Chapter

24
Fixed Beams
Contents
1. Introduction.
2. Advantages of Fixed Beams.
3. Bending Moment Diagrams for
Fixed Beams.
4. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam.
5. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam
Carrying a Central Point Load.
6. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam
Carrying an Eccentric Point Load.
7. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam
Carrying a Uniformly Distributed
Load.
8. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam
Carrying a Gradually Varying Load
from Zero at One End to w per unit 24.1. Introduction
length at the Other.
9. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam A beam, which is built-in at its two supports,
due to Sinking of a Support. is called a constrained beam or a fixed beam.
Since the beam is fixed at its two supports,
therefore the slope of the elastic curve of the
beam at its two ends, even after loading will be
zero. Thus, a fixed beam AB may be looked
upon as a simply supported beam, subjected to
end moments MA and MB, such that the slopes
at two supports are zero. A little consideration
will show that this is only possible, if the
magnitude and directions of the restraining
moments MA and MB are equal and opposite to
that of the bending moments under a given
system of loading.
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  571
24.2. Advantages of Fixed Beams
A fixed beam has the following advantages over a simply supported beam:
1. The beam is stiffer, stronger and more stable.
2. The slope at both the ends is zero.
3. The fixing moments are developed at the two ends, whose effect is to reduce the maximum
bending moment at the centre of the beam.
4. The deflection of a beam, at its centre is very much reduced.

24.3. Bending Moment Diagram for Fixed Beams

Consider a fixed beam AB, of span l subjected to various types of loading as shown in Fig. 24.1
(a). Now we shall analyse the beam into the following two categories:
1. A simply supported beam AB subjected to vertical loads and reactions.
2. A simply supported beam AB subjected to end moments.

Fig. 24.1
The complete bending moment diagram may be drawn by superimposing the bending moment
diagrams for the above two cases. We know that the beam AB, when treated as a simply supported
beam carrying vertical loads and reactions will be subjected to positive bending moment (i.e., sag-
ging) as shown in Fig. 24.1 (b). But the beam AB, when treated as a simply supported beam, having
fixing moments MA and MB will be subjected to negative bending moment (i.e., hogging) as shown in
572  Strength of Materials
Fig. 24.1 (c). Since the directions of the above two moments are opposite to each other, therefore
their resultant effect may be seen by drawing the two moments, on the same side of the base AB as
shown in Fig. 24.1(d).
Now consider any section X, at a distance x from A. Let the bending moment due to vertical
loading be µX. The bending moment due to fixing moments MA and MB at X,
⎡ x⎤
µ X = − ⎢ M A + (M B − M A ) ⎥
⎣ l⎦
∴ Total bending moment at X,
⎡ x⎤
MX = µ X + µ′X = µ X − ⎢ M A + (M B − M A ) ⎥
⎣ l⎦
Notes: 1. The total bending moment at any section may be found out from the above relation, if the values of
MA and MB are known.
2. The shear force diagram for the beam may now be drawn as usual.
3. The portion of the beam AB, in which the net bending moment is sagging (i.e., positive) will bend
with concave upwards, whereas the portion of the beam, in which the net bending moment is hogging
(i.e., negative) will bend with convex upwards. The elastic curve of the beam may be drawn as usual
as shown in Fig. 24.1 (e).

24.4. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam

We have already discussed in the previous article, that the bending moment at any section X of a
fixed beam,
MX = µ X + µ′X
d2y ⎛ M d y⎞
2
∴ EI = µ X + µ′X ...(i) ∵
⎜ EI = ⎟
dx 2 ⎝ dx 2 ⎠
Integrating the above equation for the whole length of the beam i.e., from 0 to l,
l l l
2

