NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: EDU 701

COURSE TITLE: PSYCOLOGY OF LEARNING

EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

COURSE
GUIDE
EDU 701
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Course Developer Dr Ayanniyi Alhassan

National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island
Lagos

Course Writer Dr Ayanniyi Alhassan

National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island
Lagos

Course Editor Dr Ogidan Rotimi

National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island
Lagos

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006

ISBN: 978-058-806-X

All Rights Reserved

Printed by The REGENT (Printing & Publishing) Ltd

For
National Open University of Nigeria

iii
EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction ………………………….………………… 1
The Course……………………………………………… 1
What you will learn in this course …………………….. 2
Course aims …………………………………………… 2
Course Objectives ……………………………………… 3
Working through this course …………………………… 3
Course materials ……………………………………….. 4
Study Units ……………………………………………. 4
Presentation Schedule …………………………………. 4
Assessment ……………………………………………. 5
Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs) ………………….. 5
Final Examination and Grading ……………………….. 6
Course Marking Structure …………………………….. 6
Course Overview ……………………………………… 6
How to get the most from this course …………………. 7–9
Tutors and Tutorials …………………………………… 9 – 10
Summary ………………………………………………. 10

Introduction

EDU 701: Psychology of Learning is a semester, two credit

unit
foundation course. It is a core course for all students in Teacher
Education programmes. It is also suitable as a course of study for
anyone who wants to acquire some knowledge of Psychology of
Learning.

The Course

This course will introduce you to what Psychologists refer to as

Learning, Human Learning and why psychologists use lower organisms
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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

for psychological experiments. Do not worry if you do not have

extensive knowledge of psychology. One of the aims of EDU 701:
Psychology of Learning is to give you a general background to
psychology of learning and to illustrate key areas in which it can be
applied in a practical way during the teaching-learning process in
particular and in learning situations in general. The course consists of 14
study units, which include definitions of learning, what is meant by
Human Learning, the use of lower organisms for psychological
experiments, theories of learning and their corresponding implications
for human learning, schedules of reinforcement and basic ratios of
reinforcement, some factors affecting learning, how interest in human
learning can be sustained and important factors in human learning that
teachers must know. The course material has been developed to suit not
only distance learners in Nigeria by virtue of the fact that it has practical
examples from the local environment but to also suit distance learners
elsewhere given examples and illustrations of universal dimension. The
intention is to make use of local experiences and situations including
international illustrations to support the students while studying and to
ensure that the content remains current.

This Course Guide is a window into the course. It tells you briefly what
the course is about, what course materials you will be using and how
you can work your way through the materials. It suggests some general
guidelines for the amount of time you should spend on each study unit
of the course in order to complete it successfully. It also gives you some
guidance on your tutor marked assignments (TMAs). Detailed
information on TMAs is similarly made available. There are regular
tutorial classes that are linked to the course. You are advised to attend
these sessions at your study centre.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
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What you will learn in this Course

The overall aim of EDU 701: Psychology of Learning is to introduce

specific definitions of the concepts of learning, human learning, major
theories of learning, and why psychologists prefer to use lower
organisms for psychological experiments. During this course, you will
learn about schedules of reinforcement, some factors affecting learning,
sustaining interest in learning, and important factors in human learning
that teachers must know, as well as psychology and the classroom
teacher.

Although there is little disagreement among psychologists as to the

importance of learning and pervasiveness of learning in nearly all forms
of human activity, there is a marked difference between the ways they
look at learning and the ways the layman does. You will learn specific
definitions of the concept of learning. You will also learn what
psychologists refer to as human learning, theories of human learning
generated from psychological experiments on lower organisms.

You will understand what is meant by schedules of reinforcement, basic

ratios of reinforcement, motivation, and theories of motivation. You
will be given sufficient grounding to understand how interest in human
learning can be sustained and important factors that you must know
about human learning, which should provide you with the necessary
basis for further study.

Course Aims

This course aims to give you an understanding of the concept of

learning, what is meant by human learning, the use of lower organisms
for psychological experiments, theories of learning and their
implications for human learning. Schedule of reinforcement and their
implications for behaviour management, some factors affecting learning,
and how interest in learning can be sustained.

These aims will be achieved by:

a. Introducing you to the definitions of the concept of learning;

b. Explaining to you what psychologists mean by human learning;
c. Describing how psychologists develop theories of learning;
d. Explaining to you the rational for using lower organisms for
psychological experiments;
e. Outlining basic ratios of reinforcement;
f. Explaining some factors affecting learning;
g. Describing how interest in learning can be sustained;
h. Outlining important factors which teachers must know.

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Course Objectives

To achieve the aims set out above, some carefully stated overall
objectives must be considered. In addition, each study unit also has
specific objectives. The study unit objectives are always included at the
beginning of a study unit; you should read them before you start
working through the study unit.

You may want to refer to the objectives during your study of each unit
to check on your progress. You should always look at the study unit
objectives after completing a study unit. In this way, you can be sure
that you have done what was required of you by the study unit.

Set out below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole by
meeting these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the
course.

On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:

a. Define the concept of learning;

b. Explain what is meant by human learning;
c. Discuss why psychologists prefer the use of lower organisms for
psychological experiments;
d. Explain Thorndike’s theory of learning;
e. Describe Skinner’s Operant conditioning theory of learning;
f. Discuss Pavlov’s Classical conditioning theory of learning;
g. Explain Gestalt theory of learning;
h. Discuss the implications of theories of learning for human learning;
i. Specify basic ratio of reinforcement;
j. Explain factors affecting learning;
k. Discuss how teachers can sustain interest in learning.

Working through This Course

To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read
books and other materials provided by the National Open University of
Nigeria (NOUN). Each study unit contains Self-Assessment Exercises
(SAEs) and Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) and at each point in the
course you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes.
At the end of the course is a final examination. You will also find listed,
all the components of the course, what you have to do and how you
should allocate your time to each study unit in order to complete the
course successfully and on time.

Course Materials

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

Major components of the course are:

1) Course Guide
2) Study Units
3) References
4) Presentation Schedule

Study Units

The study units in this course are as follows:

Module 1

Unit 1 Learning conceptual clarification

Unit 2 The use of lower organisms for psychological experiments
Unit 3 Theories of learning
Unit 4 Skinner’s Operant conditioning
Unit 5 Applications of Operant conditioning

Module 2

Unit 1 Pavlov’s Classical conditioning

Unit 2 Gestalt theory of learning
Unit 3 Some factors affecting learning
Unit 4 Additional theories of learning
Unit 5 Motives, needs and their satisfaction

Module 3

Unit 1 Critique of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Unit 2 Observational learning
Unit 3 Human behaviour

Presentation Schedule

The presentation schedule included in your course material gives you

the important dates of this year for the completion of tutor-marked
assignments and for attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to
submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guard against
falling behind in your work.

Assessment

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

There are three aspects in the assessment of the course. First is a set of
Self – Assessment Exercises (SAEs), second is a set of tutor-marked
assignments (TMAs), and third is a written end of semester examination.

In tackling the assignments, you are expected to be sincere in attempting

the exercises; you are expected to apply the information, knowledge and
techniques gathered during the course. The assignments must be
submitted to your tutor against formal deadlines stated in the
presentation schedule and the assignment file. The work you submit to
your tutor for assessment will make up 30% (undergraduate) and 40%
(post graduate) of your total course mark.

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written
examination of two hours’ duration. This examination will make up the
remaining 70% (undergraduate) and 60% (postgraduate) of your total
course mark.

Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

There are TMAs in this course. You are encouraged to submit all
assignments. Assignment questions for the study units in this course are
stated within the study units. You will be able to complete your
assignments from the information and materials contained in your
reading, and study units. However, it is desirable in all degree level
academic programmes to demonstrate that you have read and researched
more widely than the required minimum. Using other references will
give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding
of the subject.

When you have completed each assignment, send it together with a

TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form to your tutor. Make sure that
each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in
the presentation schedule and assignment file. If, for any reason, you
cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the
assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions
will not be granted after the due date unless in exceptional
circumstances.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for Psychology of Learning will be of two hours’

duration and it has a value of 50% of the total course grade. The
examination will consist of questions, which reflect the type of self-
testing, practice exercises and tutor-marked assignments (tutor-attended-
to problems) you have previous encountered all areas of the course will
be assessed.

Use the time between finishing the last study unit and sitting for the
examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to
review your self-tests, tutor-marked assignments and comments on them
before the examination. The final examination covers information from
all parts of the course.

Course Marking Structure

The following table lays out how the actual course marking is done.

Assessments 30% (Undergraduate) 40% (Postgraduate)

Final Examination 70% (Undergraduate) 60% (Postgraduate)
Total 100% of Course Marks

Table I: Course Marking Structure

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Course Overview

The next table brings together the study units, the number of weeks you
should take to complete them, and the assignments that follow them.

Weekly Assessment
Unit title of work
Activity (end of Unit)
Course Guide 1
1. Leaning: Conceptual Clarification 1 Assignment 1
The use of lower organisms for
2. 1 Assignment 2
psychological experiments
3. Theories of Learning 1 Assignment 3
4. Thorndike’s Connectionism 1
5. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning 1 Assignment 4
6. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning 1
7. Gestalt Theory of Learning 1 Assignment 5
8. Some Factors Affecting Learning 1
9. Additional Theories of Learning 1
10. Motives, Needs and Their 1
Satisfaction
11. Critique of Maslow’s Hierarchy of 1 Assignment 6
Needs
12. Observational Learning 1
13. Human Behaviour 1 Assignment 7
Total 14

Table II: Course Organiser

How to Get the Most from This Course

In Open and Distance Learning (ODL), the study units replace the
University Lecturer. This is one of the great advantages of ODL. You
can read and work through specially designed study materials at your
own pace, and at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as
reading the lecturer. In the same way that the lecturer might set you
some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your other
materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your
study units provide exercise, for you to do at appropriate points.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the study unit and how a particular
study unit is integrated with the other study units and the course as a
whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you
know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the
study unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study. When

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

you have finished the study unit, you must go back and check whether
you have achieved the objectives or not. If you make a habit of doing
this, you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course.

The main body of the study unit guides you through the required reading
from other sources. This will usually be either from a reading section or
some other sources. You will be directed when there is need for it.

Self – Assessment Exercises (SAEs) are interspersed throughout the

study units. Working through these SAEs will help you to achieve the
objectives of the study units and prepare you for the assignments and
examination.

You should do every SAE as you come to it in the study unit. There
will also be numerous examples given in the study units. Work through
these when you come to them too.

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If

you run into any trouble, telephone your tutor immediately. Remember
that your tutor’s job is to help you. When you need help, don’t hesitate
to call and ask your tutor to provide it.

1. Read this course guide thoroughly.

2. Organise a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for

more details. You should note that it is expected of you to devote
at least 2 hours per week for studying this course. The number of
hours to be devoted for intensive study stated above is outside
other need driven academic activities like self help, group
discussion and instructional facilitation. Note the time you are
expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to
the study units. Important information e.g. details of
your
tutorials, and the date of the first day of the semester is available.
You need to gather together all these information in one place,
such as in your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you
choose to use, you should write in your own dates for working on
each unit.
3.
Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything
you can to stick to it. The major reason why students fail is that
they get behind with their course work. If you get
into
difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before
4. it is too late for him to help you.

Turn to unit 1, read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.
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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

for a unit is given in the table of content at the beginning of each
unit. You will almost always read both the study unit you are
working on and one of the materials for further reading on your
desk at the same time.

6. Work through the Unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit, you will be instructed to read sections from
other sources. Use the unit to guide your reading.

7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your
assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you
meet the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you
pass the examination. Submit all assignments not later than the
due date.

8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.

9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s

objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
keep yourself on schedule.

10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

marking, do not wait until you get it back before starting on the
next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is
returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both
on the tutor-marked assignment form and also as written on the
assignment itself. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you
have any questions or problems.

11. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in the course guide).

Tutors and Tutorials

There are 14 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You

will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials
together with the name and phone number of your tutor as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments. He will also
keep a close watch on your progress or any difficulties you might
encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must
mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due
date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by
your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e – mail, or
discussion board if you need help. The following might be
circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your
tutor if:

You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings.
You have difficulty with the self – assessment exercises.
You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s
comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is your only
chance to have a face-to-face academic contact with your tutor and to
ask questions on problems encountered in the course of your study. To
gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list
before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in
discussions actively.

Summary

Upon completing this course, you will be required with basic knowledge
of Psychology of Learning, its theories and implications for human
learning. You will be able to answer questions like these ones.

1. What is learning?
2. How would your define human learning?
3. How many theories of learning can you identify?
4. Why do psychologists use lower organisms to conduct
experiments?
5. What are schedules of reinforcement?
6. How can we distinguish Skinner’s theory of learning from
Pavlov’s?
7. What is motivation?
8. What are the factors affecting learning?
9. What is Gestalt?
10. How can we apply the law of exercise in human learning?
11. What is law of effect?
12. How can we explain the weakness (es) of the Gestalt theory of
learning?
13. How can we describe observational learning?

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Course Code EDU 701

Course Title Psychology of Learning

Course Developer Dr Ayanniyi Alhassan

National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island
Lagos

Course Writer Dr Ayanniyi Alhassan

National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island
Lagos

Course Editor Dr Ogidan Rotimi

National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island
Lagos

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

xv
EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2006

First Printed 2006

ISBN: 978-058-806-X

All Rights Reserved

Printed by The REGENT (Printing & Publishing) Ltd

For
National Open University of Nigeria

xvi
EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 ………………………………………………………… 1

Unit 1 Learning: Conceptual Clarification … …..………... 1–9

Unit 2 The Use of lower orgtanisms for Psychological
Experiements … … …..… .……………………...... 10–18
Unit 3 Theories of Learning … … … … … …..……......... 19–26
Unit 4 Skinmer’s Operant Conditioning … … ……........... 27–36
Unit 5 Applications of Operant Conditioning ………......... 37–43

Module 2 …………………………………………………………. 44

Unit 1 Pavehov’s Classical Conditioning … ……………... 44–52

Unit 2 Geztalf Theory of leraning … … … ………............ 53–59
Unit 3 Some Factors Affecting Leaqrning … ……………..60–67
Unit 4 Additional Theories of Motivation … …………….. 68–77
Unit 5 Motives, Needs & Their Satifaction … …………… 78–84

Module 3 ………………………………………………………… 85

Unit 1 Critique of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs ……… …85–91

Unit 2 Observational Learning … … … … ………….. ..... 92–97
Unit 3 Human Behaviour … … … … … … ………….….98–105

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Learning conceptual clarification

Unit 2 The use of lower organisms for psychological experiments
Unit 3 Theories of learning
Unit 4 Skinner’s Operant conditioning
Unit 5 Applications of Operant conditioning

UNIT 1 LEARNING: CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Description of Learning
3.2 Concept of Learning
3.3 Definitions of Learning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

By now, you have read through the course guide, which was sent to you
as part of your instructional package for the course. If you have not,
please ensure that you read the course guide before reading your study
materials as it provides a comprehensive outline of the materials you
will cover on a study unit to study unit basis, starting with the topic you
are about to study: learning: conceptual clarification. The study unit
guides you through several descriptions and definitions of learning
across the ages. Let us look at what you should learn in this study unit,
as specified in the study unit objectives below:

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the concept of learning;

2. Define the concept of learning in a specific way.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Description of Learning

To the layman, ‘learning’ has always been a rather simple matter, he

sees it frequently and assumes that he has a clear understanding of its
meaning, that is, getting to know something he does not know. As
Oxiedien (1968:5) puts it, that ‘we learn what we are taught is often the
attitude of the non-professional person’.

Although there is little disagreement among psychologists as to the

importance of learning and pervasiveness of learning in nearly all forms
of human activity, there is marked difference between the ways they
look at learning and the ways the layman does.

Here we will look at some other descriptions of the concept of learning.

You will probably have come across the word ‘learning’ before, and you
may have your own idea of what learning is all about. There are a
number of misconceptions and misunderstandings as to what learning is
exactly, and for this reason we will consider why this is so and then
examine some additional descriptions of this subject area.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

How would you describe learning? Make brief notes before moving on
to the next section?

Now let us go on with our descriptions of the concept of learning.

Learning is a part of almost every aspect of psychology, from

developmental psychology (how we acquire behaviours through the life
cycle) to social psychology (how we learn to interact with others) to
abnormal psychology (how we develop such behaviours as phobias and
depression).

Learning has evolved over the course of genetic history as a set of

adaptive mechanisms that allows us to acquire new behaviours and
modify old ones. In order to understand this most complex of human
behaviours, we need to have a clear understanding of what psychologists

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

refer to as learning. In addition, we need to know more about the basic

processes fundamental to all learning.

You are learning, as you read this study unit 1, listen to your
instructional facilitator and or guidance counsellor at the Study Centre
of your choice, and study for a test or examination. Learning is also
involved in many other aspects of life. You learn to ride a bicycle,
recognize a song, drive a car, smile when someone smiles at you, repairs
a stereo, and play football. In fact, learning influences behaviour to
such a great extent that it is one of the most important concepts
psychologists study.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

State one unique reason why psychologists study learning:

Let us now continue with our discussion.

3.2 Concept of Learning

Kohler (1925) in his book, ‘The Mentality of Apes’ (cited in Alhassan,

2000), explained learning as a perceptual process with the major
emphasis being on the study of relationships and how people learn to see
relationships among various items of experience. Learning of
relationships can be clearly seen in the phenomenon of insight.
Sometimes, pupils work for a long time on a problem or skill with little
apparent progress. All of a sudden, there will be a flash of
understanding (eureka) in which the pupil or student sees through the
problem or re-forms his responses into a more complex habit. This
phenomenon was first widely published by the famous German
psychologist, Wolfgang Kohler, who found that apes, when confronted
with a different problem, might act as if they were surveying the
situation and would then go directly to the goal object (banana) by
putting two sticks together, or by piling, one box on top of another. You
will learn more about this exciting problem solving situation in study
unit 2 of Module II where we shall discuss the Gestalt theory of
learning.

Aristotle talked of learning as an association of ideas following the laws

of similarity, contrast, and continuity. He believed that people learn and
remember those things that are alike, that are striking because of their
difference, and that occur together, in space and time (Murphy, 1998).

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

Bugelski (1986:117) on his part, sees learning as the process of the

formation of relatively permanent neural circuits through the
simultaneous activity of the elements of the circuit-to-be; such activity is
of the nature of change in cell structures through growth in such a
manner as to facilitate the arousal of the entire circuit when a component
element is aroused or activated.

Lindgren (1991) posits that learning is a central process in

understanding human behaviour. Most aspects of human behaviour are
learned contrary to the widely held view at the turn of the century that
human behaviour is instinctive in nature. According to Lindgren, only
perhaps such behaviours as sucking of breasts and blinking of the eyes
are instinctive. Lindgren explains instinctual behaviour as inherited
patterns of complex responses which become less important as life
progresses up the evolutionary scale.

Learning may also be thought of as a process of problem-solving, a way

of thinking, creating and synthesizing.

I am sure our discussion is clear and understandable. Now, try your

hand on this question.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

List any two (2) human behaviour that are inattentive in nature:

1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

I am sure you are eager to know how psychologists defined learning and
human learning. We must therefore continue our discussion.

3.3 DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING

Alhassan (1985:17) opines that learning is the totality of the acquisition

of factual information, the mastering of skills and means to aid further
study (understanding); the entire socialization process, the acquisition of
behaviour patterns, the styles of tackling problems of everyday life and
more. Learning is a dynamic process whereby, through interactive
experience, insights or cognitive structures of life spaces are changed
and so become more useful for future guidance.

