inten sity of respiration with DOc. e Va riation s of the IR in a 70kg man following the
respect to the external temperature . ingestion of a meal.

. Body functions and energy ex enditure

molecular renewal
phy,iGI "ti"" ~

/ activity of the
regulati on funct lon_
of the internal medium---" ~ n.ervous system
ENERGY EXPENDITURE
OF THE ORGANISM

thermoregulation~/ ~ dig"tioc
excretion of the body respiration

PROBING trHE IACTIVITY

1. Give the factors which increase the energy expenditure.

2. Analyze the graph of doc.b and propose an explanation of the value obtained before the
exercise.

3. Evaluate the energy expenditure of a 70kg individual, if he walks quickly for2 hours.

4 Do a lizard or a frog present the same variation of energy expenditure as observed in doc. d?
Justify.
i

•
103
 3 BASAL METABOLISM

Energy metabolism includes all the Junctions oj the organism.

Although it is variable, it is never nil. Some expenditures cannot
be reduced.
What is this minimal value and how can it be evaluated?

1. Basal metabolism, an incom(>ressible value

DEFINITION MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS

Basal metabolism is the minimum energy Basal metabolism is evaluated by the consump­
expenditure of an organism measured in kJ per tion of oxygen gas by an individual fasting
hour and per square meter of body surface. This since 12 hours, at rest, and placed in a tempera­
value covers the respiratory, cardiac and nervous ture of 18°( which is the temperature of
functions as well as molecular renewal. thermal neutrality.

basal metabolism 60%

For the same individual the basal metabolism
digestive aell has a constant value . Each important gap from
6% the normal value indicate a disfunctioning of
thermoregulation
10% the thyroid gland.

Doc. a Basal metabolism represent s 60% of the daily energy

expenditure of an adult weighing 70kg, and having
moderate physi ca l activities.

•
104
2. Variations of basal metabolism

basal metabolism (kJ.m->.h-')

~
sex
male 220
0 10

180
20

162
30

155
40

155
50

155
60

145
70

140
80

135

female 220 175 150 145 145 140 135 132 130

A
Doc. b Variation of basal metabolism with age an d sex.
_1001 .cale 01 I Cl'Ileof

r
bodyma_
,.""
body surface.
(welghl)
.E~...... ~

animal basal metabolism

'7
1 so species (kJ.kg-' .h-')

mouse 29,7
200
2.9 --; ,.,'"' hen 9.4
:jI
'90
2.1 - " '"
13' rabbit 7.8
12'
'80 2.3 ~
2' = dog 6,1
2." -'I "'
'00 man 4.2
170
165
2.0
1.9 ~
.,
160 ., ox 3
1.8 ~
15' 1.7 ~ elephant 2.16
'50
14'
1.6 ~ "
1.5 _ 60
140 1.4 ~ Doc.' Mean values of basal metabolism of some
C ' 35 1.3 ., homeothe rmic specie s.
'30
12'
1.2
"
120 1.1
"
35
-:l
"' 1.0
­
110
0.' '"
10'
'00
0.8 ­
"
c 95 0.7
-
..... Doc, d Th e nomogram permits th e evaluation of body
1- " surface from 2 va lues: the height and the mass of
90
0.6 the body. The point of intersection olthe height­
85 0." 15 ma ss Jines with the surfa ce line gives the corres­
ponding valu e.

PROBING iTHE ACTIVITY

1 Justify the measuring conditions of the basal metabolism.

2 Evaluate basal metabolism of an individual who has a moderate physical activity and an
overall energy expenditure of 11000 kJ /2 4h .

. How does the ba sa l metabolism vary according to the age of the individual? Suggest an
explanation for this variation.

4 Evaluate the basal metabolism in kJ,h~' of a mouse (20g) and an elephant (3,672 kg),

Evaluate from doc. d your body surface,

•
105
 SUMMING UP
THE ORGANISM NEEDS A PERMANENT ENERGY INTAKE TO ACCOMPLISH ITS VITAL FUNCTIONS AND ITS DAILY
ACTIVITIES. THIS VARIABLE NEED IS SOLELY OBTAINED BY THE OXIDATION OF THE ORGANIC SUBSTANCES
WHICH CONSTITUTE FOOD. IT IS INDIRECTLY EVALUATED BY THE VOLUME OF CONSUMED OXYGEN.

The respiratory quotient is the highest (RQ = 1)

I - Evaluation of energy
for carbohydrates; it is equal to 0.7 for lipids
expenditure
and 0.85 for proteins.
In a bomb calorimeter, the oxidation of a simple For a balanced mixed diet RQ is equal to 0.85
food allows the measurement of the necessary and the energy coefficient of oxygen is equal
amount of oxygen and the energy released by to 20 kJ.L-'. This corresponds to the mean
this reaction. This determines the energy value, energy expended by the organism per liter of
in kilojoules, of foods or the amount of energy consumed oxygen.
released by the combustion of one gram of
metabolite. II - Variation of energy
The energy coefficient of oxygen is defined as expenditure
the amount of energy released by one liter of
oxygen consumed during the oxidation reac­ The intensity of respiration expressed in liters
tion. This coefficient varies with respect to the of oxygen gas per kilogram of body weight
nature of the metabolite. per hour (L.kg-'.h-') allows the study of the
For instance, the total oxidation of one mole of variation of energy expenditure. The latter
glucose releases 2860 kJ and therefore the varies considerably according to muscular
energy value of glucose is 15.88 kJ.g-'. and the activity, age, sex, food intake (digestion) and,
energy value of oxygen is 21.28 kJ.L-'. Each cat­ for the homeotherm, with the external tem ­
egory of simple foods, carbohydrates,lipids and perature.
proteins incl udes ma ny constituents; th is is why
we use a mean energy value for each category III - The basal metabolism
of foods, which is 17 kJ.g-' for carbohydrates
and proteins and 38 kJ.g-' for lipids. Since, in the It consists of minimal and incompressible ener­
organism , the oxygen is only used for the degra­ gy expenditure covering the physiological
dation of food during cellular oxidation reac­ activity needed for the maintenance of life: res­
tions, we can indirectly evaluate the volume of piration, cardiac movements, secretions and
oxygen consumed. These expenditures are cellular renewal.
expressed in kilojoules per mass unit (kg) or The basal metabolism is evaluated in a resting
body surface area (m') and per time unit (hour individual who has been fasting since 12 hours,
or day). and in conditions of thermic neutrality (18 to
The measurement of gas exchange in the 20°C). It is expressed in kJ.m· ' .h·'.
respirometer reveals that the ratio of the Although the metabolism varies with age and
volume of CO, released! the volume of 0, sex, it is constant for the same individual under
absorbed varies according to the oxidized normal and constant physiological conditions.
metabolites. This ratio is defined as the respira­ It is an important indicator of the physiological
tory quotient (RQ). Experiments have permitted condition of the thyroid gland. An important
the correspondence of each RQ with a known increase in its values indicates a hyperfunc­
energy coefficient of 0,. tioning, and an important decrease indicates a
hypofunctioning of this gland.

•
106
 CONCEPT MAPPING

ingested
food

Digestion Respiration

matter
+
0,

....""
i" METAGO ISME
~

energy
digestive
thermo­
activity
regulation

physical
metabolism activity

I_ _~. energy flow matter flow

Energetic expenditure of the organism

•
107
 EXERCISES

EXERCISE ..-, - - - - - - - - , ._EXERCISE a=====:::::J

Mark the true statements and correct the
false ones.
Evaluate the daily energy expenditure of a 70kg
1. All degradation reacti on s of nutrients release man, if he consumes O.3kg-'.h-' of oxygen gas.
energy.
2. The consumption of oxygen gas is re lated to
the degradation reactions.
3. The energy value of glucose is the amount of
energy released by one molecule of this subs­ EXERCISE ~L:JI;-------..,
tance .
4. The nutritional intake ensures to the A O.5g suspension of Chlorella (green algea) is
organism only the necessary components for placed in the bioreactor of a CASE device in
the renewal of its molecules. darkness. An oxymetric probe measures the
variations of oxygen gas volume. We obtain
graph a.

EXERCISE -2;---------. The sa me experiment is repeated with a sus­

pension ofO.Sg of yeast (fungus) placed in light.
We obtain graph B.
Choose the correct answer(s)

1. The energy expenditure of an individual rises

with: r - -- - -- - -- -- - - -- - - - ,
a- physical activity
02 con cen tration
b- an increase in external temperature 00 (inl-'moI.L')
c- a decrease in external temperature so graph
obtained
~O J-----------------~~ with
d- consumption of energy-rich foods 150_1---________ ~
-
_
Chlorello
Yeast
'00 .
SO - • "­
2. Basal metabolism covers the expenditure of ......; (In minutes)

energy needed for:

a- physical activity
b- cellular activity
c- synthesis reactions
d- thermoregulation 1. Determine the quantity of oxygen gas con­
sumed by Chlorella and by yeast.
3. In the course of a physical activity, muscle 2. Calculate the intensity of respiration of each
cells reqUire a supplementary intake of: microorganism in 1.1 mol.g-'.h-'.
a- blood 3. Why did we have to place Chlorella in
b- energy darkness?
c- oxygen gas 4. Since these two experiments were carried at
d- temperature the same temperature, how do you explain
the obtained results?

•
108
 EXERCISE QC======:J
The following table indicates the va lue s of metabolism of an infant from birth till the age of one
year (kJ .kg-' .day-').

age (months) energy expenditure basal various

(growth) metabolism energy expenditures

0-2 138.6 201.6 189

2-3 75.6 201.6 210
3-4 75.6 201.6 168
4-5 29.4 201.6 189
5-12 16.8 201.6 201.6

1. Give on the same axes a graphic representa­ 3. Calculate the energy expenditure of a one ­
tion of the values of each variable in the table. month-old child and a one-year-old child,
2. Analyze the graphs and interpret the varia­ weighing respectively 4kg and 10kg. Evaluate
tions obtained with each value . in each case the rate of the basal metabolism .

• _ EXERCISE ...",,~_ _ _ _ _....I

graduated
burette
The use of a respirometer allows the evaluation al1l10 ml

of the respiratory gas exchanges of a small

water
mammal.

When the animal is placed in the chamber (1),

we note a difference in level (p) in the manome­
ter. To re-establish the level (0) we ru n the water
of the burette into the reservoir of pure oxygen.
Then we note the volume of water that moves OlC.ygen
reservoir
into the oxygen reservoir.
lfhI­ - water
1. How do you exp lain this difference in level (p)?
enclosed
2. What does the volume of water that moved chamber th~rmostatic
into the oxygen reservoir represent? <D co, bath
absorber
3. Is it important to have pure oxygen gas in the
reservoir?

•
109
 c H A p T E R

THE ENERGY USED BY THE ORGANISM IS THE SUM OF THE ENERGY USED BY ALL
ITS CELLS.

THE CELL DRAWS ITS ENERGY FROM SPECIALIZED HIGH - ENERGY MOLECULES.
THESE MOLECULES ARE SYNTHESIZED USING THE POTENTIAL ENERGY RELEASED
FROM METABOLITES DURING OXIDATIVE PROCESSES.

110
 Energy
of the cell
functioning

external membrane

~
internal mem ne

crest

Schematic representation of a mithocondrion.

Problems to be solved Activities

• Through which biological processes does 1. Cellular respiration
the cell obtain energy?
2. The fermentation
• In what form is energy uti lized by the cell?
3. Conversion of t he energy of metabolites
• Where does respiration take place?
4. The mithocondrion, site of the cellular
oxidations

•
111
 1 CELL RESPIRATION

Different sorts of exchanges occur between living cells and their

environment, in order to ensure their vital needs.
An animal or vegetable living cell makes with it's environment a
set of exchanges to provide it's material needs.
Among all these processes how are respiratory gas exchanges of
the cells demonstrated?

1. Experiment to anal~ze

" ... I took a few little pieces of skin and flesh The skin used up all the oxygen gas and pro­
from a corpse having recently died. I cut the tis­ duced 4' of carbonic acid. The flesh used up
sues in little pieces measuring approximately 17' 1/2 oxygen gas and produced 4' 1/2 of car­
1 cm 3 . I placed these fragments on copper grid­ bonic acid.
dles and in measuring cylinders containing Numerous measurements obtained with diffe­
29.71 cm 3 of air, inverted on mercury. rent tissues confirm the existence of such a res­
I mantained them at a temperature of 13' ( to piratory process.
20'( in my oven for 41 hours.
P Bert: Lessons in comparative physiology of respiration.
1.8. 8ail/ere. Pari, 7870.

Doc. a A historical expenment

saline solution

thermostatic
bath at 37°c

colored solution

boiled mUISClle B fresh muscle

calcium hY,'~~~,xi~I~~~:::'"::::=:::~'\-,I-~=~~:...t_calcium hydroxide
solution (clear) solution (turbid)
cotton +
saline solution
Doc. b A living tissue achieves respiratory exchanges.

•
112
2. Reseiration of a few microorganisms

The volume of oxygen, used up by yeasts,

unicellular algae, etc. can be measured, using oxygen conc.
(in mg.L"')
a CASE system (computer assisted measured 6.0
experiments).
20°C
6 conc.02
PROCEDURE
1.5 mg.L·'
5
1. Prepare 100 mL of a suspension of baker's 4
yeast (unicellular fungus) at a concentration
3
of Ig% in water.
2
2. Stir the suspension in orderto oxygenate it. time
(in minutes)
0
3. Place 10 mL of this suspension in the 0 2 3 4 5 6
bioreactor of a CASE system.
Doc.e Curve obtained with yeasts.

4. Close the reactor making sure that all the

air bubbles have been eliminated.

S. Put stirrer on .
oxygen cone.
6. Use the oxygen probe and the correspon­ (in mg.L·') 6.0 min
ding software. 6
20°C
conc.Ot
7. Repeat the experiment with other micro­ 3.6 mg.L"'
organisms.

3 time
(in minutes)
o 2
,
5
6 .1
Doc.d Curve obtained with a su spension of green algae
in the dark.

PROBI NG jT H ~ ACTIVITY

lJ Draw a schematic representation of Paul Bert's experiment.

2 Interpret the experiment in doc. b.

3. Analyze the experiment in doc. c. Calculate the volume of oxygen used up by the yeast per
minute.

Il Why was the experiment in doc. d realized in the dark? What would be the shape of the
curve, if the experiment had been carried out in the light?

113
 2 THE FERMENTATION

Fermentation is a biological process different from respiration

but which also leads to the breakdown of metabolites.

Under what conditions does fermentation take place? What are

the products obtained and the amount of energy released?

1. Growth of yeasts under different conditions

Yeasts placed on a glucose solution

for example, multiply by budding.

Doc. a Baker's yea st buddin g on a medium ~

containing glucose, in open air, observed
after 3 days with an optical microscope.

conditions of duration of sugar (g) weight of yeast ratio of

the experiment the experiment produced (g) produced yeast to
initial final consumed sugar

moderate 9 days 150 0 1.97 0.013

aerobia

an aerobia 9 days 150 5 1.36 0.009

complete 3 months 150 105 0.25 0.005

an aerobia
Doc. b Few results obtained by Pasteur "Research over beer" 1861.

•
114
2. Examples of fermentations
Fermentation processes are extensively used in cheese... In the presence of various micro­
food industry: production of wine, vinegar, organisms, different products are obtained .

produced energy: 138 KJ

Wine is obtained by breakdown of glucose in the
presence of baker's yea st according t o the equa ­
~~- ... \ \ o.,bon dlo,yd.
ion

C6H12 0 6 ry 2C,H sOH + 2CO, + 138kJ 0 1\ Q.­

-=-1lLJ
The energy produced is far less important than
hat produced by combustion of glucose. (2860 kJ)
lhl!lJ
glucose/
solutlon
at 5 g.L·t
Doc. c Alcoholic or ethylic fermentation ~ .. yeast
of glucose. ~---'-"=-------------"

Wine left in contact with air is oxidized in the

presence of acetifying bacteria into acetic acid

Doc. d Acetate ferm entation ~

Lactose of milk is hydrolyzed in the presence of

a bacteria, Lacto bacillus, into glucose and
galactose, which are then broken down into
lactic acid. The latter induces the coagulation of
milk proteins.

C12 H,,0l1 + H,O ~ C6H,2 0 6 + C6H12 0 6

lactose glu cose galactose

C6H,,06 - , 2CH 3CHOH-COOH + 272kJ.

lactic acid Doc. e Lactate fermentation
Lactic acid is also produced in mu scle cells : during intensive exercises and by lack of oxygen,
the cells ferment glucose instead of oxidizing it.
PROBING ifHE IACTIVITY
Justify the experimental conditions which allow the growth of yeast in doc. a.
. Analyze the table in doc. b, compare the behavior of yeast under aerobic and anaerobic
conditions.
3 Make a table to compare the different fermentations as t o: the substrate used, the agent
of breakdown, the product obtained. Are all fermentations anaerobic?
Compare the breakdown of glucose under aerobic and anaerobic conditions . How could
the growth difference observed in doc. b, be explained?

•
115
 3 CONVERSION OF THE ENERGY OF
METABOLITES

Oxidation of organic substances in a calorimeter releases energy

in the form of heat. This form of energy cannot be used by the cell.
How does the cell produce a usable energy from the breakdown of
the same metabolites?

1. ATP, an energy-rich molecule adenine

The energy released by breakdown of nutrients

is temporarily stored in a high-energy molecule, ribose
adenosine triphosphate or ATP. This molecule is
unstable, and easily releases its energy by
hydrolysis of the third phosphate group; This phosphate
energy will be used by the cell.
Doc.a Structure of ATP.

ATP
+
H20

42 kJ at 37°C
energy at 37"C energy
of mellab()lIte ADP , of ceil-functioning
+ ----­
pi(inorganic phosphorus)

Doe.b Production and recycling of ATP

2. Glycolysis, 1st stage of the breakdown of glucose

A chain of complex reactions brings about the

breakdown of glucose (reduced form of 6C) into
two molecules of pyruvic acid (oxidized form of
3C).
This oxidation corresponds to a dehydrogena ­ 2 mol. . of P'lruvic acid
tion in the presence of an oxidized hydrogen
nucleus
carrier T(ox) which will be transformed into a
reduced carrier T(red). An acceptor of hydrogen
is necessary to release T(ox) and allow a new
round of glyco!ysis.
Doc.e Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol. Its energy
balance sheet is 2 ATP.

116
 . Fate of p}'ruvic acid

Under anaerobic conditions, in the case of In the case of lactate fermentation, pyruvic acid
alcoholic fermentation, pyruvic acid is is hydrogenated thus giving lactic, acid which
decarboxylated and ethyl alcohol becomes will become the final acceptor of hydrogen
the final acceptor of hydrogen.

pyruvic acid
pyruvic acid
CH,-CO-COOH
CH,-CO-COOH

decarboxylase

T(red)
co, T(ox)

elhanol lactic acid

C,H,OH CH,-CHOH-COOH
= --~

Doc.d The case of alcoholic fermentation Doc.e The case of lactate fermentation .

Under aerobic conditions, pyruvic acid is at the

start of a series of reactions of decarboxylation
coen zyme
and dehydrogenation. Each mole of oxidized A
pyruvic acid releases 3 moles of CO 2 and
produces a maximum of 18 moles of ATP.
Oxygen supplied by respiration constitutes the
final acceptor of hydrogen with which it
produces water.
T(red)

Doc.! The case of respiration. . .

4T(red) + 0, _____ 2HP of 4T(ox)

PROBING iTH Ei ACTIVITY

1. What characteristic feature of the molecule of ATP makes it a high-energy molecule?

2 Compare the origin and the role of energy implicated in the recycling of ATP.
3 What types of chemical reactions take place in the stages of glucose breakdown?
4 Why cannot glycolysis constitute a final step in the breakdown?
Evaluate the energy, usable by the cell, produced during the breakdown of a molecule of glu
cose by fermentation and by respiration.

•
117
 SUMMING UP
THE ENERGY UTILIZED BY FUNCTIONING CELLS OF AN ORGANISM, COME FROM THE OXIDATION OF ORGANIC
NUTRIENTS. Two BIOWGICAL PROCESSES LEAD TO THIS DECOMPOSITION: RESPIRATION AND FERMENTATION.
A PART OF THE ENERGY LIBERATED IS STOR ED IN HIGH-ENERGY ATP MOLECULES AS AN AVAILABLE SOURCE OF
ENERGY FOR THE FUNCTIONING OF CElLS. ANOTHER PART IS DISSIPATED IN THE FORM OF HEAT.

In any fermentation, the fin al product is an

I - Cellular respiration organic residue still containing potential ener­
gy, hence the small amount of energy obtained
at the end of this process. Thi s explains the slow
The respiratory ga s exchanges identified in the growth of cells under anaerobiC conditions.
organism are a reflection of the respiration
occurring in each of its cells. Simple experi­
ments carried out under aerobic conditions, on
microorganisms such as algae, yeast or on frag­ III - Conversion of the energy of
ment s of ti ssues show the absorption of oxy­ metabolites
gen and the release of carbon dioxide with a 1
simultaneous decomposition of metabolites. If Glucose is an excellent metabolite and a uniqu e
glucose is thus broken down, the products source of energy for certa in cells. Its decomposi­
obtained at the end of the oxidation are water, tion takes place through a series of reactions
carbon dioxyde and energy. releasing, with each step, a certain amount of
energy stored momentarily in a specialized
molecule, ade nosine triphosphate.

A-ATP
II - Fermentation
The structure of ATP explains the role of this
universal molecule in energy transfers at the
cell. In fact the molecule of ATP possesses three
In the absence of oxygen, or anaerobic
phosphate (or phosphoryl) groups. The hydroly­
conditions, certain ce ll s degrade organic sub­
si s of the unstable third group by ATPase gives
stances releasing the necessary energy for their
adenosine diphosphate and releases 42kJ/moie
different functions. This degradation is called
at 37"C.
fermentation . This process is widely used in
food industry to produce cheese , wine ... ATP + H2 0 • ADP + Pi + energy
There exist different types of fermentation The ATP is synthesized in the process of oxida­
depending on the metabolite degraded, the tive phosphorylation, using the energy released
cells present, and the product obtained: by oxidation of the metabolites.
ADP + Pi + energy • ATP
- alcoholic, producing ethyl alcohol C,HSOH These redox reactions take place continually
-lactic, producing lactic acid CH3-CHOH-COOH and thus allow a permanent recycling of ATP.

•
120
The more active the celi, the higher the rate of • Overall energy balance sheet
ATP synthesis: the rate of turnover of ATP in liver The conversion of the energy of metabolites
cells is only a minute or two. into ATP is not complete. A part of their energy
is lost as heat.
B - STAGES OF GLUCOSE BREACK DOWN
• Glycolysis - In the case of respiration glucose degradation
During this stage glucose is broken down into produces 38 molecules of ATP that is 1596 kJ.
two molecules of pyruvic acid (C 3). This complex The efficiency of respiration is 53%
process takes place via a series of anaerobic
reactions in which dehydrogenases remove - In the case of fermentation glucose degrada­
hydrogens from a metabolite and transfer them tion produces two molecules of ATP during gly­
to a hydrogen carrier through redox reactions. colysis . The efficiency of fermentation is 2%
T oxidized + H2 -., T reduced
The hydrogen is then transferred to a final
IV - Mitochondria
acceptor capable of regenerating T (ox) neces­
sary for another glycolytic sequence. These final
They are cell organelles of small size, in the form
acceptors are different in respiration or in fer ­
of vesicles with two membranes, each consti­
mentation processes.
tuted of two phospholipidic layers in which
The energy balance sheet for glycolysis isATP
glycoproteins are embedded. The internal mem­
molecules, corresponding to 84kJ.
brane is rich in ATP synthetases present in the
infoldings of cristae. It is the site of redox
• Fate of pyruvic acid
reactions performed through the respiratory
- In the case of respiration, pyruvic acid enters chain.
into the mitochondrion, undergoes oxidative The central space or matrix of a mitochondria is
decarboxylation and is converted into acetyl­ rich in dehydrogenases and decarboxylases
coenzyme A. Then acetyl-CoA is submitted to taking part in pyruvic acid degradation.
decarboxylations, dehydrogenations and loses external membrane internal membrane
each time a carbon dioxyde and a hydrogen. A
chain of carriers or respiratory chain, conduct
" "
the hydrogen towards the oxygen which is the
final acceptor; this produce molecules of water.
The oxidation of every molecule of pyruvic acid
will release a maximum of 18 molecules of ATP,
that is 756 kJ.
- In the case of lactate fermentation the mole­
cule of pyruvic acid is hydrogenated and the lac­
tic acid produced constitutes the final acceptor
of hydrogen.
- In the case of alcoholic fermentation pyruvic
acid is decarboxylated liberating a molecule of
carbon dioxide then it is hydrogenated; the
ethanol produced constitutes the final acceptor / proteins
of hydrogen.

ATP s thetase

•
121
" - - - - -------.
CONCEPT MAPPING

glucose
oxygen

ATR

py'ruvjc
aCla
acetyl
aerobia CoA
lactic
aCla

Energy of cell functioning

122
 EXERCISES

._EXERCISE j;,-~----. . . ._EXERCISE -3=====:::J

Mark the true statements and correct the
false ones. An experiment is carried out according to the
following set up:
1. Fermentation is a biological process which
degrades completely organic material in the
absence of oxygen .
2. ATP is produced by phosphorylation of a low­ A B C
energy compound. thermostatic
balhe!

• • •
3rt
3. ATPase is an enzyme taking part in the recy­

l
\
cling of ATP. .fl.
-l
4. All fermentations are anaerobic except lactate
fermentation .

- - -.
2~-------.
-- - ~-
calcium ~OJ(ide germinating eeed5
$Olul
• _EXERCISE

Choose the correct answer(s).

After 24 hours, the following results are
1. At the end of the respiratory process we obtained:
obtain:
a- carbon dioxide in A: no change
b· ATP in B: calcium hydroxide solution (lime water)
c- ethyl alcohol becomes turbid and the colored liquid
d- water rises in the tube to level n,.
in C: the colored liquid rises in the tube to level
n,.
2. Complete glucose degradation takes place
by: 1. What process is demonstrated? Answer by
a- glycolysis only analyzing the experiment.
b- respiration 2. What will happen if ice is put in the water
c- redox processes bath?
d- fermentation 3. After a few days, and after oxygen has been
completely used up, we notice that the colored
3. Respiratory process: liquid falls only in tube C. Explain what has
a- degrades com pletely organic matter happened.
b- releases a small quantity of energy
c- produces organic residues
d- uses a large quantity of energy

•
123
 c H A P T E R

IN HUMANS MUSCULAR ACTIVITY LEADS TO ONE OF THE BIGGEST ENERGY

EXPENDITURES, AND BECOMES, WITH THE SPORTS PRACTICED, THE ACTIVITY
THAT USES UP ATP THE MOST.

THIS INCREASE IN ENERGY EXPENDITURES REQUIRES AN ADDITIONAL

SUPPLY IN METABOLITES AND IN OXYGEN, AS WELL AS A RAPID TURNOVER
OF THE ATP USED UP.

126
 Energetic
metabolism
•
Inman

Problems to be solved Activities

• What is the nature of the metabolites 1. Nature of metabolites
required for metabolic energy?
2. Liver and regulation of glycemia
• How is a continuous supply in metabolites
secured? 3. The muscle fiber, a differentiated cell
What are the structural characteristics that
make the muscle fiber an energy consumer? 4. Metabolism of muscle fibers
How is ATP consumed and restored? 5. Restoration of ATP

127
 THE MUSCLE FIBER, A DIFFERENTIATED
CELL
The movements wish are energy consuming are performed by
skeletal muscles.
What are the structural characteristics of the muscle fibers?
What are the mechanisms of the musclle contraction?