∫ ∫
d y
EI ∫
0
dx 2
=
0
µ X ⋅ dx + µ ′X ⋅ dx
0

l l l
⎡ dy ⎤
EI ⎢ ⎥ =
⎣ dx ⎦ 0 ∫
0
∫
µ X ⋅ dx + µ ′X ⋅ dx
0
or EI (iB – iA) = a + a′ ...(ii)
where iB = Slope of the beam at B,
iA = Slope of the beam at A,
a = Area of the µ-diagram and
a′ = Area of the µ′-diagram.
Since the slopes at A and B (i.e., iA and iB) are zero, therefore
a + a′ = 0 or a = – a′
We know that the shape of µ′-diagram is trapezoidal having end ordinates equal to MA and MB.
∴ Area of µ′-diagram,
l
a′ = (M A + M B )
2
l
or (M A + M B ) = – a (ä a = – a′)
2
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  573

2a
∴ MA + MB = − ...(iii)
l
From equation (i) we know that
d2y
EI = µ X + µ′X
dx 2
Multiplying the above equation by x and integrating the same for the whole length of the beam
i.e., from 0 to l,
l 2 l l

∫ ∫
d y
EI ∫
0
x⋅
dx 2
=
0
x ⋅ µ X dx + x ⋅ µ ′X dx
0
l
⎡ dy ⎤
EI ⎢ x − y ⎥ = ax + a′ x ′
⎣ dx ⎦0
or EI [l (iB – yB) – 0 (IA – yA) = ax + ax ′
Since iB and yB are equal to zero, therefore
ax + a′ x ′ = 0 or ax = − a′ x ′
where x = Distance of centre of gravity of µ-diagram from A and
x′ = Distance of centre of gravity of µ′-diagram from A.
We know that the shape of the µ′-diagram is trapezoidal with end ordinates equal to MA and MB.
Therefore splitting up the µ′-diagram into two triangles as shown in Fig. 24.1(c).

a′ x ′ = ⎛⎜ M A × l × l ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ M B × l × ⎞⎟
2l
⎝ 2 3 ⎠ 2 3⎝ ⎠
2
l
= ( M A + 2M B )
6
2
l
or ( M A + 2M B ) = −ax
6
6a x
∴ MA + 2MB = − 2 ...(iv)
l
Now subtracting equation (iii) and (iv),
6a x 2a 2a
MB = − 2
+ 2 = 2 (−3x + l )
l l l
and substituting the value of MB in equation (iii),
2a
MA + 2
(−3x + l ) = − 2a
l l
2a 2a
MA = − − 2 (− 3 x + l )
l l

= − 22a [l + (−3x + l )]
l
2a
= − 2
(2l − 3x )
l
574  Strength of Materials
These are the required equations for the fixing moments MA and MB of a fixed beam AB. Here we
shall discuss the following standard cases for the fixing moments.
1. A fixed beam carrying a central point load.
2. A fixed beam carrying an eccentric point load.
3. A fixed beam carrying a uniformly distributed load.
4. A fixed beam carrying a gradually varying load from zero at one end to w per unit length at the
other end.

24.5. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam Carrying a Central Point Load

Consider a beam AB of length l fixed at A and B and carrying a central point load W as shown in
Fig. 24.2 (a).
(i) Bending moment diagram
Let MA = Fixing moment at A and
MB = Fixing moment at B.
Since the beam is symmetrical, therefore MA and MB will also be equal. Moreover, the µ′-dia-
gram (i.e., bending moment diagram due to fixing moments MA and MB) will be a rectangle as shown
i n
Fig. 24.2 (b). We know that µ-diagram i.e., bending moment diagram due to central point lead will be
wl
a triangle with the central ordinate equal to as shown in Fig. 24.2 (b).
4

Fig. 24.2
Now equating the areas of the two diagrams,
1 Wl Wl 2
MA · l = − ⋅l ⋅ =−
2 4 8
Wl
MA = −
8
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  575