Gagne (1970:3) attempts a definition of learning which seems to have a

wide appeal when he writes that learning even takes place when the
situation affects the learner in such a way that his/her performance

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

changes from a time before being in that situation to a time after being
in it. The change in performance is what leads to the conclusion that
learning has occurred. Thus, learning is a change in human disposition
or capability which can be retained, and which is not ascribable to the
process of growth. It is important for you to note that all changes in
performance that brought about by the environment may properly be
referred to as learning. This view of learning is identical to the
definition that says that learning is a modification in behaviour due to
experience.

Notwithstanding the above discourse, learning may not be easy to define

adequately. This may be so because we cannot see it directly. But when
we observe a child’s behaviour, we can conclude that some kind of
learning has occurred. Let us give an example. When a pre-schooler is
able to recite the alphabet from A – Z or the numerals, which he could
not do before, we can deduce that some learning has taken place.
Liebert (1997:114) stresses this point by stating that all animals,
including human beings, are able to profit from experience. Placed in
new situations for the first time, we are often clumsy and incompetent.
However, after some practice or the opportunity to watch others
perform, our own efforts usually improve dramatically. For many
activities at least, we too, can successfully accomplish things that had
previously been difficult and frustrating the process that is responsible
for this change is called learning.

I can see you are finding this discussion interesting. Let us continue.

Let us cite another example. When you look at the stages of a child’s
development, you can see that he first knows how to eat, then to sit, to
crawl about, to be able to stand, to walk, to run about, and to speak. The
child is now capable of doing some things which he could not do earlier
in his life. It may be said that in these respects, the child has learned
because ‘observed changes in behaviour are evidence of
learning’ (Balogun, 2001:43). Many psychologists agree that learning is
a general term for relatively lasting or permanent change in performance
or behaviour caused or produced directly by experience.

Dinkmeyer (1985) defines learning as a change in behaviour resulting

from the interaction of the organism with its environment. Learning is
dependent upon activity or special training and in this sense, differs
from behavioural change which is solely due to maturation. Learning
then involves relatively permanent behavioural change which is as a
result of experience.

O’Connor (1993) submits that a study of learning is part of the larger

study of psychology, which may be defined as the scientific study of

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

human experience and human and animal behaviour. Olaitan (1992)

defines learning as a collection of experiences which a person
progressively acquires to be regarded as educated in his/her society.
What does this imply?

Let us go on with our discussion. This implies that the value of learning
is determined primarily by the society. People learn what the social
learning environment permits them to learn by way of subjects offered,
quality of teachers / instructional facilitators, quality of the curriculum,
quality of the learning environment, and so on. It is important to note
that what the learning society is capable of offering does not suit its
definition of an educated man, a vacuum is created which has to be
bridged by making learning more meaningful and relevant to the societal
perception of an educated man.

At this stage of our discussion, we should be able to consider some

relevant questions. What do we mean by learning? How many types of
learning are there? How can we motivate students to learn? What is
human learning?

You are eager for answers to the questions, now let us go on.

Human beings learn. This statement looks and sounds simple, yet it has
generated as much controversy as any statement could in the
behavioural, natural, or physical science. Travers (1996) posits that man
is a philosopher before he is a psychologist or an educator, and as he
sees human nature, so he sees the nature of learning. Consequently,
learning is viewed as a cognitive, problem-solving process whereby man
actively seeks and uses environmental clues that enable him to form
concepts, solve problems, and think creatively.

Human learning depends upon at least three pre-conditions:

1. A functioning biological organism;

2. An on-going social/cultural/religious/political/economic
environment, and
3. An opportunity for a biological being to interact with any form or
forms of the environment in (2) and thereby learn from it.

Human learning is the ultimate goal of our educational system. Man

turns to several disciplines to discover what aids or hinders learning, and
to grope toward a more adequate knowledge of the process itself. From
biology, the student of learning takes information about growth and
development, he utilizes facts about man’s activities in groups and what
impact environmental forces have on learning. From anthropology, he
derives insight into the meaning of cultural differences. What the

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

specific culture values in its learning, and how the individual, reflecting
his culture, has learned to learn.
Culture is the totality of the way of life of a people. It includes
everything from how people welcome a newborn baby to how the dead
are buried. All disciplines can contribute to our knowledge about
learning. Learning may involve many variables. Klausmier (1992)
similarly states that learning may be grouped into no less than five
categories:

a. The characteristics of the learner, such as developmental aspects;

b. Characteristics of the teacher/instructional facilitator;
c. Classroom/study centre interaction;
d. Characteristics of the learners as a group, and
e. The physical setting.

This tends to indicate that the nature of learning may not be all that easy
to comprehend. Klausmier again attests to this when he writes that we
do not as yet have any universally accepted description of the learning
process applicable to all kinds of learning, in all human beings, at all age
levels, and in all situations. It is important for you to note that the
development of learning and intelligence and their great educability are
what distinguish humans from all other living creatures which is,.

An important distinction between learning in lower animals and learning

in humans is that, even when simple association learning is involved,
one rarely sees the building up of isolated connections between single
sets of stimuli and responses. Such connections do occur, but in human
learning we tend to notice their appearance only as they form chains of
associations. The types of association learning common to humans, and
the relative rapidity of the learning process, tends to obscure the
observation of the learning of the links themselves.

In human learning, two particular abilities seem representative: the first

of these is a consequence of a highly developed sensory ability and
manual which enables us to learn the use of tools. This is variously
referred to as sensor motor learning, motor learning or skill learning. It
includes all related abilities from manipulating a pencil, learning to
operate a complex machine, to playing a musical instrument with
perhaps virtuoso ability.

A second class of human learning results from an equally happy

coincidence of physical and mental endowment the ability to learn to
use verbal materials. As learning theory developed in the United States
of America through the efforts of Thorndike, Hull and others, so also
developed was the view that all learning, human and animal learning,
maze learning and language learning, could potentially be understood

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

merely by the principles embodied in classical conditioning. This is one

of the theories of learning discussed in several study units of this course
material. For all such theories, psychologists carried out experiments
mainly with the use of lower organisms such as rats, pigeons,
chimpanzees, dogs, and such similar creatures. We shall now ask a
relevant question: Why do psychologists prefer using animals to
perform experiments?

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Think and state any two (2) reasons:

1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(We shall explore the answer to this important question in study unit 2).

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt some descriptions of learning.

Psychologists differ in how they look at learning. We clarify
misconceptions as to what learning is. Learning is a part of almost
every aspect of psychology. In addition, the concept of learning was
examined. You have also learnt some definitions of learning. Learning
is the totality of the acquisition of factual information, the mastering of
skills to aid further study, the acquisition of behaviour patterns and
styles of tackling problems of everyday life. Observed changes in
behaviour are evidence of learning.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns descriptions and
definitions of learning from the perspectives of different
psychologists.
ii. The study unit has been used served to introduce you to other
study units in the course material.
iii. The study units that follow shall build upon this introduction to
ensure clarity of concepts and understanding of the contents.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

1. What do you understand by the concept of learning?

2. Explain what you understand by human learning.
3. List 3 preconditions on which human learning is based.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (1985) the Role of Motivation in School Learning

Department of Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

Alhassan, A.B. (2000) Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

Balogun, R.T. (1981) A systems approach to education in Nigeria. In:

West African Journal of Education, XIL, 2.

Bugelski, B.R. (1986) the Psychology of Learning New York: Holt.

Dinkmeyer, D. (1985) Child Development: The Emerging Self.

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice – Hall.

Gagne, R. (1970) the Conditions of Learning New York: Holt, Rinehart

& Winston.

Klaussmier, H. (1962) Psychological Research and Classroom

Learning. New York: Appleton.

Liebert, R.L. (1997) Developmental Psychology. London: Prentice –

Hall International.

Lindgren, H.C. (1991) Educational Psychology in the Classroom.

London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Murphy, G. (1998) Personality: A biosocial approach to origins and

structure. New York: Harper and Row.

O’Connor, K. (1993) Learning: An introduction London: Scott,

Foreman and Company.

Olaitan, S.O. (1992) Learning about learning. A builder’s bridge

between learning, people and society. In: B. Ipaye (ed.)
Education in Nigeria: Past, Present and Future. 1, 367 – 72.
Macmillan Nigeria.

Oxiedien, P. (1968) Learning difficulties in children New York: 1 U.P.

Travers, J. (1986) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Scranton,

Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

UNIT 2 THE USE OF LOWER ORGANISMS FOR

PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The importance of studying animals for psychological
experiments
3.2 Advantages of animal studies
3.3 Weaknesses of animal studies
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 1, we discussed descriptions and definitions of learning.

The study unit also introduced you to other study units in this course
material. You can now describe and define learning from your own
understanding. You are about to start another interesting study unit.
Which is on the use of lower organisms for psychological experiments?
This study unit guides you through the importance of studying animals.
Let us look at other areas you need to know in this study unit as
specified in the unit objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain the importance of studying animals for psychological

experiments.
2. List the advantages of studying animals for psychological
experiments.
3. Describe some of the weaknesses of studying animal for
psychological experiments.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Importance of Studying Animals for Psychological

Experiments

It is accepted that when attempting to understand the behaviour of a

child we frequently look at his past experience for possible explanations.
We can move toward understanding human complexity more easily by
studying animals, which in many respects, are simpler organisms. It is
important for you to note that arguments over the difference between
lower animals and humans have been going on for centuries. Aristotle
claimed we can identify the differences between lower animals and
humans because we humans can laugh and wiggle our ears (Thomas,
1983). But, as we learn more, we find that lower animals and humans
have a great deal in common, not only physically, but also to some
extent, psychologically. You should remember now and always that
although its units differ in size and location, the human brain is quite
similar in structure to that of the rat, cat, or dog. Hence animals become
important to study (McMahon & McMahon, 1986).

Our discussion is getting clearer and more understandable. I commend

your active participation. Now, try your hand on this question.

SELF-ASSESSED EXERCISE 1

1. (a) Complete this state:

Lower animals and humans have much in common
…………. and ……….......

(b) List three (3) differences between lower animals and

humans:

i) ……………………………………………………………………

ii) ……………………………………………………………………

iii) ……………………………………………………………………

Well done! Let us continue our discussion.

It is important for you to note that the tradition of looking to the

behaviour of other animals to gain understanding of the behaviour and
experience of human beings stems from the evolutionary biology, which
followed the publication in 1859 of Charles Darwin ‘Origin of Species’.
Charles Darwin was responsible for much of psychology’s interest in
animal experiments. Though he was not the first to suggest the idea but

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

he was the first great organiser of information about the long history of
changing species that conceivably led to the emergence of man.

You must note that the principal effect of his studies was to make
humans more open to scientific investigation by suggesting they were of
animal origin. Both humans and apes have a common ancestor, as
branches of a tree have a common trunk. The importance of Charles
Darwin to psychology was that his theory suggested the human is but a
more elaborate version of basic animal life. Anatomical continuity
between various species suggested also continuity in behaviour and in
psychological process such as learning. By observing learning in
various species, knowledge has been gained of some basic processes
fundamental to learning whenever it occurs. Though the same, or very
similar, processes may be found operating in relation to the learning of
cats, pigeons, rats, monkeys, apes and men, it is always necessary to
look at the total learning situation and observe important differences, as
well as resemblances, between learning in varied species. With this
provision ever in mind, the student of human learning should be able to
appreciate the relevance of comparative animal studies in psychology.
Therefore, we human beings can be studied by observing the operations
of less complex lower animals.

Now, think about this question: What are the possible advantages of
animal studies? Let us continue with our discussion.

3.2 Advantages of Animal Studies

According to McMahon & McMahon (1986:11 – 12), the following are

some of the advantages of animal studies:

1. If we are animals, even complex ones, it may well be that the

study of less complicated and more easily understood forms
would reveal the mechanisms underlying human behaviour.

2. Using animals allows surgical experimental techniques. To

understand some operations of the human brain, for example, a
researcher would have to remove certain portions to see the effect
on behaviour. As the authors see it, two methods are available:

i) Wait until someone is unfortunate enough to have a brain

injury, or
ii) Study the effects of cutting out parts of the human brain.

The second procedure (ii) above is obviously unacceptable, and the first
procedure (i) above is too accidental and random. To have a clearer
understanding, let us cite an example:

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

A psychologist wishing to examine the influence of early social isolation

on later behaviour could not possibly seek to separate infants from all
human contact in order to study this topic. In cases such as this, it is
often possible to turn to systematic observation and the correlation
approach. Even in cases where experimentation with humans is
possible, independent variables can often be controlled more effectively
or varied over a wider range when animal objects are employed.

Let us cite another example: A psychologist who is interested in

studying the effects of heat upon behaviour might conduct such research
with laboratory animals or human volunteers. Because of the harmful
effects resulting from prolonged exposure to heat, however, he would
probably be able to continue his study for a longer period of time and to
expose subjects to somewhat higher temperature if he chooses to work
with animals rather than humans.

In psychology, drug treatments for depression, anxiety disorder,

schizophrenia, and other serious psychological disorders would not now
be possible were it not for extensive animal research. Animals are used
in about 8 percent of all experiments conducted by psychologists
(American Psychological Association, 1984).

Time is ripe for you to check the progress you have made in
understanding our discussion.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A group of Nigerian scientists are anxious to test the efficacy of a new

drug for curing HIV/AIDS. As a student of human learning, briefly
explain what subjects you will recommend to conduct the test and why?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Well done, let us continue with our discussion.

The education of groups of children cannot be hampered or delayed for

purposes of experimental control over either environment or antecedent
learning history. Unusual motivational conditions involving either
deprivation or over-stimulation are undesirable neurophysiological or
biochemical studies involving or threatening physical injury is

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

unthinkable. Besides these cultural limitations, the human child has

certain characteristics that render him a relatively limited subject for the
experimental analysis of the maturation of learning capability.

At birth, his neuromuscular systems are underdeveloped that he is

incapable of effecting the precise head, arm, hand, leg and foot
movements essential for objective measurement. From your knowledge
of developmental psychology, you know that by the time the normal
child has matured physically, he is engaging each day in such a fantastic
wealth of multiple learning activities that precise, independent control
over any single learning process presents a task beyond objective
realism. Even if it were proper to cage human children willfully, which
it assuredly may not be easy, this very act would in all probability render
the children abnormal and untestable and again leave us with an
inseparable problems.

It is also important for you to note that animals reproduce more rapidly
and abundantly than humans. Many animal generations will be born and
can be studied within one human generation. A scientist can look at the
effects of a drug on the behaviour of a rat and on the behaviour of its
offspring, and still be around to report the results. At this stage, you
should think out the answer to a relevant and timely question: Why do
psychologists prefer to use chimpanzees? Now let us continue our
discussion.

Animals below the primate order are intellectually limited compared

with chimpanzees (monkeys), so that they learn the same problems more
slowly and are incapable of solving many problems that are relatively
easily mastered by chimpanzees. Horses, rats and even cats and dogs,
can solve only a limited repertoire of learning tasks, and they learn so
slowly on all but the simplest of these that they pass from infancy to
maturity before their intellectual measurement can be completed.

According to Fuller, et. al. (150), it has been demonstrated that mature
and aged rats are no more proficient on a multiple T maze than young
rats, while conditioned responses cannot be established in dogs before
18 – 21 days of age. It is important for you to note that the chimpanzee
is capable of solving simple learning problems during the first few days
of life and its capability of solving ever increasingly complex problems
matures progressively, probably from four to five years.

The monkey possesses learning capacities far in excess of those of any

other infrahuman primate, abilities probably comparable to those of low-
level human imbeciles. Susan Karen revealed that rhesus monkeys have
been discovered to be able to learn how to count from numbers 1 to 10
(CNN’s Science and Technology Week Programme of 25 October,

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

1998). Groups of incurably ill people argue that the animal rights
groups do not take their plight into account. Without continued animal
research, they argue, their illnesses will never be treatable (Feeney,
1987).

Animals will certainly continue to be used in research. However, the

animal rights movement has made a major contribution by focusing
national and international attention on how animals are used and how
they are housed and treated (Ott, R. 1995). You can now attempt the
following questions:

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

1. (a) List 3 animals commonly found in your community:

i) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ii) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

iii) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(b) List 3 weaknesses that animal studies may generate

i) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ii) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

iii) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Well done! Let us continue our discussion.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

3.3 Disadvantages in using animals to conduct psychological

experiments

Among the major disadvantages in using animals for psychological

experiments as identified by McMahon & McMahon (1986:13) are:

1. One of the very first problems experiments encountered is the

issue of morality. One cannot take advantage of lower creatures
without serious justification. There is always a sense of guilt
that, somehow, it cannot be right that we should be using animals
in this way. Over the last decade, animal rights activists have
campaigned vigorously for the elimination of using animals for
experiments. They accuse researchers of subjecting animals to
serious, unnecessary harm and severe pain and point to poor
housing and feeding conditions in some laboratories (Ulrich,
1991). They estimate that 20 million rats, mice and other animals
die each year in experiments and that additional millions are
subjected to pain and discomfort (Cunningham, 1985). This
campaign was re-echoed by Andrew Dickman of the World
Society for the Protection of Animals (WAPA) on the British Sky
th
News programmes of 25 October, 1998 (cited in Alhassan,
2000).

2. Humans are very complex. Thus, analysing a lower animal to

understand us is somewhat like analysing the electronic
components, but beyond that there are vast differences.

3. People are equipped with hindsight and foresight, which means

that we can bring to the present much information and
interpretation from the past. Human beings can forecast some
complex probabilities. Clearly then, humans are more complex
than animals which seem to base their behaviour on limited
previous experience.

4. A big danger with using animals is the experiment’s tendency to

anthropomorphise (from the Latin for ‘give human qualities to’).
How often, for example, do we say of our dog, things like, ‘I bet
terror is sad that we didn’t bring him leftovers at the birthday
party today?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the rationale for using
lower
organisms for psychological experiments. You have therefore learnt the
advantages of animal studies. We can now say that the weaknesses of
animal studies are very clearly understood by you.
16
EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

You will have seen that psychologists consider both the advantages and
weaknesses of animal studies and concluded that conducting
experiments in psychology with lower organisms is of great and
enduring importance.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns the importance
of studying animals for psychological experiments.
ii. You also learnt the advantages of studying animals for
psychological experiments.
iii. The study unit has served to indicate what you will learn in other
study units later in the course.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Briefly explain the importance of studying animals for

psychological experiments.
2. List 3 advantages of studying animals for psychological
experiments.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (2000) Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

American Psychological Association (1984) Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduc. American Psychologist.

American Psychological Association (1984) Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduct American Psychologist.

Cunningham, C. (1985) Training and education approaches for parents

and children with special needs. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 58 (3), 285 – 305.

Freeney, D. (1987) Human Rights and Animal Welfare. American

Psychologist 42 (6), 593 – 599.

Filler, J.L. & Robert, W. (1960) Behaviour Genetics New York: Wiley.

McMahon, F. & McMahon, J. (1986) Psychology: The Hybrid Science

Chicago: The Dorsey Press.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

Ott, R. (1995) the natural wrongs about animal rights and animal
liberation. Journal of the American Veterinary Medicine
Association 15, 1023 – 1030.