1. Chemical comr:>osition of the muscles

average chemical composition %

The chemical analysis of the mu scle
constituents shows a composition rich in ener­ water 70-75
getic substances. In addition to the stock of ATP, structure proteins 20-22
of glycogen and of lipids, the muscle contains
phosphocreatine which is an energetic phos­ ATP 0.2-0.4
phated molecule. phosphocreatine 0.3-0.4
glycogen 0.9-1.6

triglycerides (lipids) 1-2

Doc.a Some energetiC stocks are part of in the muscle

2. The muscle structure composition.

The skeletal muscles are formed of structural

units ca lled the striated muscle fibers.

Doc.b A muscle (A) in a tran sverse se ction (8) allows uSto see the fasciculus of muscle fibers, and in longitudinal
section (C) allows us to se e 2 muscle fibers with peripheral nuclei.

• The muscle fiber is a giant multinucleated cell It is composed of myofibrils, wich are structures
with a length of 1 to 5 cm and a diameter of specialized in muscle contraction.
about tenfolds of ~m .

•
132
• The myofibril is composed of an association of • The position of the light and dark bands
two proteins, actin in thin filaments, and allows the sliding of the actin filaments over
myosin in thick filaments . Numerous my to­ the myosin filaments, thus shortening the sar­
chondria are present among the myofibrils. comeres and the muscle fibers, and leading to
the muscle contraction. This process is endoen­
• The sarcomere is the structural unit of the ergetic and consumes ATP.
myofibril. It is formed by a dark band with two
halves of a light band , one on each side, each
half limited by Z striations.

stretched muscles
thin filaments thick filaments

muscle fiber
~~dJ
Z striation I-H zone-l
I-- A band -l
f--- - - sarcomere - - - - - - I

myofibril contracted muscle

-4-"'=-_-==-_" j3 ban,\
tL.
~ -
0
Qfu t:I:1 !Il'!'j (J
Z striation Z striation
~ ~
~ I-- A band-l
~ ~ ~ sarcomere - - l

z striation H4zo~e z striation

myosin actm
+.- - sacromere - -_. Doc. d Shortening of a sarcomere .

Doc. c The myofibril structure: the alternation of light

and dark bands gives the striated appearance.

PROBING THE ACTIVITY

l" What are the energetic reserves present in the muscle? Justify their presence.

2. Descibe the st ru cture of a fuctionnal unit of a muscle fiber? What is the interest of such a
structu re?

3. What are the A, I and H bands formed of?

4. Justify the abundance of mythocondria amon g the myofibrils.

Ls, Use doc. d to describe a myofibril during contraction.

•
133
 CONCEPT MAPPING

ATP ATP
anaerobic
restoration
alactlc

phosphocreatine

glycogen
lactic
acid
glycogenolys is
anaerobic
glucose t:::==­
ATP ATP
lactic - - - - - -......~
neoglucogenesis

s. ,. .~.r~:i~::::~~n
triglycerid....

Energetic metabolism in Man.

•
140
 EXERCISES

c- glycogen
._EXERCISE -1 d- ATP

3. In the liver glucose is produced by:

Mark the true statements and correct the a- glycogenogenesis
false ones. b- glycogenolysis
c- neog lucogenesis
d- oxidation
1.The energy produced from organic molecules
is directly utilized by the cellular activity.
4. Glycemia is the level of:
a- glycogen in the liver
2. Blood glucose is stored in the liver when the
b- glucose in the liver
level of glycemia decreases.
c- glucose in the blood
d- glycogen in the muscle
3. A myofibril is made of many sarcomeres.

4. During muscular contraction the level of ATP

in the muscle decrease.
EXERCISE 3
EXERCISE 2 In animals receiving a diet rich in radioactive
glucose, we notice the presence of:
- radioactive glycogen in liver cells
- rad ioactive glycogen in muscle cells
Choose the correct answer(s)
- radioactive triglyceride in adipose tissue cells.

1. The mechanisms associated with respiration 1. Knowing that the liver and the muscle have a
are: limited capacity for storing glycogen, what
a- degradation of organic molecules would be the result of such a feeding? Justify.
b- synthesis of glucose
c- production of ATP 2. In the case where glucose is not supplied,
d- consumption of oxygen. how is glycemia restored from these
substances.

2. A contracting muscle cell directly utilises the

energy of molecules of:
a- glucose
b- phosphocreatine

141
·_EXERCISE ~:=====:::J
Analysis carried out on a muscle at rest and during
activity are shown in the following table :

02 of blood (ml) chemical composition(g)

going in going ou glucose glycogen
muscle
at rest 20 12 0.1 1.6

muscle
during 20 3 0 0.2
activity (after the exercise)

1. Analyze the table and explain how the muscle find s the necessary energy to accomplish its activity.
2. By which metabolic pathway is this energy produced?

._EXERCISE 5=====::J
Gastrocnemius frog muscles are submitted to M 2 : Muscle treated with substances that block
treatments before receiving successive electric glycolysis and the degradation of the phos­
excitations. phocreatine.
M3: Witness muscle.
M,: Muscle treated with a substance that
blocks glycolysis. Chemical analysis done before and after
the contractions are summarized in the
following table:

muscle constituents before contraction after contraction

M, M2 M~

g.kg-' glycogen 1.08 1.08 1.08 0.8

lactic acid 1 1 1 1.30
mmol. kg-' AlP 4-6 4-6 0 4-6
phosphocreatine 15-17 3-4 15-17 15-17

1. What is the origin of AlP in each case?

2. What kind of activity (duration) is each muscle capable of?
3. Justify the variations of the obtained data.

•
142
_ EXERCISE ~'-_ _ _ _ _----'

The following experiments are done on the liver of a dog.

First experiment.
Water is run through the portal hepatic vein. 1. Draw the experimental set-up.
The water coming out of the subhepatic vein is 2. Interpret the different series of experiments.
tested with Fehling's solution; the presence of a What conclusion can one draw?
reducing sugar, glucose is noticed. 3. Why was it necessary to continue the wash­
ing until glucose had totally disappeared?
Second experiment:
4. Suggest, an experiment which would help
This process is repeated until glucose has disap­
identify the substance from which glucose is
peared from the water of washing.
produced.
Third experiment:
The liver is then placed in an incubator at 3rC
for 24h . Washing with water is repeated and
the presence of glucose is again detected.

EXERCISE r.=====:::::J
Analyses are carried out on the muscle of an athlete during an exhausting exercise and then at
rest . The values are shown on the following charts:
phosphocreatine lactate •• normal value
(in mmol .kg"lof the muscle) ( in g1"ot blood) _ passive recovery
1,2 _ active recovery
20 1,0 _
16 _ 0,8
12 0,6
8 ••• normal value
0,4
4 0,2

o 2 4 6 8 10 12 time o 2 4 6 8 10 12
time
exhausting recovery (min) ex hausting recovery
(min)
exercise exercise

1. Analyze the two charts and deduce the time 3. Knowing that active recovery takes place by
necessary for the organism to regain its initial carrying on a light exercise after the exhau­
state. sting one, which metabolic process is more
2. Why do we measure the lactate in the blood? likely to occur?

EXERCISE [tJC=====::J
How does the muscle mass development of athletes in some sports such as weightlifting improve
their performance?

•
143
 Supplementary
Information
Do athletes improve their appearance and
strength by using anabolic steroids?

North American society loves winners and

largely rewards its best athletes, both on the
social level and the financial level. Therefore, it
is not strange that some of them would not
hesitate to use all possible means to improve
their performance, even using anabolic
steroids. These are a derivative of testosterone,
the male sexual hormone, prepared by the
pharmaceutical industry: they appeared on the
market in the 50'S to treat the victims of ane­
mia and muscular atrophy caused by certain
disease s, as well as to prevent the muscular
atrophy of immobilized patients after surgery.
Testosterone is responsible for the increase of
muscle and bone mass. It induces other physi­
cal changes that take place during puberty and
make the boy's secondary sexual characteris­
tics appea r.
Many athletes, convinced that mega doses of
steroids can amplify these characteristics in an
adult man, began to use steroids in the early
60'S and this practice still exists today.
It is hard to establish the extent of usage of
anabolic steroids because the drugs were for­
bidden in the majority of international compe­
titions.
However many body builders and athletes who
participate in competitions requiring great
muscular strength (for example weight or disc
throwing and weight-lifting) are undoubtedly
great consumers ..

144
Sports personalities, such as soccer players have Do the pretended advantages of steroids out­
also admitted that they were using steroids as a weigh their incurred risks? Probably not.
complement to training, diet and psychological Doctors state that these drugs can have many
preparation for the games. The athletes men­ side effects such as face swelling, testicular
tion several advantages to anabolic steroids atrophy and infertility, hepatic lesions that can
such as the development of the muscles, the lead to cancer, changes in cholesterolemia and
increase of oxygen transport due to a bigger mental disorders.
volume of red blood celis, and the intensifica­ The reasons that make some athletes use these
tion of agressiveness. drugs are well known. Some admit that they are
But are these drugs as efficient as they are ready to do anything; except suicide, to win.
claimed to be? Researches have noted increases But, unfortunatly, death could become the
in isometric force and body weight in steroid involuntary result of their efforts.
consumers. Although these results were seen in
weight lifters, it is not certain whether this From De Boeck University "Human anatomy and
improves the performance in other sports (such physiology"
as running) where precise muscle coordination
and endurance are essential.

Ben Johnson was convicted of using illegal drugs during the olympic games of 1988 in Tokyo. His gold medal was given
to his stunned second, legendary Carl Lewis.

•
145
r
Part t
wo

NUTRITION
AND
HEALTH

146
NUTRITION IS ONE OFTHE MAIN FUNCTIONS CARRIED OUT BY ANY LIVING ORGANISM WHETHER IT
IS AN AUTOTROPH OR A HETEROTROPH. NUTRIENTS PROVIDE THE ENERGY THAT IS NECESSARY FOR
DEVELOPMENT, GROWTH AND LIFE MAINTENANCE OF THE ORGANISM . FOR HUMANS, BESIDES
SATISFYING VITAL NEEDS, NOURISHMENT ALSO PRESENTS A SOCIAL ASPECT. THIS CREATES
DIFFERENT NUTRITIONAL BEHAVIORS DEPENDING ON THE REGIONS AND TIME PERIODS. OTHER
DIFFERENCES INCLUDE THE AVAILABILITY OF NUTRITIONAL RESOURCES AND THEIR BIOLOGICAL
CONSEQUENCES.
ABUNDANCE OF FOOD IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES IS FOUNDTO BE ACCOMPANIED BY AN INCREASE
IN DIETARY DISEASES. MEANWHILE, ONE BILLION HUMAN BEINGS ARE CURRENTLY UNDER­
NOURISHED, WORLDWIDE. AMONG THESE, CHILDREN ARE THE MOST VULNERABLE; TWENTY FIVE
PER CENT OF INFANTS' MORTALITY RATE IS DUE TO INSUFFICIENT FOOD INTAKE IN QUANTITY AS
WELL AS QUALITY.
TH E CHALLENG E OF TH E TWENTY FI RST CENTU RY IS TO ENSU RE TO TH E "H U NG RY COU NTRI ES" THE
MEANS THAT CAN IMPROVE THEIR LIFE CONDITIONS. THIS CAN BE ACHIEVED BY APPLYING THE
ADEQUATE TECHNOLOGIES DEVELOPED IN "RICH COUNTRIES ."

Food is the source of energy and DiverSity of feeding habits

nutrients

Energy consumption varies form an Basic principles for a balanced

organism to another. diet

• Under-nourishment and malnutrition

Nutritional diseases
can cause serious diseases.

147
 C 'H A P T E R

THE SOCIAL ASPECT OF A MEAL CHARACTERIZES THE FEEDING BEHAVIOR OF

MAN AND DISTINGUISHES HIM FROM ANIMALS.

FEEDING HABITS VARY NOT ONLY FROM ONE COUNTRY TO ANOTHER, BUT ALSO
WITHIN THE SAME COUNTRY, DEPENDING ON THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
CONDITIONS OF EACH REGION.

REGARDLESS OF THE OBSERVED DIFFERENCES, FOOD IS THE SOURCE OF

NUTRIENTS AND ENERGY NECESSARY FOR THE PROPER FUNCTIONING AND THE
BUILDING UP OF THE ORGANISM .

148
 Diversity of
feeding
habits

Original paintin g by Ghoraye b. (1959)

Problems to be solved: Activities

. Is food the same throughout the world? 1. Variation of nutrition according to
region s and times.
• What is food made up of? 2. Food: mixture of the same .constituents
3. Identification of the .constituents of
ce rta i n foods

•
149
 1 VARIATION OF NUTRITION ACCORDING
TO REGIONS AND TIMES

Eating behaviors are determined by climatic, social and

economic factors.
Such factors keep traditions alive, bring out the evolution
of lifestyles and reflect not only local resources but also,
intercultural relations.

1. Variations accord ing to regions

Doc. a The lebanese table: divers ity and togetherness Doc. b Fruit market in Africa

Doc. c Oriental meals are based on rice . Doc. d Americans export fast food allover the world.

Cave men had lived on hunting and picking wild became sedentary after being migratory and
fruits and vegetables. Agriculture and farming nomadic. Living on local seasonal resources,
gradually modified their lifestyle and they societies acquired different feeding behaviors.

150
 2. Variations in time
consumed product 1961 1996
(In kg! personl year) France Lebanon Egypt France Lebanon Egypt

butter 7.65 1.0 1.50 8.69 1.52 1.93

milk and dairy products 220.32 64.04 30.83 256.15 85.96 38.42
eggs and derivatives 10.55 2.67 1.0 15.93 16.94 2.26
fish (fresh water) 0.11 0.00 1.93 3.01 0.06 2.88
fish (sea water) 18.15 4.54 3.91 27.93 0.71 6.61
meat 76.08 20.94 10.80 97.95 29.61 12.68
poultry 11.05 3.44 2.43 24.60 14.27 6.65
,

cerals and products 0.42 - 0.50 0.13 - 1.05

fruits 19.67 60.36 32.04 35.51 106.63 37.41
vegetable oils 7.81 7.16 4.73 16.48 16.24 7.56
potato and derivatives 115.18 11.66 7.72 72.46 57.20 21.12
sugar 30.08 20.24 13.37 36.16 55.23 29.65
wheat and derivatives 126.42 133.13 39.22 96.09 124.82 144.49

Doc. e Evolution of the consumption of some foods. (FAOSTAT)

Doc., Advertising creates new need s. Improved preservation methods make food available all year round.

1. Establish a food list containing sugar. Did these products exist 30 years ago? Compare your
answer to doc. e.

2. How can you explain the figures regarding the consumption of fresh water and sea water
fish in Lebanon?

3. Compare your weekly consumption of meat, cereals, eggs, milk and the duration of your
meals... to those of your parents and your grandparents when they were your age. Fill the
results of your inquiry in a table and comment.

•
151
 2 FOODS: M IXTURES OF THE SA M E
CONSTITUENTS
Whether from plant or animal origin, complex foods are
mixtures of the same organic and mineral substances which
constitute simple foods . Nutritional intake varies with the
percentage of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and
salts found in each food.
1. Main chemical components

~
complex proteins" lipids" GIIbohydIaIIs" wate'" kJ
food (10011)
butter 1 80-82 0.5-1 15-17 3177
breast milk 2-2.1 3.6-3.74 6.3-6.4 87-88 293
cow's milk 3-3.5 2.5-4 4.7-5 86-88 272
egg 12.5-14 12-16 0.5-1.8 70-75 334
beef 17-22 10-20 1-2 60-70 836
lamb meat 16-22 20-30 1-2 60-70 1380
fish 20-22 3-9 0-1 65-75 400
poultry 20-21 10-20 1-2 60-70 627

green beans 2-3 - 7-8 85-90 167

honey 0.4-0.5 0.1-0.15 70-75 19-21 1333
lentils 24-25 1.9-2 60 10-14 1413
margarine 1-1.5 82-83 1-2 14-15 3156
oil - 99 - - 3762
potato 2-2.5 0.8-1 21-25 70-75 402
raisins 2-3 1,2-1,5 70-75 15-18 1354
soya bean 32-35 1-1.1 40-42 25-30 700
tomato 0.5-1 - 4-5 94-95 85
wheat 26-27 1-1.5 70-75 10-14 950
white bread 7-8 0.7-0.8 55-60 25-30 1066
whole wheat bread 8 1-1.2 50-55 30-35 960
Doc. a Main foods and ene rgy Intake

:6J
Kilocalories or Kiloj oules?
One calorie is the amount of heat required to
Energy is expressed in Joules. Some nutritio­
raise the temperature of Ig of water by one
nists still calculate the energetic value of food
degree celcius at 15·C.
in calories.
1 cal = 4.18 J 1 Cal = 1 kcal = 4.18 kJ

•
152
2 . Constituents found in sma ll gua ntities

Vitamins, minerals and fibers are found in Amounts shown below are expressed in
foods in small amounts. mg/100 g of food

cod liver oil 200 mg pa rsley 200 mg

green pepper 120 mg parSley 20mg
beef liver 12 mg beef liver 10 mg
10mg cabbage 120 mg
carrots' chick peas 7.2mg
lemon 65 mg
spinach' 9mg egg yolk
strawberries 60 mg 6mg
apricot' 7 mg lentils
orange 60 mg 6 mg
parsley' 5 mg spinach 4mg
0.6mg spinach 50 mg
butter meat 2 mg
tomato 30 mg
meat 0.02 mg
milk 2 mg

Doc. b Vitamin A (' provitamin A) Doc., Vitamin C Doc. d Iron

germinating seeds 1750 mg

soya bean 0.115 mg tomato 250 mg
garlic 0.09 mg parsley 200 mg
tuna 0.08 mg egg yolk 145 mg
pineapple 0.03 mg milk 125 mg
prunes 0.01 mg egg 54mg
meat 10 mg
honey 5 mg

Doc. e Iodine Doc.! Calcium

rt:n
Fibers are roughage foods. They originate mainly from plant cell wall: cellulose, pectin and
lignin. They are not broken down by digestive enzymes, hence they increase the volume of feces
and are important in moving food along the digestive tract.

PROBING frHE] AC TIV ITY

Group foods from doc. a according to their highest content in carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins. Link the identified categories to the food origin.

100 g. of grapes contain 1 g. of protein, 1 g. of lipids, 17 g. of carbohydrates and have an

energy value of about 338 kJ. Compare these values to those of raisins in doc. a. How do
you explain the difference?

3 Drawa pie chart to show the main constituents of the following foods: beef, soy bean,
tomato, oil and bread.

•
153
 3 IDE N TIFICATION OF THE CONSTITU ENTS
OF CERTA I N FOODS

Simple biochemical tests allow us to establish the chemical

nature of the constituents offoods. More advanced techniques
are necessary to identify the nutrients.

1. Some constituents of milk

Benediet's solution

lactose

Doc.a Milk albumin coagulates Doc.b The whey and casein

1 ml NaOH
1ml CUS04~

-'
Doc.c Lactose: a reducing sugar. Doc.d Albumin of milk and casein are proteins.

•
154
2 . Constituents of other foods

-
Doc.e Starch test DOc.! Reducing sugars test

• Add 30 g of flour to a beaker containing 100 ml

of water.
• Stir for 1 to 2 minutes
• Filter
a) add a few drops of Iodine to the residue
b) prepare 4 test tubes each containing 5 cml of
the filtrate and carry out the following tests.

')II\tY;f"'~ ~,.
.~ ... IT: .J
' -,cC ~f.~~ :; ~ '.··'t, .'. resuits
nOl few drops of Iodine
n02 Buiret's reagent
n03 Benedict's solution
n04 few drops of AgN0
3
nOS few drops of Sudan III
then observe one drop under the microscope

00C.9 Seperation of starch and gluten: Sudan III is a solution that colors lipids in red.

PROBING iTH ~ ACTIVITY

1. Use the staining technique with Sudan Ilion a drop of milk, a smear of crushed beans and
an almond grain. Interpret the results.

Use the tests discribed in the activity to determine the components of different foods and
beverages: fruits, vegetables, soda drinks etc...

•
155
 c H A P T E R

EVEN AT COMPLETE REST, THE MAINTENANCE OF THE VITAL FUNCTIONS OF AN

ORGANISM REQUIRES A CERTAIN QUANTITY OF ENERGY: IT IS THE BASAL META­
BOLISM. CONSEQUENTLY, ANY OTHER ' 'ACTIVITY'' REQUIRES A SUPPLEMENTARY
INTAKE OF ENERGETIC SUBSTANCES.

FOR HETEROTROPHS, THE DIET SHOULD NOT ONLY MEET THOSE NEEDS, BUT
ALSO ENSURE THE STORAGE OF CERTAIN ELEMENTS THAT THEY ARE UNABLE TO
SYNTHESIZE. FOODS ARE THEREFORE A SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR CELLULAR
RESPIRATION, AND OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS FOR THE FUNCTIONING OF THE
ORGANISM .

A BALANCED DIET MEETS THOSE QUALITATIVE REQUIREMENTS, WHILE PROVI ­

DING THEM IN ADEQUATE PROPORTIONS, WITHOUT EXCESS OR DEFICIENCY.

160
 Basic principals
for a balanced diet

Problems to be solved: Activities

• Do we all require the same alimentary 1. Energy expenditure and quantitative
needs? needs
2 . Qualitative needs: the building foods and
Is it enough to eat to ensure the proper the energetic foods
functioning of the organism? 3. Qualitative needs: vitamins and minerals
4. Balanced diet

•
161
 1 ENERCiY EX PEN DITURE AND

-
OUA N TI TATIVE NEEDS

Basal metabolism expresses the irrreducible energy necessary for

an organism to maintain life. Even if an individual carries on a
minimal activity, he spends energy. Under-nutrition occurs when
intakes do not cover the energy expenditures.

1. Variations of ene rg}, ex penditure

energy expenditure
energy expenditure (in kJ/O)
(in kJ/day)

• ehild
0-6 months 2100-3100
1-3 years 4100-6500
• girl 15-18 years 6300-9450
• boy 15-18 years 8475-12550
Doc. Q Organisms in growth

activity
energy expenditure
(in kJ/day) sedentary average high

low activity 7100-7950 Doc. c Office employees and farm workers do not have
the same energy expenditure.
pregnant, breast 7300-10750
feeding
All values are averages. They vary with age, sex,
Doc.b Women, 25-50 years old. activity, physicologiea' conditions, weight. ..

body energy expenditure in kJ/day

weight walking running
in kg (SKm/h) (16Km/h)

50 16 67
60 20 79,5
70 21 92
80 25 105

Doc.d Va riations of energy expenditure as a function of

weight and activity.

162
2 . Ad apted energy needs

Only the oxidation of organic molecu les energetic value

relea ses energy through cellular respiration. (In Iel/g)
Despite their importance, vitamins, water, and
lipids 38
mineral sa lts do not have any energetic value.
To cover its qualitative energetic needs, without carbohydrates 17
any excess or deficiency, the organism must be proteins 17
supplied with organic substances for catabo­
lism, wich relea ses the energy necessary for
basal metabolism, muscular activities, re gula­
tion of body temperature and dige stion In klloJoules n kI1ocalories
processes.
Iday Iday

• child
Dieticians classify energetic allowances accor­
1 to 3 yrs. 5700 1360
ding to needs, age, sex and activities:
4 to 6 yrs. 7600 1830
6 to 9 yrs. 9200 2190
• girl
ase percentage of decrease 10 to 12 yrs. 9800 2350
relative to the standard • boy
10 to 12 yrs. 10900 2600
- teenager (girl)
from 30 to 40 years 3%
13 to 19 yrs. 10000 2400
from 40 to 50 years 6% - teenager (boy)
13 to 19 yrs. 12500 3000
from 50 to 60 years 13,5% • adult woman
from 60 to 70 years 21% "usual act ivity" 8400 2000
-adult man
after 70 years 31% " usual act ivity" 11300 2700

Doc. e Adjustment of energetic needs as a function of age. Doc.! Energetic rations according to individuals
(from H. Dupin).

A pregnant woman should increa se her ene­ A breastfeeding woman should receive a
rgetic ration by 400 kJ/day during the first supplementary 2100 kJ/day. The ratios of a high
trimester, and by 1000 kJ/day during the 2 nd level athlete can reach 22000 kJ/day.
and 3rd trimester.

ACTIVITY

1 What can one conclude from comparing doc. a, b and c to doc. e?

2. Comment on the data of doc. d. How can one explain them?

•Why are the teenagers' energetic ratios comparatively higher than those of adu lts? Can one
make the same conc lusi on ab out the children 's ratio?

~~ate your daily energetic ratios and_c_o_m_p_a_r_e_it_ to_ d_oc_._f_.___________ ..1

•
163
 2 -
QUALITATIVE NEEDS: THE BUILDING
FOODS AND THE ENERGETIC FOODS

In addition to providing water, which represents approximately

60% of the organism's composition, a proper diet is required not
only to meet the quantitative needs, but also to satisfy the
qualitative needs which are in the form of essential nutrients. A
deficiency in the supply of the latter is a form of malnutrition.

1. Need for ~roteins

average mass
'I' of rats (in g) ~_ _ _ batch n' 1
200
Two identical batches of young rats receive
quantitatively sufficient diets but of different 180 _
composition. 160
.. • batch n' 1 receives a mixture of different
140 batch n' 2
proteins.
• batch n' 2 receives Zeine, a corn's protein (Z) 120

~
supplemented by tryptophane (T) and lysine
(L), as shown in the graph.
100
80
60+-~_~~~_~~_~~~
---­ Z+T

o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 ~

time
Z Z+T Z+T+L (in day)
Doc. a Experiment of Osborne and Mendel

Amino acids are not stored in the organism. : ~~t _1~• • _. .. :. lD Sl~JY .
·c·o....·""'".­
Some can be synthesized by the organism from
similar molecules, others must be supplied Isoleucine 0.70
simultanously by food, otherwise, the synthesis Leucine 1.10
of proteins which are made up of these amino Lysine 0.80
acids cannot occur. Methionine:
The adjacent table shows the essential amino in absence of Cystine 1.10
acids in man. In rats, histidine, and arginine in presence of Cystine 0.20
must be added. Phenylalanine:
in presence of Tyrosine 1.10
in absence ofTyrosine 0.30
Threonine 0.50
Tryptophane 0.25
Doc. b Daily needs for the essential amino acids in man. . . Valine 0.80

~. Proteins are called "plastic foods" because they moslty comtitute the structure of tissues. The satis­
factory daily needs are 1.5 g. kg-' of weight for an adult, 4 g. kg-l of weight for a child and 2 g. kg- 1 of
weight for a teenager.

•
164
2. Need for lipids

What's a lipid?

Simple lipids are fatty compounds from animal

or plant origin. They result from a combination
of one or more fatty acids and an alcohol,
glycerol or sterol.
If the carbon chain of the fatty acid does not
contain double bonds, it is called saturated. If it
contains one or more double bonds, it is called
unsaturated.
Stearic acid C'7H3S COOH (saturated)
Oleic acid C'7H33 COOH (monoun saturated)
Linoleic acid C'7H3' COOH (polyunsaturated)

Certain essential fatty acids, such as arachidonic

acid and linoleic acid are essential for the
Doc. c Usually, animal fats are saturated and plant fats
edification of the cell membrane or for the
are un saturated .
sythesis of numerous hormones.
Experiments show that rats receiving a diet
totally
deficient in lipids, presented severe symptoms:
skin lesions, sterility and improper growth in
young offspring ...
. Need for carbohyd rates

As a principal source of energy, carbohydrates as glycogen in the muscles and in the liver.
are found in two forms: "slow sugars" or com­ Usually simple carbohydrates release energy
plex carbohydrates and "fast sugars" or simple immediately; but if they are not used up
carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates, are not rapi- diy, they are stored as fats in the subcuta­
readily available in the organism and are stored neous adipose tissue.