Wl
Similarly, MB = − ...[By symmetry]
8
Now complete the bending moment diagrams as shown in Fig. 24.2 (b).
(ii) Shear force diagram
Let RA = Reaction at A and
RB = Reaction at B.
Equating clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about A,
l
RB × l + MA = MB + W ×
2
W
∴ RB = ...(ä MA = MB)
2
W
Similarly, RA = ...(By symmetry)
2
Now complete the S.F. diagram as shown in Fig. 24.2 (c).
(iii) Deflection of the beam
From the geometry of the figure, we find that the points of contraflexure will be at a distance of
l/4 from both the ends of the beam.
We know that bending moment at any section X, at a distance x from A,
MX = µ X – µ′X
d2y Wx Wl
or EI 2 = − ...(i)
dx 2 8
Integrating the above equation,
dy Wx 2 Wlx
EI = − + C1
dx 4 8
dy
where C1 is the first constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then = 0. Therefore C1 = 0.
dx
dy Wx 2 Wlx
or EI = − ...(ii)
dx 4 8
This is the required equation for the slope of the beam at any section.
Now integrating the equation (ii) once again,
Wx3 Wlx 2
EI · y = − + C2
12 16
where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then y = 0. Therefore C2 = 0.

Wx 3 Wlx 2
or EI · y = − ...(iii)
12 16
This is the required equation for the deflection of the beam at any section. We know that the maximum
deflection occurs at the centre of the beam. Therefore substituting x = l/2 in the above equation,
3 2 3 2 3
W ⎛ l ⎞ Wl ⎛ l ⎞ Wl Wl Wl
EI · yC = ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = − =−
12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 16 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 96 64 192
3
or yC = − Wl ...(Minus sign means that the
192 EI deflection is downwares)
576  Strength of Materials
Wl 3
=
192 EI
NOTE: The term EI is known as flexural rigidity.
EXAMPLE 24.1. A fixed beam AB, 4 metres long, is carrying a central point load of 3 tonnes.
Determine the fixing moments and deflection of the beam under the load. Take flexural rigidity of
2
the beam as 5 × 103 kN-m .
SOLUTION. Given: Length (l) = 4 m ; Central point load (W) = 3 kN and flexural rigidity (EI) =
5 × 103 kN-m2.
Fixing moments
We know that fixing moment at A,
Wl 3× 4
MA = − =− = – 1.5 kN-m Ans.
8 8
Similarly, fixing moment at B,
Wl 3 × 4
MB = − = = – 1.5 kN-m Ans.
8 8
Deflection of the beam under the load
We also know that deflection of the beam under the load,
3
Wl
3
3 × (4) –3
yC = = = 0.2 × 10 m = 0.2 mm Ans.
192 EI 192 × (5 × 103 )

24.6. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam Carrying an Eccentric

Point Load

Fig. 24.3
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  577
Consider a beam AB fixed at A and B and carrying an eccentric point load as shown in Fig.
24.3(a).
Let l = Span of the beam,
W = Load on the beam,
a = Distance between the fixed end A and the axis of the load,
b = Distance between the fixed end B and the axis of the load,
MA = Fixing moment at A and
MB = Fixing moment at B.
(i) Bending moment diagram
Since the beam is not symmetrical, therefore MA and MB will also not be equal. Moreover, the µ′-
diagram will be a trapezium as shown in Fig. 24.3 (b).
Wab
We know that the µ-diagram will be triangle with ordinate equal to as shown in Fig. 24.3
l
(b). Now equating the areas of the two diagrams,
l Wab l
(M A + M B ) = − ×
2 l 2
Wab
∴ MA + MB = − ...(i)
l
The moment of µ-diagram area about A (by splitting up the triangle into two right angled tri-
angles)
⎡⎛ Wab a 2a ⎞ Wab b ⎛ b ⎤
= − ⎢⎜ × × ⎟+ × ⎜ a + ⎞⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ l 2 3 ⎠ l 2 ⎝ 3 ⎠⎦
⎡⎛ Wab Wab ⎛ b ⎞⎤
2
× 2a ⎟⎞ +
2
= − ⎢⎜ ⎜ ab + ⎟ ⎥ ...(ii)
⎢⎣⎝ 6l ⎠ 2l ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
and moment of µ′-diagram about A (by splitting up the trapezium into two triangles) as shown in
Fig. 24.3 (b)
2
⎛ l l⎞ ⎛ l 2l ⎞ l
= ⎜ M A × × ⎟ + ⎜ M B × × ⎟ = ( M A + 2M B ) ...(iii)
⎝ 2 3⎠ ⎝ 2 3⎠ 6
Now equating these two moments,