American Psychological Association (1984) Ethical Principles of

Psychologists and Code of Conduct American
Psychologist.Ulrich,

R. (1991) Animal rights, animal wrongs and the question of balance.

Psychological Science 3 (2), 197 – 201.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

UNIT 3 THEORIES OF LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Learning theories
3.2 Thorndike’s theory of connectionism
3.3 Laws governing learning
3.4 Critical assessment of Thorndike’s theory of learning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 2, we discussed the rationale for the use of lower organism
for psychological experiments. The study unit also served to introduce
you to other study units in this course. You can now explain the
advantages of animal studies in psychological experiments. You can
also describe the disadvantages of using animals for psychological
experiments. You are about to study another interesting study unit:
Theories of learning. This study unit guides you through Thorndike’s
theory of learning. Let us look at what other content you should learn in
this study unit as specified in the objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain the theory of learning from the standpoint of Thorndike.

2. List the laws governing learning.
3. Describe the implications of the laws for human learning.
4. Itemise advantages and weaknesses of Thorndike’s theory of
learning.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Learning Theories

Blair, et. al (1981) write that learning theories differ in method and
conclusion essentially because the theories focused attention on certain
aspects of the total learning processes. Differences in the results are
uninspiring if it is remembered that psychologists have used animals of

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

nearly every species, from one-celled organisms to man, in conducting

experiments. From such experiments are generated no less than six
theories of learning.

In addition, theoretical approaches to the study of behaviour are bye-

products of such experiments. The engineer has theories of light,
electricity, and matter, the medical doctor has theories of genetics, just
as the teacher/educator/instructional facilitator is in command of
learning theories. The next section of this study unit examines one of
the most fascinating theories of learning. Let us continue our
discussion.

3.2 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism

It is important for you to note that Thorndike (1874:1949) provided the

first systematic approach to understanding behaviour from the
standpoint of a behaviourist. He was also the first American
Psychologist to introduce the concept of reward (reinforcement) for
learning to uccur (Alhassan, 2000). Blair et. al. (1981) reveals that
Thorndike worked as an educational psychologist, a pioneer who
maintained an active interest in learning theory, school learning,
intelligence testing and educational measurement.

Thorndike is the starting point for both educational psychology and

America’s brand of objective psychology that is behaviourism. His
stimulus – response (S-R) theory was generated from a series of
experiments with a hungry cat put inside a puzzle box with food (fish)
visible on the outside. The cat had to pull a string to come out of the
puzzle box. Towards this, the cat made several random movements of
jumping, dashing across the floor of the box and running in a deliberate
attempt to get out of the box.

The cat at last succeeded in pulling the string. The door of the puzzle
box opened, the cat came out and ate the food. The time, which it took,
was recorded and it was put into the box again and again until such a
time that it achieved mastery on how to operate the lever to have its
escape. Thus, over a series of successive trials, the cat became
increasingly efficient in getting out of the box, the number of errors thus
reduced on subsequent trials.

It is important for you to note that Thorndike’s cat showed slow, gradual
and continuous improvement in performance over successive trials.
Thorndike then concluded that animals learn through active behaviour,
accidents and through chance to succeed. Further, he concluded that the
learning process in the cat can be explained in terms of formation of

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

direct connection between the stimulus and the response. Note also that
two important factors aided the learning process.

i) The cat was hungry, meaning that there should be some

motivation in the cat for learning to occur, and
ii) The food which is also necessary to satisfy the hunger of the cat
must be present.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1) (a) State briefly in your own words what Thorndike’s lower

organism showed.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) What was Thorndike’s conclusion given the situation in (a)
above?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Well done! Let us continue our discussion.

3.3 Laws Governing Learning

The basic laws and their classroom application are very interesting
aspects of the psychology of learning. Such laws are:

(a) The Law of Readiness

This law states that when a modifiable connection is ready to act,

to do so is satisfying and, when it is not ready to do so, it is
unsatisfying. Readiness is dependent upon both maturation and

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF
LEARNING

experience of the learner. Mukherjee (1978) writes that the law

of readiness implied “preparatory adjustment of the organism
confronted with the problem”. What does this suggest? This
suggests that if Thorndike’s cat were well fed before it was
introduced into the puzzle box; the required response of pulling
the lever would not have been obtained. Children will not learn if
they are not prepared or do not have interest in learning a
particular subject. Now, try this relevant question. What
classroom application may we derive from this theory? Let us
continue our discussion.

Chauhan (1978:141) suggest that the teacher must wait till the
learner is ready to learn. The teacher should give those
experiences that may help to enhance readiness. Preparatory
experiences that will hasten the growth of readiness can be
provided in primary classes. Aptitude tests in various subjects
may be given to determine the readiness of learners. With the
school system, the teacher needs to take into consideration the
developmental stage of the learner, his/her interest, personality,
and mental readiness in order to know the type of stimulus to
present to the learner, which will lead to a positive response with
success as its reward.

(b) Law of Exercise

This law is divided into two parts: the Law of Use and the Law
of Disuse. The law of use states that other things being equal, the
more frequently a modifiable connection between stimulus and
response (S – R) is made, the stronger that connection will be.
The law of disuse states that, other things being equal, when a
modifiable connection between stimulus and response (S – R) is
not made over a period of time, the strength of that connection is
weakened. Thus, practice is required, especially in learning skills
(simple and complex); repetition also strengthens the connection
between the stimulus and the response.

Now, we should consider the relevance of the law within the

teaching-learning process. The classroom teacher should
endeavour to give opportunities (on a sustained basis) to the
learners not only to use but also to repeat the knowledge they
required in the class. We know that drill plays an important role
in elementary classes, particularly in the learning of
multiplication tables, alphabets, and meanings of words. The
position of Thorndike is that many drills, should be given in
elementary classes to strengthen the bondage between S and R.

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. List any 5 learning skills in which practice is required.

3.1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Clap for yourself for your active participation in our discussion. Now,
let us continue.

(c) Law of Effect

Commenting on the law of effect, Mukherjee (1978) writes that

only those responses of the organism, followed by reward and
satisfaction, would be learned, and those unsuccessful responses
followed by punishment and annoyance would be eliminated
from the behaviour repertoire of the organism. This suggests that
to every stimulus, there was response, and when the response to a
stimulus is followed by some positive effect, such as reward and
satisfaction, that particular stimulus – response bond (S – R)
would be ‘stamped in’, while others followed by some negative
effect such as punishment and annoyance, would be “stamped-
out”. The effect of reward and punishment are not only opposite
in nature, but are equally strengthened. It is important for you to
note that this was Thorndike’s initial view, but in his later
writings, he emphasised most on positive effect and overlooked
the punishment thereby concluding that learning is more effective
under reward conditions than under conditions of punishment. In
the next section of this study unit, we shall study how the laws
governing learning affect learning by human beings.

3.4 Implications for Human Learning

Thorndike’s theory of learning has obvious implications for human

learning. Oladele (1989) posits that the human organism reacts more
readily when a given action is satisfying rather than annoying to it. The
repetition of satisfying actions, which attend learning, strengthens
learning. Learning depends essentially on making connections. Clearly
then, for learning to be effective, practice must occur periodically.

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It is important for you to note that preparatory experiences that will

hasten the growth of readiness must be provided in elementary classes.
When a pupil is prematurely exposed to a learning task before he is
ready for it, he will not only fail to learn the task in question, but even
learns from the experience of failure to fear, dislike, and avoid it.

Maturation seems to have a different and much more restricted meaning

from readiness. It is not the same as readiness rather, maturation is
merely one of the two principal factors; the other being learning that
contribute to or determine the organism’s readiness to cope with new
experience.

Thus, whether or not readiness exists does not necessarily depend on

maturation alone but in many instances is mainly a function of prior
learning experience and most typically depends on varying proportions
of maturation and learning. It must be remembered that to equate the
principles of readiness and maturation implies muddying the conceptual
waters as well as difficulty for the school to appreciate that insufficient
readiness may reflect inadequate prior learning on the part of pupils
because of inappropriate or inefficient instructional methods. Hence,
lack of maturation can become a convenient scapegoat whenever
children manifest insufficient readiness to learn.

The readiness of each learner is the degree to which he has the

prerequisites for new learning. Note that readiness is never for a subject
or topic itself but for specific requirements, which vary with the way we
teach. Both maturation and prior learning are factors in readiness; but
the relative importance of each undoubtedly varies for different methods
of teaching because of the specific activities of students under each. The
point to note is that although there are some maturational minimums
below which instruction would be too inefficient, prior learning is
probably the more important factor in readiness for most school tasks.

It is now time to think about this question:

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

From your understanding of our discussion, do you think there is/are

weaknesses in Thorndike’s theory of learning? Let us continue our
discussion.

3.5 Critical Assessment of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Mukherjee (1978:43) highlights the following criticisms against

Thorndike’s theory:

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EDU 701 PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

(i) Learning is a continuous process and not a discrete process as

visualised by Thorndike.
(ii) Problem-solving learning does not depend on chance or
haphazard trial and error as Thorndike’s cat demonstrated.
(iii) Transfer of learning cannot simply be explained from a theory of
identity of elements and intelligence is not simply an
accumulation of stamped-in stimulus response bonds.
(iv) We know that practice is essential, yet it cannot be held to be a
factor aiding problem – solving performance. You should note
that too much practice may lead to functional fixedness and
subsequently one’s inability to solve problems.

Notwithstanding the criticisms listed above, no discussion of any theory

of learning without familiarity with Thorndike’s theory of
connectionism may be considered altogether valid.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt explanations of Thorndike’s theory.

The laws governing learning were described. In addition, you learnt the
implications of the laws for human learning. You have similarly learnt
some criticism that may be generated in any consideration of
Thorndike’s connectionism.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns learning theories
and Thorndike’s connectionism.
ii. In addition, you learnt the laws governing learning and their
implications for human learning.
iii. The study unit has served to introduce you to other study units in
the course.
iv. The study units that follow shall build upon your understanding
of this study unit to ensure clarity, understanding and
comprehension.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain in your own words the law of readiness and the law of
effect.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (2000) Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company

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Blaire, G., Stewart, J. & Simpson, R. (1901) Educational Psychology

New York: Macmillan.

Chauhan, S. (1988) Advanced Educational Psychology New Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House.

Mukherjee, M. (1978) Educational Psychology Calcutta, India: K.P.

Basu Pub. Coy.

Oladele, J.O.(1989) Guidance and Counselling: A Functional Approach

Lagos: Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

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UNIT 4 SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
3.2 Responses as operant
3.3 Schedules of Reinforcement
3.4 Implications for Behaviour Management
3.5 Critical Assessment of Skinner’s Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 3, we discussed theories of learning with particular

reference to Thorndike’s. The study unit also served to introduce you to
other study units in this course. You can now explain the laws
governing learning. You can also describe the implications of
Thorndike’s theory for human learning. You are now in a position to
assess the theory. You are about to study a very interesting study unit:
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning. This study unit guides you through
Skinner’s theory of learning. Let us look at what other content you
should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit objectives
below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning;

2. Differentiate between stimulus discrimination and stimulus
generalisation;
3. Explain the concept of reinforcement;
4. Describe the schedules of reinforcement.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

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3.1 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Edward Skinner was one of the most important modern advocates of

conditioning. Others were Ivan Pavlov, Kimble and Hull. Using a
specially designed ‘Skinner’s box’, Skinner conducted his experiments
with rat. The box consisted of a lever or bar which can be pressed to set
a mechanism in motion which would deliver food pellets through a food
tube. It is to be noted that when the rat was introduced into the box,
chance pressing of the bar would deliver several pellets, it was observed
that the rat went on pressing the bar to obtain food which served as its
reward.

It is important for you to note that a pronounced series of non-reward

(non-reinforcement) resulted in a gradual lowering of response rate in
the rat, which Skinner termed extinction. Skinner’s second experiment
consisted of a pigeon pecking at a disc in a ‘Skinner box’ and receiving
food as its reward (reinforcement) with the ‘green light’ on. Following
several trials, the pigeon learned to peck whenever the green light was
on. Skinner introduced the red light during which there was no food
reward despite the pecking behaviour manifested by the pigeon.
Skinner reported that the pigeon soon learned to peck whenever the
green light was on. This behaviour was termed stimulus
discrimination.

Skinner introduced ‘a new’ dimension to the experiment: lighter shades

of ‘light’ and brighter shades of ‘red light’. It was observed that the
pecking behaviour persisted in the face of the reward following shades
of lighter green light. In addition, the pecking behaviour was
discontinued in the face of non-reward following shades of brighter red
light. This behaviour is described as stimulus generalisation.

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. (a) List attributes of the behaviour of stimulus discrimination.

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

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(b) What is stimulus generalisation?

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

That’s a nice effort. Let us continue.

3.2 Response as Operant

According to Edward Skinner, most responses are operant, that is, goal-
directed, purposive and willful. Behaviour, which is controlled by
changes in the environment, is called operant behaviour. Most of what
we do each day is operant. Walking, thinking, talking are all operant.
Most of what we teach in school is operant. The process in which
behaviour is strengthened, in the sense of becoming more likely to
occur, through reinforcement is called operant conditioning.

In operant behaviour, the organism does something to the environment

and is rewarded. It is important for you to note that it is the response
that is reinforced. The organism is instrumental in securing his own
reward. More often than not, one operant leads to another, and for this,
Skinner views learning as a continuum. This explains why we go on
learning all through life. For Skinner (as indeed for Thorndike),
reinforcers increase or decrease the probability of a response by their
presence or absence.

Skinner distinguished between two types of reinforcement: Primary

reinforcers are those things that are directly related to our physiological
needs like food, thirst, love. Secondary reinforcers are those things
that are important because of their association with primary reinforcers.
Thus, the same response emitted for ‘primary reinforcers’ is generalised
to them. Let us cite an example: the green light in Skinner’s experiment
was important to the pigeon essentially because of its association with

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food, which was a primary reinforcer. Note that a host of secondary

reinforcers keep us going, for example, approval, praise, a smile, or
encouragement to a student from his teacher.

Let us continue with our discussion.

3.3 Schedule of Reinforcement

Central to discussions of learning and motivation is the concept of

reinforcement. Skinner distinguished four schedules of reinforcement.
Remember that reinforcers are stimuli whose presentation, contingent
upon the occurrence of a response, changes the probability of occurrence
of that response. The study of the control of behaviour by intermittent
reinforcement has not been neglected in the analysis of behaviour. On
the contrary, it has been one of the most prominent areas of
investigation in the last 30 years. It has been concerned, first describing
how the patterning of reinforcement in time (different types of
intermittency_ affects the patterning of behaviour in time.

In addition, it has been concerned with discovering the mechanism by

which intermittent reinforcement of various types produces these
different patterns of behaviour. Note that this area of research is
generally referred to as the study of schedule of reinforcement. What
is a reinforcement schedule? A reinforcement schedule is simply a rule
which specifies how often and under what conditions a particular
response will be reinforced. All schedules of reinforcement have one
thing in common; reinforcement depends upon the occurrence of a
response.

With schedules in which each response is reinforced, called continuous

reinforcement (CRF) schedules, a single response is all that is required
for reinforcement. With other schedules, reinforcement may depend
upon something in addition to a particular response, either the passage
of a certain amount of time (interval schedules) or the occurrence of a
certain number of previous responses (ratio schedules). You should
note that each of these types of schedules can be subdivided. The
intervals required for reinforcement may be fixed (each interval is the
same) or variable. Similarly, ratios may be fixed (each reinforcement
depends upon the same number of responses) or variable.

The four types of schedules identified above: fixed interval, variable

interval, fixed ratio, and variable ratio are the basic types of
reinforcement schedules. Importantly, the study of schedules of
reinforcement amounts to the study of the effects of different types of
intermittency on behaviour. Now try to reflect on this question: How

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well do the basic schedules of reinforcement characterises intermittent

reinforcement in the real world? Let us continue our discussion.

It is not too difficult to find examples of human behaviour which are

maintained by one or another of the basic reinforcement schedules.
Fixed ratios used to be quite common for factory workers to be paid on a
piece of work basis: transmissions installed or every hundred packets of
sugar packaged produced a certain pay off. These fixed-ratio schedules
generated very high rates of responding, with brief pauses after each
ratio. This kind of salary arrangement was very desirable to
management for a variety of reasons. It maintained high outputs. In
addition, it made wages a direct part of unit costs. When business was
good, and much was produced, employees earned high wages. When
business was bad, employees were given less work, completed fewer
ratios, and earned less money. To ensure you have a clear
understanding and comprehension of our discussion, we shall explain
the following generalised examples of basic ratios:

Fixed Ratio: The teacher calls on wazobia every third time she raises
her hand. Wazobia’s hand raising is then on an FR 3 schedule.

Variable Ratio: Wazobia is called by the teacher after she raises her
hand a number of times, sometimes after one or two responses,
sometimes after three or four responses. Mukherjee (1978:51) writes
that evidence from the animal laboratory shows that the effects of
variable – ratio schedule of reinforcement were the most powerful as
measured against extinction curve, which were obtained by plotting
against time the number of bar – pressing operant behaviour of rats
following initial conditioning of their operant behaviour.

Fixed Interval: Wazobia is called upon by the teacher only when she
raises her hand five times after she was last called upon for raising her
hand.

Variable Interval: Wazobia is called upon by the teacher only when

some time she passed since she was last called upon for raising her
hand. But the length of time elapsing between previous and subsequent
times wazobia is called varies.

It is important for you to note that in daily life, contingencies are often
extremely complex. We are rarely on a ‘pure’ schedule as given above.
Let us cite an example: In a classroom discussion, a teacher may call on
students according to both how many times they raise their hands (ratio
schedule) and how long it has been since they last contributed (interval
schedule). Or the teacher may shift back and forth from one schedule to
another. In addition, calling on a particular student depends on how

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many hands are raised, who the teacher thinks will answer well, and
many other factors. This can produce a very complex schedule for a
student. But you must note that complex schedules are often good
because they provide unpredictable reinforcement, and it is
unpredictable reinforcement that best produces resistance to extinction
once a response is established. Variable ratio and variable – interval
schedules are, therefore, the best schedules to use to maintain behaviour
and to make it persistent. Now it is time for you to try your hand on this
quiz:

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. How will you explain briefly and in your own words what you
understand by:

a) Schedules of Reinforcement?

i. …………………………………………………………………
ii. …………………………………………………………………
iii. …………………………………………………………………
iv. …………………………………………………………………

b) List 4 types of schedules

i. …………………………………………………………
ii. …………………………………………………………
iii. …………………………………………………………
iv. …………………………………………………………

Well done. Clap for yourself. Let us continue our discussion.

3.4 Implications for Behaviour Management

We shall continue our discussion with a question: What further relevant

implications may we require for classroom management? Let us
continue our discussion.

In looking at the role of stimulus change in producing and maintaining

behaviour, we can see the reasons for many problems in classroom
control. Students are likely to get different consequences for talking
with friends or engaging in unassigned activities, as opposed to
consequences for studying.

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When there is an immediate reason for working now, as in a timed test

which counts toward a grade, students for whom a grade is meaningful
consequence work hard. When it really does not make much difference
whether or not a student works now, or ten minutes from now, he or she
is likely to do other things. And what about misbehaviour? What are
the consequences for misbehaviour? If one student in a room starts to
hum or to look out of the window, who gets the teacher’s attention?
You should note that whenever teachers criticize any student, they are
providing a consequence for the misbehaviour they are criticizing. If
teacher – attention is reinforcing enough (and it usually is), such
teachers are strengthening the unwanted behaviour, thus producing a
disciplinary problem.

The superstitious behaviour exhibited by Skinner’s pigeon (to the green

light and red light) can be used to explain the many superstitious
behaviours human beings manifest. You should remember that Skinner
trained food-deprived pigeon to eat grain from a feeder that dispensed it
at a regular interval irrespective of what the pigeons were doing. The
first pigeons were banging their head about or turning around in the
cage. You should note that the more reinforcement the stereotyped
response received, the greater the likelihood of its occurrence. Well
done for your participation. Let us continue our discussion.