PROBING 1THEf ACTIV ITY

1 Study doc. a and deduce from it the role of the essential amino acids.

2, Why do rats fed with a lipid-deficient diet present cutaneous lesions? Formulate a hypothesis
explaining the role offatty acids in growth and in sterility.

3 Can you suggest a relationship between the physical state of a lipid and the saturation of
the fatty acids which constitute it? Justify your answer with judiCiously chosen examples.

•
165
 3 QUALITATIVE N EEDS:
VITAM INS AND MINERA LS
Vitamins and mineral salts are indispensable to life, and are
needed in very small quantities. The organism is incapable of
synthesizing them and should extract them from the digested
food.
1. Vitamins
Those non energetic organic molecules are indis­ cooking, exposure to light a nd storage. Depending
pensable for the proper functioning of the organism. on their solubility, one classifies vitamins as
They act as coenzymes in the multiple metabolic liposoluble (A, D, E, K) or by water soluble (C, 8" 82 ,
reactions. They are very labile and are destroyed by 812 , PP).

vitamins principal dietary sources roles qua::!r

_rieed
Important role in vision especially in dim light;
A defense against infections, maintenance of the
fish liver oil, fish and animal livers, egg yolk,
integrity of the skin and the mucous mem·
retinol parsley. spinach, green salads and certain fruits. 800~g
branes, proper growth in children

essential vitamin for the breakdown of carbohy­

drates in the organism: necessary in the proper
81 thiamine yeasts and cereals, and in lesser quantity: vegeta­ functioning of the cells and the transmission 0
bles, eggs, meats fish and dairy products. the nerve impulses. Its deficiency causes the
1,5 mg
beriberi, disease whose symptoms are paralysis,
a serious psychic troubles, and in severe forms,
cardiac failure and edemaS.
major role in the metabolism of carbohydrates,
B2 riboflavin cereal sprouts, liver, milk, egg, greens, yeasts.
lipids and proteins. Its deficiency causes lesions 1,8 mg
of the skin of the mouth and of the owlar con-
I junctiva.
vitamin PP necessary for growth. Its defiCiency causes pella­
yeasts, meats, fish, dried fruits, cereals, (except
or vitamin gfa characterized by an infiamation of the skin, the 20mg
corn, millet and sorghum), liver, mushrooms, and
B3 or nicoti­ mouth, and the digestive tract with diarrhea,
dried vegetables.
namide insomnia, depression, delirium and hallUCinations.

B12 food from an ima l origin essentially; goblets, fis h, int ervenes in the metabolism of neurons, blood
meats, eggs, cheese and dairy products. cells, intestine and uterus. Its deficiency causes 3 ~g
cyanocobal­
amin anemia and different neurological troubles .

fresh fruits (especially kiwis ,red currants, lemons, favors iron absorption and therefore fights
C ascorbic oranges, grape-fruits, strawberries), raw fruits and against anemia: stimulates the anti-infectious
80 mg
acid vegetables salads. and greens (chiefly parsl ey defenses of the oganism; its deficiency causes
green peppers, cauliflowers) impoftant loss during the appearance of scurvy (fatigue. hemorhages
cooking. of gums and skin, anemia, bone pain.)

favors the intestinal absorption of calcium and

o calCiferol fat fish, liver, egg yolks, meats, milk-fat: exposure
its fixation in the bony tissue (bone mineralisa­
to sun favors the synthesis of vitamins 0 from a
tion). ensures the normal development of the 15 ~g
precursor located in the skin .
skeleton. Is essential in th e newborns and the
osteomalacia in elders.
,
natural antioxidant; extends the liferof red
E tocopherol vegetable oils. liver, cereal germs. green vegeta­
blood cells. favors the synthesis of good choles­ 12mg
bles. egg, milk, butter.
tero!1HDL choleste rol).
K phytomena­ green vegetables (spinach, cabbage), liver, meats. essential vitamin for blood clotting: hemorragic
It is equaJly manufactured by intestinal bacteria . disease occuring in premature newborn babies,
diane 1,5 mg
or children born to mothers treated during
the ir pregnancy by certain antibotics, rare defi ­
Doc.a The principal vitamins c1encies in the adults are observed.

•
166
2. Minera ls
minerals principle food source roles gUlntltles
n. .ad
IItIrdav
cheeses, especially hard cheeses, dairy products, essenti al constituent of bones, and teeth. Is
almonds, hazelnuts, parsley, fava beans, fish, involved in the integrity of cellular membranes
calcium 1 ~g
eggs. and in muscular contraction. A deficiency causes
osteoporosis.
essential constituent of bones; important role in
phosphorous meats, poultry. fish . nerve conduction and muscular contraction.
0,8mg

meats, fish, sea shells, vegetables, and dried essential constituent of hemoglobin (it tran s-
iron fruits, cereals. Daily needs increase and are not ports oxygen inside the red blood cells to the tis- IS mg
always covered in women during menstruation, sues); deficiency causes anemia .
pregnancy and breastfeeding, and in teenagers.

indispensable to the thyroid gland for the syn­

iodine iodized salts, fish liver oil.
thesis of thyroid hormones; its absence causes 0,2 mg
gaiters.
participates along with iron in the manufactur­
eggs, whole fiour, beets, beans, asparagus,
copper ing of hemoglobin. Intervenes in the synthesis
spinach, liver, fish. 0,Q2 ~g
of melanine pigment (responsible for the skin
coloration and tanning) helps to fight against
infections.
table salt, salty foods, canned foods, smoked indispensable for the proper cellular function -
sodium
foods, generally well covered by the diet. ing, at the nervous, cardiac, muscular level.
2 mg
Intervenes in the water balance of the organ­
ism.
dry yeast. vegetables and dried fruits, smoked essential in nerves, muscular and cardiac act;vi­
potassium
ham, oily fish, caviar, chocolate, bananas, ty. Intervenes in many enzymatic reactions. 4 ~g
mushrooms, spinach, potatos.

in most of the food, table salt (sodium chloride). important role in the acid-base and water bal­
chloride
ance of the organism.
chocolate and powdered cocoa, wheat germ and essential in the cellular functioning, cell mem­
magneSium dried legumes, oats, corn, barley, brown rice, brane permeability, enzymatic activity and ener­ 0,3mg
lentils, whole bread. getic metabolism. Intervenes in muscular con­
traction '
sulphur intervenes in the composition of numerous hor­
poultry, beef, lamb, eggs, fish , dairy products.
mones (as insulin), participates in the regulation
of numerous metabolic reactions.
zinc especially food s f rom animal origin; meats, essential constituent of many enzymes and pro-
IS mg
giblets, fish, shellfish, sea shells, egg yolk. teins. anti-inflammatory action in acne lesions.
hardener of bones and teeth anti-decaying
fluorine water, fluoride table salts. I,Smg
action.
Whether free in the different body fluids of the organism, or fixed Doc.b Some indispensable minerals.
in certain tissues, all th ese ions are renewed at more or less long
term. They should be constantly supplied by the diet.

In which cases does an individual suffer from vitamin deficiency, even if he eats his fill?
Does malnutrition originate uniquely from under-nutrition?
2. Why is it preferable to consume fresh fruits and uncooked vegetables?
. Pick from doc. a the information that confirms the role of vitamins in cellular reactions .
. Vegetarians do not consume meat, vegans do not consume any food from animal origin.
Can these two groups meet their needs in vitamins and minerals?
Find the content of vitamins and minerals from the labels on 10 canned products.

167

•
 4 A BALANCED DIET

Foods provide, according to their origin, some of the qualitative

needs of the organism. A balanced diet can therefore only be
obtained through a diversified diet. How are foods cfassified?
How can one help healthy eating habits with the diversity of
available foods?

1. A diversified diet
The biological value of a protein is its capacity It is a function of the "limiting" amino acids,
to cover, alone, the organisms' needs for the which are most often tryptophane, methionine
essential am ino acids. and lysine. Therefore, proteins are not all of
equ al value.

100
80 80
70

protein of egg (reference) protein of corn protein of beans

biological value = 100 biological value = 70 biological value = 60

Doc.a Only one amino acid present in insufficient quantity can limit the biological va lu e of a protein.

fats : essential fatty acids

energy" 1 portions.

milk and dairy products, fish, meats, eggs, poultry.

proteins. calcium, and animal proteins, minerals,
other minerals 2 to 3 portions. liposolubles vitamins.
2 to 3 portions.

vegetables: fibers, vitamins,

proteins, from plants: fruits: vitamins, minerals
3 to 5 portions. fast sugars, fibers:
2 to 4 portions.

bread, rice,
cereals, pasta, slow
sugars, fibers, energy:
6 to 11 portions.

Doc.b Not one single dietary group can meet alone all the needs of the organism.
(Recommendation of the U.S. Agriculture Departement, modified).

•
168
2. Balanced food rations
The nutritional intake should cover the nitrogen losses of the organism, ensure growth, restoration
of tissues, as well as provide the energy necessary for metabolic reactions.
Maintenance rations are calculated for adults with normal activity but the health, age and physio­
logical state of each individual require some adjustments.

.
::s:::
dally Intake

man 70 Kg
proteins lipids
19.Kg-l O.Sg.Kg­

85 89
2g.Kg-l

385
water
o.SI

2-3
/nlnerals vitamins energy
16g

25-30
SOrng kilojoules

100-130 10000
woman 60 Kg 60 65 290 2-2.5 20-25 100-110 8000
pregnant woman 80 70 g 300 2-3 25-30 100-13 9000
newborn 0-6 months 4g.Kg-l 4g.Kg-l 9 g.Kg-l 125mLKg-1 90 mg 65 mg 2750
high-level athlete 175 150 650 5-6 100-130 120-140 20000
elders 70 60 250 2-2.5 20-25 100-110 7800

Doc.e Adapted rations

Despite differences of opinions and theories, The diet pyramid adopted by the u.s.
all dieticians agree on the fact that our Department of Agriculture proposes another
modern diets contain too much lipids. formula, but the trends are the same:
According to Dr. A. Creff (France), one should - unlike vegetables, meats meet the needs in
respect the rule of 421 = CPL essential amino acids but contain too many
• 4 portions of carbohydrates providing 55% of unsaturated lipids.
the caloric ration: 1 portion of cereal or starch, - lipids from plant origin contain essential
1 of cooked vegetables, 1 of salad, 1 of sweet unsaturated fatty acids.
foods (honey,jams)
• 2 portions of proteins covering 15% of the A careful diet will respect the formula
caloric ration : 1 portion without calcium (meat, f= 05 to 0.7
fish), 1 with calcium (milk, cheese). S
• 1 portion of lipids providing 30% of the P= Polyunsaturated fatty acids.
caloric input: 112 the portion of animal fat and S= Saturated fatty acids.
1/2 of plant fat.

PROBING HE ACTIVITY

1. Draw a histogram showing the biological value of corn and bean proteins taken in the
same meal. Comment.

2. Why should a high-level athlete increase his protein intake in accordance to the increase
of his energetic uptake?

3 Find in your diet the "hidden lipids." Are they saturated or unsaturated?
. How much should you run to "burn" 1 tablespoon of oil (13.S g)?

•
169
 SUMMI NG UP
THE GOAL OF A DIET IS TO PROVIDE THE ORGANISM NOT ONLY WITH ITS ENERGETIC NEEDS BUT ALSO WITH
WATER AND ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS FOR ITS FUNCTIONING AND ITS GROWTH. THE NEEDS DEPEND ON THE
AGE, SEX, WEIGHT, PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITION AND THE ACTIVITY OF THE INDIVIDUAl.

A - NEED FOR PROTEINS

I - Energy expenditure and Since functional (enzymes) and structural (tis­
quantitative needs. sue) proteins have a limited life span, their
molecular renewal is vital. A diet should there­
The basal metabolism allows the calculation of
fore supply amino acids that are necessary for
the irreducible energetic expenditure of an
proteosynthesis.
organism, and therefore indirectly, its vital
Eight of the twenty amino acids involved in the
needs. In addition to these vital needs, there
composition of proteins, cannot be of endoge­
are these needs related to work, growth, ther­
nuous origin, that is, they cannot be synthe­
moregulation, etc. ..
sized by the human organism from precursors.
They have to be supplied by the diet. They are
Energetic expenditures thus vary considerably
the essential amino acids. Proteins do not have
with sex, physical activity, physiological condi­
the same biological value because they do not
tion ... A strenuous laborer (worker, athlete) con­
contain essential amino acids in sufficient pro­
sumes more energy than a sedentary indivi­
portions: zeine, the corn protein, is limited in
dual (secretary, student). Likewise, a teenager
lysine; the bean protein is limited in threonine.
in full growth has higher energetic needs than
A diversified diet containing animal and plant
an adult of the same sex. Since only organic
proteins is therefore a necessary.
substances are energetic, food should cover the
losses and provide the quantitative needs.
B - NEEDS FOR LIPIDS
Lipids are highly energetic foods. They can be
found in the majority of foods from animal and
plants origin. They are constituents of pla sma
membranes and nerve cells. Fatty acids of
which lipids are made up, can be saturated
(bacon) monounsaturated (olive oil) or polyun­
saturated (walnut oil). To avoid certain cardio­
vascular troubles, doctors advise patients to
balance their intakes in polyunsaturated (P) and
saturated lipid s according to the ratio PIS = 0.5
to 0.7

II - Quantitatives needs.

The needs of adults are about 10000 kilojoules

~
saturated fatty acid : unsaturated fatty acid:
for a man and 8000 kilojoules for a woman, stearic acid oleic acid
which we can theoretically obtain from either
carbohydrates, lipids, or proteins. But although Certain essential fatty acids cannot be synthe­
all these foods are energetic, they do not all sized by the organism, and have to be supplied
have the same nutritional value. by food, chiefly of plant origin ..

•
170
C - NEED FOR CARBOHYDRATES catalyze metabolic reactions (magnesium). Iron
The latter are the preferd metabolites of most is an essential constituent of hemoglobin which
cells. Whether simple carbohydrates (glucose, transports the respiratory gases. A diversified
fructose) or complex (starch, wheat flour) they diet contains minerals in sufficient quantities
are mostly from plant origin. They cover more but in the cases of rapid loss of water like in
than half of the energetic intakes. diarrhea or sweating (sport, very hot weather,
Along with carbohydrates, fibres play an impor­ fever), the loss of minerals is equally high and
tant role. They are roughage foods indispen ­ an adjustement may be nesessary.
sable for intestinal transit. In addition, they
regulate the intestinal absorption of carbohy­ III - A balanced diet
drat es and lipids by slowing down the move­
ment of food in the intestine. The fibers With due regard to differences in local trends,
concentration in the diet of indu strialized all cultures have a diversified diet, capable of
countries is 4 g per day compared to 20 g in ensuring, under norm al climatic and economic
devoloping countries where more green conditions, th e quantitative and qualitative
legumes, lentils, chick peas and potatoes are needs of the organism. Theoratically, 55 to 60 %
consumed. of the energy provided to the organism should
come from carbohydrates, 30 to 35 % from pro­
teins and 10 to 15 % from lipids. But with the
" hidden fats" such as the lipids in meat, or pre­
cooked meals and sweet foods, the energy sup­
plied by the lipids reaches sometimes more
than 40 % of the energetic uptake. The formula
421 ~ CPL is easy to memorize (although
incomplete). Nevertheless it tends to break
those dietary habits that cause an increase in
nutritionnal diseases like diabetes and cardio­
D - NEEDS FOR VITAMINS AND MINERALS vascular problem s.
Vitamins are indispensable for life and for the The basic principles for a healt hy diet remain
maintenance of the organism in good health, then:
although it needs vitamins and minerals only in - balance: the dietary pyramid clearly shows
minute quantities. There are liposoluble vita­ the differences in the amounts needed of each
mins (A, D, E, K) and water soluble vitamins (B food group. The food intake should respect the
and C). Each food item contains one or more of representation of the dietary groups: for
them, but no one food contains them all simul­ instance more carbohydrates than meat or fat.
taneously. - variety: not one single food group can solely
Vitamins do not provide energy to the orga­ ensure all the necessary nutrients.
nism . They act as co-enzymes in several meta­ - moderation: the foods constituting the head
bolic rea ctions and stimulate defense reactions of the pyramid, although necessary (fats,
to infections. They are fragile and can easily be sweets), should be consumed more seldom
destroyed by temperature, light, oxygen as well than fruits or vegetables; they are highly ener­
as processing and preparation methods (preser­ getiC an d favor the storage of lipids.
vation, sterilization, cooking). This underlines For Man, eating is a pleasure and not only a
the advantage of consuming fresh products. need. One shou ld learn to eat properly to
Minerals are important constituents of the cells prevent nutrition from beeing a source of
and the skeleton (phosphorus, calcium). disease.
They regularize nerve conduction and muscular
contraction (potaSSium, sodium, chloride) and

171

•
 EXERCISES

EXERCISE r;l---------. EXERCISE .-/ - - - - - - - - - .

Mark the true statements and correct the Choose the correct answer(s).
false ones:
1. Vitamins:
1. Vitamin A is one of the constituents of the
a- are energetic organic molecules
plasma membrane.
b- act as co-enzymes of certain metabolic
reactions
2. For the same physical activity, an individual
c- are abundant in cooked vegetables
weighing 60 Kg consumes more energy than
d- are hydrosolubles or proteosolubles
another weighing 75 Kg.
2. The formula 421 means:
3. Essential amino acids are abundant in animal a- 4 portions lipids/ 2 portions carbohy
proteins. drates/1 portion proteins
b- 4 portions carbohydrates/ 2 portions
4. Children have a protein need requirement per lipids/ 1 portion proteins
kilogram of body weight higher than that of c- 4 portions proteins/ 2 portions carbohy­
adults. drates/1 portion lipids
d- 4 portions carbohydrates/ 2 portions pro­
teins/1 portion lipids

EXERCISE '-'_ _ _ _ __
3. A beef stea k:
Cholesterol is a lipid from the steroid family. It is a- is rich in carbohydrates
one of the constituents of the cell membrane b- does not contain lipids
and a precursor for different hormones. c- is rich in essential amino acids
d- is rich in iron and vitamin C
The table below gives the composition of
certain fats often used in food.

1. What is the origin of fats

containing cholesterol? Suggest
a reason. lipIds poly mono
<I) (mil unsal(g). un.at.(g <I)
2. Calculate PIS for each food item. bacon 70 100 10.7 30.5 25.8
Which of these ratios is closest
to the recommended values? butter 81 250 2 24.5 51.3

3. How can one improve the ratios plant fats 100 0 0 1.5 98.5
for a balanced diet in lipids?
oils:
peanut 100 0 18.5 61 1.6

oiive 100 0 9.3 69.5 16.8

•
172
 1. Place these foods in a pyramid according to
_ EXERCISE ~'--_ _ _ _ _----' their groups.
2. Propose a daily balanced diet for a teenager
whose energetic intake should not exceed
Use doc. d of activity 1 to calculate the walking 800 0 kJ.
and running time necessary to "burn" each of
the following foods.

EXERCISE rI"'I,------.......,
food food EnerlY
equivalent (In kJ) An experiment is run to study the variation of
chips 28g 627 . the weight of a guinnea pig as a function of the
cola 114g 669 concentration of vitamin C in its diet. The only
chocolate 40g 836 source of this vitamin is raw vegetables. The
graph below summarizes the results of this
french fries 1460
1 portion experiment.
curve 1: normal diet.
cheese burger 2195
curve 2: a part of the raw vegetables is removed.
apple 522 curve 3: all raw vegetables are removed.

_ EXERCISE - "",- - - - - - - - - . weight (in g)

/ (1)
300 //
The table below gives an approximation to
/
calculate the energetic values of certain foods. //
/.' ~
,........ .... ---.®
t
I.'
energetic value
--~,
1/
(in kJ)

011
200
7(X)(L
butter, margarlne
mayonalle

pure alcohol
6()O(L aauce.

chClCOlale
5000_
4 8 12 16 20 24 time
dellcale..en (in days)
4000­
pastries , sugar
1. What do you call the deficiency represented
cheese, rica, pIela
lL 01 wine at 12' C by curve 3? Does it originate from under
broad, pore, sheep
beet, veal, chcken nutrition or ma In utrition? Justify you r answer
loda, 1L lemonade
with precison.
~ _________ while 11th, horse, ham 2. What does curve 2 mean? What important
1000
~ _________ ---=----
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ polatOI
fruits
indication for man does it give?
a
~ =------ green vegetables 3.For hygiene purposes, it is recommend that
100 200 quantity (Hl 9) mothers sterilize food for newborns. Give the
advantages and disadvantages of such a
practice.

•
173
 WHAT IS A PO RT ION I N EAC H FOOD GROUP?

The pyramid offood groups is adapted to each region of the world. For Lebanon it is inspired
by our local diet. Of course the foods in each group are interchangeables.

group foods portIon portIon per day

1 arabic pastries very little once from time to time

2 milk 1 glass 2 to 3
cheese, yogu rt 60 grams

3 fish, meat,] 90 grams

poultry
egg 1 2 to 3
dried fruits, cereals 112 cups

4 vegetables the equivalent of 2 to 4

a tomato
a cucumber

5 fruits the equivalent 3 to 5

of an apple

6 bread 1/4 of bread 6 to 11

pasta 70 g
rice 1/3 cup
cracked wheat
(burgol) 1/3 cup

•
174
 Supplementary
Information

GUILTY OR INNOCENT?

Many people would like to do away with the Neverthless the use of food additives presents
majority of additives, especially those that serious disadvantages. Flavoring additives do
interfere with the taste and appearance of not follow code E and are not subject to the
foods. It would be wise to place in our present regulation which imposes listing it on the
food consumption, less emphasis on industrial packaging label. This leads to a lot of abuse.
foods.
On the other hand, large number of
This is undoubtedly an ideal step, but it would coloring agents proved to be lightly toxic: it
mean denying obvious advantages: additives
has been prooven that many allergies,
help to store and handle important quantities
asthma and digestive problems were
offood, which can be used to feed populations
directly linked to food additives. In France,
during periods of need.
about 250 additives are authorized. But
Without additives, one would be forced to buy international legislation are not unified.
food on a daily basis and in small quantities to Some countries prohibit almost totally, the
avoid spoilage. The choice would also be use of coloring agents, others prohibit only
limited, because only seasonnal products a few. Tartarine (El02). which gives an
would be available, and hence, industrial orange-yellow countries, even though it is a
production would be considerably reduced. cause of serious allergies .

• Many foods contain "hidden additives", not • Certain chemical substances fed to livestock
listed on the packaging labels. They could be before their slaughtering can equally affect
the residuals resulting from the treatment of the quality of meat. The meat is then subject
certain products before their picking or during to chemical injections that favor its preserva­
their packaging. tion, tenderization and the bright red
coloration .
• Insecticides, herbicides and fungiCides used • The food fed to poultry is often mixed with
in agriculture are found sometimes as traces colorings. This practice which aims at obtain­
in fruits, vegetables, cereals or grains sold in ing a darker egg yolk, is not mentioned on the
the market. package.

•
175
 c H A p T E R

UNDERNOURISHMENT IS A QUANTITATIVE DEFICIENCY IN THE DIET.

MALNUTRITION IS A DIET QUALITATIVELY IN ADEQUATE EITHER DUE TO DEFICIEN­
CY OR EXCESSIVE INGESTION. HUNGER (OR STARVATION), IS A PLANETARY GLOB­
AL PROBLEM, RESPONSIBLE FOR UNDERNOURISHMENT DISEASES SUCH AS
MARA SMUS, WHICH LEADS TO THE DEATH OF CHILDREN IN POOR COUNTRIES
EVERY DAYS.

SIMILARLY, IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES, CHARACTERISTIC DISEASES DUE TO

EXCESSIVE FOOD INTAKE, LIKE CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES AND OBESITY, ARE
BECOMING MORE COMMON. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF NUTRITION ­
RELATED DISEASES CAN BE ACHIEVED BY MONITORING BODY WEIGHT. THIS
REMAINS THE MOST ACCESSIBLE INDICATOR OF A CHILD'S NORMAL GROWTH
AND AN ADULT'S SHAPE.

176
 Nutritional
Diseases

Problems to be solved: Activities

How do hunger-related diseases occur? 1- Food deficiency diseases.

• Do all deficiencies indicate under 2- diseases of excessive food intake: cardio

nutrition ? vascular diseases.

• Why are cardi ovascular diseases more 3- diseases of excessive food intake: obesity
frequent in rich countries?

•
177
I
 1 FOOD DEFICIENCY DISEASES

Originating from distress conditions (poverty, wars, unfavorable

climatic conditions like drought...), hunger related diseases affect
especially under-priviliged children aged between six months
and two years, among whom the mortality rate is very high. But
food deficiencies can also occur in normal situations due to the
lack of awareness or due to food disorders.. .
1. Marasmus and Kwashiorkor, two starvation diseases.

Doc. a Marasmus is a total food deficiency di sease. Doc. b Kwashiorkor syndrom is due to a qualitative and
quantitati ve protein deficiency.

If insufficiently fed, the human organism reacts

body
by using up its reserves, thus limiting its 1L mass (kg)
·growth. Lacking energy, the individual becomes 12
apathetic, less capable of performing physical 11
or intellectual tasks . The child victim of 10
Marasmus (4) can lose up to 60 % of his normal 9
weight(l), because of early weaning followed 8
by energy insufficient food . 7
The child affected by the Kwashiorkor syn­ 6
drome (3) (Ghan ia n word meaning"a child who 5
has just been weaned") is placed on a cereal death
diet of corn or millen porridges. The child suffers 3 _!-,.......,,.......,,.......,_--..........-.,.-,--,-_...
o 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 age (month)
from serious edemas in the abdomen and in the
lower limbs. The skin which is very fragile,
CD average obtained In well nourished children
® average obtained in malnourished children
shows severe lesions. His hair is brittle and Q) case of an undernourished child
easily torn out. @ case of a severely undernourished child
If not treated, children affected by Marasmus
Doc. c Change of weight gained in well nourished and
and Kwashiorkor would certainly die. The treat­ malnourished children.
ment of these syndromes is critical and gradual.
It is not only dietary but also anti-infections and Unfortunately recovery can be jeopardised by
anti-parasitic. recurrent infections and the mortality rate
remains 20% to 40% even in the treated cases.

•
178
 ..

2 . Vitamin deficiency (avitaminosis)

Scurvy is a dreadful disease that caused heavy

losses among sailors up till the 18th century.
The victims showed localized hemorrhage,
(bleeding) especially in the gums, that led to
the loss of their teeth. Their sores never healed
and they became more and more anemic and
depressive. Complete exhaustion led progres­
sively to death.
James Lind, a Scottish ship surgeon, isolated
two sailors with scurvy. He included two daily
oranges and a lemon in their diet. Their condi­
tion im proved rapidly whereas the other sa i lors,
despite being fed with energy-rich food,
continued to sufferfrom the same symptoms.

Doc. d Vitamin C cures scurvy. Doc. e Vitamin D deficiency causes rickets characterized
by soft bones. It has long been known that rickets
is treated with cod liver oil.

3. A food disorder

Anorexia is a complex psychological disease.