l2 ⎡⎛ Wab Wab ⎛ b ⎞⎤
2
× 2a ⎟⎞ +
2
( M A + 2M B ) = − ⎢⎜ ⎜ ab + ⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ 6l ⎠
6 2l ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦

⎡⎛ Wab ⎛ 3ab + b2 ⎞ ⎤
× 2a 2 ⎞⎟ +
Wab
= − ⎢⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 6l ⎠ 2l ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ Wab
= − ⎢⎜
⎣⎝ 6l
× 2a 2 ⎞⎟ +
⎠
Wab
6l ( ⎤
3ab + b 2 ⎥
⎦
)
Wab
= − (2a 2 + 3ab + b 2 )
6l
Wab
= − [2(l − b)2 + 3(l − b) b + b2 ] ...(ä a + b = l)
6l
Wab
= − [2(l 2 + b 2 − 2lb) + 3(lb − b 2 ) + b 2 ]
6l
578  Strength of Materials
Wab 2
= − [2l + 2b2 − 4lb + 3lb − 3b 2 + b 2 ]
6l
Wab 2 Wab
= − (2l − lb) = − (2l − b)
6l 6
Wab
= − [2(a + b) − b] ...(ä a + b = l)
6
Wab (2a + b)
= −
6
Wab (2a + b)
∴ MA + 2MB = − ...(iv)
l2
Subtracting equation (i) from (iv),
Wab (2a + b) Wab Wab ⎛ 2a + b ⎞
MB = − + =− − 1⎟
l
2 l l ⎜⎝ l ⎠
Wab ⎛ 2a + b − l ⎞ Wab
= − ⎟ = − 2 [2a + (l − a) − l ]
l ⎜⎝ l ⎠ l
Wa 2b
= − 2
l
Subtracting this value of MB in equation (i),
Wa 2b Wab
MA − 2 = −
l l

Wab Wa 2b Wab ⎛1 − a ⎞
∴ MA = − + 2 =− ⎜ ⎟
l l l ⎝ l⎠

Wab ⎛ l − a ⎞
2
Wab
= − ⎜ ⎟ =− 2 (ä l – a = b)
l ⎝ l ⎠ l
Now complete the bending moment diagram as shown in Fig. 24.3(b).
(ii) Shear force diagram
Let RA = Reaction at A and
RB = Reaction at B.
Equating clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about A,
RB × l + MA = MB + W · a
(M B − M A ) + W ⋅ a
∴ RB =
l
(M A − M B ) + W ⋅ b
Similarly, RA =
l
Now, complete the shear force diagram as shown in Fig. 24.3(b).
(iii) Deflection of the beam
We know that the bending moment at any section X at a distance x from A.
MX = µ X – µ′X
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  579

d2y
x − ⎡⎢ M A + (M B − M A ) ⎤⎥
EI Wb x
or =
dx
2 l ⎣ l⎦

Wbx ⎡ Wab ⎛ Wa 2b Wab 2 ⎞ x⎤

2
= −⎢ 2 +⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟ ⎥
l ⎢⎣ l ⎝ l l ⎠ l ⎥⎦