Through ‘superstitious behaviour’ some responses totally irrelevant to

the reinforcing event are strengthened by being accidentally paired with
the reinforcement. You should note that superstitious behaviour of
various kinds are seen in our society. let us cite examples: ‘Don’t sweep
at night’, ‘Don’t show a little baby itself in a mirror’, ‘A baby should be
given a piece of fish to hold while having his first hair cut or the hair
won’t grow’, and so on. These superstitious behaviours could have
originated in a similar way from history of reinforcement of such
superstitious behaviours either negatively or positively in the past,
which is handed down to succeeding generations.

You should remember that in the practical management of learning,

Skinner and Thorndike recommended the analysis of new learning tasks
into small steps to be mastered in a predetermined sequence, and large
amounts of teacher guidance to prevent unnecessary errors. Let us
consider some questions: From the standpoint of Skinner’s theory of
experimental findings, of what relevance are reward and punishment in
school learning? If we can generalise from animal studies to students in
a classroom, we should expect behaviour which is punished inside
school to occur at a higher rate than it did initially once the threat of
punishment is removed. When the students are outside school where the
teacher cannot police them, then they feel specially inclined to do what
is punished in school: to swear, to smoke, to chew gum, to destroy or

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make up books, and so on. Punishment will not, then, decrease

undesirable behaviour where it really counts: outside school. It may
actually increase it.

You should remember that from cognate experience in the teaching –

learning process, punishment can be described as having a number of
drawbacks. It does not remove the reinforcement which is maintaining
the behaviour, so that it results in two consequences producing conflict
in behavioural tendencies. It has undesirable side effects, hostility,
aggression, fear avoidance, and escape are common by-products. It
wears out with use, and when the threat is lifted, the punished behaviour
may not only return, it may return stronger than ever. Other students
may imitate a teacher who is punishing. They may also try to control
other students by scolding, rough handling, humiliation, and so on.

It is important for you to note that the position of most educational

psychologists is that, if a teacher must punish, then that teacher should:

1) Provide alternatives – make sure the students know what to do as

well as what not to do and that they can get at least as much
reinforcement from the desirable behaviour as from the
undesirable.
2) Punish immediately every time with minor punishment rather
than later or occasionally with something severe.
3) Punish only behaviour you personally see. If you rely
on
someone else’s report, you cannot punish immediately and you
4) may punish unjustly.
Use only consequences you would like your students to use too.
If you don’t want students to yell at others, you should not yell at
them (Alhassan, 2000).

Now it is time to think reflectively on our discussion by asking

a
relevant question.

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

From your understanding of our discussion, will you say Skinner’s

theory of learning has some weaknesses?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Let us continue our discussion.
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3.5 Critical Assessment of Skinner’s Theory

Skinner’s theory is not without some limitations. He has been criticized

for being silent on the issue of transfer of learning which is quite vital in
the understanding of learning behaviour. Specifically, his theory only
explains stimulus generalisation which is inadequate in explaining how
learning in one situation aids cognition in another (situation), especially
if stimuli involved do not fall within the ‘generalisation zone’ of the
response.

In addition, Skinner has given us significant attention to the role of

stimulus in the learning process since ‘response’ which is conditioned,
to him, is emitted by no specific stimulus. But some stimuli have, to
some extent, triggered off the response and this needs be acknowledged.
No less important is the fact that Skinner has failed to explain problem-
solving learning from his theory, and we do know that this is an
important aspect of learning strategy.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt Skinner’s operant conditioning theory
of learning, the responses of an operant and schedules of reinforcement.
You should also have learned about relevant implications that we
derived for classroom management in particular and in the practical
management of learning in general.

You will have learnt that the variable-ratio and variable-interval

schedules are the best schedules to use to maintain behaviour and to
make it persistent. Finally, you will have learnt what most educational
psychologists suggest a teacher should do if he/she must punish: provide
alternatives, punish immediately, punish only behaviour you personally
see, and use only consequences you would like your students to use too.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns Skinner’s theory
of operant conditioning.
ii. You have also learnt the differences between stimulus
generalisation and stimulus discrimination as well as the concept
of reinforcement and a description of schedules of reinforcement.
iii. The study unit has served to indicate what you will learn in other
study units later in the course.
iv. The study units that follow shall build upon the theory and these
concepts.

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6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Differentiate between stimulus generalisation and stimulus

discrimination.
2. Identify and explain briefly the four (4) schedules of
reinforcement.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology: Zaria,

Nigeria. Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.

Mukherjee, M. (1978). Educational Psychology: Calcutta, India: K. P.

Basin Pub.

Olaitan, S.O. (1992). Learning about learning: A builder’s bridge

between learning, people and society. In: B. Ipaye, (ed.)
Education in Nigeria: Past, Present and Future, 1, 367 – 72.
Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Ltd., Lagos.

Travers, J. (1986). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Scranton,

Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company.

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UNIT 5 APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT

CONDITIONING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life
3.2 Learned Helplessness and Depression
3.3 Modifying Human Behaviour
3.4 Testing New Drugs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 4, we discussed Skinner’s operant conditioning theory of

learning. You can now explain responses as operants. You can also
describe schedules of reinforcement. You are now in a position to
explain the implications of Skinner’s theory for the management of
classroom behaviour in particular and human behaviour generally. You
are about to study an extensive dimension of the usefulness of Skinner’s
theory of learning. It is a very stimulating study unit you are about to
begin. Let us look at what other content you should learn in this study
unit as specified in the study unit objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. List aspects of human behaviour that operant conditioning

affects.
2. Explain how one form of abnormal behaviour can be acquired
through operant processes.
3. Describe how Skinnerian approaches can be applied to parenting
and education.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life

Operant conditioning affects many aspects of human behaviour. We

smile, help others, and go to work every morning because we are
reinforced for these behaviours. Welfare payments (as in the United
Kingdom, for instance) may reinforce some able-bodied adults for not
working, and politicians shake thousands of hands and kiss babies
because they are reinforced by the advantages of elective office.

Operant conditioning can be responsible for the development of

abnormal behaviours but can also be systematically used in very positive
ways. Let us consider one theory of how psychology is used to modify
a variety of behaviours, enhance the educational process, and develop
new drugs. Now try to answer this quiz:

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

List any four (4) behaviours for which you or anyone around was
reinforced within the last one week:

i) ………………………………………………………………
ii) ………………………………………………………………
iii) ………………………………………………………………
iv) ………………………………………………………………

That’s nice of you. Let us continue our discussion.

3.2 Learned Helplessness and Depression

Martin Seligman (1985) has shown how one form of abnormal

behaviour, depression, can be acquired through operant processes. He
delivered electric shock to two dogs simultaneously. The Group A dog
could turn off the shock by pressing a button and thus had some control
over the situation. The Group B dog received the same shocks as the
Group A dog but had no control, it was helpless. Both groups were then
moved to a shuttle box.

Each dog was placed in one compartment, where a signal was followed
by shock. Group A dogs soon learned to jump the barrier when the
signal sounded in order to avoid the shock, but Group B dogs did not.
This raises a relevant question: Why? It was so because the Group B
dogs had previously learned that they had no control over the shock and

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thus did not try to make the avoidance response (Mineka & Hendersen,
1985). Seligman called this phenomenon learned helplessness.

Other studies have demonstrated that lacking operant control over the
environment can produce helplessness in humans as well (Kofta &
Sedek, 1989). The secretary who is repeatedly overruled by her boss
when she tries to be more efficient and by her family when she tries to
improve home life may eventually come to fell helpless more generally.
Such learned helplessness can be a major factor in depression.

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Demonstrate you understand what we have discussed by listing any

three (3) situations in which you lacked operant control over any/some
situations/environments.

i) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
ii) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
iii ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

That’s good effort on your part. Let us continue our discussion.

3.3 Modifying Human Behaviour

The intentional application of Skinnerian principles in an effort to alter

human behaviour is called behaviour modification. Skinnerian
approaches have been applied to parenting, education, therapy, and the
development of new drugs.

Operant techniques can be helpful in correcting problem behaviour in

children. Clinnard (1984) explains that problem behaviour is behaviour
that digresses from what the majority approves of, or a variation of a
normal behaviour. Gardner (1988) explains that in a child, any
behaviour is generally viewed as what he does, how he relates to others,
what he accomplishes, what he reports about his emotional experiences,
how he approaches a learning task, how he performs in a competitive
situation and how he uses covert cognitive behaviours to influence other
behaviours. A problem behaviour is thus any consistent discrepancy
between what is expected of a child in academic and social areas and
what is done by him in these various areas.

Education at any level is expected to influence behaviour of those who

experience it. This applies to primary school children and other school

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children. Igborghor (1981) writes that in the Nigerian school system,

problem behaviours have been manifested in various forms and to
varying levels of seriousness. These range from relatively simple
problems of lateness to school and disobedience to more serious ones as
stealing, fighting, truancy, rioting and extreme damage to lives and
property. Problem behaviours such as drug addiction, destructive
tendency, aggressiveness, restlessness, cheating which are common
among adolescents may affect their cognitive functioning.

In one study, frustrated parents whose children watched an average of

21 hours of TV per week agreed to a Skinnerian behavioural
programme. The child received 20 tokens per week; each could be
turned over to mummy or daddy in exchange for 30 minutes of TV
viewing time. If the children watched no more than the 10 allotted
hours, they received a gold token that could be exchanged for some
special reinforcer, like a trip to an amusement park or a party for friends.
The children cut their TV viewing time to 10 hours and kept it there
over a period of 8 months after they stopped receiving the tokens (Wolfe
et. al., 1984).

A second application of Skinnerian techniques has been programmed

instruction. Developed by Skinner in 1954, it applies operant
techniques to the teaching of various school subjects. One early device
presented addition problems and allowed a child to type the answers on
a keyboard. The machine reinforced correct responses by moving on to
the next problem. Such reinforcement is immediate and accurate to a
degree that can never be achieved by a teacher working with many
children at once. It is important for you to note that current computer-
based instructional systems are the modern products of Skinner’s genius.

Skinnerian approaches have also been applied to the modification of

abnormal behaviour. Hospitalized mental patients suffering from such
serious disorders as schizophrenia typically have few of the social skills
needed to obtain reinforcement in the world outside the institution.
Behavioural programmes called token economies teach them social
skills through operant techniques specific behaviours (for example,
keeping a neat room and going to meals on time) are identified as
appropriate reinforcers (for example, candy, movie attendance, and TV
privileges) are determined. When patients perform the desired
behaviours, they receive tokens, such as poker chips, that can later be
exchanged for the reinforcers they want.

3.4 Testing New Drugs

Before a new drug becomes available, we need some way to be certain

that it is safe and effective. Operant techniques can be used to teach an

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animal a new behaviour. A drug is then administered to see how it

affects the behaviour. The effects of new tranquilizers and of
antipsychotic drugs – those that reduce the symptoms of psychotic
patients – have been evaluated in this way (Burke et. al., 1994; Wiley et.
al., 1994).

Similarly, the effects of withdrawal from narcotics have been assessed

(Higgins & Sellers, 1994), as has the interaction between narcotics and
the antidepressant drugs were used to treat clinical depression (Kovera,
1994).

Finally, Skinnerian techniques have been applied to show that cocaine

decreases response rates and reduces the consistency of behaviour
(Haaren, 1994).

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the application of operant

conditioning theory of learning in everyday life. You should also have
learned about learned helplessness and depression. In addition, you
have learnt how human behaviour could be modified as well as the
process of testing new drugs.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns operant

conditioning in everyday life.
ii. You have also learnt; learned helplessness and depression.
iii. In addition, you have learnt how human behaviour could be
modified.
iv. Finally, you have learnt the process of testing new drugs.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. (a) Explain the concept of behaviour modification.

(b) What do you understand by programmed instruction?

2. Briefly describe the application of operant conditioning in the

testing of new drugs.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Burke, T.F., Miller, L.G. & Moerschbaecher, J.M. (1994). Acute effects
of benzodiazepines on operant behaviour and in vivo receptor
binding in mice. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behaviour 48
(1) 69 – 76.

Clinnard, M.B. (1984) Sociology of Deviant Behaviour New York: Holt,

Rinehart & Winston.

Gardner, W.I. (1988) Children with Learning Behaviour Problems

Allyn and Bacon. Inc.

Haaren, S. (1994). Evolution and human emotions Psychological Inquiry

5 (2) 41 – 49.

Higgins, G. & Sellers, E. (1994). Antagonistic – precipitated opioid

withdrawal in rants. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and
Behaviour, 48 (1) 1 – 7.

Igborgbor, G.O. (1981) Comparison of values clarification and

Contingency Management echniques in the treatment of Truancy.
Nigerian Journal of Educational Psychology. 31, 176 – 189.

Kofta, M. & Sedek, G. (1989). Repeated failure: A source of

helplessness on a factor irrelevant to its emergency? Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General. 118 (1), 3 – 12.

Kovera, C.A. (1994). Behavioural and neurochemical mechanisms of

opioid – antidepressant interactions. Pharmacology,
Biochemistry and Behaviour, 48 (1) 47 – 52.

Mineka, S. & Hendersen, R. (1985). Controllability and predictability in

acquired motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 495 529.

Seligman, M.E. (1985). Helplessness: on depression, development, and

death. San Francisco: Freeman.

Wiley, J.L., Compton, A.D. & Porter, J.H. (1994). Differential effects of
clozapine and pimozide on fixed-ratio responding during repeated
dosing. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behaviour, 48 (1) 263
– 257.

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Wolfe, D., Mendes, G. & Factor, D. (1984). A parent-administered

program to reduce children’s television viewing. Journal of
Applied Behaviour Analyssi, 17, 267 – 272.

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MODULE 2

Unit 1 Pavlov’s Classical conditioning

Unit 2 Gestalt theory of learning
Unit 3 Some factors affecting learning
Unit 4 Additional theories of learning
Unit 5 Motives, needs and their satisfaction

UNIT 1 PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Pavlov’s Experiment
3.2 Pavlov’s Altered Experiment
3.3 Stimulus Generalisation and Stimulus Discrimination
3.4 Implication and Critique
3.5 Cognitive Elements in Classical Conditioning
3.6 The Distinction Between Classical Conditioning and
Operant Conditioning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the study unit 4 of Module I, we discussed Skinner’s operant

conditioning theory of learning. You can now explain responses as
operants. You can also describe schedules of reinforcement. You are
now in a position to explain the implications of Skinner’s theory for the
management of classroom behaviour in particular and human behaviour
generally. You are about to study a theory of learning that is refreshing
and stimulating. Let us look at what other content you should learn in
this study unit as specified in the study unit objectives below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory of learning;

2. List the strength and weakness of Pavlov’s theory of learning;
3. Differentiate between classical conditioning and operant
conditioning theories of learning.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Pavlov’s Experiment

Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936), a famed Nobel prize-winning physiologist in

1904, noticed that digestive juices flowed when the experimental
animals (dogs) sensed the presence of food. The dogs in his studies
would begin to salivate before they ate, as when they merely caught
sight of the pan which contained their food, or when they saw the person
who usually brought it or even when they heard the sound of his
footsteps. You should note that these are not natural stimuli. Food in
the animal’s mouth is a natural stimulus; it is expected to cause
salivation. But not these other stimuli.

On the basis of such observations, Pavlov soon concluded that these

stimuli had, through their repeated association with food, become
conditioned signals for its presentation. This process is termed classical
conditioning. Let us consider a relevant question: Why was the process
described as classical? Think about this for two (2) minutes.

Let us continue our discussion.

The process was called classical because the studies conducted more
than ninety years ago by Pavlov, the Russian Physiologist, are
considered the first and therefore the ‘classical’ examples of countless
conditioning experiments that have since been conducted in
physiological laboratories, particularly in former Russia now
commonwealth of Independent States. To accomplish classical
conditioning, we simply arrange events in such a way that the learner
can form an association between them. A university student who sees a
physics course he failed may again experience the sick, tight feeling in
his stomach that he got during examinations for the course. Our friend
chacha acquired his fear of needles through classical conditioning. The
doctor’s office and the syringe became associated with the pain of
injection and thereby came to elicit the anxiety originally caused by
pain.

It is important for you to note that there has been a fair amount of
classical conditioning research in American laboratories as well, but it
has, for the most part, been concerned with phenomena such as the eye-
lid reflex and psychogalvanic response (changes in electrical
conductivity and potential of the skin). This has been of little or no
practical application to classroom learning. Now it is time to find out
how much of our discussion you understand.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain in your own words why Pavlov’s theory was described as

classical.

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………..

3.2 Pavlov’s Altered Experiment

According to Gautt (1973), the recognition of the importance of this

basic process enabled Pavlov to alter the thrust of his research, turning
from the study of digestion for which he had won his Nobel prize to the
investigation of such conditioning.

There are different aspects of the conditioning process which may be

specified by different terms as follows:

An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus which is adequate at

the outset (beginning) of training to produce the expected response. The
response to such a stimulus is termed an unconditioned response (UCR).
It is important for you to note that in Pavlov’s experiment, the sight or
smell of food was an unconditioned stimulus for the unconditioned
response of salivating. You should remember that the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) functions as a reinforcer in that it strengthens and
maintains the association between the CS and the CR. You should also
remember that in classical conditioning the US elicits the response to be
learned and also serves as the reinforcing event. Now try to answer this
quiz:

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

What is a conditioned stimulus?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Let us continue our discussion.

The experimental arrangement explained above is an example of

classical reward conditioning, since the reinforcing event, food, is
known to be rewarding to hungry dogs. This type of conditioning may
be distinguished from a different perspective, which is called classical
aversive conditioning. In this procedure, the CS is paired with an
aversive (noxious, annoying) stimulus. The whole process may be
represented by a generalised diagram which can be used to illustrate any
particular example of classical conditioning as in Figure 1:

CS CS = conditioned stimulus
CR CR = conditioned response
UCR UCS = unconditioned stimulus
UCS UCR = unconditioned
response

Example:

Bell ringing (CS)

Salivation (CR)
Salivation (UCR)
Food (UCS)

Figure 1: Classical Conditioning Experiment

Notice that the CR is an adaptive response; salivation prepares the dog

to consume the food. It is interesting to note that Pavlov originally used
the term ‘conditional’ in designating the key elements of his
experiments, but it was incorrectly translated as ‘conditioned’ instead.

By now you may be wondering why we use different terms to designate

the unconditioned response and the conditioned response, since they

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may appear to be the same reaction. The answer is that the UCR and
CR are very similar, but may actually not be identical. This is a good
example of scientific precision: Pavlov realised that the two responses
might not be identical, so he used different terms. With further
observation, he learned that the UCR and CR were, indeed, different.
There was less total saliva produced in the CR than in the UCR, and the
levels of certain digestive enzymes were lower. Differences between the
UCR and CR in other types of classical conditioning experiments have
also be observed.

3.3 Stimulus Generalisation and Stimulus Discrimination

A dog taught to salivate to the sound of a tone of a specific pitch will

also salivate to tones of somewhat different pitches. The response is
carried over to stimuli that are not quite the same as the original
conditioning stimulus, a widely demonstrated phenomenon called
stimulus generalization (Rubeling, 1993). Stimulus generalization
means that a response originally conditioned to one specific stimulus
also occurs when similar stimuli are presented. What is the importance
of generalization? The importance of generalization is that it greatly
broadens our ability to react to a wide range of related stimuli in the
environment. It is to be noted that a host of other stimuli may be
associated with the primary goal, for example, presence of mother,
fetching food, and so on.