This food disorder is more common among
young people 12 to 30 years old, especially girls,
who unconsciously refuse to become adults.
Some young girls follow very strict diets that
lead to a state of deficiency which requires
emergency hospitalisation and psychiatric help.
The severe loss of weight is not the only indica ­
tor of auto-deprivation. There are also other
symptoms: cessation of the menstrual periods,
diarrhea, constipation, infection, refusal to
speak or take part in social life, visual troubles ...

Doc.! Severe food deficiencies caused by auto-starvation.

PROBING ACTIVIT Y

1 Can we compare anorexia to marasmus? Suggest one reason for the infections observed in
individuals suffering from the two diseases.

2 Why are children, who are fed on sterilized food, exposed to vitamin C deficiency?

•
179
 2 D I SEASES OF EXCESSIVE FOOD INTAKE:
CAR D IOVASCULAR DISEASES

The relationship between diet and certain diseases has

definitely been established. Cardiovascular diseases such as
myocardial infarction are more frequent in countries where the
diet includes an imporant intake of saturated fatty acids.
The consequences of ischemia (obstruction of the blood circula­
tion in a zone of the organism) are severe and prevention
requires an understanding of these multifactorial diseases.

1. Risk factors

Careful observation of the lifestyle of people possible to determine the elements that favor
suffering from cardiovascular diseases and the such diseases.
scientific study of large populations made it

arterial high cholesterol

level
hypertension~
t
diabetes • Risk factors .. tobacco

sedentary
life style
~
t
stress
~ heredity

• anxiety
DoC. a Risk fa ctors are related to our lifestyle. Are they all
controlable?
sex (male)

Index 01 coronary
morbidity
700
600 _
An epidemiological study "Framingham study"
followed 2170 men with ages ranging between 500

30 years and 59 years for 10 years. The results are 400

shown in the opposite histogram, which 300
expresses the risk of death resulting from
200
coronary accident with respect to the number of number of
risk factors (Cholesterol> 2.5 g.L-' cigarettes> 100 risk factors

20/day, hypertension> 16 mm. Hg).

3 4

Doc. b Addition of factors increases the risk exponentially!

•
180
2. Chol est erol, the enemy of arteries
Cholesterol, just like all lipids, is insoluble in
plasma. That is why it has to bind to proteins
which will carry it in this aqueous medium:
• LDL or Low-Density Lipoproteins
• HDL or High-Density Lipoproteins
An excess of LDL-cholesterol can trigger a
deposit of cholesterol in the muscle walls of
arteries causing a plaque called atheroma. This
is the "bad cholesterol".
The HDL which carries the unused cholesterol HOl cholesteroll
from the cells back to the liver, plays an inverse elimination .
Igestive
role, as it contributes to its elimination. This is tube
tissues
the "good cholesterol". The over consumption of
saturated fats from animal origin, especially in
developed countries, has increased the inci­
dence of cardiovascular diseases. Knowing that Doc. c Cholesterol cycle in the organism
the normal rate is 1.8 to 2.4 g.I-' a rate of 2.6 g.
L-' increases the risk of infarction fourfold.

.Il':n
Finland is one of the countries in the
world where diseases of the arteries
are very frequent. It is also the country
muscular
wall

atherOll'lll
o normal artery

plaque

where the average rate of cholesterol

per person is 2.6 g.L-' . In Greece, Crete,
Yugoslavia and Japan, the average rate
is less than 2 g. L-' . These countries
&Ieoosls
(narrowing)
Q coronary artery:
myocardial
infarction

have only few cases of ischemic

diseases.
thrombosis
(clot)

•
DoC. d Atherosclerosis is a slow and gradual
process. Th e treatment can be medical or
surgical.
~
C emboli sm: a moving clot

PRO BI NG THE ACT IVI TY

1. List few food products that mu st be avoided in case of hypercholestrolemia. Justify your
choice.
2. Would a diet rich in food from plant origin increase the blood cholesterol rate ? In this case,
can we consume all oils without any danger?

l 3. Why is preve ntion of cardiovascular diseases conSidered to be essentially based on health

consciousness that sho uld start very early on, during childhood?

•
181
 3 DISEASES CAUSED BY FOOD EXCESS:
OBESITY
Obesity is defined as an excess of body weight of at least 20%
above to the ideal weight. It is very common.in countries where
food is abundant. It plays a major role in the decrease of life
expectancy. How can one calculate his or her ideal weight? What
are the factors that can cause obesity?

1. Ideal weight and life expectancy

Lorentz's formula:
There are many formula s to calculate the ideal
weight. Medically speaking, it remains very W = H-I00 H-1S0
a
hard to define the body weight for which the
life expectancy is optimal. Many factors should a ;:: 2 for women
a = 4 for men
be taken into consideration:
W = weight in kg
- the percentage of adipose tissue relative to H = height in em
the total weight
Perrault's formula
- the skeletal weight as estimated by the wrist
measurement
- the sex: the percentage of body fat in men is
W = H - 100 +A.. xJL
10 10
10 to 15% and 18 to 25 % in women
A = age in years
- the age: the tendency to gain weight increa­
ses with age. 8MI = weight (kg)
(height m)2

Doc.a Some method s to estimate one's ideal w e ight.

A formula widely used, at the present time, is
the body mass index (8M I).

IMI category risk of weight-related diseases

very thin much below average ..... Doc.b In 1990, normal BMI ranged between
<18
31 and 3S . Since th en, figure s have
18-20 thin below average been brought dow n.
20-25 normal average
25-29 moderatly above average
> 29 obese much above average. Obesity often means a situation in favor
of atheroma:
excess weight" percentag.lncrease - sedentary life style
of mortality . - diabetes
- increase of cardiac activity
- hypertension
20-25% 16%
- hypercholesterolemia
25-30% 30%
35-40% 54%
..... Doc.c Ri sks of mortality due to excess w eight. Life insuran ce
50-74% 130 a 182% st ati stics are alarming.

•
182
 2 . A multifactorial condition

A multifactorial condition was observed in cer­

tain families where grandparents, parents and
children all are overweight. This led scientists to
look for a genetical factor of obesity. In 1994, a
gene that decreases fat metabolism was
discovered. On-going research is trying to co r­
rect the effects of thi s gene.
In addition to heredity, obesity is most often due
to bad dietary habits:
- meals rich in simple sugars and fat.
- snacking between meals.
- overeating cheese, cold cuts, sweetened or
alcoholic beverages.
Besides heredity, emotional and psychological Doc.d Besi des genetic factors, obesity also has behav­
factors can also intervene. ioral origins

In case of depression, certain individuals take

liver
comfort in food. Thus they gain weight which in
turn depresses them. It is the beginning of a
vicious circle.

~
15% I c::=J fat
46%
24%
extra
lipids · •
Cl cellular fluids
~
C> 16% di~esti ve
"active raet
C>
~ 37% ~ mass" adipose
tissue
21 % _ supporting
tissues Doc.e Excess of simple sugars is stored in the form of
24% lipids
17%
A B
non-obese obese ...... Oo,.f Sa me weight but a different constitution .
man man

PROB I N G H El,ACTIVITY
,
. Calculate your weight according to Perrault s and Lorentz's formulas and compare the
obtained results. Calculate your BM!. Are you a person with equal risk according to the three
methods?

2. Can individuals A and B from doc. f be of the same height? Justify. What would their respec­
tive heights be if the BMI for A~ 29 and for B~ 35.

3. Why does obesity increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases?

'l. Some persons who wish to quickly lose weight, follow severe diets based on fruits for many
days. What are the risks of such a practice?

183

•
 SUMMING UP
A DISEASE I S RELATED TO NUTRITION IF IT CAN BE TREATED, MODIFIED OR IMPROVED BY AN APPROPRIATE
DIET. THE " HUNGER" DISEASE S RESULT FROM MALNUTRITION AND UNDER NUTRITION, WHILE DISEASES OF
EXCESS FOOD INTAKE AS WELL AS A VITAMINOSIS RESULT FROM MALNUTRITION.

I - Deficiency diseases II - Diseases of excessive food

intake
Famine which still prevails in certain regions of A sedentary life sty le, accompanied by the
the world (Africa, South East of Asia ...) affects intake of energy-rich food such as sugars and
primarily children under two years of age. The lipids, contributed to the appearance of certain
high mortality rate (one child out of four) is due diseases in countries where food is abundant.
to a qualitatively and quantitatively insufficient Cardiovascular diseases are the main causes of
food intake. death in industrialised countries. They result
from the formation of atheroma plaques in the
Two diseases are characteristics of hunger:
muscular walls of the blood vessels. These
Marasmus due to total food deficiency and plaques obstruct gradually the lum en of the
Kwashiorkor due to a protein deficiency. In both vessels and slow down the blood circulation. In
cases children do not receive food adequately at case of occlusion, the organs receiving blood
their weaning stage. Their diet consists of a por­ through these vessels are not supplied any
ridge made up of cereal flour, causing severe more. Severe lesions can then occur putting the
deficiency in essential amino acids. When the individual's life in danger (myocardial infarc­
porridge is more and more diluted, it would not tion) or leaving important sequelae (paralysis,
even provide the elementary energetic needs. hemiplegia).
The situation is intensified by infections that Epidemiological studies showed that these
weak organisms cannot fight . diseases were multifactorial: heredity, diet, as
The treatment is dietetic by gradual ga striC well as health consciousness are responsible for
perfusions accompanied by administration of their onset.
anti-infectious agents. Preventing deficiency An important indicator is the cholesterol leve l.
diseases can be achieved by improving of the Its high concentration in blood in the form of
stantard of living of concerned populations and LDL-cholesterol is linked to the deposit of
by educating mothers to elementary principles atheroma plaques.
of hygiene and nutrition.

•
184
Cholesterol is important for the organism and, For example half a kilo of body weight is equi ­
it can be synthesised even in the absence of an valent to 14700 kJ. To loose it, one has to reduce
exogenous source. Since saturated fatty acids his food intake from 8400 kJ to 7100 kJ for 12
are more hyper cholesterolemic than unsaturat­ days.
ed fatty acids, it is ad visa ble to control the The table of body mass index can be a helpful
intake of animal fats which are rich in saturated guide in keeping an acceptable weight without
fatty acids. running a risk.

Prevention of diseases caused by food excess

requires an early child education , and a modifi­
cation of adult life style. Reduction of animal
fats intake by decreasing meat consumption, an
appropriate physical activity and balanced
meals are helpful factors in reducing the risk of
diseases.

Obesity, on the other hand, is not a disease by

itself, but it aggravates the risk factors of car­
diovascular diseases: rise of cholesterol level,
hypertension, diabetes ... An overweight charac­
teristic is common in rich countries: excess food
is rapidly stored in the form of fats in the adi­
pose tissues.
Obesity is defined as an overweight of 20% over
the ideal weight determined according to age,
sex ... etc. Unfortunately, many young people
think of themselves as obese, (even though
they do not reach these values), in comparison
to the norms imposed by fashion. They follow
drastic diets, and loose weight without medical
Beauty rules change with fashion.
supervision. They deprive themselves of a
In 1920, the "BMI" of Miss America was 21.2.
balanced diet, which could lead sometimes to
In 1980, Miss America had a "BMI " of 17.1.
serious consequences. In addition, inappropriate
She weighed 53 kg and was 176 cm tall!
and repeated diets have an adverse effect and
weight is regained fast. On the other hand, a
gradual and balanced diet providing essential
nutrients gives lasting results.

185
 r
Part th
ree

INTERDEPENDENCE OF
LIVING THINGS AND THEIR
RELASHIONSHIPS WITH THE
ENVIRONMENT

188
In the present state of our knowledge, the earth is the only known inhabited planet of our solar
system. This is due to its particular and "priviliged" position vis-a-vis the Sun, source of light,
heat and energy.

The starting point of the life cycle on Earth is photosynthesis, Sunlight energy is converted into
potential chemical energy by chlorophyllic plants, This leads to the release of oxygen gas and
the synthesis of organic substances, stocked in the tissues of autotrophs,

The organic matter of these primary producers constitutes a source of energy for the
heterotrophs, It is transferred from a trophic level to the next along fOOd chains and food webs
of ecosystems, This process is accompanied by great energy losses in the form of heat
dissipated in the environment.

The circulation of water through the biotic (living) and abiotic (mineral) constituents of an envi­
ronment is achieved through biogeochemical cycles, Exchanges between those natural
"reservoirs" are subject to a dynamic eqUilibrium, Exploitation of the natural ressources by Man
disrupts the natural cycles, particularly the carbon cycle, Many countries, including Lebanon,
conduct researches to identify the consequences of these changes,

• Chlorophyllic plants undergo photosynl Conversion of light energy into

thesis in presence of light and carbon chemical energy
dioxide,
• Synthetized organiC substances are a Energy flow and the carbon
source of water and energy for cycle in the ecosystems
he- terotrophs.
• Respiration and fermentation release car­ Man and the carbon cycle
bone dioxide back into the atmosphere,

189
 c H A P T E R

ALL LIVING BEINGS NEED ENERGY TO GROW AND LIVE. SUNLIGHT 15 THE INI­
TIAL SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR ALL AUTOTROPHIC PLANTS.

LiGHT RADIATIONS ARE CAPTURED BY CHLOROPHYLL PIGMENTS LOCATED IN

SPECIALIZED CELLULAR ORGANELLES, THE CHLOROPLASTS. CONVERSION OF
LIGHT ENERGY INTO CHEMICAL ENERGY 15 MADE POSSIBLE BY A FUNCTIONAL
ORGANIZATION OF THESE CHLOROPLASTS. PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKES PLACE IN
TWO COUPLED PHASES : A PHOTOCHEMICAL PHASE AND A CHEMICAL PHASE.

CARBON FIXATION, OR CHLOROPHYLLIC ASSIMILATION, LEADS TO THE SYN­

THESIS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES; THESE ARE A FORM OF POTENTIAL CHEMI­
CAL ENERGY WHICH 15 THE STARTING POINT OF THE CYCLES OF MATTER AND
THE FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH THE BIOSPHERE.

190
 Conversion of light
energy into chemical
energy

Problems to be solved Activities

How does the intensity of photosynthesis 1. Effect of light radiations on photo­
vary according to the different wavelengths synthe sis.
of light?
How does the chlorophyll act upon the spec 2. Light radiation s and chlorophyll.

trum of white light?

3. Chloroplasts: organelles of photo­
• What are the characteristics of the structural
synthesis.
organization of chloroplasts?
What are the mechanisms and results of the 4. Photochemical phase of photosynthesis
photchemical phase of photosynthesis?
• How is carbon incorporated into the synthe­ 5. Chemical phase of photosynthesis.
sized organiC substances.

•
191
 EFFECT OF LIGHT RADIATIONS
ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The Sun is the main source of light available to chlorophyllic

plants while performing the photosynthesis. What are the
characteristics of sun light? How does it act on chlorophyllic
assimilation?

1. Nature and coml'osition of light

Light is an electromagnetic energy. White light reveals a spectrum extending from violet
is made up of radiation of different wave­ (380 nm) to red (720 nm). the total of which
lengths. Upon splitting through a prism, it constitutes visible light.

B G y o R

Wghtlng source

Doc. a Spectrum of white light

2. A historical ex eriment: Thomas Engelmann, 1885

This German botanist tried to determine the illuminated by light that has been split through
wavelengths that favored most photosynthesis. a prism.
A filament of Cladophora, a green algae, is Different segments of the filaments, therefore
mounted in a homogeneous suspension of exposed to different wavelengths, are then
Bacterium termo, a mobile bacterium which is observed under a microscope.
avid for oxygen. This preparation is previously

Accumulation 0' Bacterium lermo Chladophora 'liament

Doc. b Activity spectrum of a chlorophyllic plant.

192
 hotosynthetic activity: ex erimental study

We measure the effects of different A

monochromatic' lights on photosynthe­
tic intensity.

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:

• Place 0.5 g of a chlorophyllic plant in the

bioreactor.

• Add 7 mL of water enriched with CO 2

(0.3 mL of a solution of KH(0 )
3

• Agitate at a medium speed.

• Illuminate for 3 minutes with white

light having an intensity of 10,000
watts.m- 2 • B

• Alternate 1 mn of darkness to 3 mn of
illumination using blue, green then red measurement 01 oxygen concentration
monochromatic filters. Influence of light radiation color 25mn

24.5 ' C
• Make sure that the monochromatic
lights are of the same intensity as white 16.0_
light. 15.0
14.0 _
13.0_
• Monochromatic (one color): corres­
12.0
ponds to a narrow band of a few tens of 11.0 _
nanometers in wavelengths. 10.0.
9.0.

-
8.0 . >-~~_~"C~~:--~~_ _,,--+
o 5 10 15 20 25 min

DoC. c Evaluation of the intensity of photosynthesis ~

according to the wavelength used; oxymetric obs I. wtltte I. blue I. green I. red
method: A- Experimental apparatus; B- Graphic .... +25 ' C
results

PROBING ITH ~ ACTIVITY

What is the spectrum of white light? What is it made of?

2. Analyze Engelmann's experiment and make adequate conclusions.

Calculate in doc. c the variation in oxygen concentration relative to each light used.
Compare the results to those observed in doc. b.

•
193
 2 LIGHT RADIATIONS AND CHLOROPHYLL

A variegated leaf performs photosynthesis only in its chlorophyl­

lic parts. Chlorophyll is therefore the key substance for the fixa­
tion of solar energy. How does this substance react with respect
to light radiations and what is its composition?

1. Extraction of crude chloro!,hyll

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
crushing with
silica sand and
• Take 1 g of green leaves from a chlorophyllic alcohol at 80'
plant (spinach, nettle, lettuce ...)
• Place the sample in a cuvette with fine silica
sand (abrasive) and a pinch of calcium carbo­
nate. Thi s latter neutralizes the acidity released
by vacuoles.
• Crush-dry vigorously.
• Add 8 cm' of alcohol at 80'

• Filter the crushed substance. The residue on alcolhollc

the filter should be whitish-green if th e extrac­ soluUon
oferude
tion is complete. The collected filtrate is an alco­ chlorophyll
holic solution of crude chlorophyll.
Doc. a Method of extraction of crud e chlorophyll

ectrum of crude chloro h II

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
A
• Use an apparatus similar to the one used in
doc. a. activity 1. absorption(in % )
• Fill a cuvette, having parallel sides, with a
100_
so lution of crude chlorophyll.
• Place this cuvette betwee n the source of 80
B
white light and the prism. 60
• Observe the resulting spectrum. '0
• Note the presence of dark band s, correspon­
ding to certain wavelengths that have been
absorbed by the so lution. o+-____----____________------.~
400 500 600 700 wavelengtn
(In nanometers)
crude chlorophyl of spinach leaves
Dac.b Absorption of light radiations by chlorophyll:
A- Absorption spectrum: B- Graphi c result s

•
194
 . Comr:>osition of crude chlorophyll

Chlorophyll is in reality a mixture of several

organic constituents: the chlorophyllic pig­
supports
ments. These can be separated by chromatogra­
carotene
phy.
<­
paper strip
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP Whatmann .xanthophyUs

• Deposit several drops (5 to 8) of a solution of

crude chlorophyll 2 cm above the base of a II!!!',,- + ,chlorophyll a
chromatographic strip. We can also replace
this solution by a small circular piece of a
green leaf that we crush at the indicated chlorophyll b
place.
· In a 500 mLcylinderadd 5 to 15 mLofan
eluant or organic solvent.
eluant :
• Suspend the paper in the cylinder, its lower 85%elhar­
end should be submerged in the eluant; this 10%acelone
5% benzene Initial spot
latter should not touch the spot of chlorophyll.
• Close the cylinder and place it in the dark for
one hour.
Doc. c Separation of the chlorophyllic pigments
• The drawing shows the results obtained after
drying.

~ . Chlor0r:>h}'llic igments: selective hotorecer:>tors

chlorophyll a _ _
The various photosynthetic pigments identified chlorophyll b _ _
carotenoids - ­
(doc. c) do not absorb light equally. This is
proven by measuring the percentage of light
absorbed by each pigment for each wavelength.
Note that wavelengths that are not absorbed
are reflected.

Doc. d The ab so rbing role of the various photosynthetic ~

pigments (graphic results). L~~~o;t~~~~....... - +wavelllngth
400 440 480 520 560 600 640 680 720 (Innanomelerej

PROBING THE ACTIVITY

1. Analyze doc. b. What do the observed dark bands correspo nd to? Compare to doc. a of
activity 1, and make adequate conclusions.
2. Compare the activity spectrum of a chlorophyllic plant (activity 1, doc. b ) to the absorp­
tion spectrum of chlorophyll (activity 2,doc. b).
Link the notions of absorbed wavelengths (activity 2, doc. b) and photosynthetic intensity
(activity 1, doc. c).

195
 3 THE CHLOROPLASTS: ORGANELLES OF
PHOTOSVNTH ESIS

Chloroplasts are the site of chlorophyllic assimilation. These

organelles have a particular structure, similar in some aspects to
that of mitochondria. What are the characteristics of this struc­
ture? Is it related to a specialized functional organization?

1. Structural organization

Doc.o An electronography of a chloroplast.

Chloroplasts are typically di sc-shaped struc­ Thylakoids bathe in this stroma. They are flat,
tures, 5 to 10 micrometers in diameter and 1 to disk-like pouches arranged in stacks referred to
2 micrometers in width. The ultrastructure of as "granum." Different grana are linked by thy­
these organelles, as revealed by an electron lakoidal membranes, which are extensions of the
microsco pe, has a particular organization. chloroplast internal membrane. These different
A chloroplast has two membranes separated by constituents can be separated by ultracentrifu­
an intermembroenocy space. The internal gation of isolated chloroplasts.
membrane encloses a "fundamental" substance
of a granular aspect: the stroma.

•
196
2 . Chemica l com ositi on and functional organiza ti on

A chemical analysis of the various constituents • an abundance of enzymes, particularly

of a chloroplast reveals a unique composition, carboxylase in the stroma and ATP synthetase
mainly: in thylakoid membranes.
• photosynthetic pigments are located in thy­
lakoid membranes. The subdivision of the chloroplast into com­
• the presence of starch grains in the stroma, partments and the unique chemical composi­
after a long exposure of the chloroplasts to tion of these elements endow them with
light. specialized functions.

internal
membrane
external
thylakold membrane

thylakoid lamella

Doc.b Diagram interpreting the structure of a chloroplast.

PROBING ITHEL,_
A_CT_I_V_IT_Y____________________________~

Draw and label a figure showing the ultrastructure of a chloroplast.

2 Compare the structural organization of a chloroplast to that of a mitochondrion.

3 Which elements ensure the fixation of light? Where are they located?

4. What assumption could be made due to the presence of carboxylase and starch in the stroma?

5. Why do we say that chloroplasts have a functional organization?

•
197
 PHOTOCHEMICAL PHASE OF
4 PHOTOSVNTH ESIS

The release of oxygen by chlorophyllic plants occurs in presence

of light. This stage ofphotosynthesis is called the "light phase" or
"photochemical phase."Where does this oxygen gas comefrom?
Which reactions lead to its release?

1. Photol sis of water: the origin of oxygen gas

A. EXPERIMENT OF R. HILL:

In 1937, biologist Hill observed that chloroplasts Remark:

that have been isolated by crushing leaves in a • Photolysis of water has also been achieved
solution having the appropriate pH and contai­ with isolated thylakoids if the medium con­
ning 10% sacharose induce, under light condi­ tained an oxidising agent.
tions, the oxygenation of hemoglobin in the • If the experiment is carried out using intact
presence of a ferric salt. This release of molecular chloroplasts, the addition of an oxidiser is
oxygen originates from the oxidation of water. not necessary.

2H 20 - 02 + 4H+ + 4e- (oxidation of water)

4Fe 3+ + 4e-_ 4Fe 2+ (reduction offerric ion, acceptor of electrons)

B. EXPERIMENT OF RUBEN et 01. {1941}

"It is generally acknowledged that the process
of photosynthesis by green plants can be repre­
sented by the equation:
chlorophyl!.. I I
CO 2 + H20 + Ie 02 + (lin) (CH 20)n
It would be interesting to know how and from
which substance oxygen is produced. Using 180
as a marker, we have discovered that oxygen
released during photosynthesis comes from
Doc.a Observati on under an electron microscope and
water rather than CO 2, Young live Chlorella cells interpretation diagram of Chiarella , a unicellular chl oro­
are put in a suspension of heavy-oxygen water ph YII"Ie aIgea.
(0.85% 180) containing ordinary potassium %of180
bicarbonate. In other experiments the algae are 1st experime nt 2 nd experiment
induced to perform photosynthesis in ordinary
water containing heavy-oxygen potassium H2 O 0.85 0.20
bicarbonate. Results of these experiments are
summarized in the opposite table." HC03­ 0.41 0.50

Extract oj the article jrom the '10uma/ oj the American rel eased 0 2 ga s
Chemica/Society", March, 1941. after 110 mn of 0.84 0.20
experimentation

•
198
2 . Conversion of light energy into chemica l energy

Pt
.··
on e- transferred to
Light is made up of elementary energy particles, e-excltide
called photons.
: .. \ eC
...•..... o .•.. .
.

o
. '

, ~"0 "~

r
When a molecule of chlorophyll absorbs light, it
:
passes from a stable to an excited state: due to ..... ..... . ...
the energy of the photon, an electron is pushed ........
to a more external orbit, which has a higher
energy level. remplacement
by an e-from
water photolysis
If this electron has acquired a sufficient amount
Doc.b Excitation of chlorophyll by photons
of energy, it will leave the chlorophyll molecule.
It will be transferred, into the thylakoid mem­
stable "excited"
branes, by a chain of electron transporters,
chlorophyll _ ch lorophyll· _ chlorophyll· + e-
called photosynthetic chain, to a final accpetor T.

Electrons released by the oxidation of water

e- + A (acceptor) ----->.~ A- (reduced)
during photolysis replace those that have been
lost by the excited chlorophyll. This latter will
then regain its initial stability, which is a neces­ stroma
,
sary step to restart photosynthesis. Protons '"__ ~___- _-!:proton release
resulting from the dissociation of water partici ­
pate, in the presence of ATP synthetase in the photons
'"

1ITP
.I
(H')

1IOR

~~ ~
thylakoid membranes, to the formation of ATP.
This is how light energy is converted into
chemical energy. I
The photochemical phase can then be summa­
rized by the equation:
_ '.~ifi't@'
high proton concentration
tWJiiJjj~~lJ.vO\lll:lk~~
I
A
membrane
H2 0 + T(ox) + ADP + P -.. ATP + T(red) + 112 02
chlorophyll Doc.c Functional organization of a thylakoid

PROBING [T H ~ ACTIVITY

1. What is the nature of the electron exchanges revealed by the "reaction of Hill"?

Analyze the experiment of Hill, with the corresponding remarks, and comment.

3 What conclusions can be drawn from the analysis of the results of the experiment
of Ruben et al?

Following doc. c, demonstrate the importance of photolysis of water in the process

of photosynthesis.

5. Represent schematically the transformations that take place during the conversion
of light energy into chemical energy.

•
199
 5 CHEMICAL PHASE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Chlorophyllic plants use co" either atmospheric or dissolved in

water, to synthesize organic substances. Where does this fixation
occur? By what mechanisms is carbon incorporated into these
molecules?

1. Fixation of CO 2 : a group of "dark" chemical reactions

Radioactive carbon 14C is used as a marker of

~o
light
obscurity
the incorporation of carbon inorganic mole­ (minimum exposure)
10mn
cules.
e­o
EXPERIMENT OF GAFFRON et 01. (1951). .="
0"
u
Chlorella cells are suspended in water in which 15
~
we bubble 14C0 2 . This medium is illuminated ~
::l
by light of high intensity. After one hour, the C"

suspension is placed in the dark. The quantity of

14C0 2 fixed by the suspension of algae is mea­
20 30
sured all along the experiment. time
(in sec)

The graph shown represents the results

obtained. Doc.a Prolongation of the incorporation of CO 2 after the
interruption of light.