Wbx ⎡Wab Wab (a − b) x ⎤

2
= −⎢ 2 + 3 ⎥
l ⎣ l l ⎦
Wbx Wab 2 Wab (a − b) x
= − 2 − 3
l l l
Integrating the above equation,
2
dy Wbx2 Wab2 x Wab (a − b) x
EI = − 2
− 3
+ C1
dx 2l l 2l
dy
where C1 is the first constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then = 0. Therefore C1 = 0.
dx
2
Wab x Wab (a − b) x
2 2
dy Wbx
or EI = − −
dx 2l l2 2l 3
Wbx 2 ⎛ a (a − b) ⎞ Wab 2 x
= ⎜1 − 2 ⎟− 2
2l ⎝ l ⎠ l
Wbx
2 ⎛ l 2 − a 2 + ab ⎞ Wab 2 x
= ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ − 2
2l ⎝ l ⎠ l
Wbx 2 2 2 Wab2 x
= 3
(( a + b) − a + ab) − 2 (ä l = a + b)
2l l
dy Wbx 2 2 2 2 Wab 2 x
EI = 3
(a + b + 2ab − a + ab) − 2
dx 2l l
Wbx 2 2 Wab 2 x
= 3
(3ab + b ) − 2
2l l
Wb2 x2 (3a + b) Wab2 x
= 3
− 2 ...(v)
2l l
Integrating the above equation once again,
2 3
Wb x (3a + b) Wab 2 x 2
EI · y = − + C2
6l 3 2l 2
where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then y = 0. Therefore
C2 = 0.
2 3
Wb x (3a + b) Wab 2 x3
or EI · y = −
6l 3 2l 2
Wb 2 x 2
= 3
[ x (3a + b) − 3al ] ...(vi)
6l
dy
We know that for maximum deflection, should be equal to zero. Therefore, equating the
dx
equation (v) to zero.
580  Strength of Materials

Wb2 x2 (3a + b) Wab2 x

3
− 2 = 0
2l l
2al
∴ x =
(3a + b)
Substituting this value of x in equation (vi),
2
Wb 2 ⎛ 2al ⎞ ⎡ 2al ⎤
EI · ymax = 3 ⎜ 3a + b ⎟ ⎢ (3a + b)
(3a + b) − 3al ⎥
6l ⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦
Wb 2 4a 2l 2
= × (2al − 3al )
6l 3 (3a + b)2

= −
2 Wa 3b 2
×
3 (3a + b)2

2 Wa3b2
∴ ymax = − × ... (Minus sign indicated that
3 (3a + b)2 EI
deflection is downwards)
The deflection under the load may be found out by substituting x = a in equation (vi),
Wb 2a 2
EI · y = 3
[a (3a + b) − 3al ]
6l
Wb 2a 2
= 3
[a (3a + b) − 3a (a + b)] [ä l = a + b]
6l
Wb 2a 2 2 2 Wa 3b3
= 3
[3a + ab − 3a − 3ab] = − 3
6l 3l
3 3
Wa b ... (Minus sign indicated that
∴ y = − 3
3l EI deflection is downwards)

Wa3b3
=
3l 3 EI
EXAMPLE 24.2. A fixed beam AB of 5 m span carries a point load of 20 kN at a distance of
2 m from A. Determine the values of fixing moments and the deflection under the load, if flexural
3 2
rigidity of the beam is 10 × 10 kN-m .
SOLUTION. Given: Span (l) = 5 m ; Point load (W) = 20 kN ; Distance between load and A (a) =
3 2
2 m or distance between load and B (b) = 5 – 2 = 3 m and flexural rigidity (EI) = 10 × 10 kN-m .
Fixing moments
We know that fixing moment at A,
2
Wab
2
20 × 2 × (3)
MA = − 2
=− 2
= – 14.4 kN-m Ans.
l (5)
2
Wa b
2
20 × (2) × 3
and fixing moment at B, MB = − 2
=− 2
= – 9.6 kN-m Ans.
l (5)
Deflection under the load
We also know that deflection under the load,
3 3
Wa b
3 3
20 × (2) × (3)
y = 2
= 3 3
m
3l EI 3 × (5) × (10 × 10 )
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  581
–3
= 1.15 × 10 m = 1.15 mm Ans.
EXAMPLE 24.3. A beam of span l is fixed at its both ends. It carries two concentrated loads of W
each at a distance of l/3 from both the ends. Find the fixing moments and draw the bending moment
diagram.
SOLUTION. Given: Span = l and concentrated load = W.