While stimulus generalisation can be helpful, overgeneralisation can be

a problem. A dog conditioned to respond to a specific tone might begin
to salivate to the ringing of any doorbell or telephone and chacha might
experience anxiety in every office he enters. Such problems are avoided
by learning to discriminate among similar stimuli.

Stimulus discrimination means learning to respond to a specific stimulus

and not respond to other stimuli that are similar to the original one. The
similarities between two stimuli are the key to generalisation; the
differences between stimuli are the key to discrimination.

3.4 Implication and Critique

From the explanations you have studied in the preceding sections, we

can deduce first -, second -, and third – order conditioning beyond which
we cannot go. The social implication of this is that you may not work
directly for the food but you can work to obtain money with which food
can be bought.

It is important for you to remember that classical conditioning cannot

account for all learning. To understand how a number of behaviours are

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learned, we will have to examine the Gestalt theory of learning. This we

shall do after a discussion of the next section of this study unit.

3.5 Cognitive Elements in Classical Conditioning

Pavlov and most early psychologists theorised that classical

conditioning is an essentially mechanical process in which simple
associations are automatically formed under certain conditions. More
recent developments suggest that cognition is involved. The cognitive
view holds that the stimuli in classical conditioning have meaning for
the learner. To predict responses to these meaningful stimuli, we must
know how the learner will interpret the stimuli and thus what is going on
in his mind – what he is thinking about. Thoughts are cognitions, so this
makes conditioning a cognitive process.

Kamin (1969) long ago demonstrated a phenomenon called blocking –

interfering with the association between a CS and a UCS – by
conducting a three-stage experiment with rats:

1. A CS (noise) precedes a UCS (shock) and conditioning occurs.

2. The same tone CS and also a light CS precede the UCS on a
series of conditioning trials, after which the tone and light
presented together, but with no shock, elicit the expected fear
response.
3. The light is presented alone to see if it elicits the fear response.

Now try your thought on this quiz:

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

What outcome would you expect when the light is presented alone?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Let us continue our discussion.

The traditional prediction would be that the light would elicit fear, since
it had, after all, been paired with shock. What Kamin found, however,
was that the light alone produced either no fear response or a very weak
one. Why? Because the association of the second CS with shock was
blocked by the first association. The tone alone provides the rat with all
the information it needs to predict the shock. The light is therefore a

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redundant stimulus; it doesn’t improve the rat’s ability to predict the

UCS.

It is important for you to note that this finding has great significance for
our understanding of the classical conditioning process. It means that
the rat does not just mechanically form associations. Rather, it uses
stimulus (CS) information to form expectancies and predict the shock
(UCS). In effect, these are cognitive processes that apparently occur
during classical conditioning, even in the lowly rat.

Forming rules governing a likely sequence of events is also a cognitive

process, and it is prominent in another classical conditioning model.
Rule generation suggests that what the animal is doing during
conditioning is forming a set of rules about the likely sequence of
events. When two unexpected events, such as a light and shock, occur
close together, the rat begins to generate the rule that shock follows
light, and further pairings strengthen that rule (Holyoak et. al. 1989).
Again, we see that conditioning may involve elements of cognition
(such as applying rules) to a much greater extent than Pavlov imagined.

3.6 The Distinction between Classical Conditioning and

Operant Conditioning

In operant conditioning the availability of the reinforcing event is

contingent on the response, whereas in classical conditioning it is not.

In operant conditioning the response is not elicited by a specifiable

stimulus at the outset, whereas in classical conditioning the response is
elicited by a specifiable stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) at the
outset (Chauhan, 1988).

It is important for you to note that both kinds of conditioning may occur
simultaneously and even depend on one another. For example, in the
classical conditioning of a salivary response the dog also learns to orient
to the place where food will be, and this response is reinforced by eating
the food.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt Pavlov’s theory of learning, i.e.
classical conditioning and why the theory was termed classical. You
should also have learned the strength and weakness of Pavlov’s theory
as well as the different aspects of the conditioning process which were
specified by different terms such as unconditioned stimulus (UCS),
unconditioned response (CS), and conditioned response (CR). You will

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have also learnt the distinction between classical conditioning and

operant conditioning.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns Pavlov’s

classical conditioning theory of learning.
ii. You have also learnt why the theory was termed classical.
iii. In addition, you have learnt the distinction between classical
conditioning and operant conditioning theories of learning.
iv. The study unit has served to indicate what you will learn in other
study units later in the course.
v. The study units that follow shall build upon the theory and its
social implications.

6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1) In your own words, list two differences between classical

conditioning and operant theories of learning.

i) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
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ii) ……………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Chauhan, S. (1988). Advanced Educational Psychology New Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House.

Gautt, W. (1973). Reminiscences of Pavlov. In: Journal of the

Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 20, 131 – 6.

Holyoak, K.J., Koh, K. & Nisbett, R. (1989). A theory of conditioning:

Inductive learning within rule-based default bierarchies.
Psychological Review, 96 (2), 315 – 340.

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Kamin, L.J. (1969). Predictability, surprise, attention, and conditioning

In: B.A. Cambell, & R.M. Church (eds.) Punishment and
Aversive Behaviour, 34 – 58. New York: Appleton – century –
crofts.

Rubeling, H. (1993). Pavlovian conditioning in human skilled motor

behaviour. Integrational Physiological Behavioural Science. 28
(1), 29 – 45.

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UNIT 2 GESTALT THEORY OF LEARNING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Kohler’s Experiment
3.2 Critical Assessment of Gestalt’s Theory of Learning
3.3 Implications for Practice
3.4 Gestalt Therapy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 1 of Module II, we discussed Pavlov’s classical

conditioning theory of learning. You can also explain Pavlov’s altered
experiment. You are now well positioned to identify the differences
between classical conditioning and operant conditioning theories of
learning. You should also be able to state the social implication of
Pavlov’s theory of learning as well as its weakness. You are about to
study another stimulating theory of learning. Let us examine what other
content you should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit
objectives as stated hereunder.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

5) Discuss the Gestalt theory of learning.

6) List main features of insightful learning.
7) Identify the weaknesses of Gestalt theory of learning.
8) Explain the implications of the theory for teaching – learning
situations.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Kohler’s Experiment

You no doubt have insights. For example, you are faced with a complex
new concept, perhaps in a mathematic course, and decide that you will
never fully understand it. You put the course material away and come
back to the problem hours later. After 10 minutes of renewed study, you

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suddenly say ‘Aha!’ as the concept becomes clear. This is insightful

learning.

Helen Keller (1957:28) provides a classic example of insightful

learning: ‘Suddenly I felt a misty consciousness as of something
forgotten….’

One of the most famous examples of human insight was that of chemist
Frederick Kekule in 1865. Kekule had been trying to devise an overall
theory of the structure of organic molecules. One afternoon, he was
dozing before his fire and had a dream in which ‘atoms gambolled’
before his eyes, forming ‘long rows, sometimes more closely fitted
together; all turning and twisting in snakelike motion’. As the dream
continued, Kekule noted that ‘one of the snakes had seized hold of its
own tail, and the form whirled mockingly before my eyes. As if by a
flash of lightening, I awoke’ (quoted in Rothenberg, 1979:395 – 396).
In the vision of the snake biting its own tail, Kekule saw that important
organic and compounds consist of closed rings of atoms. He had made a
discovery fundamental to the understanding of organic chemistry.

The word ‘gestalt’ means a configuration, shape, or form. The

Gestatltists – Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler, Lamin, Combs and Snygg –
reject learning as the formation of a bond between stimulus and
response. They believe that learning occurs by insight: there is a sudden
reorganisation of the person’s field and he understands. These
psychologists argue that since all events in nature occur within some
field, it is the totality of the field, its properties and structure, that
explains all events happening within the field. It is important for you to
note that of all the experiments conducted by the Gestaltists, Kohler’s
seems most instructive and he is a basic reference in Gestaltists
psychology. Let us therefore consider a relevant question: What was his
theory about? You are anxious to know this. You would now. Let us
continue our discussion.

Kohler’s approach considers man’s inner processes as a ‘whole’ instead

of seeing them as tiny pieces like those of jigsaw puzzle. In addition,
Kohler and his fellow Gestaltists assume that our perception of the
whole world is of meaningful whole and that (this) is different from, and
more than, an accumulation of sensations, images or ideas. The
Gestaltists rejected the simple stimulus – response (S – R) connections
as the explanation of behaviour. The concept of organisation between
stimulus – response was introduced by the Gestaltists. It is important
for you to note that this means we learn, not by associating bits of
expressions but by forming new Gestaltists – by seeing new patterns and
by organising them into a meaningful whole in the total situation
(Alhassan, 2000).

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SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Given our discussion, explain briefly what you have learnt in this study
unit.

……………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………
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Well done. Let us continue our discussion.

Essentially, Kohler placed a hungry chimpanzee in a cage. Outside the

bars of the cage and just beyond its reach was a banana. The
chimpanzee (later called Sultan) made a few futile attempts to each
through the bars and gets the banana. Then the chimpanzee noticed a
stick lying on the floor of the cage. Picking up the stick, the animal
smoothly and without further hesitation reached out and took in the
banana. A relevant question arises: How would you explain the
problem – solving behaviour of Sultan? Let us continue our
discussion.

Kohler’s explanation was not Sultan had engaged in insightful

learning, which is characterised by sudden resolution or action after a
period study during which there is no action or apparent understanding.

How can insight learning be explained theoretically? A partial answer is

that it appears to involve two stages. The first is a process of problem
solving, a kind of mental trial and error, in which solutions are tried out
and rejected without any actual behaviour being displayed. The second
stage is storing the final solution in memory, where it is available for
retrieval later.

Are cognitive processes the best explanation for conditioning and

learning? Some psychologists clearly believe they are, but others are
not convinced. They argue that the proposed cognitive processes cannot
be directly observed and must be inferred. When cognitive
psychologists do not fully understand how a conditioned association
takes place, their critics argue, they propose constructs like expectancy,
prediction, and cognitive maps to fill the gaps in understanding. The
danger is that such constructs may be difficult to test empirically. This

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theoretical battle represents a scientifically healthy difference of opinion

and promises to continue for many years to come.

Mukhejee (1978) reveals that Kohler explained this problem – solving

behaviour by saying that ‘insight’ came to the chimpanzee when the
problem was solved. Kohler argues that all problem solving depends on
insightful learning. Mukherjee (op. cit: 57) in analysing the
chimpanzee’s problem – solving behaviour states that:

a. There were several meaningful trials all of them being goal –

oriented (directed);
b. There were several turning away from the goal;
c. There was a pause after sighting the stick lying in a different position
from the chimpanzee and the banana; and
d. Then there was solution of the problem with the stick which was
used as an extension of arm.

The writer further states that such learning can be transferred to new
situations whereas there are many regressions in trial and error learning.

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Demonstrate you understand our discussion by listing any three (3)

meaningful trials you made in the last 3 weeks towards the achievement
of an objective or objectives.

i) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
ii) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
iii) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
That’s nice of you. Let us continue our discussion.

Kimble & Garmezy (1968) observes rather significantly that the

chimpanzee had previously learnt to use implements (such as sticks) to
draw to itself desirable objects. By implication, therefore, the insightful
solutions to problems may be the result of long experience with the
materials involved in any particular problem (situation). Sperling
(1979) writes that the chimpanzee seems to have combined a memory
image of drawing a banana into the cage with a synthetic image made up
of a memory image of extending a rod out of the cage. Now consider
this quiz: what are the features of insightful learning? Think about the

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answer to that question for 60 seconds. Now, let us continue our

discussion.

Oladele (1989) sees the following as the main features of insightful

learning:

i) Learning through insight depends upon the arrangement of the

problem situation. Insight will come easily if the essentials for
solution are arranged so that relationships can be perceived.
ii) Complex situations can only be tackled through insight – a higher
form of learning than trial and error.
iii) Insight, like other learning, depends upon the capacity of the
learner. Older children, for example, can learn things more easily
than younger children.

3.2 Critical Assessment of Gestalt’s Theory of Learning

While it may be said that insightful theory of learning concerns itself

with higher and problem – solving skills, it does not explain forms of
learning, for example, concept of learning. In addition, it is silent about
the notion of transfer of learning and about why insights come to some
individuals more quickly than others. Psychological evidence shows
that more intelligent persons seem to handle insightful learning more
readily than less intelligent individuals.

3.3 Implications for Practice

The Gestaltists emphasise the importance of perception of relations,

organisation, and wholes in learning. The teacher should present his
subject matter as a whole in teaching – learning situations. The theory
accords importance to molar behaviour approach as experiences cannot
be broken into S – R connections.

A major contribution of Gestalt psychology to the field of education is

the interdisciplinary approach whereby a given educational problem or
issue is examined from an interdisciplinary standpoint. Gestalt
psychology has also thrown more light on the problem of social learning
in the classroom by emphasising the importance of group behaviour.

It is important for you to remember that goals/purposes are described as

having an important place in learning. As such, teachers must set
individual goals which are attainable, and which could activate the
learner. The school authorities – principals and teachers – should work
as an organised whole towards improving the teaching – learning
process.

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Finally, classroom teachers should make concerted efforts to know their

pupils from their own point of views and commence teaching from
where the pupils’ perceptions are rather than where their (teachers) own
perceptions happen to be.

3.4 Gestalt Therapy

Gestalt therapy was developed by Frederick Perls (1967, 1969), who

was trained in both psychoanalysis and Gestalt psychology. The latter
emphasises that we act not on the basis of external reality but rather in
accord with our perceptions of that reality. We actively organise the
stimuli that make up the world into meaningful patterns or wholes
(gestalts) that are based on our expectations and needs. These gestalts
and perceptions more generally, are typically inaccurate even in normal
people because we see the world as society teaches us to see it (Recker,
1993).

When perceptions become abnormally in accurate, they can lead to

psychopathology. Accordingly, the emphasis in Gestalt therapy is on
creating a whole person by increasing perceptual accuracy and unifying
mind and body. The importance of immediate, individual experience is
stressed, and the therapist works hard to keep the client focused on
current experience (Polster & Polster, 1993).

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the Gestalt theory of learning as
presented by Kohler in his experiment with Sultan, the Chimpanzee.
You should also have learned the strength and weakness of Kohler’s
insightful theory of learning; and implications of the theory to the
teaching – learning process in particular and situations in general.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns

Kohler’s
ii. insightful theory of learning.
You have also learnt the strength and weakness of the insightful
iii. theory of learning.
In addition, you have learnt the implications of the insightful
theory of learning for educational practice.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Briefly explain three (3) main features of insightful theory of learning.

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7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.

Becker, E. (1993). Growing up rugged: Fritz Perls and Gestalt therapy.

In: Gestalt Journal, 16 (2), 27 – 44.

Keller, H. (1957). The story of my life Garden city, New York:

Doubleday.

Kimble, G. & Garmezy, M. (1968). Conditioning and Learning New

York: Appleton.

Mukherjee, M. (1978). Educational Psychology Calcutta, India: K. P.

Bask Pub. Coy.

Oladele, J.O. (1989). Guidance and Counselling: A Functional

Approach Lagos: Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.

Perls, F.S. (1967). Group vs. individual therapy. ETC: A Review of

General Semantics, 34, 306 – 312.

Perls, F.S. (1969). Gestalt therapy verbatim. Highland, NY: Gestalt

Journal.

Polster, E. & Poster, M. (1993). Frederick Perls: Legacy and invitation.

Gestalt Journal, 16 (2), 23 – 25.

Rothenberg, A. (1979), the emerging goddess Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

Sperling, A. (1979). Psychology Made Simple London: Heinemann.

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UNIT 3 SOME FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Variables Influencing Learning
3.2 Motivation
3.3 Theories of Motivation
3.4 The Theory of Instincts
3.5 Homestasis Theory of Physiological Needs
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 2, we discussed Gestalt theory of learning. You can also

list the main features of insightful learning. You are now enabled to
identify the weakness of Gestalt theory of learning. You should also be
able to explain the implications of the theory for the teaching – learning
situations. You are about to study a very interesting and relevant aspect
of the psychology of learning. Let us examine what other content you
should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit objectives as
stated below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Identify the factors influencing learning;

2. Explain the term Motivation;
3. List and describe theories of Motivation.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Variables Influencing Learning

Learning as a process is influenced not only by the teacher, the

techniques used, the classroom setting, and the formal or informal
material to be taught, interest in the subject matter, readiness to learn,
retentiveness, values and attitudes, relationship with the teacher, feelings
about self, relationships with peers, and background experiences.

Also of importance are the environmental pressures of learning, the time

allotted for learning, family support for learning, and the atmosphere of

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the school and classroom. It is important for you to note that children’s
learning experiences differ as a result of such variables as sex and social
economic background. Clearly then, it is superficial to explain learning
differences between children by one primary factor, such as
‘intelligence’.

Symonds (1955) states that the most potent reward for classroom
learning is the teacher’s acceptance of what the pupil does and the way
he does it. In actuality, much classroom learning seems to be explicable
in operant conditioning terms. Classroom teachers reinforce the kind of
behaviour they prefer to see in students by comments of approval,
marks, smiles, and such similar gestures. But you should remember that
teachers cannot respond to every pupil on every appropriate occasion,
and students learn to be their own reinforcers basically through
discovery, for example, that their answers to problems are correct.

In addition, you should note that given a normal classroom situation, a

student is not reinforced for every response he/she makes. Rewards
appear only occasionally, yet we know from experience that students put
forth a great deal of work. Remember that this is consistent with
Skinner’s concept of intermittent reinforcement earlier explained. Now
let us ask a relevant question: How may we motivate pupils to learn?
What is motivation? The next section of this study unit shall give you
the opportunity to answer such and other questions. Let us continue our
discussion.

3.2 Motivation

Travers (1986: 204) posits that it is doubtful if any topic is more

important to teachers than that of motivation. Most classroom problems
such as those of discipline, learning, and failure could be resolved if
teachers knew more about the issue of motivation and acted upon their
knowledge. What then is motivation; this vital factor in human learning
and behaviour? Motivation is the energising and maintenance of goal-
directed human behaviour (Alhassan, 1983). Motives are the needs and
desires the goal-directed behaviour attempts to satisfy. Why do you eat
when you feel hungry? Why do you seek sexual satisfaction? Why are
you reading this study unit? The brief answer to all these questions is
motivation.

There are certain instances when one is more predisposed to act in a

certain way rather than in another way. Often times, this is attributed to
what is called motivation. Generally, motivation is referred to as the
phenomena involved in the operation of drives, incentives and motives.
Atkinson (1964) defines motivation as the arousal of tendency to act to
produce one or more effects. Maslow (1943) has advanced the theory of

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hierarchy of needs and as he puts it, motivation is constant, never-

ending, fluctuating, and complex and that it is an almost universal
characteristic of particularly every organismic state of affairs.

Since people behave in different ways even in the same situation, there
is no satisfactory explanation as to why people behave the way they do.
Many behaviours are motivated, that is, they are goal-directed, for
example, seeking food, wealth, prestige, academic achievements, and so
on. Now try your hand on this quiz:

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. List any six (6) goal-directed behaviours you manifested in the

last seven (7) days.

i. ……………………………………………………………………
ii. ……………………………………………………………………
iii. ……………………………………………………………………
iv. ……………………………………………………………………
v. ……………………………………………………………………
vi. ……………………………………………………………………
That’s nice of you. Let us continue our discussion.