2. Modes of CO 2 incorporation
air enriched with C02 homogenous

~ ---~-L
IIghling •

A. EXPERIMENT OF CALVIN et 01. (1959)

suspension ;' .: :
of Chlorella , ••J...... ~
Chlorella cells are maintained in suspension in a
lighted medium, enriched with 4% CO 2 . This solu­
transparent tubules -
tion can be pumped into a transparent tubule
that ends up in boiling methanol, which imme­
diately blocks the metabolic reactions by dena­ 14C02 dlsolved
in water
turing the enzymes. This apparatus allows the
injection of 14C0 2 at a variable point along the
tubule, thereby varying by one to a few seconds
the period of exposure of Chiarella cells to 14c.
boiting I
methal)~ ..:"_ _J I ~_

We can thus follow the rate of carbon fixation. healing system rl!WW\!\J)

Doc.h Experimental apparatus of Calvin et al.

•
200
 B. RESULTS:
0; Initial position of the extract
P.G.A
• Having incorporated 14C, organic molecules
themselves become radioactive. These mole­
Ru Bp: Ribulose diphosphate
PGA:Phosphoglyceric acid

alter
•
2 seconds
cules are extracted from Chlorella that have
been exposed to the experimental conditions o
of the experiment of Calvin et al. They are
next separated by bidimensional chromato­
graphy and then autoradiographed. P.G.A

•
Doc.c First results of the incorporation of CO 2 , .. after hexosis ..~ ...
phosphates .....
5 seconds
RuBP
o

• A second approach consists of measuring, in ,.dloaollvlly(ln %1

relation with the time of ex posure to marked

CO 2 , the radioactivity of the synthesized pro­
ducts by a chlorophyllic plant. Results confirm Inose phosphate
and complete those obtained by the bidimen­ 40
sional chromatography. dlsaccharides

P.G.A.

starch
Doc.d Chronology of the incorporation of absorbed
14(, for an exposure of 3 secon ds.
o 27 4'7 limll (In SQCOOds)
alter til, Intoduotlon
oll&l»llodCO,

C. COMPLEMENTARY EXPERIMENTS:
• In a solution containing ADP + Hl04, we can shows that the carbon dioxide is not incorpo­
obtain ATP from thylakoids exposed to light. rated .
• Stroma placed under the same conditions • We repeat this last experiment using stroma,
does not allow the formation of ATP. and then stroma with fragments ofthylakoid
• Intact thylakoids or fragments of thylakoid membranes. The measured radioactivity is
membranes are exposed to light, in presence respectively 2000 and 96000 pulses. mn-'.
of 14C0 2 . Measurement of the radioactivity

PROBING jTHEl ACTIVITY_ _ _ _ -----------i

According to doc. a, can we say that fixation of CO 2 requires directly light? Justify your
answer.
Propose a hypothesis that justifies the prolongation of incorporation of CO, in the dark.
Analyze doc. c and d and interpret the results.
4 Relying on data of this activity, determine the necessary conditions for the fixation of
CO,. Also indicate the location of this fixation.

•
201
 SUMMING UP
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS A PROCESS IN WHICH CHLOROPHYLLIC PLANTS CONVERT SOLAR ENERGY INTO CH'EMI­
CAL ENERGY. ITS INTENSITY DEPENDS ON THE WAVElENGTHS ABSORBED BY CHLOROPHYlLIC PIGMENTS
WHICH ARE PRESENT IN SPECIALIZED CELLS OR ORGANELLES CALLED CHLOROPLASTS. INSIDE THESE
ORGANELLES, THE SYNTHESIS OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES TAKES PLACE IN TWO COUPLED PHASES: THE PHO­
TOCHEMICAL AND THE CHEMICAL PHASE.

I - Effet of light energy on Comparison of this absorption spectrum with

the activity spectrum of a chlorophyllic plant,
photosynthesis
demonstrates that the wavelengths best
absorbed are the most efficient for photosyn­
thetic activity. This is due to the fact that the
Diffraction of white light across a prism reveals
solution of chlorophyll is a mixture of chloro­
that this visible light is composed of several
phyllic pigments. These pigments are selective
colors. These correspond to different wave­
photoreceptors; they absorb, at va ria ble
lengths extending from violet (380 nm) to red
degrees, the different monochromatic wave­
(720 nm), including indigo, blue, green, yellow
lengths.
and orange.
Qualitative analysis (experiment of Engelmann)
and quantitative experiments (using CASE for
example) indicate that the different wave­
lengths do not have the same effects on photo­ III - The chloroplasts: organelles
synthetic activity. In genera I, the release of of photosynthesis
oxygen gas presents two maxima levels, one in
the red and the other, of less importance, in the Chloroplasts are the site of energetic and
blue. This activity is almost nil in the green. che-mical processes of photosynthesis. These
organelles are limited by a double membrane
and enclose a fundamental substance, the stro­
ma, in which thylakoids bathe. These are flat
sacs stacked in grana and linked by thylakoidal
II - Light radiations and membranes; these latter are invagination of the
chlorophyll internal membrane of chloroplasts.

This individualistion of such compartments is

accompanied by a significant difference in the
Materials have the color of the wavelengths chemical composition of each of these ele­
that they reflect or, in other words, the ones ments. The thylakoid membrane, where chloro­
they do not absorb. Analysis of the absorption phyllic pigments are located, is rich in ATPase
spectrum of white light by a solution of crude and in chains of electron transporters or photo­
chlorophyll shows that green waves are not synthetic chains.
absorbed. On the contrary, the presence of dark
bands, mainly in the blue and red, indicate that The stroma itself is unique by the presence of
chlophyll has absorbed the corresponding carboxylase and an oxidizing agent, the final
wavelengths. acceptor of electrons.

•
202
 IV - Photochemical phase of V - Chemical phase of
photosynthesis photosynthesis

The most obvious manifestation of photosyn ­ Thi s stage is characterized by the synthesis of
th esis is the release of oxygen, an easi ly mea ­ organic molecules, the reason for which it is
su red indicator. referred to as the ph ase of chlorophyll ic assimi ­
The experiments of Hill and Ruben et al. demon­ lation. The experiment of Gaffron et al. shows
strated that: that the incorporation of carbon into these
• the release of oxygen is performed by lighted . molecules does not necessitate direct light. It
isolated chloroplasts, and more specifically by requires on the other hand a previous period of
thylakoids. if the medium conta ins an oxidis­ illumination, super ior to a minimal threshold,
er. during which precursors are synthesized. If this
• thi s process brings into play oxidation-reduc­ condition is fulfilled, the synthesis of organiC
tion reactions. substances occurs and can continue in the dark.
• the re leased oxygen originates only from the in relation with the quantity of available
dissociation, or " photolysis", of water mole­ precu rsors.
cules.
The fi xation of carbon is induced by the
The importance of this " light phase" resides pre-sence of the carboxylase enzyme in the
also in th e energetic mechanisms that take stro ma .The orde r by which this carboxylation is
place: done was identified by Calvin et al.:
• under th e action of photons. which are energy • the first products of this react ion are a three
particles of light. chlorophyl l passes from a carbon molecule, the phosphoglyceric acid
"stable" to an "excited" state. It loses electrons (PGA). and a pentose-phosphate, the ribulose­
and acqu ires a reducing power. diphosphate (RuDP).
• electrons lost by the chlorophyll are trans­ • other enzymes in the stroma convert the
ported by photosynthetic chains. to a final molecules of PGA into sma ll carbohydrate
acceptor T(ox) located in the stroma. which is molecules. the trioses- phosphates. Th is
then reduced to T(red) . production consumes ATP and T(red) w hi ch
have been produced in the thylakoids during
In addition to the release of dioxygen. the pho­
the photoche mi cal phase, That is why we say
tolysis of water ensures:
that the photochemical and chemical phases
• the relea se of protons (H+) of photosynthesis are coupled.
• the regeneration of chlorophyll, by electrons Bringi ng into play other enzymes in th e strom a.
that the molecules of water have rendered. several biosynthesis are performed. From
thus its return to its initial "stabl e" state. trioses-phosphates, transformations lead to the
sy nthesis of other organiC substances: carbohy­
It is during this photochemica l phase th at the drates. fatty acids and amino-acid molecules.
first stage ofthe conversion of light energy into The se synthesis assume the availability in
chemical energy occurs: the production of ATP chloroplasts of minera l sa lts, especia lly nitro­
from ADP and Pi. The membranes ofthylakoids. gen . OrganiC sub stances thus synthesi zed can
like those of mitochondria. contain ATP-syn­ be temporarily stored. in the form of starch for
thetases, that are membrane prot eins linked to example, or they can be exported out of the
the functioning of electron- carri ers chains. chl oroplast to be used by t he plant.

•
203
 CONCEPT MAPPING

light energy

external membrane
,inte,mal membrane

light
energy

photochimical
phase

coupling
of the two
AlP

chimical
phase

potential drates soluble

chimical lipids (small

molecules)
energy amino
acids

Conversion of light energy into chemical energy.

•
204
 EXERCISES

_ EXERCISE rt======::::J
Mark the true statements and correct the 2. The action spectrum of a chlorophyllic plant:
false ones. a- is also called absorbtion spectrum
b- is the result of all action spectra of the
1. The color of chlorophyll is due to the absorp­ different chlorophyllic pigments.
tion of the "green" light by chlorophyllic pig­ c- depends of the absorption spectrum of this
ments. plant
2. During photosynthesis, the chemical phase d- corresponds, indirectly, to the quantity of
can take place in the darkness, independent­ fixed CO 2 ,
ly of the photochemical phase.
3. The production of PGA constitues the first 3. Water photolysis:
step in the conversion of light energy into a- brings into action oxidation reactions only
chemical energy. b- takes place in the stroma, in the presence
4. Chloroplasts can synthesize amino acids, of an oxidant.
fatty acids, mineral ions and starch. c- allows the regeneration of chlorophyll
5. Carboxylation designates the process of the d- is the cause of the release of oxygen during
incorporation of carbon in organic substances. photosynthesis.

4. The fixation of carbon in chloroplasts:

a- can take place in the dark, if thylakoids
have been sufficiently lighted .

~'-------"'"
b- constitutes the phenomenon of choloro­
• _EXERCISE phyllic assimilation .
c- takes place because of an enzyme, the
Choose the correct answer(s}. ATPase
d- leads, first of aII, to the formation of starch.

1. Chlorophyll:
a- is a heterogenous substance, formed of
many components.
b- is evenly distributed in the chloroplast
c- absorbs all light radiations, at the same
degree of absorption.
d- can acquire an important reduction power EXERCISE d~-=====::J
due to the light.
Draw a figure (with legends) showing the func­
tional organization of thylakoids.

•
205
 c H A P T E R

ORGANIC MATTER 5YNTHESIZED DURING PHOT05YNTHE515 CON5T1TUTE5 A

50URCE OF ENERGY AND MATTER FOR THE AUTOTROPH5 AND, INDIRECTLY, FOR
THE HETEROTROPH5.

RETURNING TO THE ENVIRONMENT UNDER A MINERAL FORM, MATTER

CIRCULATES IN A CYCLIC MANNER. THI5 CIRCULATION 15 ACCOMPANIED BY A
FLOW OF ENERGY THAT 15 CHARACTERIZED BY A DI55IPATlON, AT EACH
TROPHIC LEVEL, IN THE FORM OF L05T HEAT.

208
 Energy flow and the
Carbon cycle
in ecosystems

Problems to be solved Activities

• What relationships between living beings 1. Trophic organization of the ecosystems .
appear in the trophic organization of an
ecosystem? 2. Ecological turnovers and productivities.
• How do you explain the variations of
3. Flow of energy in an ecosystem.
productivity in different ecosystems?
How does carbon circulate in an ecosystem? 4. Transfer of matter and carbon cycle.

•
209
 1 TROPHIC ORGANIZATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

Whatever their nature, ecosystems are composed of living beings,

animals and plants (biocenosis) occupying a well determined envi­
ronment (biotope). Among the interdependence links between
living beings, the trophic relationships are the most evident.

1. The food chains

quaternary
consumers

A food chain is a sequence

composed, most often, of tertiary
three or four links. The first is consumer
generally an autotroph, the
second a phytophage (herbi­
vore), and the remaining secondary
zoophages (carnivores). consumers

~
primary
consumers

~
Doc.o Examples of food chains.
producers

A:~
I ""'--
terr-e-s":"""-'I
tria"''--
food'-c
""' -:h-ai-
""n""'l B: marine food chain

leaf litter cloporte pseudo-scar ion spider

organic debris detritivores predators

C: detritivore food chain

•
210
2 .The food web

In the ecosystems, several food chains may have called food webs, proving the interdependence
one or several common links. This complex of living things in the same environment.
organization is translated by trophic networks

Doc. b A food web

PROBING THE ACT IVITY

1, Define the following terms: ecosystem, food chain, food web, primary consumer and
secondary consumer.

2 What is the origin of each of the food chains A and B in doc. a? Write a short paragraph
showing the importance of this first link on life on Earth.

Write two food chains derived from doc. b that have a common link other than the
autotrophs. What would be the result of an excessive predation of this link?

A, Which organism in doc. b would be the first to repopulate a burned forest? Justify your
answer.

211
 2 ECOLOG ICAL TU RN OV ERS A ND
PROD U CTIVITI ES
Autotrophs convert the solar energy absorbed by chlorophyll
into organic substances. Are there any energetic losses in this
conversion? Does this loss exist also all along the food chains?

1. Conversion turnovers in chloro('h llie (,Iants

The efficacy of conversion of light energy
s§>
into chemical energy varies according to ~ radiation
of non-used refl ec ted
the plant specie s: this is the global photo­
synthetic yield . We can calculate (Hall,
1979) for each plant:
1"50
wavelengths radiation energy used
for Photosynthesis

fevill !

• the gross photosynthetic yield: % of inci­

dent solar energy fi xed by chloroplasts in
energy lost by
the form of ca rbohydrates. the respirati on
37 process mitochondrlon,slle
01 oxidativB reactions
• th e net photosynthetic yield, in other
terms the net primary production, which
is the % of incident solar energy effective­
ly available, for the next trophic level, in
the form of organic substances
Doc. a Energy yields of a cultivated green plant .

2 . The ecolo ieal tu rn overs of heterotro(,hs

Food provides the heterotrophs with the orga­

nic matter needed for their functioning and
development. The ingested (I) matter is not
95% 47,5%
totally absorbed (A) since some parts are rejec­
ted w ithout being used (NA).
R
The energy effectively utilized for growth (P), A
thu s available for the next trophic level,
P
remains weak since a major part is used for cel­
lular respiration (R). We can calculate, for ani­
mals: NA5%
• the assimilation turnover: All x 100 Spider (carnivore)
• the produLlion turnover: PIA x 100
• the ecological turnover of growth: PII x 100 Doc. b The ecological turnovers for the spid er.

•
212
 . Flow of matter an d energy in a food chain

The transfer of stored energy

in the form of organic matter,
from one link to the other, is
expressed as a flow of energy
in a food chain. At each step a
certain quantity of energy is
lost as non-assimilated matter
and in the form of heat rejec­
ted in the environment.
0,3 kj
The heat that dissipates is lost,
this is why the flow of energy
is called linear. Heat
R
Solar
energy
10' kJ
NA

Rellection
'5 kJ
Nul Uled
Heat
R
Secondary
producllon
Productivity is the rate at
which organisms of a given 150 kJ NA
trophic level convert the ener­
gy received from the precee­ Heat
ding one. It is expressed as PI =103 kJ Respirallon

the quantity of energy per Net p,lmary

production
unit of surface area and per
unit of time
(e.g. kJ.m- 2 yea,')

Doc. c Energy loss across a trophic chain.

PROB I NG ITHE] ACTI VI TY

. By using doc. a, calculate the gross and net photosynthesis yields in a cultivated plant.

Calculate the ecological turnovers for a spider.

Is the flow of matter in an ecosystem linear? Justify your answer by studying doc. e and
calling up your knowledge on forests and agrosystems?

•
213
 3 FLOW OF ENERGY IN AN ECOSYSTEM

In a food chain, productivity diminishes with each transfer of

energy. What is the consequence of this decrease on the bioceno­
sis? How can we represent the energy available at each trophic
level? How can we define the energy balance in an ecosystem?

biomass (g.m·')

1. Ecologica l pyramids tertiary consumers

(herons)
These are graphic representations showing the 10
efficiency of transfer of matter and energy in
an ecosystem.
secondary consumers
100 (frogs)
• The pyramid of numbers indicates the number
of organisms living at each trophic level, at a
specific time. It does not give information on IDrimarv consumers
the productivity of the ecosystem. ( c ricket)
1000
• The pyramid of biomass indicates the total
mass of individuals occupying each trophic
level. It is expressed in terms of unit of mass of
dry matter per unit of surface area (g.m- 2 , 10
t.ha-'). It does not include information about
Doc.b Pyramid of bioma ss.
the duration of time necessary for its produc­
tion 'lg. of dry plant matter is equivalent to 18-20 k.J
• The pyramids of energy'. The pyramid of gross 19. of dry animal matter is equivalent to 22-25 k.J
productivity expresses the quantity of dry mat­
ter produced whereas the pyramid of net pro­ 25 63
tertiary
ductivity indicates the quantity of energy pre­ consumers
sent at each level and effectively available for
the following level. Therefore NPP = GPP-R. 1325
secondary
Number of individuals Trophic level consumers

7930
primary

.--_______1" birds
50300

11
fish respiration
R

4 000000000 4t~ , Gross Primary Productivity

pllytoplankton GPP
Doc.o Pyramid of numbers Doc.c Energetic pyramid.

•
214
2 . Energy dynamics in an ecosystem

The biomass represents only a punctual image

of an ecosystem. On the other hand, producti­
vities and energy flows, sustained by the Sun,
indicate a certain dynamic ofthese ecosystems.
A quantitiative follow up of the energy inputs,
stocks and outputs defines the dynamics of
these habitats.

Doc,d Biomass of a mediterranean oak plantation

150 years old (in tons of dry matter/hectare) ~

solar heat
radiation (827.10) evaporation
transpiration heat
(5250.10') reflect3d (121010') (plants rlspi
(302.10 ) . (24.10)
~
~
~
•lilt --=
~~
.. ii~
. PPN
(20.10')
(0,1.10')
detrlvorous
detritus chain
... and
exportation decomposition
(14-10')
exportation
(0,01.10')
humiflcation
humus
mineralisation
stagnation
(1,5.10') (soH reserve)
(0,8.10')
Dac.e Energy balance in a forest ecosystem (in klm -2.yearl)

Calculate for doc. d, in terms oft. hectare-'. the plant biomass and the biomass of the
primary and secondary consumers; build the corresponding ecological pyramid.

Justify the following expression: "Even though the carnivores do not eat herbs, a lot of
herbs are needed to assure their survivaL"

Calculate, for doc. b, the percentage of energy transferred from one level to the other.

'J. ln an ecosystem, compare the circulation of matter to that of energy.

•
215
 4 TRANSFER OF M ATTE R AND THE
CARBON CYCLE
Autotrophs produce organic matter by photosynthesis. This mat­
ter is progressively stored in the environment an d later minera­
lized. Thus the cycle of matter, supported by the flow of energy,
insures the incorporation of the biogenic elements (P, N, C), and
their return to earth. Carbon is the marker of living beings. How
does it circulate in the ecosystem?
1. Different forms of carbon
mineral carbon organic carbon Carbon exists in all
ecosystems either in
• atmosphere CO 2 . living beings: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins its oxidized mineral
form , or its reduced
• soft water, HCO - • combustible rocks: petroleum, coal
3 organic form. Fixed by
sea and oceans
CaC0 • dead organic matter: leaf litter, humus photosynthesis, it is
• rocks 3 re sto red to the envi­
Doc.a. Principal carbon reservoirs ronment by respiratory
processes.
light ...... Doc.b A summary equ ation of photosynthesis (P) and
re spi ra tion (R)

Carbon Carbohydrates
dioxide Organic carbon
Mineral ca rbon

2. Role of th e deco mposers

dea organIC
Important respiratory processes accompany the detrltlvorous ~
ammals
mineralization of organic substances by soil

·~81J.FL
..­
mi croorgani sms and invertebrates
fungi

fauna and flora of expended ~ I

minerai
matter
the litter and the respiratory energy (No,·, No;, PO s· )
soil (10 6 kJ.ha-'.year')

humus
Fungi ~ 72
reserve of organic maner with
Bacteria .~ .~ 3.5 slow mineralization
----'
..a.rl~I'I<:t.i.rl().fl1),~~~~s..~..~ .............................. ...........
Lumbricus 2.25
Nematodes 3.4 A Doce Fore st detrit ivore web

Other invertebrates
(Coliembola, wood 2 ...... Doc.d Re storation of th e mineral matter and respiratory
mite, Myriapoda, ...) energy.

•
216
 . The carbon c)lde

The carbon cycle designates the sum of the This cycle is mainly that of carbon dioxide, the
phenomena that assure the continuous pas­ on ly carbon source used by autotrophic plants
sage of carbon, across the ecosystems, from the to undergo photosynthesis.
mineral to the organic state and vice-versa.

atmospheric
CO,

respiration
of animals

,
food for
animals

... litler
ecomposation
'------­
dead organism
respiration of roots

Doc.e The carbon cycle in a forest ecosystem.

PROB I NG [rH El AC TI VI TY

1. Knowing that the mediterranean sea has a surfa ce area of 2,510,000 km' and that the
carbon fixation by autotrophs is at 80 g.m-'year-\ calculate the quantity of carbon fixed in
one year. What is the effect of the destruction of the coasts on the carbon cycle?
2 Is the role of the decomposers in an agricultural ecosystem the same as in a natural one?
Justify.
,Is respiration the only process that liberates CO, in the atmosphere?
"All livin g things are mineralizars." Comment in a short paragraph.

•
217
 SUMMING UP
ECOSYSTEMS ARE ECOLOGICAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNITS COMPOSED OF LIVING THINGS, PLANTS AND ANI­
MALS (BIOCENOSIS) INTERACTING WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENT (BIOTOPE). THE TROPHIC ORGANIZATION OF
ECOSYSTEMS REVEALS FOOD INTERRELATIONSHIPS THAT EXIST BETWEEN THESE ORGANISMS.
THE ORGANIZATION AND ENERGETIC DYNAMICS OF NATURAL HABITATS DEPEND ON THE EFFICIENCY OF THE
CONVERSION, AT EACH TROPHIC LEVEL, OF THE RECEIVED ENERGY. IT ALSO DEPENDS ON THE AMOUNT OF
ENERGY WHICH IS STORED IN THE PRODUCED ORGANIC MATTER. THE FLOW OF MATTER IN ECOSYSTEMS IS
CYCLIC WHEREAS THE FLOW OF ENERGY THAT PASSES THROUGH THEM IS LINEAR.

I - The trophic relationships The value of the biomass, generally expressed

as quantity of dry matter per surface unit,
varies according to organisms and regions. It
essentially depends on the quantity of solar
energy received and the efficacy of its conver­
In the ecosystems, the organic matter produced
sion to chemical energy by the autotrophs.
by the chlorophyllic plants, together with the
chemical energy stored in it, are transmitted to
A - THE ECOLOGICAL TURNOVERS
different organisms. Each step of this transfer
constitutes a trophic level which consists of
'Solar energy received by the chlorophyllic
either eating or being eaten. A food chain is
plants is not integrally converted into chemical
composed of a series of living beings, or links
energy: only efficient radiations for photosyn­
that belong to different trophic levels according thesis, are used to synthesize organic matter. In
to their diet. In nature food, chains show com­ addition, some part of this matter is utilized by
mon links and constitute a food web. the plant for its own functioning and growth.
This organization of ecosystems is based on the The efficacy of conversion varies according to
the nature of the plant and the conditions of
notions of producers, generally the autotrophs,
the environment.
and consumers, primary or secondary, the het­
erotrophs. It is expressed by:
- the gross photosynthetic yield or the per­
centage of energy stored in the chloroplasts.
- the net photosynthetic yield or the percen­
tage of the plant biomass produced.
II - Ecological turnovers and
productivities These turnovers determine the "load" of
he-terotrophs in a given ecosystem or, in
other terms, its capacity to support a certain
The biomass indicates the total mass of either number of living beings.
the living organisms (biocenosis) present on a ' The efficacy by which heterotrophs utilize food
well determined surface (biotope), or of the is also variable.
organisms belonging to a population, or to a Port of the ingested (I) matter is rejected in th e
well defined trophic level. environment as a non-assimilated form (NA).

•
218
The assimilated (A) portion is utilized to assure: III - Flow of energy
- in one hand, the proper (P) build-up of the in an ecosystem
organism.
- on the other hand, all the metabolic func­
tions of the individual. In fact, all the cellular Living beings are not energy producers but
respiratory processes are accompanied by dis­ energy transformers. Solar energy is converted
sipation of heat (R). As a result , the quantity of by autotrophs into potential chemical energy
organic matter produced (P) is very weak with and then transferred, as other forms of energy,
respect to that ingested. all along the food chains. Due to the differences
in the ecological efficiencies, and at each step
of transfer of organic matter, the quantity of
This allows us to establish, for each population
energy transmitted is lower than that received.
of consumers, the ecological turnovers of
Thus, we end up by a very weak conservation of
assimilation, production and growth.
energy.

On the other hand, all energy conversion

8 - THE ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS processes (photosynthesis, respiration, biologic
oxidation ...) are accompanied by dissipation of
In the ecosystems the decrease of the available
energy in the environment as lost heat.
energy, from one trophic level to the next,
Therefore, energy circulation is unidirectional:
allows to define the ecological pyramids. this is why the flow of energy is called linear.
• The pyramid of numbers: gives only a quanti­
On the contrary, circulation of matter is cyclic.
tative idea on the number of individuals living
In addition to the food web of the herbivores,
in an ecosystem. which is based on primary producers, there
• The pyramid of biomass: which brings infor­ exists a food web of "detritivores" or decom­
posers. Th ese assure the decomposition of
mation on the mass of the biocenoesis, at a
dead organic matter and its return to the soil as
given moment, in the biotope under study.
minerals.
• The pyramids of energy: established by unit of
All dead organic matter (debris, detritus, cada­
surface area and unit of time represent, in their
vers ...) are deposited on the surface of the earth
utmost, the potentials of the environments
and constitutes the litter. With the aid of the
under study:
microorganisms (fungi, bacteria) present in the
- the pyramid of the gross productivities indi­ soil, the detritivores and the decomposers
cates the quantity of dry matter produced at as·ssure the degradation, humification and
mine-ralization of this litter, thus the return of
a certain trophic level.
the mineral matter to the same environment
- the pyramid of the net productivities indi­ from which it was drawn.
cates the quantity of energy present at each
The presence of these two categories of food
trophic level and which is effectively available
web supports the dynamics of ecosystems and
for the following one.
assures their continuity. The quantitative study

•
219
of the energy balance in ecosystems takes into ted in the ecosystem by the process of photo­
account the energy inputs, stocks, and losses. synthesis:"mineral" carbon is fixed by reduction
The quantity of energy initially fixed by the in the organic molecules of autotrophs. Stored
chlorophyllic plants is equal to the sum of the in organic matter, transferred from one trophic
energy stored in the ecosystem and the one lost level to the other, it will be restored, in the oxi­
(dissipated or transferred into other environ­ dized state, to its original reservoirs.
ments). In this case, we are speaking about a
This restoration occurs by the phenomenon of
balanced energy status.
respiration at the level of the herbivorous food
web, as well as by the processes of respiration
IV - The carbon cycle and fermentation at the level of "detritivores"
in an ecosystem food web. The latter processes have an impor­
tant role in the achievement of this cycle, and
Carbon is an essential element present in all also in the process of the global circulation of
living organism s. The carbon cycle designates matter in an ecosystem.
the sum of the phenomena that assures the
continuous passage of this element in the As a conclusion, ecosystem need continuous
ecosystem, from the mineral to the organic intake of energy and matter. The Sun assures
state, or vice-versa. the external energy necessary for photosynthe­
sis, which is the starting point of the trophic
Whether uptaken under the gaseous state (car­ chains of " herbivores". This is why it is consi­
bon dioxide) in the atmosphere or the dissolved dered as the motor of the cycles of matter,
state (bicarbonates) in water, carbon is integra­ especially that of carbon.