Fig. 24.4
For the sake of convenience, let us first find out the fixing moments, separately due to loads at C
and D and then add up the moments. Since the beam and loading is symmetrical, therefore both the
fixing moments must be equal. Now consider the load W at C. From the geometry of the figure, we
find that a = l/3 and b = 2l/3.
We know that fixing moment at A due to the load W at C,
2
W × × ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
l 2l
2
Wab 3 ⎝3⎠ 4Wl
MA = − 2 = − 2
=− ...(i)
1 l l 27
Now consider the load W at D. From the geometry of the figure, we find that a = 2l/3 and b = l/3.
We know that fixing moment at A due to load W at D,
2
2l ⎛ l ⎞
2 W× ×⎜ ⎟
Wa b 3 ⎝3⎠ 2Wl
MA = − =− =− ...(ii)
2
l2 l 2 27
∴ Total fixing moment at A,
⎛ 4Wl + 2Wl ⎞
MA = MB = MA1 + MA2 = − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 27 27 ⎠
6Wl 2Wl
= − =− Ans.
27 9
We know that when the beam is considered as a simply supported, the reaction at A,
RA = W
l l Wl
∴ Bending moment at C, MC = R A ×
=W × =
3 3 3
Now complete the bending moment diagram as shown in Fig. 24.4.
582  Strength of Materials
24.7. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam Carrying a Uniformly
Distributed Load

Fig. 24.5
Consider a beam AB of length l fixed at A and B and carrying a uniformly distributed load w per
unit length over the entire span as shown in Fig. 24.5 (a).
(i) Bending moment diagram
Let MA = Fixing moment at A, and
MB = Fixing moment at B.
Since the beam is symmetrical, therefore MA and MB will also be equal. Moreover, the µ′-dia-
gram will be a rectangle, as shown in Fig. 24.5 (b). We know that the µ-diagram will be a parabola
wl 2
with the central ordinate equal to as shown in Fig. 24.5 (b).
8
Now equating the areas of the two diagrams,
2 3
2 wl wl
MA · l = − ⋅l ⋅ =−
3 8 12
wl 2
∴ MA = −
12
wl 2
Similarly, MB = − ...(By symmetry)
12
We know that maximum positive bending moment at the centre of the beam (neglecting fixing
moments)
wl 2
=
8
∴ Net positive bending moment at the centre of the beam
wl 2 wl 2 wl 2
= − =
8 12 24
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  583
Now complete the bending moment diagram as shown in Fig. 24.5 (b)
(ii) Shear force diagram
Let RA = Reaction at A, and
RB = Reaction at B.
Equating the clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about A,
l
RB × l + MA = MB + w × l ×
2
wl
∴ RB = ...(ä MA = MB)
2
wl
Similarly, RA = ...(By symmetry)
2
Now complete the shear force diagram as shown in Fig. 24.5 (c).
(iii) Deflection of the beam
We know that bending moment at any section X, at a distance x from A,
⎛ wl wx ⎞ wl
2 2
MX = µ X = µ′X = ⎜ ⋅x− ⎟−
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 12

d2y ⎛ wlx wx 2 ⎞ wl 2
∴ EI 2 = ⎜ − ⎟− ...(i)
dx ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 12
Integrating the above equation,