The behaviours identified above are products of thoughtful actions and

careful planning. Hence, the organism does not move in a haphazard
way. His behaviour is directed towards a specific goal which he sets for
himself. Furthermore, there are other types which are neither impulsive
nor goal-directed, but they are perfected by our habits. It is generally
recognised that since there are different types of behaviour, there should
be different ways of explaining them. Motivation involves all types of
behaviour and it is therefore difficult to find one theory that would give
sufficient explanation to all types. Just as we have theories of learning,
there are theories of motivation. From your level of participation in our
discussion, it is obvious you are finding the study unit stimulating. Let
us continue our discussion.

3.3 Theories of Motivation

Theorists addressing motivational issues have faced three broad

questions:

1) What are the major motive systems and how do they motivate
behaviour?

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2) How do these systems relate to each other?

3) What are the underlying psychological, environmental, and
physiological causes of motivated behaviour and how do they
interact?

Attempts to answer the above questions have resulted in a number of

theories such as:

a) The theory of instinct;

b) Homeostasis theory of physiological needs;
c) Drive theory;
d) Theory of intrinsic motivation;
e) Theory of Achievement motivation;
f) Theory of motivated behaviour; and
g) Hierarchy of needs theory.

In this study unit, we shall discuss (a) and (b) above while others shall
be discussed in the study units that follow:

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Having understood the meaning of motivation, which of the above listed

theories would you list as capable of explaining why you enroll in the
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) academic programme?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
All right. Let us continue our discussion.

3.4 The Theory of Instinct

Some behaviours are driven by instincts – innate, biological motives

that are expressed in a consistent way (Hadley, 1992; Tinbergen, 1989).
Nest building in birds is an innate behaviour pattern triggered by a
combination of internal and external events. Instinct is considered to be
a purposive, inherited, goal-seeking tendency (Alhassan, 2000).

Some theorists placed great emphasis upon one or two instincts, for
example, Freud on the sex instinct, while others advanced lists of
instincts. This theory implies that for every type of human behaviour
manifestation, there was an underlying instinct and an accompanying

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emotion. Mc Dougall (1932) listed various instincts and their

corresponding emotions. Let us give examples:

Instincts Emotions Instincts Emotions

Fight Fear Self-assertion Positive self-

feeling
Food seeking Gusto Self-abasement Negative self-
feeling
Curiosity Wonder
Pugnacity Anger Reproduction Lust
Affiliation Affection Gregariousness Companionship
Acquisition Feeling of ownership Repulsion Disgust
Laughter Amusement
Appeal Distress

The analysis of instincts will reveal that instincts are natural urges or
innate tendencies. They are therefore unlearned, independent of
schooling and individual experiences. They are universal in the entire
species, and usually aim at the safety and well-being and preservation of
species. You should note that instincts are not ready at birth; they have
their time for maturity and stimulation. Following Mc Dougall’s lead,
other psychologists added to the list of instincts, and some 14,000
instincts were invoked by various authors to explain the motivational
bases for human behaviour (Atkinson, 1964).

It is important for you to note that the theories soon fell into disrepute
because they could not explain the variability in human behaviour,
which was clearly influenced by learning (Tolman, 1932). The so-called
human instincts simply do not fit our definition of the term ‘instinct’.
Note also that instinct theory more generally survives today in the form
of ethnology, the study of the species – specific behaviours of animals
(including humans) in their natural settings. The primary emphasis of
ethnology is on the origins of behaviours in lower animals.

Ethnologists are interested in behaviour that is species specific –

meowing in cats, barking in dogs – and behaviour that occurs in fixed
action patterns – behavioural sequences that occur in exactly the same
way each time because they are hand-wired into the nervous system.
Fixed action patterns are triggered by a releaser – specific stimulus that
elicits the behaviour. Flight without a practice in some birds is an
example.

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Some ethnologists also point to fixed actions in human behaviour, such

as the smile of very early infancy that occurs without learning. We shall
discuss another theory of motivation in the next section of this study
unit.

3.5 Homeostasis Theory of Physiological Needs

At this point in our discussion, there is a necessity to distinguish

between needs and drives before attempting to expound on this theory.
If a rat (in an experiment) that has been deprived of food for several
hours is placed inside a box with several alleys leading to food, it will be
active. A well-fed rat placed in the same maze may move about a little,
but it will cover less ground than the hungry rat. After eating, the
hungry rat will no longer be restless and if returned to its cage, it is
likely to curl up and go to sleep. When the rat is hungry again, its
activity cycle will begin again.

In the example discussed above, we refer to the food-deprived state as a

state of need. The organism needs food, and when the rat has not eaten
for a while, chemical changes in its blood indicate its need. The need
for food is physiological but a state of physiological need has
psychological consequences. We call the psychological consequences
of a need a drive. Thus, the food need in the rat leads the rat through
processes we call hunger drive that is the drives to look for food.

While need and drive are parallel, they are not the same. Drive does not
necessarily get stronger as need gets stronger. A starved organism may
be so weakened by its goal need that drive is weakened. Men who have
fasted for a long time report that their hunger pangs (a subjective
representation of hunger drive) come and go, but of course, their need
for food persists.

The theory of homeostasis was propounded by Cannon (1932). What is

homeostasis? Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium or stability that the
body strives to sustain. Under the control of centers in the brain,
homeostatic mechanisms maintain a variety of physiological balances.
They ensure a constant internal body temperature of 98.60 even in very
hot and very cold environments (Weisinger et. al, 1993). They also
maintain proper blood concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, salt,
sugar, and other substances (Boldyner, 1993; Stellar, 1993). Let us cite
examples to make our discussion clearer.

We quench our thirst with a drink that makes us feel satisfied or

contended. Our experience of various needs satisfied from childhood
acquaints us with the learning of various primary goals, for example
food, sex, water, and environmental pressures. It is important for you to

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note that this theory explains how needs generate primary

drives
(hunger, thirst, and so on ) but does not explain how and why human
beings are continually driven to seek more money, better job, and higher
standards of living, and so on.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the variables influencing learning.
You should also have learned the meaning of the term motivation and
the theories of motivation. In addition, you should have learned the
theory of instincts as well as the homeostasis theory of physiological
needs.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns

variables
ii. influencing learning.
You have also learnt the meaning of the term motivation and
iii. theories of motivation.
iv. In addition, you have learnt the theory of instincts.
Finally, you have learnt the homeostasis theory of physiological
needs.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. List ten (10) variables (factors) that may influence learning.

2. (a) Briefly explain what you understand by the term instincts.
(b) State why the theory of instinct fell into disrepute.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (1983). Environment and education of the child In:

Early
Childhood Education Report, Institute of Education, Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria, 449 – 463.

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

Atkinson, J. (1964). An Introduction to Motivation Princeton, New

Jersey: Van Mostrand.

Boldyrev, A.A. (1993). Functional activity of Nasupt, ksupt – pump in

normal and pathological tissues. In: Molecular and Chemical
Neuropathology 19(1 – 2), 83 – 94.
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Cannon, W. (1932). An explanation of hunger Cambridge. MA: The

University Press.

Hadley, J.L. (1992). The instincts revisited. In: Psychoanalytic Inquiry,

12 (3), 396 – 418.

Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. In: Psychological

Review, 50, 370 – 96.

Mc Dougall, W. (1932). The Energies of Men London: Methuen.

Stellar, E. (1993). Salt appetite: Its neuroendocrine basis. Acta

Neurobiological Experimentalist, 53 (3), 475 – 484.

Symonds, P.M. (1955). What education has to learn from psychology II.
Reward Teachers College Record, 57, 449 – 62.

Tinbergen, N. (1989). The study of instinct Oxford, England: Clavendon

Press.

Tolman, E.C. (1932). Introduction and removal of reward, and maze

performance in rats. University of California Publications of
Psychology, 4, 257 – 76.

Travers, J. (1986). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Scranton,

Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company.

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UNIT 4 ADDITIONAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Drive Theory
3.2 Theory of Intrinsic Motivation
3.3 Theory of Achievement Motivation
3.4 Bruner’s Model of Motivated Behaviour
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 3, we discussed some of the factors affecting learning.

You can also explain the term motivation. You should also be able to
list and describe theories of motivation, with particular emphasis on
instincts and homeostasis theory of physiological needs. You are about
to study other theories of motivation so as to enhance your level of
understanding of human behaviour. Let us examine what other content
you should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit
objectives as stated below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1) Explain the drive theory of motivation.

2) Describe the theory of intrinsic motivation.
3) Distinguish between achievement motivation and motivated
behaviour.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Drive Theory

One of the most widely used concepts in theories of motivation is drive.

What is the meaning of drive? Do you have any idea? Let us continue.
A drive is a condition of arousal or tension that motivates behaviour
aimed at reducing that tension. Drive theories typically hypothesize that
a set of physiological survival drives motivate behaviour. These include

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hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, and sex. Additional drives can be learned on
the basis of these physiological drives.

Although the drive concept was introduced by Robert Woodworth

(1918), it was Clark Hull (1943) who first used the term in a major
theory of motivation and learning. In his drive reduction theory, he gave
explanations on how the primary drives are transformed into secondary
drives and how the primary goals eventually lead to the secondary goals.
According to this theory, behaviour probability of response is
determined by the product of two factors:

1) drive strength – motivational factors depending on the internal

states and external incentives, for example, period of food
deprivation; and
2) habit strength – habit built up through practice, learned
mechanism, strength of the bond connecting the stimulus and
response, for example, the number of times the response is
reinforced, in the case of a hungry child, it is crying response
which is being reinforced by food or milk.

Then by means of simple stimulus substitution and stimulus

generalisation, a host of other stimuli is associated with the primary
goal, for example, presence of mother, fetching food, and so on. If the
child experiences frustration in trying to realise these primary goals,
‘conditioned fear’ or ‘anxiety’ in the child is generated. Anxiety is thus
a secondary drive. As learning goes on, the organism wants to be free
from stress situations caused by anxiety. He therefore, generates
secondary drives of acquisition or acquisitiveness, competitiveness, and
so on to realise secondary goals of job, education, wealth, home, and so
on. It is important for you to note that the drive theory has been more
acceptable to psychologists since the conditions that produce drive and
the definition of the particular drive state are more susceptible to
accurate measurement.

It is also important for you to note that individuals learn to progress

towards secondary goals, but the drive theory does not explain a number
of other details in human motivation. For instance, why does one
individual manifest more motivation than another when both are
aspiring for the same goal, say education? How can motivation be
increased by controlling the stimulus situation confronting them? Why
are certain activities self-motivating?

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SELF – ASSESSED EXERCISE 1

1. (a) From your understanding of our discussion, briefly explain what

a drive is
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
(b) Why do you think anxiety is a secondary drive?

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
Well done. Let us continue our discussion.

3.2 Theory of Intrinsic Motivation

As we have seen, traditional behaviourists have explained behaviour in

terms of certain biological inherent drives such as hunger, thirst, sex and
material behaviour and a number of other physiological drives are
produced as tissue-needs of the organism. These are the basis of more
complex motives developed out of physiological needs through the
process of learning. For example, it is claimed that the need for
approval, first begins to develop when the infant associates his mother’s
smiling, approving face with feeding.

The merits of these traditional drive reduction theories have been

debated on by later psychologists. Drive theories emphasise that the
organism seeks to reduce some kind of stimulation as created by sex,
hunger, thirst and pain, and so on. However, there are situations when
people seek stimulation. Man and animal are both curious in novel
situations in their environment. Hence, Hunt (1965) has developed a
theory of intrinsic motivation.

As a background to this theory, you need to understand the TOTE model

of behaviour. This model of behaviour was greatly influenced by the

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language used in the computer. One group of psychologists (Miller,

Galanter & Pribram, 1960) has claimed that all behaviours should be
analysed into such sequence as test-operate-test-exist, or TOTE
sequence. For example, consider the simple task of hammering a nail.
At first, the individual’s behaviour must be determined by the condition
of one particular nail. If the nail projects above the surface of the wood,
it must receive another blow, and if it still projects, still another blow.

In computer languages, the boy is in a loop, controlled by the flushness

of the nail. As soon as the nail has been driven flush, however, the
control must be transferred to another nail and a new loop. While within
a loop the boy must TOTE on to another loop. This model demonstrates
how the incongruity of a situation is resolved into its congruity once the
situation is successfully tackled. The mechanism for achieving
equilibrium, therefore, is assumed to follow the TOTE model.

Having understood the TOTE model, the question that arises for us to
answer is: How much incongruity of a problem or stimulus is needed to
set the individual to strive to arrive at his congruity?

1. Information Standard

This means that a child will only strive to attain his comfort
standard – a situation of balance (or satisfaction) derived from the
successful operation undertaken by the child – if he has sufficient
knowledge or information to deal with. This sufficient
information of the child’s obviously refers to his previous
relevant information.

2. Action Standard

This means that the child has relevant experience of doing or

undertaking the operation to arrive at his congruity.

A most relevant question for us to consider now is: What does the
theory of intrinsic motivation implies? This theory therefore implies
that intrinsic motivation of a child or an individual is dependent on three
factors:

i) incongruity of the task or problem;

ii) the information standard relating to the problem; and
iii) the action standard of the child also relating to the problem.

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SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Another issue that is important in teaching and education is: Can

we increase intrinsic motivation in the classroom?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Let us continue our discussion.

Hunt (1965) says: Yes, we can increase intrinsic motivation in the

classroom. Awareness of the three factors involved in intrinsic
motivation should make the teacher give adequate care in preparation of
lessons especially with reference to its difficulty level determined by the
information standard and action standard of the children. The teacher
could see to it that the lesson presents enough challenge or the right
amount of difficulty so that children will strive, and so that they will not
avoid doing it because it is too difficult.

Extrinsic motivation comes from external environment and typically

takes the form of rewards, such as grades on tests, money, and social
praise. Such external rewards are useful because they can act to modify
behaviour, strengthen existing behaviour, increase self-esteem, and
provide helpful information about performance. Getting a B on a test,
for example, can reward you for your hardwork (it’s better than C) and
also cause you to study harder in order to get an A on the next exam.

Any consideration of extrinsic motivation must consider incentive

theory: What is an incentive? An incentive is any external object or
event that motivates behaviour. Sometimes incentives reduce drives,
but often they do not. A child may work hard to get a new toy, a student
to get an A in a test, an actor to get an oscar, or a worker to get a
promotion. In each case, there is an incentive but no apparent drive.

Incentive theory accounts for individual differences in behaviour by

assessing the value the incentive has for a specific individual. A student
with a 4.0 average may work much harder to get an A than one with 3.0
average in part because he wants to maintain his perfect Grade Point
Average (GPA). He values the A, the incentive, the incentive, more.
Value can be influenced by both biological factors and prior experience.
For biological reasons, you will place much greater value on a sandwich
when you last at 3 days ago than when you ate 3 hours ago. However,

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based on past experience, you might prefer a serving of burger, chips

and beans if given a choice.

It is important for you to note the difference between drive and incentive
theories: Drive theory bases motivation primarily on internal states, such
as hunger; incentive theory emphasises external stimuli. For that
reason, drive approaches are often referred to as push theories and
incentive approaches as pull theories. Drive theory relies more on
biological factors as sources of motivating while incentive theory is
more environmental.

3.4 Theory of Achievement Motivation

Consider the cases of two young business executives, Tata and Sapa.
Tata arrives at work promptly at 8.00 a.m. and seldom leaves before
4.00 p.m., always taking a loaded briefcase home with him. He works at
least one day each weekend, always arrives at meetings on time, and
often completes assigned work early. Sapa works the minimum hours
from 9 to 4 and takes long lunches. He is often late for meetings and
frequently requests extensions to complete assignments. David Mc
Clelland might suggest that the principal difference between these two
people is in their levels of achievement motivation or need for
achievement. A uniquely human drive, achievement motivation is a
striving to overcome challenges, improve oneself, attain excellence, and
accomplish more than others.

Mc Clelland and his associates hypothesise that achievement motivation

is an important determinant of goal attainment. So important did Mc
Clelland believe achievement motivation to be that he developed an
entire theory of this motive based in part on the earlier work of Henry
Murray (1938). Mc Clelland’s theory views achievement motivation as
a learned motive. There is considerable support for his hypothesis that
people differ greatly in need for achievement and that these differences
are reflected in a variety of behaviours (Elliot, 1994; Rebeta, 1993).
Moreover, the levels of achievement motivation that characterise a
society have considerable impact on its technological and economic
growth and on the overall success of that society as a culture (Mc
Clelland, 1961). One member of the original Mc Clelland group, John
Atkinson, went on to develop a more detailed theory of achievement
motivation.

In support of Hunt’s theory, Atkinson (1978) came up with his model of

achievement motivation. He identifies two factors that determine the
will of the individual to achieve, that is factors that intrinsically motivate
the individual to engage in an activity. These are:

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a. probability of success (PS); and

b. incentive to success (IS).

To make our discussion clearer, let us cite an example: if we are faced

with a problematic task or situation we ask ourselves; what is the
probability that I will succeed in the task? Theoretically, PS and IS are
inversely related, that is, if the probability of success is low then the task
involved must carry with it a high incentive and vice versa. For
instance, in any society, a profession demanding a lot of expertise of a
very high degree is usually well paid, that is they carry with them a very
high incentive, and therefore the motivation to succeed in this profession
is very high.

Atkinson suggests that there are some people who are success oriented,
and there are some who have high degrees of anxiety about failure.
Results from experiments he conducted reveal that success-oriented
people tend to set personal goals of intermediate difficulty or middle
level difficulty (they have a fifty – fifty chance of success). Anxiety –
ridden people tend to set personal goals that are either too high or too
low. If these anxiety – ridden people will fail on the hard task, no one
can blame them, and they are sure to succeed on the easy task. It is
obvious therefore that there is a strong need in the individual to avoid
failure especially if they experience repeated frustrations because of
failure. This must be taken into account in arranging learning
experiences. Atkinson, like Hunt, suggests that the individual is
motivated to achieve when the task is presented at half-way level of
difficulty, that is, there is enough degree of probability that they will
succeed and that there is a corresponding degree of incentive attached to
it.

In the classroom, when the lesson is too easy, the children will get bored
and restless, and when the lesson is too difficult, they will feel frustrated
and disinterested. The optimal level of difficulty, therefore, should be
half way between the extremes of ease and difficulty for all the children
to exhibit their maximum tendency to achieve success in their learning
undertakings.

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SELF – ASSESSED EXERCISE 3

1. Given our discussion, list three (3) things for which you have a
strong need to achieve:

i) …………………………………………………………………….
ii) …………………………………………………………………….
iii) …………………………………………………………………….
Well done. Let us continue our discussion.

3.4 Bruner’s Model of Motivated Behaviour

Relevant to the theory of intrinsic motivation is Bruner’s (1966) model

explaining motivated behaviour. He identifies three types of intrinsic
motivation that may make a child willing to learn:

i) Curiosity: Bruner believes that we come into the world

equipped with a curiosity drive. He feels that curiosity drive is of
biological relevance, that is, curiosity is necessary to the survival
of the species. Bruner suggests that young children are two often
curious, that they are unable to stick with anyone activity. Their
curiosity leads them to turn from one activity to another in rapid
succession, and it must therefore be channeled into a more
powerful intellectual pursuit.

ii) Drive to achieve competence: Children become interested in

what they are good at, and it is virtually impossible to motivate
them to engage in activities in which they have no degree of
competence.

iii) Reciprocity: Involves a need to work with others cooperatively,

and Bruner believes that society itself developed as a result of
this basic motivation.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the drive theory of motivation. You
should also have learned the theories of intrinsic motivation and
achievement motivation. In addition, you should have learned Bruner’s
model of motivated behaviour.