•
220
'------.., CON CEPT MAPPING

light energy
co, lost
energy

energy
usee
respiration
o plant

co,
.....,J......lI;tJ-. . derbls of plants
co, o
c:
~
Q.
E
:::I
III
c:
animal
:SPlratlt
o(.)
\. ,, _ .......
°n l~\~~t
-- ,­

;>.Q; l!!
CD
liiE (I)
o
co, .§
Q.giil m
c.
excrements...LClea.o 0 a E
U
o
~
"C

animal .~.
respiration
~
"'(1)
~E
C:::;,
OU)
UC:
(1)0
U)u

energy flow
c:::::=:>:. transfer of matter
circulation of co,
Transfer of matter and energy in an ecosystem

•
22 1
 EXERC ISE 6--------.
The following document represents the bio­ 2. Compare the biomass in the oceans to that of
mass of the different ecosystems expressed in coastal regions and suggest one explanation
tons of dry matter by hectare. of the difference observed.
1. If we consider theoretically that the turnover 3. Depending on questions 1 and 2, explain how
of photosynthesis of all the ecosystems is 1%, primary production conditions the energy
calculate their maximal net primary produc­ flow in an ecosystem .
tion.

VI CI)
-VI 0c
CI).-
...
0
vi
.x ~ ., t:
I:
0
CI) "0- ... Cl Q C1l
VI C
0 ... E
.- C
-CI) VI ......
o CI) o c
a:CJ) '"
.S!
C1l "­
'" '"
-
C
IU N 0 "0
c "0-
Co
.-"'0
- II>,
-
.~ C.
CD VI CI) .- 0 el",

0
Q IU
VI
CI)
C
>
0
0
c.. E~
:::I ...
...
'" C1l
c..CJ)
C1l
"-"0
...
C1l I:
IU 0 E X 0
0
0
N m":
m

EXERCI SE 'l.~----~""""""
The analysis of the productivity can explain GPP AR HR NPE
how an ecosystem is functioning. Taking into
consideration the following table (values in Field of 54.3 20.2 1.8 32.3
kj. ha-'. year -') and knowing that: Alfalfa

GPP =Gross Primary Productivity Mixed

forest ofoa 25.6 14.2 6.7 4.7
NPP = Net Primary Productivity
NPE = Net Productivity of the Ecosystem and pine
AR = Autotrophic Respiration Rain
100 71.1 28.9 0
HR = Hetetrophic Respiration forest

1. Calculate the NPP of these ecosystems.

2. Compare, for each productivity, the values 4. Knowing that in a totally equilibrated ecosys­
related to these habitats and comment. tem there is almost no energy exported out­
3. Calculate, in each case, the % of NPE in rela· side, compare the three ecosystems at issue.
tion with the GPP.

•
224
 Supplementary
information
BIOAMPLIFICATION OF DDT IN A FOOD CHAIN

Dichlorodiphenyl thr ichloroethane or DDT is a The increase in poisonning accident amidst the
powerful pesticide. Very useful in agriculture, it rural communities lead the scientists to search
was widely used for many years. for their causes. DDT was found to be responsi­
ble and its use is now probihited worldwide.

multiplication by
10 million of the
ODT concentration
DDT in the
tissues of
predator
bird 25 ppm

DDT In the
tissues of
a big fish
2 ppm

DDT In the
tissues of
a small fish o
0.5 ppm o
o
o
DDT In the
tissues of
zooplankton
0.04 ppm

DDT In
water
0.000 003 ppm

Marine and terrestrial food chains amplify DDT DDT is only one example. Heavy metals such as
concentration in the tissues of living things. mercury and lead have hasardous effects on
Man, who is at the top of trophic pyramids, thus health. Released in in dustrial wastes, their con­
ingests large quantities of "u naccounted for" centration in the Mediterranean sea is well
toxic pollutants. above world accepted norms.

•
225
I.
 ·.

c H A P T E R

CARBON, WHICH IS THE BASIC ELEMENT FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF ORGANIC

MATTER, IS ONE OF THE MOST ABUNDANT CDNSTITUENTS OF THE BIOSPHERE.
STORED IN THE DIFFERENT ENVELOPES OF THE PLANET EARTH, CARBON CIRCU­
LATES CONTINUOUSLY BY PASSING FROM THE MINERAL TO THE ORGANIC STATE
AND VICE-VERSA. THESE EXCHANGES TAKE PLACE ACCORDING TO A CLOSED
NATURAL CYCLE: THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE OF CARBON.

MAN'S EXPLOITATION OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES DISTURBS THIS CYCLE: THE

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM OF NATURAL EXCHANGES IS THUS DISRUPTED.

226
 Man and the
carbone cycle

Problems to be solved Activities

• What are the circulation and exchange 1. Biogeochemical cycle of carbon.

paths of carbon at the scale of the terres­
trial globe? 2. Human activities and the carbon cycle.
• What are the disturbances of the biogeo­
chemical cycle of carbon induced by man? 3. Greenhouse effect and global warming.
• Can we predict the consequences of these
disturbances?

•
227
 1 THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
OF CARBON

At the ecosystems' level, carbon is mobilized by the biochemical

processes of photosynthesis, respiration and fermentation. Are
there any other circulation paths of carbon at a global scale? If
so, what are the major reservoirs of this element?

1. Major carbon reservoirs

The total mass of carbon on

atmosphere
planet Earth is difficult to (CO,)
quantify. Following the 700
physicochemical state under
which carbon exists in a
given place, it's possible to
estimate the average capaci­
ty of carbon storage in the hydrosphere
40x10'
different reservoirs.
CO, 1%
HCO,­ 90%
CO,'- 5a10%
Doc. Q The envelopes of planet ~
Earth represent the major
carbon reservoirs (mean
va lues expressed in
Gigatons; IGt=109t).

2 .Exchange mechanisms
The carbon circulation is not restricted only to There is however an equilibrium between the
the interior of ecosystems. It also takes place molecules of carbon diOXide, hydrogenocarbo­
between the different reservoirs, especially nate ions (HC0 3 -) and carbonate ions (CO/-),
between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. linked to each other by reverSible and equili­
These exchanges are possible due to: brated reactions;
• Physical processes: free carbon dioxide diffu­ CO 2 + 2H 20 .. HC0 3 - + H3 0+
sion from where its relative concentration is the
highest to where it is the lowest. HC0 3- + H2 0 . C0 3 2- + H30+
• Chemical processes: solubility and precipita­ This equilibrium is essentially displaced in
tion of mineral carbon . The solubility of carbon marine environments by the precipitation of
dioxide is inversely proportional to the tempe­ carbonate ions, slightly soluble, in the form of
rature of water. calcium carbonate.

•
228
All the processes and paths of circulation, by In their natural state, that is the absence of any
which mineral and organic carbon are mobi­ human intervention, carbon exchanges between
lized and returned to the environment, follow a reservoirs present a dynamic equilibrium.
cycle.

...... ------. .. .. ------.- .... -­

,."
~~

~~-
.-----­ -- -­ -.....­----­

, ,
, ,
I I

,,, ,,,
, ,
:t
.
CO,+H,o ~ ~~t
5 •••
•
•••••• •

~H,CO, .. ~ lish, zooplankton

\....... ~
\

~~ O;4~'"'' .. T 1 naturel gas peat

' - resid.ues
• '. fossllisallon 6 - - - --1 lignite
•~ •• •••••• "'!f
0"
-.• ..........•••• petroleum 01'1

........... lithos here

P." fo$sIJlsatioli

diffusion CO, - - -....~ respiration

assimilation CO, ............. ~ decomposition @ =C - fiux x 10't.a·'

Doc. b Biogeochemical cycle of carbon

PROBING iTHEI ACTIVITY

Calculate the percentage of carbon stored in each of the identified reservoirs, with respect
to its total mass on the planet Earth.

. In what form does carbon exist in each of these reservoirs? In which case can we say that it
is "trapped" or exchanged with difficulty?

"Polar ocean masses are carbon sinks". Justify this statement. Deduce the general direction
of carbon circulation, at a global scale. between the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
Analyze doc. b and deduce the presence of a dynamic equilibrium in the biogeochemical
cycle of carbon.

•
229
 2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND
THE CARBON CYCLE

A disturbance of the f ixation and restitution processes of carbon

creates a modification in the atmospheric concentration of CO 2 .
What are the factors capable of inducing such changes? What is
the role of man in this process?

1. Disturbing factors
Because plants are the natural regulators of the atmosphere, deforestation disrupts the natural
flow of carbon . Research carried on in Lebanon gives the following annual averages (Source:
Inventory of emissions of greenhous gases, UNDP, 1998).

forest conifers others

trees utilisation fire coal industrial woodcraft total
wood wood
burned
585 715 lost biomasse
surface (ha)
200 1.53 147.34 68.42 417.29
(kt D.M)
lost biomass
30.13 5
(kt D.M) carbon
released 90 0.69 66.3 30.79 187.78
13.56 2.25 equivalent (kt)
carbon (kt)
Doc. a Natural or " provoked " forest fires Doc. b The quantity of ca rbon "subtracted" by exploiting fore st depend s on
release a large quantity of carbon . the use afwood.

The industrial boom of the XIXth century wa s accompanied by an increase in the production and
utilization of energy.

Doc. c Extraction of fossil fuels involves the rapid mobi­ Doc. d The production of cement starts with li mestone
lization of re se rvoirs w hich have t aken million s of years rocks. In Lebanon 10.8% of the released CO 2 are due to
to form . this sector.

•
230
2 . Activit sectors and CO 2 emissions:
Human activities responsible for the increase in atmospheric CO 2 level s can be divided into two
major categories:

• Changes in modes of land occupation and • Use of fossil fuels in the processes of energy
land use, particularly by deforestation and production and consumption, including all the
urbanization. industrial sectors.

I~
World Africa Europe North and South Asia Oceania Lebanon
Central America America
Sector
ene~fY
an 22339408 715773 6866494 5715466 605029 7118317 297246 13603
industry

land use 4100000 730000 11000 190000 1800000 1300000 38000 200.4

Doc. e Quantity of CO, released by the different sectors of activity in different regions of the world (value in 10 3t: 1 kg
of carbon = 3.664 kg of CO 2 ) - Sources :World resources in stitute, 1996-97; Lebanon: Inventory of emissions of
greenhouses gases UNDP, 1998.

3- Variation in the concentration of atmospheric CO 2 :

Although it reached only 280 ppm (parts per Based on hypotheses of demographic develop­
million) at the beginning of the industrial revo­ ment, economic growth and energy choices of
lution, in the year 1800, the present CO 2 con­ the planet, experts have elaborated a number
centration of the atmosphere in 360 ppm. of scenarios of CO 2 emissions by year 2100.
almOlp~ello CO.oonml~llon Ippm)
II'I!I~II!I CO ~n~nl~lI~ Ipp'L

Doc! Variation of the atmospheric CO 2 concentration

during th e last millenary. Doc.g The predictions: "catastrophic" scenarios.

PROBING iTHEI ACTIVITY

a) Using doc. d, calculate in carbon equivalent the world em missions of CO 2,
b) Knowing that the surface of Oceania is about 9 million km2, compare emissions by km 2
in this region to that in Lebanon. What can we observe?
The annual increase in atmospheric CO 2 is about 3 to 4 Gt. Hypothesize on the difference
between this figure and that obtained in question 1a.
3 a) Following doc. f, link the increase in the levels of atmospheriC CO 2 to human activities.
b) Why are there a number of scenarios for this increase (doc. g)? What do they have in
common?

•
231
 3 GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL
WARMING

The accumulation ofCO, emitted in the air by the combustion of

hydrocarbons modifies the physico-chemical characteristics of
the atmosphere. What are the predictable changes and the con­
sequences?

1. Greenhouse effect: a natural phenomenon

Less than half of the solar radiation reaches the
cloods incident solar
surface of the Earth. Part of the energy that is reflecllOll at
particles energy
(25%)

~/!I
absorbed by the ground is re-emitted to the (he surlace
Ollh' ","h \
atmosphere in the form of infra-red radiation
~
re "6m1tted (5%) re-emitted

(thermal energy). These emissions are blocked "r" "d\ lor" " d
by gases that are naturally present in the j}tJ
fJj
atmosphere: water vapor, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide. The retaining of this
energy provokes an increase in the tempera­
ture. This phenomenon is known as the "green­
house effect".
It is a naturally beneficial process, without
which the average temperature on the surface
of the earth would be _18°( instead of + 15°C.
Doc.o The atmosphere filters solar rays.
2 . Global warming: an am lification of the greenhouse effect.
Human activities linked to the industrial and agricultural boom release additional quantities of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
• Methane is released by the combustion offos­ • (Fe's and their derivatives are the only artifi ­
sil fuels, fermentation of waste and of cattle cial greenhouse gases. These industrial chemi­
faeces . cal products are used in air conditioners, refri­
• Massive usage of chemical fertilizers (N,P,K) gerators, and cleaning solvents.
increases the levels of nitrous oxide in the
atmosphere. Doc.b Accumulati on of greenhouse gases
y (Source, Climate change, IPCC, 1997).

greenhouse gases carbon methane nitrous chlorofluorocarbons

acid CFC HCFC CF,.
pre-industrial
280 0.7 0 .275 none none none
concentration (ppm)
concentration in
1994 (ppm) 358 1.72 0.312 268.10-6 110.10- 6 72.10-6
percentage of
annual increase (%) 0.4 0.6 0.25 Zero 5 2
lite span in tne
50-200 12 120 50 12 50000
atmosphere (years)

•
232
Increase in gree nhouse gase s, including
variation of the - previsions according fa model 92a
water vapor, translates into an increase , temperature fj. \ (0G) - observed temperatures
in air temperature. The different climate
models establi shed predict, for the
coming century, an increa se in this tem ­
perature by , t o 3.5 °C. The con sequences
of this global warming will be:

- a disturbancy in the pattern of precipi­ ,

tation : winter precipitation and ground
humidity will in crease at high latitudes.
In contrast, regions that are presently
favorable for agriculture will become
.j
deserts.
': 1860
:::-:;I6~
8O:-I:::90~O--:-;,9:::2Q:-::'94:":"O::-:I~:::-:,:::980:::-:
960 2:::O
Q :02Q20:-:::~
::-~·~ 2"'·0::-:::':"
2060' ::-:2:Ql:· 60
:::-:2:7.jO:::-ve~ar
O
Ooc.e Variation of th e average surface temperature of pla net
- the rise in sea levels (15 to 95 cm
Earth.
depending on the model) as a result of
warming of oceans, melting of the gla­
ciers and polar ice caps. Coastal zones
will be submerged and several plains
(low lying) will be covered with water.

- modifications of natural habitats and

ecological niches: most animal s and
plants that do not tolerate high tempe­
ratures will disappear or will have to
migrate northward.

Since the beginning of the century, the

Aletsh glacier (Switzerland) has lost
height (10 to 29 meters at 3000 m of
altitude and 40 to 50 m at 2000 m). It
has retreated of about 1000 m since
1892!
Ooc.d An increase in th e temperature leads to the retreat of
glaciers.

1. Analyze doc. a and deduce the importance of the atmosphere for life on Earth.
2. Fro m doc. b, what would be the effect of the immediate ceasing of emis sions of greenhouse
ga ses? Justify.
3 Compare doc. c to doc. f and doc. g in activity 2. What can we observe?
4. Determine the pos sible cau ses of an increa se in greenhou se gases in your environment.
(village, city, neighborhood ...). Propose concrete and simple actions, at the level of each indi­
vi-dual that would allow to remedy to this situation.
------------------------~

•
233
 SUMMING UP
CARBON IS AN ABUNDANT ElEMENT ON EARTH. INTEGRATED IN THE BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC CONSTITUENTS
OF ALL ECOSYSTEMS, IT IS STORED IN THE DIFFERENT ENVELOPES OF OUR PLANET. THE QUANTITY OF CARBON
PRESENT IN EACH OF THESE RESERVOIRS AS WELL AS THE NATURAL EQUILIBRIUM OF THE FLOW OF CARBON
ARE DISRUPTED BY MAN . THIS MEANS AN INCREASE IN THE "GREENHOUSE EFFECT", A NATURAL PHENOME­
NON IN ITS ORIGIN, MANIFESTED BY AN INCREASE IN ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE.
CLIMATE CHANGES INDUCED BY THIS GLOBAL WARMING WILL BE SO GREAT THAT SEVERAL PREDICTIVE
MODELS HAVE BEEN ELABORATED. HOWEVER,"NON ALARMIST"THEORIES EXISTTHAT REFUTE OR MINIMIZE
THE EFFECTS OF THESE MODIFICATIONS.

B- BALANCED NATURAL FLOW

I - Biogeochemical cycle of carbon
At the ecosystem level, carbon is fixed by pho­
A- THE PRINCIPAL CARBON RESERVOIRS tosynthesis and restored to the environment
mainly by respiration and fermentation. In a
Carbon exists on Earth in two forms: organic balanced ecosystem, net carbon balance is nil:
and mineral. The speed of its circulation the quantity of CO 2 released into the environ­
between the different envelopes of our planet ment is equal to that which has been removed.
depend on processes that permit its exchange On a global scale, biochemical processes
and also on the form in which it is exchanged. exchange an estimated 110 Gigatons (Gt) of car­
bon per year. Other exchanges of a physico­
"Mobilized Carbon" is contained in three reser­ chemical nature take place place between the
voirs: different reservoirs. The flow of carbon that cir­
- the atmosphere, in the form of gaseous CO 2 . culates between the atmosphere and the ocean
-the biosphere, incorporated in organic matter. is estimated at around 90 Gt/year. This diffu­
- the hydrosphere, dissolved in the form of gas sion represents the largest exchange process
(C0 2 ), hydrogenocarbonate ions (HC0 3t and between these two environments. It takes place
carbonate ions (CO/-). from the environment with the highest CO 2
concentration to the one with the lowest con­
There is a fourth reservoir in which this element centration .
is immobilized for millions of years, the litho­
CO 2 (atm) + 2H 2 0 _ HC0 - (ocean) + Hp+
sphere. In this terrestrial envelope, carbon is 3
"trapped" in: But the phenomenon is complex; it depends on
- calcareous rocks and limestone sediments in several factors that influence the solubility of
the form of CaC0 3. CO 2 in water:
- carbonated rocks, that is fossil fuels such as
petroleum, coal and natural gas. • Dissolution of different ions takes place
according to equilibrated and reversible reac­
tions. Modification of the concentration of one
solution influences the concentration of another:

•
234
Carbonate ions, which are very slightly soluble, Faced with this eVidence, scientists have cons­
precipitate in the form of calcium, magnesium tructed climate models that attempt to predict
or other carbonates, favoring thereby additio­ the increase in CO 2 levels in relation with demo­
nal absorption of atmospheric CO 2 , graphic and industrial development in the
world. Most of these models indicate an
• Solubility of CO 2 varies with water tempera ­
increase in this concentration, which will be
ture; it increases in cold water (SOOO ppm at
between 500 and 800 ppm in the year 2100.
O'C) and decreases in warm water (2000 ppm at
25'C). By moving towards the polar zones,
ocean water masses become charged with CO 2 ;
their return to the tropics and the equator is
accompanied by a significant gaz emission.
111- Greenhouse effect and global
warming:
The entirety of all the processes and pathways
of circulation, by which carbon is exchanged With other gases naturally present in the
between the different envelopes of the planet atmosphere, CO 2 traps the thermal energy of
Earth, constitutes the biogeochemical cycle of infra-red radiation emitted by the Earth. The
carbon. resultant rise in temperature is called "green­
hou se effect".

II - Human activities and The The actual increase in atmospheric CO 2 concen­

carbon cycle: tration and other greenhouse gases, natural or
artificial, increase the "greenhouse effect". Since
A_ DISTURBING FACTORS AND ACTIVITY SECTORS
1850, the average surface temperature of the
A number of factors provoke a disruption in the terrestrial globe has increased by approximate­
biogeochemical cycle of carbon, as well in the ly l ' C. Specialists predict that, if the increase in
amount of CO, in the different reservoirs or in CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere is main­
the flow of carbon between them. Major dis­ tained at the present rate, the temperature of
turbing factors are deforestation and the the atmosphere will rise by 3.5'C by the end of
increased use offossil fuels. the coming century. This increase of the green­
house effect, known as global warming , will
Principal sectors of human activities responsi­ have considerable consequences:
ble for these modifications are those involved in
the production and use of energy (industry, - the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps will
power stations, transport of goods and passen­ cause a rise in the sea levels, thus flooding the
gers ...) and those involved in the occupation low lying plains.
and use of land (agriculture, urbanization ...). - extreme climatic phenomena (typhoons,
storms, drought) will become more frequent.
B. VARIATIONS IN ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATION
- the biogeochemical distribution and compo­
OF CO 2 sition of plant communities will be modified.

The concentration of our atmosphere in CO 2 At the present state of knowledge, and despite
has remained stable (between 200 and 280 uncertainties of predictions by climate models,
ppm) for 25,000 years. It began to rise slightly it is good sense to recommend economizing on
around the year 1800, which is the beginning of energy, stabilizing its consumption and trying
the industrial era. It is today 360 ppm, that is an to slow down the greenhouse effect and limit
increase of 28% since 1900. its spread .

•
235
 CONCEPT MAPPING L..----­

solar energy
.- - - ­

-----
greenhouse
effects
greenhouse
absorbed
gases
energy RE-emitted

use of fosoil
fuels

lri
~
I

I !I .. (

melting of

Man and the carbon cycle

•
236
 EXERCISES
2. In the oceans:
a- CO 2 is fi xed in the form of HC0 - .
3
b- CO 2 is dissolved in the form of CaC0 .
3

·_EXERCISE rl-------. c- shells of marine animals are the reservoirs

of immobilized carbon .
d- the amount of dis solved CO 2 increases
Mark the true statements and correct the with depth.
false ones.
3. Changes in the atmosphere imposed by man
1. Abusive logging of forest trees results in a
can be reduced by:
ri se in CO 2 emissions in the atmosphere.
a- deforestation
b- banning the use of CFCs
2. The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon that c- using public transportation
re sults from a rise of CO 2 in the atmosphere. d- repla cing fossil fuel by nuclear energy

4. Natural gases that contribute to the green­

3. The use of carbon deposits as an energy house effects are :
source leads to a rise in the levels of atmos· a- nitrogen
pheric oxygen. b- methane
c- hydrogen
d- carbon dioxide
4. The oceanic reservoir has a great influence in
the regulation of the atmospheric concentra·
tions in carbon dioxide.

EXE RCISE . ""'- - - - - - - - . .

5. Actual climate changes are , to some extent,
the indirect result of human activities.
The following table represents variations in the
average concentration in ppm (parts per mil­
lions) of CO 2 in the atmosphere:
. _ EXERCISE r---"~-----...,
year CO, year CO,
(ppm) (ppm)
Choose the correct answer(s).

1740 276 1880 292

1. Fossilization: 1760 278 1900 298
a- slows down the biogeochemical cycle of
1780 280 1920 308
carbon
b- transforms organic carbon into mineral 1800 282 1940 314
carbon. 1820 284 1960 326
c- results in the formation of calcareous rocks. 1840 286 1980 348
d- take s place in the hydrosphere as well as in 1860 288 1990 360
the lithosphere.

•
237
1. Draw the corresponding curve. 3. Knowing that these measurements were pre ­
2. How does this curve reveal the impact of pared on ice samples removed from the polar
human activity upon the observed variation? ice caps, explain the necessity for global
Justify the answer by a just choice of dates . action to preserve Earth's climate .

• _EXERCISE i:I!=====::J
Ombrothermal diagrams are graphs that repre · Diagram I: Actual climate characteristics
sent average monthly variations in temperature Diagram II: Predictions for the year 2080 follo­
and precipitation; they also allow us to deter­ wing the hypotheses of a doubling of actual
mine the period of biological drought. Studies atmospheric CO 2 levels (following the climatic
conducted in Lebanon show for the station of model Had CM2).
Fakehe (located in the region of Hermel-EI Qaa,
in the north-west of the country) the following
results:

~ 30 . .60 §
;~ W~
.. ,. ....."
::; " ............ ..~
,
.....
,""
-. . 20 , . . . . . . ..... 40 0~
,
.... ,
:;;
a..
15 .."
.... biological
'.. .., 30 ~
~ ""
!l10 drought 20 :§­ ..~
"
" biological
drought
,
\~
~ 5 10 *­ ._,' II

~ O.~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0
I J F M A M J J A SON 0 1
month
••••• T (OC) month
- P(mm)

II

1. Compare the two diagrams. What can we deduce?

2. FAO. (Food and Agriculture Organization) statistics indicate, forthe period 1990-1995, an annu­
al decrease of 7.8%, in forest coverage in Lebanon. Find the relationship between this informa­
tion, data of doc. a and b in Activity 2 and diagram II.

•
238
 Supplementary
information
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: THE CONTRADICTIONS

C!IlI11P
?I.;~I ,,,.;.11 ,..01 "."~

Poster edited for the project: "inpact of climatic changes". 1999.

•
239
I
I.
METHODOLOGICAL
AND TECHNICAL
Methodolo ical 1
chart

How TO BUILD A DIAGRAM?

A diagrams allows to transform a table of data into outlines that can translate the variations of a
value in function of another which is also variable.

temperature (en °C) 5 10 15 20 25 30

respiratoiry frequency 42 64 86 117 146 174

Variationof the respiratory frequence of a fish in function of the

temperature.

• Note down the values that we need to rep­

respiratory frequence
resent graphically and note the data to be
placed on the abscisse (horizontal axis = x­ 174 ____ _____ ________________________ ___
axis) and ordinate (vertical axis =y-axis) 146 _____ ______________________ __

• Choose a scale for each of the two axes and 117

graduate them. 86 _ ______________ ___

• Report on the x-axis, the first value and 64

trace, in dots, the vertical line that passes by 42
this point.

• Report the corresponding value on the y­

axis and trace, in dots, the horizontal line
o 5 10 15 20 ~5 30 temperature
( in 0c)
that passes by this pai nt.
chosen scale
• Mark with a point the int ersection of these
two straight lines. s' c
I-----i on the x-axis,! em represents 5-(
lcm
• Procede in the same way to trace the other
points and link the points to each other in a ~ on the y-axiS, 0.5 cm represents a frequency of
continuous line. O.5cm 20.

• Put a title for the diagram.

•
241
~Me~~~~~~
~thodolo,g~ii~=
caI____________________~ ~
chart

How TO USE A DIAGRAM?

Graphic representations allow to translate the variation of one value in function of another which
is also variable.

chosen scale

Soc
on the x-axis, 1 em represents SoC
respirator frequency 1cm
174.. _____ ________ ____ _____ _____ _____ ___ _
146 . 20
I--'--i on the y-a xis, 0.5 em represent s a frequen cy of
O.Scm
20.
117
86
64 ______ ____ __
42

o 5 10 15 20 25 30 temperature "'Variation of the respiratory frequency of a fish

(in 0c) in function of the temperature.