dy wlx 2 wx3 wl 2 x
EI = − − + C1
dx 4 6 12
dy
where C1 is the first constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then = 0. Therefore C1 = 0.
dx
dy wlx 2 wx 3 wl 2 x
or EI = − − ...(ii)
dx 4 6 12
Integrating the equation (ii) once again,
wlx3 wx 4 wl 2 x 2
EI · y = − − + C2
12 24 24
where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then y = 0. Therefore C2 = 0.
wlx3 wx 4 wl 2 x 2
or EI · y = − − ...(iii)
12 24 24
We know that the maximum deflection occurs at the centre of the beam. Therefore substituting
x = l/2 in the above equation,
3 4 2
wl ⎛ l ⎞ w⎛l⎞ wl 2 ⎛ l ⎞ wl 4 wl 4 wl 4 wl 4
EI · yC = ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ = − − =−
12 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 24 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 24 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 96 384 96 384
wl 4
or yC = − ...(Minus sign means that
384 EI
deflection is downwards
wl 4
=
384 EI
584  Strength of Materials
(iv) Points of contraflexures
The points of contraflexures may be found out by equating (i) to zero,
⎛ wlx wx 2 ⎞ wl 2
⎜ − ⎟− = 0
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 12
2
l
or lx − x 2 − = 0
6
2 l2
∴ x − lx + = 0
6
Solving this quadratic equation for x,
2
24l
l± l −
6 = l ± l
x =
2 2 2 3
= 0.5 l ± 0.289 l = 0.789 l and 0.211 l
EXAMPLE 24.4. An encastre beam AB 4 m long is subjected to uniformly distributed load of
3 kN/m over the entire length. Determine the values of maximum negative and positive bending
moments. Also calculate the maximum deflection of the beam. Take flexural rigidity of the beam
2
as 10 MN-m .
SOLUTION. Given: Length (l) = 4 m ; Uniformly distributed load (w) = 3 kN/m and flexural
3 2
rigidity (EI) = 10 MN-m = 10 × 10 kN-m .
Maximum negative bending moment
We know that maximum negative bending moment,
wl
2
3 × (4) 2
= MA = MB = − =− = – 4 kN-m Ans.
12 12
Maximum positive bending moment
We know that maximum positive bending moment,
2
wl 2 3 × (4)
MC = =− = 2 kN-m Ans.
24 24
Maximum deflection of the beam
We also know that maximum deflection of the beam,
4
wl
4
3 × (4)
yC = = –3
= 0.2 × 10 m
384 EI 384 × (10 × 103 )
= 0.2 mm Ans.
EXAMPLE 24.5. A fixed beam AB of span 6 m is carrying a uniformly distributed load of
4kN/m over the left half of the span. Find the fixing moments and support reactions.
SOLUTION. Given: Span (l) = 6 m ; Uniformly distributed load (w) = 4 kN/m and loaded portion
(l1) = 3 m.
Fixing moments
Let MA = Fixing moment at A and,
MB = Fixing moment at B.
First of all, consider the beam AB on a simply supported. Taking moments about A,
RB × 6 = 4 × 3 × 1.5 = 18
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  585

18
∴ RB = = 3 kN
6
and RA = 3 × 4 – 3 = 9 kN

Fig. 24.6
We know that µ-diagram will be parabolic from A to C and triangular from C to B as shown in
Fig. 24.6 (b). The bending moment at C (treating the beam as a simply supported),
MC = RB × 3 = 3 × 3 = 9 kN-m
The bending moment at any section X in AC, at a distance x from A (treating the beam as a simply
supported),
x
MX = 9 x − 4 x ⋅ = 9x − 2x2
2
∴ Area µ-diagram from A to B,
3
1
∫ (9x − 2x ) dx + 2 × 9.0 × 3
2
a =
0
3
⎡ 9 x 2 2 x3 ⎤
= ⎢ − + 13.5
⎣ 2 3 ⎥⎦
0

9 × (3) 2 2 × (3)3
= − + 13.5 = 36
2 3
6
and area of µ′-diagram, a′ = (MA + MB) × = 3 (MA + MB)
2
We know that a′ = – a
∴ 3 (MA + MB) = – 36
36
or MA + MB = − = – 12 ...(i)
3
Moment of µ-diagram area about A (by splitting up the diagram into AC and CB),
3
1
∫ (9x
– 2 3
ax = − 2 x ) dx + × 9× 3× 4
2
0
586  Strength of Materials
3
– ⎡ 9 x3 2x 4 ⎤
ax = ⎢ − + 54
⎣ 3 4 ⎥⎦
0