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5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns the drive theory
of motivation.
ii. You have also learnt the theory of intrinsic motivation and the
theory of achievement motivation.
iii. In addition, you have learnt Bruner’s model of motivated
behaviour.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Briefly explain Atkinson’s PS & IS in relation to the classroom.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Atkinson, J. (1978). An Introduction to Motivation Princeton, New

Jersey: Van Mostrand.

Bruner’s J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction Cambridge,

Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Elliot, A.J. (1994). Goal setting, achievement orientation, and intrinsic

motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 66 (5), 968 – 980.

Hull, C. (1943). Principles of Behaviour: An Introduction to Behaviour

Theory New York: Appleton.

Hunt, E. (1965). Stimulation and analytical models of memory: In:

Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 49 – 59.

Mc Clelland, D. (1961). Achieving Society: Characteristics of

entrepreneurs. Unpublished manuscript, Raddcliffee College,
Cambridge, MA.

Miller, Gallanter & Pribram (1960). Plans and the Structure of

Behaviour New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.

Murray, H. (1938). Explorations in personality New York: Oxford

University Press.

Rebeta, J. (1993). Variations in trait-anxiety and achievement

motivation of College students. Journal of Experimental
Education, 61 (3), 257 – 267.

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Woodworth, R.S. (1918). Dynamic Psychology. New York: Columbia

University Press.

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UNIT 5 MOTIVES, NEEDS AND THEIR

SATISFACTION

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Sustaining Interest in learning
3.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
3.3 Flexibility of the Hierarchy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 4, we discussed the drive theory of motivation. You can

also explain the theory of intrinsic motivation as well as the theory of
achievement motivation. In addition, you should also be able to
describe Bruner’s model of motivated behaviour. You are about to
embark on the study of a unit that is relevant and very applicable to the
teaching – learning process. Let us examine what other content you
should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit objectives as
stated below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain how interest in learning can be sustained.

2. Describe Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
3. State how flexible the hierarchy of needs is.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Sustaining Interest in Learning

Considering the various theories discussed, we shall now make useful

suggestions for teaching concerning motivation in the classroom:

1. Do everything possible to satisfy the deficiency needs –

physiological, belongingness, esteem, and so on.

(a) Allow for the physical condition of your pupils and the
classroom, for example, be aware that your students may
be occasionally hungry or thirsty. This may sound

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obvious, but it is frequently forgotten. Make a habit of

checking ventilation of the room.
(b) Show your students that you take an interest in them and
that they belong in your classrooms; and
(c) Arrange learning experiences so that all students can gain
at least some degree of esteem. You should play down
comparisons: encourage self-competition; permit students
to work towards individual goals; give individual
assistance to slow – learners.

2. Direct learning experiences toward feelings of success in an

effort to encourage a realistic level of aspiration, an orientation
toward achievement, and a positive self-concept. Students who
experience early failure in any learning will either lose interest or
actively avoid further learning experiences (Alhassan, 2000).

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Given our discussion so far, list any three (3) actions manifested
by your secondary school teacher that you consider not
motivating during the teaching – learning process.

i) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

ii) …………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………….

iii) ……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
Well done. Let us continue our discussion.

3.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The instinct, drive, intrinsic motivation, achievement motivation and

model of motivated behaviour theories all assume that humans are
motivated in the same ways as lower animals. Abraham Maslow’s
theorised that some motivational forces are distinctly human. In
promoting this idea, Malsow became one of the founding fathers of the
Humanistic school of psychology, which emphasises that humans are
unique in the animal kingdom.

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The humanistic view suggests that human beings are unique in the
animal kingdom; they are not merely the organisms standing on the
highest rung of the evolutionary ladder. Humans are uniquely capable
of having a self-concept, a perception of their own characteristics. In
addition, every individual is different, and this individuality is a central
determinant of human behaviour.

Behaviour is controlled not so much by the external environment as by

the subjective environment created by the individual’s biased
perceptions of what is going on around her. Each individual experiences
the world a bit differently, and it is this subjective, individualised world
that influences behaviour. Biology has a role, in that each person is
endowed with biological motivations that greatly affect behaviour.

Figure I: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Human needs are arranged in

a hierarchy. Basic needs must be satisfied before higher needs are
fulfilled (Maslow, 1970).

Need for

self actualisation

Growth

needs

Aesthetic needs

Cognitive needs

Belongingnes
and love ne ds

Deficiency Safety and

needs security needs

Physiological needs

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Maslow hypothesised that human behaviour is motivated by a number of

competing needs that can be arranged in a hierarchy. It is important for
you to note that this need hierarchy is a systematic listing of needs in
priority order, such that needs further up the hierarchy can be met only
after more basic needs have been satisfied. The more basic needs are
deficiency needs – needs that must be satisfied for survival. The needs
at the very top are growth needs – needs that enhance the person’s
psychological functioning (see Figure I). Let us now explain in more
detail the six basic needs:

1) Physiological needs

At the lowest level of the hierarchy are physiological needs such as

hunger, sex, maternal behaviour, and various sensory pleasures (that is
of the senses, for example taste). These needs are of remarkable
importance essentially because they are the most prepotent of all man’s
needs and, if unsatisfied, dominate all activity.

2) Safety needs

These are almost as dominating as the physiological needs. These are

illustrated by a child’s reaction to noise and light, and generally reflect
man’s need for a safe, orderly predictable world. It includes the need for
shelter, clothing, and freedom from fear of personal danger, many
parents in Nigeria satisfy the safety need for children. A substantial
percentage of parents do not. This generates a severe obligation for
other agencies of society particularly the school. Today in Nigeria, both
child and adult safety needs are often threatened by societal violence,
avoidable communal violence, and state-of-the-art armed robbery
incidence.

3) Belongingness and love needs

Travers (1986:206) writes that if the physiological and safety needs are
met, the need for love, affection, and belongingness emerges. The
individual begins to look to others for satisfaction, both to give and to
receive. The educational implications of this need seem obvious:
children must feel wanted and experience a sense of affection toward
and from the teacher. Remember that children need and want discipline
as much as they require love and affection.

4) Esteem needs

These are the needs of being worthwhile and capable of making a

contribution to society. Real self-respect is based upon achievement,
and the esteem needs founded upon actual achievement, manifest

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themselves in a feeling of self-confidence and a corresponding desire for

recognition by others. Self-esteem is the need to maintain a perception
of oneself as a generally competent, strong, independent person. The
need for other esteem is the desire to have a good reputation and to
obtain recognition and status. Failure to satisfy the esteem needs is
likely to lead to feelings of incompetence, helplessness, and inferiority.
It is important for you to note that the lesson for educators seems
obvious: Teachers must insure that the task are such that pupils/students
can satisfactorily complete them, thus insuring goal achievement and a
growing confidence in self and recognition by peers.

5) Aesthetic needs

When all the deficiency needs are regularly satisfied, the growth needs,
including the cognitive needs for understanding and knowledge, and the
aesthetic needs for order and beauty, become dominant motivators. The
aesthetic needs are the needs in which one finally comes to a deep
understanding of the world and the purpose of life and feel a part of the
cosmos. Satisfaction of these needs moves the individual to a higher
state of psychological functioning and makes him a more effective
person.

6) Self-actualisation needs

The very highest need – the capstone of Maslow’s hierarchy – is the

need for self-actualisation. It is each individual’s need to advise all
higher capacities, fulfill his/her potentials, and become the best in which
one enjoys the experience of creativity and the joy of personal success.

The self-actualising person referred to by Maslow as the fully human

person, is constantly striving to achieve higher and higher levels of
personal growth. He/she is non-defensive, open to experience,
spontaneous, problem-oriented, and largely autonomous from the
environment (Mittelman, 1995). Maslow (1970) believed that a
person’s position on the hierarchy is likely to rise with age, but
estimated that less than 1 percent of the population ever achieve self-
actualisation. Travers (1986) similarly states that probably few, if any,
people ever experience self-actualisation but it is undoubtedly this need
that drives man to his greatest accomplishments, both personally and
socially.

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SELF – ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE 2

1) Take a close, critical look at the Nigerian society. Do we have

self-actualised people (living or late) in Nigeria?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Let us continue our discussion.

3.3 Flexibility of the Hierarchy

It is important for you to note that there is nothing inflexible about the
hierarchy. For instance, for some people, one need may assume much
greater significance than another (the esteem need may be less important
than the love need). For most people, partial need satisfaction is
apparent. This is to say that we are never completely satisfied in our
needs, such that as the individual determines that he has achieved
sufficient satisfaction in one need, then another need emerges.

We need to achieve a better understanding of how these needs can be

fulfilled in adolescents. Humanistic psychology, which assumes that
people are basically good so long as their basic needs are met, has a
better chance of doing so. Teachers and parents as well as others who
would be helpful to teenagers should become more aware of the
teachings of humanistic psychology.

Humanistic educators such as Sidney Simon (values clarification), Carl

Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and Lawrence Kohlberg (states of moral
development) presented teachers with a variety of techniques to clarify
the values and develop the moral base of their students. You should
note also that humanistic educators insisted that greater attention should
be placed on developing the affective domain or emotions and feelings
of a child, not just the cognitive domain, or intellect. Thus, the
emotions, the intellect, and the psychomotor – all need attention.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt how interest in learning could be
sustained. You should also have learned the hierarchy of needs as
propounded by Maslow. In addition, you should have learned the
flexibility of the hierarchy of needs.

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5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns how interest in
learning could be sustained.
ii. You have also learnt the theory of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
and their educational implications.
iii. In addition, you have learnt flexibility of the hierarchy of needs.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Given our discussion, would you say Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs is rigid? Support your answer with a brief explanation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria,

Nigeria: Tamaza Publishing Company.

Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and Personality New York: Harper and

Row.

Mittelman, W. (1995). Openness: A final reply to Tobacyk. Journal of

Humanistic Psychology 42, 143 – 144.

Travers, J. (1986). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology Scranton,

Pennsylvania: International Textbook Company.

Now it is time to congratulate yourself for participating all through in

our discussion. Be rest assured that you would find the remaining study
units in this course very stimulating.

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MODULE 3

Unit 1 Critique of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Unit 2 Observational learning
Unit 3 Human behaviour

UNIT 1 CRITIQUE OF MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF

NEEDS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Critique of Hierarchy of Needs
3.2 Cognitive Theory
3.3 Perception Motivates Behaviour
3.4 Evolutionary Theory
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 5 of Module II, we discussed how interest in learning could

be sustained. You can also explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In
addition, you should also be able to state the flexible nature of the
hierarchy of needs. You are about to commence the study of a unit that
you would find refreshing. Let us examine what other content you
should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit objectives as
stated below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1) Explain the strength and weakness of Maslow’s theory of

hierarchy of needs.
2) Describe cognitive theory of motivation.
3) Discuss how perception motivates behaviour.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Critique of Hierarchy of Needs

A point you must note is that Maslow’s theory has been very influential
both in practical applications and in generating research (Ebersole &
De-vore, 1995). In the world of business, it has provided a way of
understanding what motivates employees and has been used as a tool to
reduce turnover, increase productivity, and improve job satisfaction
(Aamodt et. al. 1993). Maslow’s need theory suggests that management
should work to gradually move each employee up the motivational
hierarchy toward self-actualisation – the full realisation of an
individual’s potential.

In addition, applications in education, nursing, consumer economics,

management training, and elder care are also common (Daniels, 1992;
Seeley, 1992; Umoren, 1992).

It is important for you to note that research support, on the other hand,
has been hard to come by. Complex constructs like self-actualisation
are difficult to define and measure, and what supportive research there is
has been widely crticised (Heylighen, 1992).

Equally as important is the repeated failure to confirm the priority

ordering of the need hierarchy (Wicken et al, 1993). When subjects are
asked to rank the needs in order of importance for them, the rankings
typically do not conform to Maslow’s hierarchy (Mills, 1985). Enduring
satisfaction of physiological and security needs does not necessarily
mean the person will go on to seek belongingness and love. In other
cases, those needs may be pursued even in the face of chronic hunger.

Now try this quiz:

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1. Given our discussion so far and your own personal experience list
out the hierarchy of needs according to your priority:

i. ……………………………………………………………
ii. ……………………………………………………….……
iii. ...……………………………………………………..……
iv. …………………………………………………….………
v. ...…………………………………………………..………
vi. ...…………………………………………………..……

That’s okay. Let us continue our discussion.

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Moreover, the age hypothesis has not been confirmed: Position on the
need hierarchy does not consistently increase with age (Goebel &
Brown, 1981). All the same, it is important for you to remember that
Maslow’s theory has been influential and is widely applied in practical
settings but has not been supported by research.

Piaget’s theory holds that intelligence is part of the biological adaptation

of the human being to the world. Through the process of assimilation
and accommodation, learners acquire and modify their cognitive
structures. These cognitive structures organise learner’s experiences and
make them meaningful.

Piaget viewed humans as biological organisms who must develop means

of fitting into their environment in order to survive. Intelligence is a
particular instance of biological adaptation and achievement which
allows the individual to interact effectively with the environment
(Glover et. al 1982).

The cognitive theory sees an organism as inherently active, and acting

on its environment rather than merely reacting to it. The organism is
ultimately involved in the construction and definition of its environment.

3.2 Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theories of motivation emphasise the role of thought

processes in initiating, maintaining, and guiding behaviour. We use
active, conscious, decision-making processes to determine both our
goals and the means by which we achieve them. In short, thought
motivates action (Fodo, 1994). Let us cite an example. When the scale
says you are 10 kilograms overweight, you think about the
consequences and decide to go on a diet.

The above are the cognitive processes, and your weight loss is thus
motivated by your cognitions. It is important for you to note that in this
theory, perception is a motivator and there is an important difference
between extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

The next section of this study unit discusses how perception motivates
behaviour.

3.3 Perception Motivates Behaviour

In cognitive theories, certain kinds of thought processes can be

motivational. Theorist Bernard Weiner (1980) focuses on the role of
perception, or cognitive interpretation, in behaviour. Action is

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motivated by the person’s perception of causality – of what is causing

outcomes to occur. Weiner hypothesises three major dimensions of
perceived causality, which he calls locus, stability and controllability.

The locus of perceived causality may be either inside or outside the

person. When you perceive an internal locus, you see yourself as
causing success or failure. If you failed a test, for example, you might
conclude that you didn’t study hard. When you perceive an external
locus, you attribute the success or failure to forces outside yourself.
You might blame your test failure on the instructor’s poor instructional
approach/style.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. In your years of schooling, have you ever failed to test/exam? If

so, what would you say was responsible for that situation?

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………..…………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………

If not, what would you say was responsible for that situation?

……………………………………………………………………….
…..
………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………..

That’s interesting. Let us continue our discussion.

The second dimension, stability, refers to your perception of the

consistency of the phenomenon in question. If you always do poorly on
exams of this type, you might perceive such failure as a stable
characteristic in your life. But if such failure is unusual, you are likely
to see it as an unstable characteristic.

Controllability is your perception of the extent to which you can

influence the outcome of the situation. You may feel that you can do
better on your next exam by studying harder (controllable outcome) or
that nothing you can do will improve your performance (uncontrollable
outcome).

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But how do these cognitive dimensions affect motivation? You shall

soon know this.

These three cognitive dimensions affect motivation in a number of

ways. Locus affects your self-esteem, which may be increased or
decreased. Your perception of stability determines the extent to recur in
the future. And your concept of controllability can affect your
perceptions of other people.

If you feel that others are in control of a situation, you will like them
more if the outcome is positive than if it is negative. Some studies have
confirmed the utility of Weiner’s theory in understanding motivation
and associated achievement (Prussia et. al. 1993).

It is to be noted that Weiner’s cognitive theory of motivation is related

to a broader social psychological theory called attribution theory, which
deals with the perception of causal relationships in social situations.

Attribution theory came into being in 1958, when Fritz Heider

hypothesised that the perception of both social and non-social events
involves an ongoing quest for meaningful explanations of the causes of
these events. He distinguished between dispositional and situational
attributions and suggested that although some attributions are largely
based on logical analyses of events, others may reflect the person’s
psychological needs, expectations, and motivations.

3.4 Evolutionary Theory

From the evolutionary perspectives, motives are seen as mechanisms

that have evolved to ensure the survival and reproduction of the species.
As with other evolved features, the motivational systems of current
humans are those that best permitted our ancestors to adapt to their
environments.

The adaptive value of such physiological motives as hunger, thirst, pain,

and sex is easy to see. All are required for the survival of either the
individual or the species, and survival is basic to Darwinian theory.
Psychological feelings of hunger and thirst arise from bodily
mechanisms triggered by the deprivation of substances basic to life
itself. They cause behaviour that acts to replenish these essential
survival resources, whether it be hunting in the forest or driving to Mr.
Biggs.

Pain is also essential because it protects the body. The feeling, or even
the possibility, of pain is again triggered by specific, evolved
mechanisms and causes action to remove the source of pain. You

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reflexively withdraw your hand from the hot stove and actively avoid
the bee that might sting you. Without the pain drive, the body would be
much more vulnerable to injury and death. The sex drive deals with the
survival of the species through reproduction.

More complex social motive systems also represent adaptations that

solved specific environmental problems over the course of evolutionary
history (Thornhill, 1992). Let us consider the example of the affiliation
motive – the need to seek out and interact with other people. The
evolutionary perspective hypothesises that this nearly universal human
motive arose because our ancestors found the company and help of
others to be essential to survival. Mutual protection from predators, aid
in times of illness, and help in obtaining food may all have been basic to
the development of the affiliation motive.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt the strength and weakness of
hierarchy of needs. You should also have learned the cognitive theory
of motivation. In addition, you should have learned how perception
motivates behaviour.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns the strength and
weakness of the hierarchy of needs.
ii. You have also learnt cognitive theory of motivation.
iii. In addition, you have learnt how perception motivates behaviour.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Briefly explain three (3) strengths and two (2) weaknesses of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Aamodt, M., Bryan, D. & Whitcomb, A. (1993). Predicting performance

with letters of recommendation. Public Personnel Management,
22 (1), 81 – 90.

Daniels, J. (1992). Empowering homeless children through school

counselling. Elementary School Guidance and Counselling, 27
(2), 104 – 112.

Ebersole, P. & De-vore, G. (1995). Self-actualisation, diversity, and

meaning in life. Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, 10

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(1), 37 – 51.

Fodor, J. (1994). Concepts: A potboiler. Cognition, 50 (1 – 3), 95 – 113.

Glover, J.L. & Dacey, R.S. (1982). Feeble mindedness: Its Causes and
Consequences. New York: Mc graw Hill.

Heylighen, F. (1992). A cognitive systematic reconstruction of

Maslow’s theory of self-actualisation. Behavioural Science, 37
(1), 39 – 58.

Mills, A.S. (1985). Participation motivations for outdoor recreation: A

test of Maslow’s theory. Journal of Leisure Research. 17 (3), 184
– 199.

Prussia, G.E., Kinicki, A.J. & Bracker, J.S. (1993). Psychological and
behavioural consequences of job loss: A covariance structure
analysis using Weiner’s (1985) attribution model. Journal of
Applied Psychology 78 (3), 382 – 394.

Seeley, E. (1992). Human needs and consumer economics: The

implications of Maslow’s theory of motivation for consumer
expenditure patterns. Journal of Socio-economics, 21 (4), 303 –
324.

Thornhill, R. (1992). The evolutionary psychology of men’s coercive

sexuality. The Behavioural and Brain Sciences. 15 (2), 363 –
369.