• Read the title of the diagram.

• Note down the values indicated on the y-axis
and on the x-axis.
• Note down the chosen scales on the axes
and the unit in which every value is
expressed. N°'of risk
• Describe the variations of the studied value factors
(increase, decrease, stability...) in function of
the experimental conditions. Histogram
• Note down the unmarkable points and their
coordinates.
• Deduce the signifiance of the noticed variations.

We can use other graphic representation (his­

tograms and circular diagrams). circular diagrams

•
242
 chart

How TO READ AND ANALYSE A SCIENTIFIC TEXT?

The reading and analysis of a scientific text intend to arouse the curiosity of the student, who, in
response to the asked questions, must find in the text the related informations .

• Read the text for the first time to identify the • Check if the little corresponds to the general
general topic. topic which will be anticipated in the text .

• Read the text for the second time to underline • Locate the origin of the text (magazine, ency­
the difficult words and expressions. clopedia, specialized books ...) and write down
the name of the author.
·Look for the meaning of the difficult words in
a dictionary and check that the information • Analyse the text, sentence by sentence, and
obtained allows the understanding of the underline the expressions that are directly
meaning of the studied sentence. related to the studied problem.

·Combine the major ideas to make up a short

summary.

•
243
..

WORKING WITH CASE

(Computer Assisted Scientific Experimentation)

CASE is a modern technique which allows to improve the

analysis of the experimental results. It conbines a collection
of tools: computer, receivers, interface, allowing, to visualize
on screen the results of an experiment during its realization.

EXPERIMENTAL MOUNTING WITH CASE

This device comprises:

The monitors screen allowing to visualize the
(1)
obtained results (1).
The central unit containing the programs
(softwares)(2).
The keyboard (3) . (2) r,:.,lm
The receivers (4).
The interface that links the receivers to the com­ ~%r-i'~.
puter(S).
The printer (6).
1.2.3 - The computer processes the data sent by
the interface and visualizes them on the (5)
screen (charts, tables ...) thanks to particu­
lar programs.
4 - The receivers allow to measure and record the
variations of a phenomen and to transform
them into electrical signals.
5 - The interface and its adaptors constitue an
electronic system which converts the electri­
cal signal emitted by the receivers, into data
that can be used by the computer.

How TO USE A CASE LINK

• Choose the receiver in functi on of the studied

phenomenon.
• Select the program.
• Link the different tools together.
• Prepare the biological material.
• Switch the computer on.
• Start the manipulation.
• Observe the results.
• Interpret the obtained results .
• Repeat the experiment in case of failure.

•
244
CELLULAR FRACTIONING

..
ce ntrifugal
force

tubes containing the supernatant

substances to be separated pellet

differential centrifugation

"soluble" fra cllon

enzymes, su gars,
amino acids
Ions ...

-.,:.
- .1 centrlfugagtion
. centrifugagtion
of supernatant .
centrifugagtion
of supernatant

,
\f
;)'
600x G
10 minutes
} 20000 x G
30 minutes
100000 x G
90 minutes

homogeneisation
(disrupt cells in nulei mitochondria plasm a membrane
buffered solution) endopla smic
chloroplasts
reticulum
ribosomes

•
245
RADIOACTIVITY IN BIOLOGY

THE RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES OR RADIO-ISOTOPES

The technique consists of labeling a chemic al

substance with a radio-isotope in order to fol­
low the stages of a metabolic process or to
localize the label ed substance in the organism :
The organism does not distinguish between
radioactive and stable isotopes of the same ele­
ment; As a consequence, it assimilates and nor­ Then we place these papers in bottles contain­
mally transforms the labeled substance. ing a liquid with zinc sulfur (ZnS) or sodium
We cultivate the cells in an artificial medium zodide (NaZ). These substances scintillate every
that contains, among others, the chemical con­ time they are excirated by radiations coming
stituents used by cells to make new molecules,. from the desintegration of the radioactive ele­
We have labeled one of these constituents with ment in molecules. The sc intillation frequency,
a radioactive isotope that will alow us to follow proportional to the quantity of available
its incorporation. radioactive material is measured in counts.

After a certain period, we kill some samples of

cultured cells in the presence of a radioactive
tracer element and we precipitate the mole­
cules on filter papers.

AUTORADIOGRAPHIE

Used to locolize the radioacti ve ly labeled DNA

in cells, the first steps consist of culturing the
cells in a medium containing a labeleed precur­
sor. Then we fix the cells and we place them on
thin glass slides that we cover with a slender
film of photographic emulsion. The mounting is
left in teh dark for few days.
Scintillation counter
Wherever DNA exists in cells, the radiation
emitte from the radioactive marker will expose
the photographic emulsions. All we hae to do
then is to develop the emulsions and to exam­
ine the slides under the microscope.

The black pOints of the exposed emulsion will

appear in the cell nucleus, which in the site of
most of the DNA.

•
246
KARVOTVPI NG

cell culture preparation

colcemid
peripheral blood phytohemagglutinin (about 2h .)
rymphO~ r lOZen)
1
cell
proliferation centrifugagtion .

600 X G
10 minutes
• ~ ,':
/ " '-I
hypotonic
solution
, , of potassium
/ (chloride (KCI)
culture
cell pellet (about 20 min)
medium

centrifugation
removal
with a pipette

·,".
G"t ~l,
centrifugagtion ,\.
•
·• ,
.'1
'.'J
I fixative
/
spread drop by cell pellet cell pellet

1
drop on a slide

heating covering with

a coverslip

/ ="~ 7 • -~. /Zk77

preparation slide
staining dish

I under
~ microscope

XX XX ~i "\­
""""
~
~

" I ~
photography
and
,/
",,'"
XX XX XX );( , cutting
I
-Y' "",: t
~ nn IX U
~ i
11 ,I'
Xi lj XX XI
.
.
'\-
"'­ 1 . -*
karyotype metaphase under
the microscope

•
247
REACTION OF IDENTIFICATION
OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES

BIURET'S TEST

1- Mix 2 cm ' of the solution to be tested with

1 cm' of NAOH 1% and 1 cm ' of (usa. at
0.2% .
2 - Note the formation of a violet ring at the
surface. A positive test identifies the
presence of pept ide bonds.

FEHLING'S SOLUTION TEST

1- Mix an equal volume of the solution to be

tested with fehling's solution.
2 - Bring to a boiling point.
3- Note the formation of a brick-red precipitate.
A positive test identifies the presence of
reducing sugars.

IODINE WATER TEST

1- Add few drops of iod ine water to the sample

to be tested .
2 - Note the formation of:
- A blue color: presence of glycogen
- a brown color: presence of glycogen.

TEST WITH SOUDAN III

1- Deposit a drop of the liquid to be tested on a

slide.
2 - Add a drop of Soudan III solution, mix and
observe on a microscope.
3- Observe the appearence of red drophets. A
positive test identifies the presence of lipids.

•
248
A GLOSSARY

Acetyl co A: Consists of a pyruvate fragment cova­ Biomass: The t otal weight of all organic matter in a
lently bonded to coenzyme A. A key compound in biocenosis.
Krebs cycle. Biopsy: The removal of a small tis sue fragment
Actin: A protein that, together with the protein from the living body.
myosin, is responsible for the ability of muscles to Budding: Asexual reproduction in which a small
contract. part of the parent's body bulges outward and deve­
Aer obe (or aerobium): A microorganism that lops into a new individual.
requires free oxygen for its respiration.
Aerobiosis: Life in the presence offree oxygen.
Albino: An individual with hereditary inability to
c
form melanin pigment resulting in abnormally light Calvin cycle: Bioc hemica l cycle taking place in the
coloration. stroma of chloroplasts. Second phase of photosyn­
Allele: Alternative form s of a gene. A diploid orga­ thesis that fixes carbon dioxide and reduces the
nism has two alleles for the same gene, each being fixed carbone into carbohydrates.
inherited from one parent. Cell cycle: Duration of the life of a cell that is com­
Anaerobe (or anaerobium): A microorganism that posed of interphase stage and mitosis.
does not require free oxygen for its development Cell fractioning (cell fractionation): The process of
and growth, and which uses the fermentation fragmentation of a living cell in order to iso late the
process to produce the energy required forthe func­ main organelles by centrifugation.
tioning of the cell. Cholesterol: Fatty substance of animal origin,
Anaerobiosis: Life in the absen ce of free oxygen. which is a constituent of plasma membrane and
Anorexia (nervosa): A refusal of food, characterized hormones.
by a fear of weight gain, leading to faulty eating Chromatography: Technique of separating the com­
patterns and malnutriti on. ponents of a mixture on a solid phase, as a result of
Anti-codon: Triplet oftRNA which is complementary differential solubility.
to the codon on mRNA. Cordon: A triplet of mRNA bases specific of a par­
Atheroma plaque: A fatty deposit in the mu scle wall ticular amino acid.
of a blood vessel, often causing an obstruction of
the blood flow.
ATP: (adenosine triphosphate): An organic com­
pound containing adenine, ribose and three phos­ D
phate groups; of prime importance for energy
transfers in biological systems. Diploid: (2n) Condition of having two sets of chro­
ATP synthethase: (ATP ase) Enzyme that intervenes mosomes per cell.
in the production of ATP. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid; support of genetiC
information.

B
Basal metabolism: The amount of energy in kilo­
joules expended by the body at rest, when no food is
being digested and at neutral environmental tem ­
perature.
Biocenosis (or Biocoenosis): A community of plants
and animals in a given area and at a given time.

•
249
 responsible for modifying, packaging, and sorting
E the products of the endoplasmic reticulum.
Greenhouse effect: Phenomenon whereby the heat
Ecologiaca l turnover: Quantitative yield that relates
from infra-red radiation emitted by the Earth is
the amount of energy produced to that received by
retained in the atmospheric particles, mainly C02
an organism or a group of organisms.
and water vapor.
Ecosystem (biogeocenosis): A community of orga­
nisms and its nonliving physical environment .
Electron -transport system: Molecules integrated in
H
the internal membrane of mithocondria and chloro­ Half-life: Time necessary for the degradation of half
plasts, that synthesize ATP by transfering electrons in the initial man of a substance.
a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. HaplOid: (In): The condition of having one set of
Electrophoresis: Technique allowing the separations chromosome per cell .
of proteins or ami no acids, according to their size, HDl-cholesterol: (High Density Lipoprotein)
electrical charge and other physical particularities. Complex that carries the ch olesterol present in the
Endoenergetic: (e ndothermi c, endergonic) Reaction tissues toward the liver where it will be degraded.
that consumes energy. Heterozygosis: Presence of 2 different alleles on
Eukaryote: Cell or organism whose genome is sepa­ both loci of a gene.
rated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane. HlA: (Human lencocyte Antigen) See MHC.
Exoenergetic: (exothermic, exergonic) Reaction that Homozygosis: Presence of the same allele on both
releases energy. loci of a gene.
Hydrogen transporter: Organic molecule present in
F all cells, that intervenes with enzymes in the oxida­
tion-reduction reactions of the metabolism.
Fermentation: Anaerobic biochemical process during
which sugars are incompletly degraded. I
Food chain: Linear sequence that shows the trophical
relationships between living organisms in an ecosys­ Insulin: Hormone secreted by the pancreas that
tem; each organism eats the preceding member and lowers blood glucose content.
is eaten by the following member of the sequence . Interphase: Period of cell cycle preceeding a divi­
Food w eb: System of interconnected food chains in a sion.lt is divided into 3 phases: Gl, S, G2 .
community. Ischemia (ischaemia): Arrest of blood flow in a part
of the organism.

G K
Gene: A particular sequence of DNA that specifies a Karyotype: Arranged set of metaphasic chromo­
character. somes.
Genome: Set of genes in a species . Krebs cycle: Exergonic biochemical cycle of 8 steps,
Genotype: Set of alleles of a gene governing a char­ that takes place in the mithocondrion and ends the
acter. degradation of glucose into CO 2 '
Global warming: Rise of the average temperature on
Earth, which is w orsened by human activities.
Glycogenogenesis: Glycogen synthesis.
L
Glycogenolysis: Glycogen hydrolysis. LDl-cholesterol: (low Density lipoprotein) Complex
Glycolysi s: First stage of cellular respiration; the that transports cholesterol from the liver toward
metaboliC conversio n of glucose into pyruvate with the tisSlles.
the production of ATP. locus: (plural lOci): Position of a gene on a chromosome.
Goigi apparatus: Organelle of eukaryotes, composed
of stacks offlatteneu membranous sacs and mainly
250
 Placenta: Organ that links the embryo to the uterus of
M the mother during gestation in mammals.
Potential energy: Energy stored in a substance due to
Malnutrition: Inadequate nutrition to the body its internal structure.
needs, either qualitatively or quantitatively. Primary consumer: In ecology, a heterotroph organism
Metabolism: The sum of all the degradative (catabo­ that consumers plants. second link in a food chain.
lism) and synthetic (anabolism) reactions in a cell. Primary productivity: Productivity of autotrophs.
Mythocondrion (plural: mithocondria): cell organelle Productivity: An increase in the biomass, expressed per
which is the site of respiration. unit oftime, and of surface or volume.
MHC: (Major Histocompatibility Complex) : The sum Prokaryote: Cell or individual whose hereditary materi­
of all cellular markers that defines the "oneself". al is not separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear
Mitosis: Cell division resulting in two daughter cells membrane.
identical to each other and to the mother cell. Protein: Organic molecule made of a well defined
Regular reproduction. sequence of amino acids.
Mutation: Any change in the genetical material Pyramid of numbers: In ecology, a diagram showing
(DNA sequence) which is inherited by the next gen­ the number of plants and animals in each trophic
erations. level.
Myofibril: Element of muscle that is composed of
actin and myosin. R
Myoglobin: Muscle protein capable of storing oxy­
gen molecul es. Reduction: Process by which a compound gains
Myosin: Contractile protein involved in muscle movements. electrons in a reaction.
Respiration: Aerobic biochemical process by which

N nutrients are completely oxidized in the mithocon­

drion in order to produce energy in the form of ATP.
Nucleotide: Unit of nucleic acids, composed of a RNA: Ribonucleic acid , that functions in the tran ­
phosphoric acid, a sugar and a nitrogenous base. scription and translation processes ofthe heredi­
tary information.

o s
Obesity: Overweight of at least 20% above the ideal
Secondary consumer: In ecology, a heterotroph
or average weight.
organism that consumes herbivorous heterotrophs.
Oxidation: Process by which a compound looses
Third link in a food chain.
electrons in a reaction.
Secondary productivity: Production of organic mat­
Oxidative phosphorylation: Production of ATP by the
ter by heterotrophs, expressed per unit of time and
process of ADP phosphorylation and the transfer of
per unit of surface or volume.
electrons from nutrients to oxygen molecules.
Substrate: Substance on which an enzyme acts.

p Reactant in an enzymatically catalyzed reaction.

T
Phenotype: All the apparent and detectable charac­
ters of an individual (physical and chemical expres­ Thylakoid: Flattened, saclike structures inside the
sion of a gene). chloroplast. Site of water photolysis.
Phosphorylation: Reaction where a phosphorylic Transcibed DNA strand: One of the DNA strands car­
group (PO l -) is fi xed on an organiC compound. rying the genetic information that is copied by the
(ADP + Pi_ATP) messenger RNA.
Pigment: Colored substance produced by living Transgenesis: Transfer of a gene from one individual
organisms: chlorophyll, melanin. to another, ofthe same or of a different species.

•
251
 j

j
 j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
j
 Su pplementa ry
information
BIOAMPLIFICATION OF DDT IN A FOOD CHAIN

Dichlorodiphenyl thrichloroethane or DDT is a The increase in poisonning accident amidst the

powerful pesticide. Very useful in agriculture, it rural communities lead the scientists to search
was w idely used for many years. for their causes. DDT was found to be responsi·
ble and its use is now pro bi hited w orldwi de.

multiplication by
10 million af the
DOT concentration
DDT in the
t issues of
predator
bird 25 ppm

DDT in the
tissues of
a big fish
2 ppm

DDT in the
tissues of
a small fish
0 .5 ppm

DDT in the
tissues of
zooplankton
0 .04 ppm

DDT in
water
0.000 003 ppm

Marin e and terrestrial food chains amp lify DDT DDT is only one examp le. Heavy metals such as
concentratio n in th e tissues of livi ng thi ngs. mercury and lead have ha sardous effects on
Man, who is at the top of trophic pyramids, thus health . Released in in du strial wastes, their con·
ingests large quantities of "unaccount ed for" centration in the M editerranean sea is well
toxic pollutants. above world accepted norms.

I
225
 c H A P T E R

CARBON, WHICH IS THE BASIC ELEMENT FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF ORGANIC

MATTER, IS ONE OF THE MOST ABUNDANT CONSTITUENTS OF THE BIOSPHERE.
STORED IN THE DIFFERENT ENVELOPES OF THE PLANET EARTH, CARBON CIRCU­
LATES CONTINUOUSLY BY PASSING FROM THE MINERAL TO THE ORGANIC STATE
AND VICE-VERSA. THESE EXCHANGES TAKE PLACE ACCORDING TO A CLOSED
NATURAL CYCLE: THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE OF CARBON.

MAN'S EXPLOITATION OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES DISTURBS THIS CYCLE: THE

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM OF NATURAL EXCHANGES IS THUS DISRUPTED.

226
 Man and the
carbone cycle

Problems to be solved Activities

1.1 What are the circulation and exchange 1. Biogeochemical cycle of carbon.
paths of carbon at the scale of the terres­
trial globe? 2. Human activities and the carbon cycle.
What are the disturbances of the biogeo­
chemical cycle of carbon induced by man? 3- Greenhouse effect and global warming.
Can we predict the consequences of these
disturbances?

227
 1 THE BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
OF CARBON

At the ecosystems' level, carbon is mobilized by the biochemical

processes of photosynthesis, respiration and fermentation. Are
there any other circulation paths of carbon at a global scale? if
50, what are the major reservoirs of this element?

1. Major carbon reservoirs

The total mass of carbon on

atmosphere
planet Earth is difficult to (CO,)
quantify. following the 700
physicochemical state under
which carbon exists in a
given place, it's possible to
estimate the average capaci­
ty of carbon storage in the hydrosphere
40x10'
different reservoirs.
CO, 1%
HCO; 90%
CO:- 5310%
Doc. a The envelopes of planet ..
Earth represent the major
carbon reservoirs (mean
values expressed in
Gigatons; IGt=109t).

2 .Exchange mechanisms
The carbon circulation is not restricted only to There is however an equilibrium between the
the interior of ecosystems. It also takes place molecules of carbon dioxide, hydrogenocarbo­
between the different reservoirs, especially nate ions (HC0 3 -) and carbonate ions (C0 3 2 -),
between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. linked to each other by reversible and equili­
These exchanges are possible due to: brated reactions:
• Physical processes: free carbon dioxide diffu­ CO 2 + 2H 2 0 .. HC0 3 - + H3 0+
sion from where its relative concentration is the
highest to where it is the lowest. HC0 3- + H2 0 . . C0 3 2- + H30+
• Chemical processes: solubility and precipita­ This equilibrium is essentially displaced in
tion of mineral carbon. The solubility of carbon marine environments by the precipitation of
dioxide is inversely proportional to the tempe­ carbonate ions, slightly soluble, in the form of
rature of water. calcium carbonate.

228
All the processes and paths of circulation, by In their natural state, that is the absence of any
which mineral and organic carbon are mobi­ human interventi on,ca rb on exchanges between
lized and returned to the environment, follow a reservoir s present a dynamic equilibrium.
cycle.

-----­ ........ _­ ' ..

(901
~- "
" ~
,tI"

"
##
---_.----­
........ - - - - - ­ .
"'.... -----­ ~­ ......
....----­
#" ,, .."193' 5
.. .. ~

,,.. ,,..