Umoren, J.A. (1992). Maslow hierarchy of needs and OBRA (1987):

Toward need satisfaction by nursing home residents. Educational
Gerontology, 18 (6), 657 – 670.

Weiner, B. (1980). Human Motivation. New York: Holt, Rinehart &

Winston.

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UNIT 2 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Baudura’s Observational Learning
3.2 Four Basic Processes
3.3 The Role of Reinforcement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 1 of Module III, we explained the strength and weakness of

Maslow’s theory of hierarchy of needs. You can also describe the
cognitive theory of motivation. In addition, you should also be able to
discuss how perception motivates behaviour. You are about to study a
unit that is stimulating and relevant. Let us examine what other content
you should learn in this study unit as specified in the study unit
objectives as stated below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Explain Bandura’s theory of observational learning.

2. Identify the four basic processes.
3. Describe the role of reinforcement.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Bandura’s Observational Learning

Have you ever fired a pistol? If not, if you were called upon to do so,
you probably would know how to hold it, aim it, and pull the trigger.
That’s because you have often seen guns being fired in movies and on
television. In the same way, you acquire a large repertoire of social and
other behavioural abilities by seeing your parents and others perform
these behaviours as you grow up. You are engaging in a cognitive
learning process that theorist Albert Bandura (1965:1992) calls
observational learning. Note that observation takes place when the
ability to perform a behaviour is acquired or modified by observing
others. Those performing the behaviour and being observed are called
models.

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In a classic study of observational learning, Bandura (1965) showed

young boys and girls a short film depicting an adult model behaving
aggressively toward a Bobo doll, an inflated toy that bounces back
whenever it is knocked down.

Social Learning The Bobo Doll experiment, showing the model

beating up the doll in the film the children watched and then the children
imitating the model’s behaviour (Banduna, 1965)

After the film, the children were taken to a room containing a number of
toys, including a Bobo doll. Results showed that the children tended to
reproduce the model’s aggressive behaviour toward the doll rather than
engage in other types of behaviour.

It is important for you to note that a control group of children who did
not see the Bobo doll film did not display the modeled behaviour toward
the toy. The behaviour of the children in the experimental group could
not readily be accounted for by operant conditioning principles, since
they had not been reinforced for playing with the Bobo doll. The
modeled behaviour had been learned by observation alone. Let us ask a
relevant and timely question: What would happen if the children saw the
model actually being rewarded for her aggressive behaviour? A second
Bandura study answers that question: Modeling aggression increases
aggressive behaviour, and rewarding the model increases it even more.
(After Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1963). Alhassan (2000) also states that
after viewing actual television shows depicting realistic violence,
children are more willing to hurt another child than after watching non-
aggressive shows.

Individuals often acquire new forms of aggression through exposure to

the actions of other persons. Specifically, individuals frequently seem to
learn new ways of harming others through exposure to the actions of
parents, friends, actors in movies or characters in TV shows. Informal
evidence for the occurrence of such effects among adults is available
from several different sources. For example, it is often the case that
movies which depict or describe unusual violent crimes are followed by
a wave of similar events around the nation, particularly in urban centres
and large towns. In such instances, viewers seem to acquire new forms
of attacking others, and also learn that it is possible to ‘get away’ with
such actions.

Evidence for the occurrence of destructive modeling has been obtained

in many other experiments in which adult subjects exposed to live
(Baron, 1974a) or filmed aggressive models (Geen and Stonner, 1973)
have been observed to demonstrate higher levels of aggression than

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subjects not exposed to such models. If adults can be influenced in this

manner by exposure to the aggressive actions of others, it might be
expected that children, with their weaker sense of morality and lack of
sophistication, would be affected to an even greater degree.

More recent research has gone even further, suggesting that after
viewing actual television shows depicting realistic violence, children are
more willing to hurt another child than after watching non-aggressive
shows (Liekert & Schewartzberg, 1987). We can conclude that the high
level of violence prevailing in many popular television shows has
adverse effects upon the persons who view them, though not all
experimental findings support this conclusion (Manning & Taylor,
1985). But the weight of existing evidence does seem to suggest that
exposure to televised violence may weaken children’s restraint against
attacking or harming others.

Studies suggest that even lower animals learn by observation. Children

that have observed chicken models pecking a key to obtain grain learn
the response themselves more quickly than chickens that did not
observed the model (Johnson, 1986). In the sections that follows in this
study unit, we shall discuss the basic processes involved in
observational learning, the role of reinforcement, and applications of
Bandura’s approach to the understanding of social behaviour. But
before that, try your hand on this quiz:

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

12. From your understanding of our discussion, what type of movies

and television programmes would you recommend for children
and adolescents in your community or neighbourhood? Briefly
explain your response.

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………...

That’s nice of you. Let us continue our discussion.

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3.2 Four Basic Processes

Bandura (1965) explains instances of observational learning as

involving four basic processes:

i) Attention. You must attend to the model in order to learn by

observation.
ii) Retention. If you are to later use what you have learned, you must
store it in memory.
iii) Reproduction. You must be capable of reproducing the learned
response. For instance, watching Bruce Lee or Chucks Norris
expertly executing a series of Karate moves doesn’t mean that
you can reproduce them accurately.
iv) Motivation. You will reproduce observationally acquired
behaviours only if you are motivated to do so. You need to have
some expectation that making the response will be rewarding.
Dada picked up and fired the gun because his friend offered to
give him N1,000.00.

3.3 The Role of Reinforcement

It is important for you to note that observational learning can take place
without reinforcement. In fact, Bandura emphasises that reinforcement
seen as so essential in classical and operant conditioning theories is
totally unnecessary in an observational learning. How then does
learning occurs?

Learning occurs by simply observing a model. The model performs the

behaviour, you observe it and ‘copy’ it into your behavioural repertoire.
You may display it immediately, as in the Bobo doll study, or not until
many years later, as when someone invites you to fire a gun at a target
range.

Although not necessarily for learning, reinforcement does have at least

two functions in Bandura’s approach:

1) First, it plays a role when the person actually performs the

behaviour. Bandura suggests that an observed behaviour may be
incorporated into an individual’s repertoire but never actually be
exhibited until reinforcement is available for that behaviour.
Unfortunately, watching people or cartoon characters fire guns
and beat each other up, activities that many children see everyday
in violent TV programmes, may also lead to observational
learning and perhaps later to violent behaviour when
reinforcement is available.

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2) The second role of reinforcement is to enhance the learning

process. If, for example, the adult model is rewarded for a
particular response, the child is more likely to learn that response
rapidly than if the model is not rewarded or is actually punished.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt Bandura’s theory of observational

learning. You should also have learned the four basic processes. In
addition, you should have learned the role of reinforcement.

5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns Bandura’s

observational learning.
ii. You have also learnt the four basic processes of observational
learning.
iii. In addition, you have learnt the role of reinforcement in
observational learning.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. List and explain the basic processes involved in observational

learning.

7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology: Zaria,

Nigeria. Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.

Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of model’s reinforcement contingencies

on the acquisition of initiative response. Journal of Personality &
Social Psychology, 1 (6), 589 – 595.

Bandura, A. (1992). Self-efficacy in changing societies Cambridge,

Eng.: Cambridge University Press.

Baron, R. (1974). Threatened retaliation from the victim as an inhibitor

of physical aggression. In: Journal of Experimental Research in
Personality, 7, 103 – 15.

Geen, S. & Stonner, T. (1973). Social Motivation. Annual Review of

Psychology, 42, 377 – 399.

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Johnson, B. (1986). Observational Learing in Gallus gallus domesticus

with and without a specific model. Bulletin of the Psychonomic
Society. 24 (3), 237 – 239.

Mannings, S. & Taylor, D. (1985). Effects of viewed violence and

aggression: Stimulation and catharsis. In: Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 31, 180 – 8.

Ross, T. & Ross, M. (1963). The classroom, and observational learning.

In: Child Development pp. 387 – 399. New York. Wiley.

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UNIT 3 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Motivation of Behaviour
3.2 Human Social Behaviour
3.3 The Neurophysiology of Learning
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In study unit 2 of Module III, we explained Bandura’s theory of

observational learning. You can also identify the four basic processes of
observational learning. In addition, you should also be able to describe
the role of reinforcement in observational learning. You are about to
study a very interesting unit. Let us examine what other content you
should learn in this study unit as specified in the unit objectives as stated
below.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this study unit, you should be able to:

1. Define self-concept;
2. Explain human social behaviour.
3. Describe the neurophysiology of learning.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Motivation of Behaviour

Car Rogers was a pioneer in personality psychology. Rogers (1980)

believes that just one motivational system, called actualisation tendency,
provides the impetus for all behaviour. Actualisation is an inborn
tendency of the total organism to realise all its potentials, to grow and
improve, and to maintain and enhance itself. As the person interacts
with the environment, each experience is evaluated to determine
whether it satisfies the actualizing tendency. It is important for you to
note that experiences that promote actualisation are positively valued
and will be sought out in the future, while experiences that inhibit
actualisation are negatively valued and will be avoided. Note also that

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whether positive or negative, the experience will be accurately perceived

and the individual will be fully aware of its occurrence.

A portion of the actualisation tendency is diverted for the specific

purpose of maintaining and enhancing the self, a motive system called
self-actualisation. You should remember our discussion in Study Unit 5
of Module II on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. You should therefore be
able to understand that self-actualisation causes the individual to strive
for self-enhancement and to maintain the consistency of the self-
concept. Self-actualisation is basically a social phenomenon. It is an
attempt to maintain a consistent self-concept that fulfills the conditions
of worth – the values established by society.

A most important trend in modern psychology is the recognition of the

‘self’ in an individual’s personality development. The self is a complex
bundle of ideas, attitudes, opinions, and values that the individual has to
himself/herself. He/she becomes aware of what and who he is.
Consequently, it is obvious that the formative years are crucial in the
construction of a positive or negative self-image. Behaviour is
purposeful and caused and people act as they do because of the way that
things seem to them.

Many psychologists have engaged in study and writing about the self.
Of these, the most influential have been Comb & Syngg (1969). They
are referred to as perceptual or phenomenological psychologists. They
insist that behaviour can only be understood from the viewpoint of the
person who is behaving. It is important for you to note that individuals
do not behave according to observable facts; rather, they behave
according to the facts as they interpret them. Such behaviour is
perfectly logical for the person because he knows no other. He reacts to
reality as he interprets it, regardless of objective facts as interpreted by
others (Alhassan, 2000). Behaviour is controlled by an individual’s
perception of himself and the world around him. A person’s reaction
may appear irrational to another, but to that person it is absolutely
reasonable because, for him/her, it has a purpose. These personal
interpretations are called perceptions and a person’s behaviour is a
function of his/her perceptions. He/she reacts to his perceptual field that
is, experiences at any moment.

Under the influence of self-actualisation, experience is evaluated to

determine whether it will enhance the self. Experiences that are
consistent with the existing self-concept and thus self-enhancing are
accurately perceived, whereas those not consistent with the self are
distorted. Let us cite an example to make our discussion much clearer to
you. If you see yourself as a student, getting an A in an exam will be
consistent, and the information will be perceived accurately. But if you

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get a D in an exam, you may tend to distort the experience:

‘The
instructional facilitator must have been too strict in grading’ or ‘I really
wasn’t feeling very well the night before the exam’.

When experience is distorted, the consistency of the self-concept is

maintained, but a state of incongruence or discrepancy between the self-
concept and the actual experience has been created. If you blame your
low exam grade on your instructional facilitator, you will still be able to
maintain you’re a student self-concept, but it will be somewhat
inaccurate, since you did indeed receive A. D. Rogers believe that we
all distort experience to maintain self-consistency and to self-actualise.
The result is that we all have somewhat inaccurate self-concepts.
Moreover, when experiences are distorted, the actualisation of the total
organism – a far more important consideration for Rogers – may be
impaired.

Let us consider the example of a teenager whose friends – or those he

would like to be his friends – take up smoking. Now attempt this quiz:

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What is the teenager’s self-concept?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

Let us continue our discussion.

His self-concept is that he is a friendly, socially acceptable person. To

refuse to take up smoking would be inconsistent with this self-concept
and might jeopardise his group membership. In effect, the need to self-
actualise might cause him to succumb to the social pressure to smoke.
Since smoking would obviously have an adverse effect on the physical
health of the total organism, we can conclude that self-actualisation has,
in this case, been harmful.

3.2 Human Social Behaviour

Bandura (1992) argues that observational learning is the basis for the
development of most human social behaviours. A little boy who starts
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‘shaving’ with a plastic razor learns to do so by observing his father.

We also learn negative and dangerous behaviours through modeling.
Let us cite an example to make the discussion clearer to you: A model’s
fear of snakes is quickly learned by an observer (Mineka & Cook,
1993). In addition, child abuse is seen primarily in people who
apparently learned this behaviour by observing their own parents
(Ammermann & Patz, 1996).

Individuals often acquire new forms of aggression through exposure to

the actions of other persons. Specifically, individuals frequently seem to
learn new ways of harming others through exposure to the actions of
parents, friends, actors in movies or characters in TV shows. Informal
evidence for the occurrence of such effects among adults is available
from several different sources. For example, it is often the case that
movies which depict or describe unusual violent crimes are followed by
a wave of similar events around the nation, particularly in urban centres
and large towns. In such instances, viewers seem to acquire new forms
of attacking others, and also learn that it is possible to ‘get away’ with
such actions.

Evidence for the occurrence of destructive modeling has been obtained

in many other experiments in which adult subjects exposed to live
(Baron, 1974a) or filmed aggressive models (Geen and Stonner, 1973)
have been observed to demonstrate higher levels of aggression than
subjects not exposed to such models. If adults can be influenced in this
manner by exposure to the aggressive actions of others, it might be
expected that children, with their weaker sense of morality and lack of
sophistication, would be affected to an even greater degree.

Also, there is evidence to support the common notion that children learn
to become drinkers and sometimes alcoholics in part by observing their
parents (Lang, 1993). Now try your hand on this quiz:

SELF – ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Observational learning is important in human learning: List three

(3) examples of learning through observation.

i. ……………………………………………………..
ii. ……………………………………………………..
iii. ……………………………………………………..

That’s a good effort. Let us continue our discussion.

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3.3 The Neurophysiology of Learning

When you read a study unit or take a table tennis lesson, the learning
process causes changes in your brain. Knowing what these changes are
and how they take place is basic to a full understanding of what learning
involves. In this section of the study unit, we shall examine the
evolutionary basis for learning.

Neural mechanisms have evolved over time and across species from the
simple nervous systems of such organisms as the jelly fish to the
complex human brain. It is important for you to note that this neural
evolution has been accompanied by the evolution of mechanisms that
help each organism to survive and reproduce in its natural environment.
Clearly, one of those mechanisms is learning, and evolution has
favoured learning as an important survival tool.

From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, the learning

mechanisms of a given species are best understood as being related to
the natural environment in which the species has evolved. It is to be
remembered that natural selection means that the species-specific
behaviour patterns s een in animals are those that have historically
allowed them to best survive and reproduce in their natural
environments. It is important for you to note that what must therefore
evolve is both a set of innate behavioural tendencies and a set of innate
mechanisms for modifying those tendencies. Let us cite an example: A
person might inherit a genetic tendency to be more extroverted than
introverted. He also inherits mechanisms that permit this tendency to be
modified by his experiences in his natural environment. If his parents
and others reinforce primarily extroverted behaviour, he may become
more extroverted; if more introverted behaviours are reinforced, he may
become somewhat less extroverted.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

1. Are you an extrovert or introvert?

……………………………………………………………………

2. Why do you describe yourself as such?

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

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Let us continue our discussion.

Simpler behaviours in lower animals – avoiding danger, foraging for

food, selecting a mate – evolve in the same way. Some songbirds, for
instance, inherit neural mechanisms that allow them to make sounds, but
they learn to modify their songs by hearing their parents sing. Both a
genetic tendency toward a certain behaviour pattern and mechanisms
through which environmental experience can modify that pattern are
thus inherited. The collective mechanisms for changing behaviours in
response to the environment form the biological basis for learning.

Another good example of the evolution of both hereditary

predispositions toward patterns of behaviour and hereditary flexibility
mechanisms is the development of food preferences. Why is it that we
prefer certain foods over others? The answer is that we inherit
tendencies to prefer foods that satisfy nutritional needs, but these
tendencies are modified toward preferences for specific foods through
learning and experience. For example, protein can be obtained from
either fish or red meat, but you may learn to prefer one over the other.

The genetic factor works to ensure that the body will periodically
replenish a variety of vitamins, minerals, and other substances to survive
and maintain normal functioning. If you are deprived of a certain
nutrient – say vitamin C – you will select foods containing that nutrient.
When the vitamin C needs is met, your preference will change to foods
containing other substances for which there is now a greater need
(Chamberlain, 1997).

We shall now consider the neurochemistry of learning: A variety of

neurochemicals known to exist in the brain and nervous system have
also been implicated in learning (Wogar, 1993). What are these
biochemicals? These biochemicals include neurotransmitters, such as
acetylcholine (Diaz, 1994) as well as DNA, RNA, and various proteins
and glycoproteins. From the standpoint of the neurophysiology of
learning, learning can be seen as a set of evolved mechanisms that
permit organisms to adapt to their environments and thus survive. As
has been stated elsewhere (Alhassan, 2000) environment is the heritage
of mankind, including lower organisms.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this study unit, you have learnt human social behaviour. You should
have learnt the neurophysiology of learning. In addition, you should
have learnt genetics and learning. Finally, you should have learnt the
neurochemistry of learning.

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5.0 SUMMARY

i. What you have learnt in this study unit concerns human social
behaviour.
ii. You have also learnt the neurophysiology of learning.
iii. In addition, you have learnt genetics and learning.
iv. Finally, you have learnt the neurochemistry of learning.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Supply the missing words in the following questions:

1. ……………………. is the basis for the development of

most
human ……………………
2.
Evolution has favoured ……………….. as an
…………………….., …………………… and
3. …………………………..
Briefly explain the neurochemistry of learning.

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology: Zaria,

Nigeria. Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.

Ammermann, R. & Patz, R. (1996). Determinants of child

abuse
potential: Contribution of parent and child factors. Journal of
Clinical Child Psychology, 25 (3), 300 – 307.

Bandura, A. (1992). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge,

Eng.: Cambridge University Press.
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Baron, P. (1974a) Motivation. Scranton, Pennsylvannia.

Chamberlain, J. (1997). On diet quality and humanoid brain/digestive

system evolution. Current Anthropology, 38, 91 – 98.

Combs, A. & Syngg, D. (1969). Individual Behaviour New York:

Harper.

Diaz, D. (1994). Intrastriatal injection of choline accelerates the

overexposure on the spectral response patterns in neonatal chick.
Experimental Brain Research, 95 (2) 202 – 212.

Geen, T. & Stonner, R. (1973). Social Motivation. Annual Review of

Psychology 42, 377 – 399.

Lang, A. (1993). Children and alcohol. Recent Developments in

Alcoholism 11, 73 – 78.

Mineka, S. & Cook, M. (1993). Mechanisms involved in the

observational conditioning of fear. Journal of Experimental
Psychology 122 (1), 23 – 27.

Rogers, D. (1980). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of

psychotherapy Boston: Houghton Miffin.

Wogar, M. (1993). Effects of lesions of the ascending pathways between

delayed reinforcers. Psychopharmacology 111 (2), 239 – 243.

It is now time to warmly congratulate yourself for meaningful

participation in our discussions all through the study units. And good
luck in your semester examination!

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