CO,+H,O .,
~H,CO, '.
40)

~~~
~ fish, zooplankton
•
•,••
,
...... .......
residues
•
•••

~
•
•••• 15)

~"4 40 ......
' - re.si,d,ues
~
fossIllsai;nr~n:a:tu~r~et~g~a~slii:p~e~at~
lignite
CO· :.• ••• •••• • ••,.. pe tro Ieum 'I

~
e. _....•.. ~";.;';..'_.., 01
" .-
",

________ • diffusion CO,

- - -.......~ respiration
L-_________~==~~~~
. a~ss~ilmi_'ation
_ _____CO _~,~___
· · "_"_"_·_,,_,,_..__decom_ _ _ on____~
_ _ _ _positi_ _0__=__-
C ____
flux X_1__
09t._~
a·'

Doc. b Biogeochemical cycle of carbon

PROBING AC TIV ITY

-----
Calculate the percentage of carbon stored in each of the identified re se rvoirs, with respect
to its total mass on the planet Earth.

2.ln what form does ca rbon exist in each of these reservoirs? In which case can we say that it
is "trapped" or exchanged with difficulty?

"Polar ocean masses are carbon sinks". Justify this statement. Deduce the general direction
of carbon circulation, at a global scale, between the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

'lJ Analyze doc. b and deduce the presence of a dynamic equilibrium in the biogeochemical
cycle of carbon.

229
 2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND
THE CARBON CYCLE

A disturbance of the fixation and restitution processes of carbon

creates a modification in the atmospheric concentration of CO 2 ,
What are the factors capable of inducing such changes? What is
the role of man in this process?

1. Disturbi ng factors
Because plants are the natural regulators of the atmosphere, deforestation disrupts the natural
flow of carbon. Re search carried on in Lebanon gives the following annual averages (Source:
Inventory of emissions ofgreenhous gases, UNDP, 7998) .

forest conifers others

trees utilisation fire coal industrial woodcraft total
wood wood
burned
58 5 715 lost biomasse
surface (hal 147.34 417.29
(kt D.M) 200 1.53 68.42
lost biomass
30.13 5
(kt D.M) ca rbon
relea sed 90 0.69 66.3 30.79 187.78
13.56 2.25 equ ivalent (kt)
carbon (kt)
Doc, Q Natural or "provoked" forest fires Doc. b Th e quantity of carbon "subtracted" by exploiti ng forest depends on
release a large quantity of carb on. the use of wood.

The industrial boom of the XIXth century was accompanied by an increase in the production and
utilization of energy.

Doc.' Ext raction of fossil fuels involves th e rapid mobi· Doc:. d The produc tion of ce ment starts w ith lim es tone
lization of reservoirs which ha ve taken millions afyears rocks. In le banon 10.8% of the released CO 2 are due to
to form. thi s sector.

230
2 . Activit}' sectors and CO a emissions:
Human activities responsible for the increase in atmospheric CO 2 levels can be divided into two
major categories:

• Changes in modes of land occupation and • Use of fossil fuels in the processes of energy
land use, particularly by deforestation and production and consumption , including all the
urba n ization. industrial sectors.

~
World Africa Europe North and South Asi. Oceania Lebanon
Central America America
Sector
ene~fY
an 22339408 715773 6866494 5715466 605029 7118317 297246 13603
industry

land use 4100000 730000 11000 190000 1800000 1300000 38000 200.4

Doc. e Quantity of CO, released by the different sectors of activity in different regions of the world (value in 10 3t ; 1 kg
of ca rbon = 3.664 kg of CO 2 ) - Sources: World resources institute. 1996-97; Lebanon: Inventory of emissions of
greenhouses gases UNDP, 1998.

3. Variation in the concentration of atmospheric CO 2 :

Although it reached only 280 ppm (parts per Based on hypotheses of demographic develop­
million) at the beginning of the industrial revo­ ment, economic growth and energy choices of
lution, in the year 1800, the present CO 2 con­ the planet, experts have elaborated a number
centration of the atmosphere in 360 ppm. of scenarios of CO 2 emissions by year 2100.
~_rID OO,*Cln1r~IDn IIImI
r" ''''!If/lJIIIIII,''''!fII!U~ iJ!o!

34;0 :­ , .
100

~
F;
...
70D

320 ......'"
'50

300

-
- j
.,.\00
>00

" , "f
280
."/OOf , , Year / /////
OOc1 Variation of the atmospheric CO 2 concentration
during the last millenary. Doc. 9 The pred ictions: "catastrophic" scenarios.
,...-­
PROBING THE ACTIVITY
a) Using doc. d, calculate in carbon equivalent the world em missions of CO 2.
b) Knowing that the surface of Oceania is about 9 million km2, compare emissions by km 2
in this region to that in Lebanon. What can we observe?
The annual increase in atmospheric CO 2 is about 3 to 4 Gt. Hypothesize on the difference
between this figure and that obtained in question 1a.
a)Foliowing doc. f, link the increase in the levels of atmospheric CO 2 to human activities.
b) Why are there a number of scenarios for this increase (doc. g)? What do they have in
common?

•
231
 3 GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL
WARMING

The accumulation ofCO, emitted in the air by the combustion of

hydrocarbons modifies the physico-chemical characteristics of
the atmosphere. what are the predictable changes and the con­
sequences?

1. Greenhouse effect: a natural henomenon

Less than half ofthe solar radiation reaches the I
clouds InCident solar
surface of the Earth. Part of the energy that is relleclion al
enl!fgy

absorbed by the ground is re-emitted to the , the surface

01 the ear th
atmosphere in the form of infra-red radiation fe-emitted ' (5%) •
re-emiu ed
infra red inlra red
(thermal energy). These emissions are blocked
by gases that are naturally present in the
atmosphere: water vapor, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide. The retaining of this
energy provokes an increase in the tempera ­
ture. This phenomenon is known as the "green­
house effect".
It is a naturally beneficial process, without
which the average temperature on the surface
of the earth would be ·· 18°( instead of + 15°C.
Doc.Q The atmosphere filters solar rays.

2 . Global warming: an amelification of the greenhouse effect.

Human activities linked to the industrial and agricultural boom release additional quantities of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere .
• Methane is released by the combustion offos­ • (Fe's and their derivatives are the only artifi­
sil fuels, fermentation of waste and of cattle cial greenhouse gases. These industrial chemi­
faeces. cal products are used in air conditioners, refri­
• Massive usage of chemical fertilizers (N,P,K) gerators, and cleaning solvents.
increases the levels of nitrous oxide in the
atmosphere. Doc.b Accumulation of greenhouse gases
y (Source, Climate change, IPCC, 1997).

greenhouse gases ca rbon methane nitrous ch lorofluorocarbons

acid CFC HCFC CF"
pre-industrial
280 0.7 0.275 none none none
concentration (ppm)
concentration in
1994 (ppm) 358 1.72 0.312 268.10- 6 110.10- 6 72.10- 6
percentage of
annual increase (%) 0.4 0.6 0.25 Zero 5 2
life span in the
50-200 12 120 50 12 50000
atmosphere (years)

232
Increase in greenhouse gases, including
variation of the - previsions according to model 92a
water vapor, translates into an increase 4_ temperature Llt (0C) - observed temperatures
in air temperature. The different climate
models established predict, for the
coming century, an increase in this tem ­
perature by 1 to 3.5 ' C. The consequences
of this global warming will be:

- a disturbancy in the pattern of precipi­ 1

tation: winter precipitation and ground
humidity will increase at high latitudes.
In contrast, regions that are presently o~~P1dJ.M()I<F'1'I
favorable for agriculture will become
deserts. .tl::-=-="--.,=-...,."":--:-:,,.,...=--::-;,::--::=---:::-:~~=...,.,,.,-~
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2()()Q 2020 264 0 2060 2080 2100 year

- the rise in sea levels (15 to 95 cm Doc.c Variation of the average surface temperature of planet
Earth.
depending on the model) as a result of
warming of oceans, melting of the gla­
ciers and polar ice caps. Coastal zones
will be submerged and several plains
(low lying) will be covered with water.

- modifications of natural habitats and

ecological niches: most animals and
plants that do not tolerate high tempe­
ratures will disappear or will have to
migrate northward.

Since the beginning of the century, the

Aletsh glacier (Switzerland) has lost
height (10 to 29 meters at 3000 m of
altitude and 40 to 50 m at 2000 m). It
has retreated of about 1000 m since
1892!
Doc.d An increa se in the tempe rature leads to the retreat of
glacie rs.

PROBING HE ACTIVITY
1.,Analyze dOc. a and deduce the importance of the atmosphere for life on Earth,
~ From doc. b, what would be the effect of the immediate ceasing of emissions of greenhouse
gases? Justify.
3, Compare doc. c to doc. f and doc. g in activity 2. What can we observe?
4, Determine the possible causes of an increase in greenhouse gases in your environment.
(village, city, neigh borhood ...). Propose concrete and si mple actions, at the level of each indi­
vi-dual that would allow to remedy to this situation.

233
 SUMMING UP
CARBON IS AN ABUNDANT ELEMENT ON EARTH. INTEGRATED IN THE BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC CONSTITUENTS
OF All ECOSYSTEMS , IT IS STORED IN THE DIFFERENT ENVElOPES OF OUR PLANET. THE QUANTITY OF CARBON
PRESENT IN EACH OF THESE RESERVOIRS AS WELL AS THE NATURAL EQUILIBRIUM OF THE FLOW OF CARBON
ARE DISRUPTED BY MAN. THIS MEANS AN INCREASE IN THE "GREENHOUSE EFFECT", A NATURAL PHENOME­
NON IN ITS ORIGIN, MANIFESTED BY AN INCREASE IN ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE .
CLIMATE CHANGES INDUCED BY THIS GLOBAL WARMING WILL BE SO GREAT THAT SEVERAL PREDICTIVE
MODELS HAVE BEEN ELABORATED. HOWEVER, "NON ALARMIST" THEORIES EXIST THAT REFUTE OR MINIMIZE
THE EFFECTS OF THESE MODIFICATIONS.

B- BALANCED NATURAL FLOW

I - Biogeochemical cycle of carbon
At the ecosystem level, carbon is fixed by pho­
A- THE PRINCIPAL CARBON RESERVOIRS tosynthesis and restored to the environment
mainly by respiration and fermentation. In a
Carbon exists on Earth in two forms: organic balanced ecosystem, net carbon balance is nil:
and minerai. The speed of its circulation the quantity of CO 2 released into the environ­
between the different envelopes of our planet ment is equal to that which has been removed .
depend on proce sses that permit its exchange On a global scale, biochemical processes
and also on the form in which it is exchanged. exchange an estimated 110 Gigatons (Gt) of car­
bon per year. other exchanges of a physico­
"Mobilized Carbon" is contained in three reser­ chemical nature take place place between the
voirs: different reservoirs. The flow of carbon that cir­
- the atmosphere, in the form of gaseous CO 2 . culates between the atmosphere and the ocean
- the biosphere, incorporated in organic matter. is estimated at around 90 Gtlyear. This diffu­
- the hydrosphere, dissolved in the form of gas sion represents the largest exchange process
(C0 2), hydrogenocarbonate ion s (HCO l -), and between these two environments. It takes place
ca rbonate ions (CO 2 -). from the environment with the highest CO 2
l
concentration to the one with the lowest con­
There is a fourth reservoir in which this element centration.
is immobilized for millions of years, th e litho­
CO 2 (atm) + 2H 2 0 _ _ HCO - (ocean) + HP+
sphere. In this terrestrial envelope , carbon is l
"trapped" in: But the phenomenon is complex; it depends on
- calcareous rocks and limestone sediments in several factors that influence the solubility of
the form of caCO l . CO 2 in water:
- carbonated rocks, that is fossil fuels such as
petroleum, coal and natural gas. • Dissolution of different ions takes place
according to equilibrated and reversible reac­
tions. Modification of the concentration of one
solution influences the concentration of another:

234
Carbonate ions, which are very slightly soluble, Faced with this evidence, scientists have cons­
precipitate in the form of calcium, magnesium tructed climate models that attempt to predict
or other carbonates, favoring thereby additio­ the increase in CO 2 levels in relation with demo­
nal absorption of atmospheric CO 2 . graphic and industrial development in the
world. Most of these models indicate an
• Solubility of CO 2 varies with water t em pera­
increase in this concentration, which will be
ture; it increases in cold water (SOOO ppm at
between SOO and 800 ppm in the year 2100.
O' C) and decreases in warm water (2000 ppm at
2S·C). By moving towards the polar zones,
ocean water masses become charged with CO 2 ;
their return to the tropics and the equator is
accompanied by a significant gaz emission.
111- Greenhouse effect and global
warming:
The entirety of all the processes and pathways
of circulation, by which carbon is exchanged With other gases naturally present in the
between the different envelopes of the planet atmosphere, CO 2 traps the thermal energy of
Earth, constitutes the biogeochemical cycle of infra -red radiation emitted by the Earth . The
carbon. resultant ri se in temperature is called "green­
house effect".

II - Human activities and The The actual incre ase in atmospheric CO 2 concen­
carbon cycle: tration and other greenhouse gases, natural or
artificial, increase the "greenhouse effect". Since
A. DISTURBING FACTORS AND ACTIVITY SECTORS
18S0, the average surface temperature of the
A number of factors provoke a disruption in the terrestrial globe has increased byapproximate­
biogeochemical cycle of carbon, as well in the ly I·e. Specialists predict that, if the increase in
amount of CO, in the different reservoirs or in CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere is main­
the flow of carbon between them . Major dis­ tained at the present rate, the temperature of
turbing factors are deforestation and the the atmosphere will rise by 3.S·C by the end of
increased use of fossil fuels. the coming century. This increase of the green­
house effect, known as global warming, will
Principal sectors of human activities responsi­ have considerable consequences:
ble forthese modifications are those involved in
the production and use of energy (industry, - the melting of glaciers and polar ice caps will
power stations, transport of goods and passen­ cause a rise in the sea levels, thus flooding the
gers...) and those involved in the occupation low lying plains.
and use of land (agriculture, urbanization ...). - extreme climatic phenomena (typhoons,
storms, drought) will become more frequent .
B. VARIATIONS IN ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATION
- the biogeochemical distribution and compo­
OFC0 2 sition of plant communities will be modified.

The concentration of our atmosphere in CO 2 At the present state of knowledge, and despite
has remained stable (between 200 and 280 uncertainties of predictions by climate models,
ppm) for 2S,000 years. It began to rise slightly it is good sense to recommend economizing on
around the year 1800, which is the beginning of energy, sta bilizing its con sumption and trying
the industrial era. It is today 360 ppm , that is an to slow down the greenhouse effect and limit
increase of 28% since 1900. its spread.

235
L -_ _ _ _ _..., CONCEPT MAPPING

solar energy
... . .

1 7
- ---1
( ( greenhouse
effects
greenhoU..
absorbed
energy
gases
RE-emIHed

warning
use of fosoll
fuels

..
de_IfIoIttf,,"

melting of

Man and the carbon cycle

236
 EXERCISES
2. In the oceans:
a- CO 2 is fixed in the form of HC0 -.
3
b- CO 2 is dissolved in the form of cac0 .
3
c- shells of marine animals are the reservoirs
EXERCISE of immobilized carbon .
d- the amount of dissolved CO 2 increases
Mark the true statements and correct the with depth.
false ones.
3. Changes in the atmosphere imposed by man
1. Abusive logging of forest trees results in a
ca n be red uced by:
rise in CO 2 emissions in the atm osphere .
a- deforestation
b- banning the use of CFCs
2. The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon that c- using public transportation
results from a rise of CO 2 in the atmosphere. d- replacing fossil fuel by nuclear energy

4. Natural gases that contribute to the green­

3. The use of ca rbon deposits as an energy house effects are:
source leads to a rise in the levels of atmos­ a- nitrogen
ph eric oxygen. b- methane
c- hydrogen
d- carbon dioxide
4. The oceanic reservoir has a great influence in
the regulation of the atmospheric concentra­
tion s in carbon dioxide.

5. Actual climate changes are, to some extent,

_EXERCISE _'----_~_---'
the indirect result of human activities.
The following table represents variations in the
average concentration in ppm (parts per mil­
lions) of CO2 in the atmo sphere:
_EXERCISE '.£:====== year CO. year CO.
(ppm) (ppm)
Choose the correct answer(s).

1740 276 1880 292

1. Fossilization: 1760 278 1900 298
a- slows down the biogeochemical cycle of
1780 280 1920 308
carbon
b· transforms organic ca rbon into mineral 1800 282 1940 314
carbon . 1820 284 1960 326
c- results in the fo rma tion of calcareous rocks. 1840 286 1980 348
d- takes place in the hydrosphere as well as in 1860 288 1990 360
the lithosphere.

•
237
1. Draw the corresponding curve. 3. Knowing that these measurements were pre­
2. How does this curve reveal the impact of pared on ice samples removed from the polar
human activity upon the observed variation? ice caps, explain the necessity for global
Justify the answer by a just choice of dates. action to preserve Earth's climate.

_EXERC ISE !-I!======::J

Ombrothermal diagrams are graphs that repre­ Diagram I: Actual climate characteristics
sent average monthly variations in temperature Diagram Ii: Predictions for the year 2080 follo­
and precipitation; they also allow us to deter­ wing the hypotheses of a doubling of actual
mine the period of biological drought. Studies atmospheric CO 2 levels (following the climatic
conducted in Lebanon show for the station of model Had CM2).
Fakehe (located in the region of Hermel-EI Qaa,
in the north-west ofthe country) the following
results:

,. ~.- .... ' .

..;" ' ..
,--,,~ .• "
" biological "' .......
drought

" h __• __ T (Oe)

- - P(mm)

II

1. Compare the two diagrams. What can we deduce?

2. FAO. (Food and Agricultu re Orga nization) statistics indicate, for the period 1990-1995, an ann u­
al decrease of 7.8%, in forest coverage in Lebanon. Find the relationship between this informa­
tion, data of doc. a and b in Activity 2 and diagram II.

238
 Supplementary
information
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT:T HE CONTRADICTIONS

CQTI[[J)
?I.;~I ,..0.]1 ...UI ... ~"

Poster edited for the project: "inpact of climatic changes ". 1999.

•
239
 " , - " ,

METHODOLOGICAL
AND TECHNICAL
 Metho~d"""""~='-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _----Il
chart

How TO BUILD A DIAGRAM?

A diagrams allows to transform a table of data into outlines that can translate the variations of a
value in function of another which is also variable.

temperature (en °e) 5 10 15 20 25 30

respiratoiry frequency 42 64 86 117 146 174

Variationof the respiratory frequence of a fish in function of the

temperature.

• Note down the values that we need to rep­

respiratory frequence
resent graphically and note the data to be
placed on the abscisse (horizontal axis = x­ 174 __________________________________ __
axis) and ordinate (vertical axis = y - axis) 146 _________ ___ ________________ _

• Choose a scale for each of the two axes and

graduate them.
86
• Report on the x-axis, the first value and 64
trace, in dots, the vertical line that passes by 42
this point.

• Report the corresponding value on the y­ ,

o 5 10 15 20 ~5 30 temperature
axis and trace, in dots, the horizontal line ( in 0c)
that passes by this point.
chosen scale
• Mark with a point the intersection of these
two straight lines. 5°C
r--------i on the x-axis, 1 em represents S"C
lcm
• Procede in the same way to trace the other
points and link the paints to each other in a ~ on the y-axis, 0.5 em represents a frequency of
continuous line. a.Scm 20.

• Put a title for the diagram.

241
 Methodolo ical 2
chart

How TO USE A DIAGRAM?

Graphic representations allow to translate the variation of one value in function of another which
is also variable .

chosen scale

S"C
on the x-axis, 1 em represents SoC
respirator frequency lcm
174 _____ _______ ____ ____________ __ _____ _
146 20
I::-c::----l on the y-axis, 0.5 em represents a frequency of
O.Scm
20.
117
86
64
42

o 5 10 15 20 ~5 30 temperature ...... Variation of the respiratory frequency of a fish

(in 0c) in function of the temperature.

"Read the title of the diagram.

• Note down the values indicated on the y-a xis
and on the x-axis.
• Note down the chosen scales on the axes
and the unit in which every value is
expressed. N°·of risk
• Describe the variations of the studied value tOO
factors
(increase, decrease, stability...) in function of
the experimental conditions. Histogram
• Note down the unmarkable paints and their
coordinates.
• Deduce the signifiance of the noticed variations.

We can use other graphic representation (his­

tograms and circular diagrams). circular diagrams

242
 Met h~01.1.110& • alil__ ~__~______________~ :1
chart

How TO READ AND ANALYSE A SCIENTIFIC TEXT?

The reading and analysis of a scientific text intend to arouse the curiosity of the student, who, in
response to the asked questions, must find in the text the related informations .

• Read the text for the first time to identify the • Check if the little corresponds to the general
general topic. topic which will be anticipated in the text.

• Read the text for the second time to underline • Locate the origin of the text (magazine, ency­
the difficult words and expressions. clopedia, specialized books ...) and write down
the name of the author.
·Look for the meaning of the difficult words in
a dictionary and check that the information • Analyse the text, sentence by sentence, and
obtained allows the understanding of the underline the expressions that are directly
meaning of the studied sentence. related to the studied problem.

·Combine the major ideas to make up a short

summary.

243
WORKING WITH CASE
(Computer Assisted Scientific Experimentation)

CASE is a modern technique which all()ws t() improve the

analysis of the experimental results. It conbines a collection
of tools: computer, receivers, interface, allowing, to visualize
on screen the results of an experiment during its realization.

EXPERIMENTAL MOUNTING WITH CASE

This device comprISes:

The monitors screen allowing to visualize the
obtained re su lts (1).
The central unit containing the programs
(softwares)(2).
The keyboard (3).
The receivers (4).
(2)
-
• t \-----1.1"

The interface that links the receivers to the com­

pute r(5 ).
The printer (6).
1.2.3 - The computer processes the data sent by
the interface and visualizes them on the (5)
screen (charts, tables ...) thanks to particu­
lar programs.
4 - The receivers allow to measure and record the
variations of a phenomen and to transform
them into electrical signals.
5 - The interface and its adaptors constitue an
electronic system which converts the electri­
cal signal emitted by the receivers, into data
that can be used by the computer.

How TO USE A CASE LINK

• Choose the receiver in function of the studied

phenomenon.
• Select the program.
• Link the different tools together.
• Prepare the biological material.
• Switch the computer on.
• Start the manipulation.
• Observe the results.
• Interpret the obtained resu Its.
• Repeat the experiment in case of failure.

244
CELLULAR FRACTIONING

.. ..
centrifugal centri fugal
'o ree force

lubes containing the su pernatant

substances to be separated pellet

differential centrifugation

"soluble" traction
enzymes, sugars,
amino acids
Ions ...

centrifugagtion
centrlfugagtion centrifugagtion
of supernatant ~
~
of supernatant
600xG 20000 xG
10 minutes 100000 x G
30 minules
90 minutes
homogeneisation
(disrupt cells in nulei plasma membrane
buffered solution) endoplasmic
chloroplasts
reticulum
ribosomes

245
 · .

RADIOACTIVITY IN BIOLOGY

THE RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES OR RAO IO- ISOTOPES

The technique consists of labeling a chemical

substance with a radio-isotope in order to fol ­
low the stages of a metabolic process or t o
localize the labeled substance in the orga nism:
The organism does not distinguish between
radioactive and stable isotopes of the same ele­
ment; As a consequence, it assimilates and nor­ Then we place these papers in bottles contain­
mally transforms the labeled substance. ing a liquid with zinc sulfur (ZnS) or sodium
We cultivate the cells in an artificial medium zodide (NaZ). These substances scintillate every
that contains, among others, the chemical con­ time they are excirated by radiations coming
stituents used by cells to make new molecules,. from the desintegration of the radioactive ele­
We have labeled one of these constituents with ment in molecules. The scintillation frequency,
a radioactive isotope that will alow us to follow proportional to the quantity of available
its incorporation. radioactive material is measured in counts.

After a certain period, we kill some samples of

cultured cells in the presence of a radioactive
tracer element and we precipitate the mole­
cules on filter papers.

AUTORAOIOGRAPHIE

Used to locolize the radioactively labeled DNA

in cells, the first steps consist of culturing the
cells in a medium containing a labeleed precur­
sor. Then we fix the cells and we place them on
thin glass slides that we cover with a slender
film of photographic emulsion. The mounting is
left in teh dark for few days.
Scintillation counter
Wherever DNA exists in cells, the radiation
emitte from the radioactive marker will expose
the photographiC emulsions. All we hae to do
then is to develop the emulsions and to exam­
ine the slides under the microscope.

The black points of the exposed emulsion will

appear in the cell nucleus, which in the site of
most of the DNA.

246
KARVOTVPING

cell culture preparation

colce mfd
peripheral blood phylohemagglulinln (about 2h.)
,ymphOC~r,o'Zen)
1
- ~ prOI~:~~tlOn . centrifugagtion

600 xG
10 minutes
• hypotonic

/
culture
cell pellet
medium

centrifugation

centrifugagtion ~~
I
-I
• ;.; ' - .I
I
spread drop by fixative
cell pellet cell pellet
drop on a slide

! heating /
--_---,
staini~g

..
covering with
a coverslip

~- /

preparation
• staining dish
• slide

1 under
. . microscope

~~
X}:
XX
:<:i lC!*
"
):i Xf
." photography
and
_ CUUing
.,c,Y
;f'
'" '"
>«
""" 1,
"..

r nn n II II
~ i
n II U IX n ,1 ~
'I.
~ '\0
karyotype metaphase under
the microscope

247
REACTION OF IDENTIFICATION
OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES

BIURET'S TEST

,- Mix 2 cm' of the solution to be tested with

1 cm ' of NAOH 1% and, cm ' of (uSO. at
0.2%.
:< - Note t he formation of a violet ring at the
surface. A positive test identifies the
presence of peptide bonds.

FEHUNG's SOLUTION TEST

,- Mix an equal volume of the so lution to be

tested with fehling 's solution.
2 - Bring to a boiling pOint.
3- Note the formation of a brick-red precipitate.
A positive test identifies the presence of
reducing sugars.

IODINE WATER TEST

, - Add few drops of iodine water to the sample

to be tested.
2- Note the formation of:
- A blue color: presence of glycogen
- a brown color: presence of glycogen.

TEST WITH SOUDAN III

1- Deposit a drop of the liquid to be tested on a

slide.
2- Add a drop of Soudan III solution, mix and
observe on a microscope.
3- Observe the appearence of red drophets. A
positive test identifies the presence of lipids.

248
A GLOSSARY

Acetyl co A: Consists of a pyruvate fragment cova­ Biomass: The total weight of all organic matter in a
lently bonded to coenzyme A. A key compound in biocenosis.
Krebs cycle. Biopsy: The removal of a small tissue fragment
Actin: A protein that, together with the protein from the living body.
myosin, is responsible for the ability of muscle s to Budding: Asexual reproduction in which a small
contract. part of the parent's body bulges outward and deve­
Aerobe (or aerobium): A microorgani sm that lops into a new individual.
requires free oxygen for its respiration.
Aerobiosis: Life in the presence of free oxygen.
Albino: An individual with hereditary inability to
form melanin pigment resulting in abnormally light Calvin cycle: Biochemical cycle taking place in the
coloration. stroma of chloroplasts. Second phase of photosyn­
Allele: Alternative forms of a gene. A diploid orga­ thesis that fixes carbon dioxide and redu ces the
nism has two alleles for the sa me gene, each being fixed carbone into carbohydrates.
inherited from one parent. Cell cycle: Duration of th e life of a cell that is com­
Anaerobe (or anaerobium): A microorganism that posed of interphase stage and mitosis .
does not require free oxygen for its development Cell fractioning (cell fractionation): The process of
and growth, and which uses the fermentation fragmentation of a living cell in order to isolate the
process to produce the energy required for the func­ main organelles by centrifugation.
tioning of the cell. Cholesterol: Fatty substance of animal origin,
Anaerobiosis: Life in the absence of free oxygen. which is a const ituent of plasma membrane and
Anorexia (nervosa): A refusal of food, characterized hormones.
by a fear of we ight gain, leading to faulty eating Chromatography: Tech nique of se parati ng the com­
patterns and malnutrition. ponents of a mixture on a solid phase, as a result of
Anti-codon: Tri plet of tRNA which is complementary differential so lubility.
to the codon on mRNA. Cordon: A triplet of mRNA bases specific of a par­
Atheroma plaque: A fatty deposit in the muscle wall ticular amino acid.
of a blood vess el, often causing an obstruction of
the blood flow.
ATP: (adenosine triphosphate): An organic com­
pound containing adenine, ribose an d three phos­
phate groups: of prime importance for energy
transfers in biologica l systems. DiplOid : (2n) Condition of having two sets of chro­
ATP synthethase: (ATP ase) Enzyme that intervenes mosomes per cell.
in the production of ATP. DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid: support of genetic
information.

Basal metabolism : The amount of energy in kilo ­

joules expended by the body at rest, when no food is
being dige sted and at neutral environmental tem­
peratu re.
Biocenosis (or Biocoenosis): A community of plants
and animals in a given area and at a given time.

249
 responsible for modifying, packaging, and sorting
E the products of the endoplasmic reticulum.
Greenhouse effect: Phenomenon whereby the heat
Ecologiacal turnover: Quantitative yield that relates
from infra-red radiation emitted by the Earth is
the amount of energy produced to that received by
retained in the atmospheric particles, mainly C02
an organism or a group of organisms.
and water vapor.
Ecosystem (biogeocenosis): A community of orga ­
nisms and its nonliving physical environment.
Electron-transport system: Molecules integrated in
the internal membrane of mithocondria and chloro­ Half-life: Time necessary for the degradation of half
plasts, that synthesize ATP by transfering electrons in the initial man of a substance.
a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. Haploid : (In): The condition of hav;ng one ,et of
Electrophoresis: Technique alloWing the separations chromosome per cell.
of proteins or amino acids, according to their size, HOL-cholesterol: (High Density Lipoprotein)
electrical charge and other physical particularities. Complex that carries the cholesterol present in the
Endoenergetic: (endothermic, endergonic) Reaction tissues toward the liver where it will be degraded.
that consumes energy. Heterozygosis: Presence of 2 different alleles on
Eukaryote: Cell or organism whose genome is sepa­ both loci of a gene.
rated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane. HLA: (Human Lencocyte Antigen) See MHC.
Exoenergetic: (exothermic, exergonic) Reaction that Homozygosis: Presence of the same allele on both
releases energy. loci of a gene.
Hydrogen transporter: Organic molecule present in
all cells, that intervenes with enzymes in the oxida­
tion-red uction reactions of the metabolism.
Fermentation: Anaerobic biochemical process during
which sugars are incompletly degraded.
Food chain: Linear sequence that shows the trophical
relationships between living organisms in an ecosys­ Insulin: Hormone secreted by the pancreas that
tem; each organism eats the preceding member and lowers blood glucose content.
is eaten by the following member of the sequence. Interphase: Period of cell cyCle preceeding a divi­
Food web: System of interconnected food chains in a sion. lt is divided into 3 phases: Gl, S, G2.
community. Ischemia (ischaemia): Arrest of blood flow in a part
of the organism.

Gene: A particular sequence of DNA that specifies a Karyotype: Arranged set of meta phasic chromo­
character. somes.
Genome: Set of genes in a species. Krebs cycle: Exergonic biochemical cycle of 8 steps,
Genotype: Set of alleles of a gene governing a char­ that takes place in the mithocondrion and ends the
acter. degradation of glucose into CO z.
Global warming: Rise of the average temperature on
Earth, which is worsened by human activities.
Glycogenogenesis: Glycogen synthesis.
Glycogenolysis: Glycogen hydrolysis. LOL-cholesterol: (Low Density Lipoprotein) Complex
Glycolysis: First stage of cellular respiration; the that transports cholesterol from the liver toward
metabolic conversion of glucose into pyruvate with the tissues.
the production of ATP. Locus: (plural Loci): Position of a gene on a chromosome.
Golgi apparatus: Orga nelle of euka ryotes, composed
of stacks of flattened membranous sacs and mainly
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 Placenta: Organ that links the embryo to the uterus of
M the mother during gestation in mammals .
Potential energy: Energy stored in a substance due to
Malnutrition : Inadequate nutrition tothe body its internal structure.
needs, either qua litatively or quantitatively. Primary consumer: In ecology, a heterotroph organism
Metabolism: The sum of all the degrad ati ve (catabo­ that cons umers plants. second link in a food cha in.
li sm) and sy nthetic (anabolism) reacti ons in a cell. Primary productivity: Productivity of autotrophs.
Mythocondrion (plural: mithocondria): cell orga nelle Productivity: An increase in the biomas s, expressed per
whi ch is the site of respiration. unit of time, and of surface or volume.
MHC: (Major Histocompatibility Complex):The sum Prokaryote: Cell or individual whose hereditary materi­
of all cellular markers that defines the "o neself". al is not separated from th e cytoplasm by a nuclea r
Mitosis: Cell division resulting in two daughter cel ls membrane.
identical to each other and to the mother cell. Protein: Organic molecule made of a well defined
Regular reproduction. sequence of amino acids.
Mutation: Any cha nge in the genetical material Pyramid of numbers: In ecology, a diagram showing
(DNA seque nce) which is inherited by the next gen­ the number of plants and animals in each trophic
erations. level.
Myofibril: Element of muscle th at is comp osed of
actin and myosin.
Myoglobin: Muscle protein capable of storing oxy­
gen molecules. Reduction: Process by which a compound gains
Myosin: Contractile protein involved in muscle movements. electrons in a reaction.
Respiration: Aerobic bioch emical process by which
nutrients are completely oxidized in the mithocon­
drion in order to produce energy in th e form of ATP.
Nucleotide: Unit of nucleic acids, composed of a RNA: Ribonucleic acid, that fun ctions in the tran­
phosphoric acid, a sugar and a nitrogenous base. scription and translation processes of the heredi­
tary information.

Obesity: Overweight of at least 20 % above th e ideal

Secondary consumer: In ecology, a heterotroph
or average weight.
organism that consumes herbivorous heterotrophs.
Oxidation: Process by which a com pound looses
Third link in a food chain .
el ectrons in a re action .
Secondary productivity: Production of organic mat­
Oxidative phosphorylation: Prod uction of ATP by the
t er by heterotrophs, expressed per unit of time and
process of ADP phosphorylation and the tran sfer of
per unit of surfa ce or volume.
electrons from nutrients to oxygen molecules.
Substrate: Substance on wh ich an enzyme acts.
Reactant in an enzymat ically catalyzed reaction .

Phenotype: All the apparent and detectable charac­

ters of an individ ual (physical and chemical expres­ Thylakoid: Flattened, sac like structures inside the
sion of a gene). chloroplast. Site of water photolysis.
Phosphorylation: Reaction w here a pho sphorylic Transcibed DNA strand: One of the DNA strands car­
group (PO)-) is fixed on an organiC compound. rying the genetiC informati on that is copied by the
(ADP + Pi _____ ATP) messenger RNA.
Pigment: Colored substance produced by living Transgenesis: Tran sfe r of a gene from one individual
organisms: chlorophyll, melanin. to another, of the same or of a different species.

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