⎡ 9 × (3)3 2 × (3)4 ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥ + 54 = 94.5
⎣⎢ 3 4 ⎦⎥

and moment of x′ -diagram area about A (by splitting up the trapezium into two triangles) as shown in
Fig. 24.6 (a),
⎛ 6 6⎞ 6 2×6
a ′ x′ = ⎜ M A × × ⎟ + M B × ×
–
⎝ 2 3⎠ 2 3
= 6MA + 12MB = 6(MA + 2MB)
– –
We know that a′ x = – a x
6(MA + 2MB) = – 94.5
94.5
∴ MA + 2MB = − = – 15.75 ...(ii)
6
Solving equations (i) and (ii),
MA = – 8.25 kN-m Ans.
MB = – 3.75 kN-m Ans.
Now complete the bending moment diagram as shown in Fig. 24.6 (b).
Support reactions
Let RA = Reaction at A, and
RB = Reaction at B.
Equating the clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about A,
RB × 6 + 8.25 = (4 × 3 × 1.5) + 3.75 = 21.75
21.75 − 8.25
∴ RB = = 2.25 kN Ans.
6
and RA = 4 × 3 – 2.25 = 9.75 kN Ans.
EXAMPLE 24.6. A beam AB of uniform section and 6 m span is built-in at the ends. A uni-
formly distributed load of 3 kN/m runs over the left half of the span and there is in addition a
concentrated load of 4 kN at right quarter as shown in Fig. 24.7.

Fig. 24.7
Determine the fixing moments at the ends, and the reactions. Sketch neatly the bending mo-
ment and shearing force diagram marking thereon salient values.
SOLUTION: Given: Span (l) = 6 m ; Uniformly distributed load on AC (w) = 3 kN/m ; Loaded
portion (l1) = 3 m and concentrated load at D (W) = 4 kN.
Fixing moments at the ends
Let MA = Fixing moment at A and
MB = Fixing moment at B.
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  587
First of all, consider the beam AB as a simply supported. Taking moments about A,
RB × 6 = (3 × 3 × 1.5) + (4 × 4.5) = 31.5
31.5
∴ RB = = 5.25 kN
6
and RA = (3 × 3 + 4) – 5.25 = 7.75 kN
We know that the µ-diagram will be parabolic from A to C, trapezoidal from C to D and triangu-
lar from D to B as shown in Fig. 24.8(b). The bending moment at D (treating the beam at a simply
supported),
MD = 5.25 × 1.5 = 7.875 kN-m
and MC = 5.25 × 3 – 4 × 1.5 = 9.75 kN-m
The bending moment at any section X in AC, at a distance x from A (treating the beam as a simply
supported),
x 2
MX = 7.75x – 3x = 7.75x – 1.5x
2
∴ Area of µ-diagram from A to B,
3
⎛1 ⎞
∫ (7.75x − 1.5x ) dx + ⎜⎝ 2 (9.75 + 7.875) × 1.5 ⎟⎠
2
∴ a =
0

+ ⎛⎜ × 7.875 × 1.5 ⎞⎟
1
⎝2 ⎠
3
⎡ 7.75x 2 1.5x3 ⎤
= ⎢ − + 19.125
⎣ 2 3 ⎥⎦
0

7.75 × (3) 2 1.5 × (3)3

= − + 19.125 = 40.5
2 3

Fig. 24.8
588  Strength of Materials
6
and area of µ-diagram, a′ = (M A + M B ) × = 3 (MA + MB)
2
We know that a′ = – a
∴ 3 (MA + MB) = – 40.5 ...(ä a = 40.5)
or MA + MB = – 13.5 ...(i)
Moment of µ-diagram area about A (by splitting up the diagram into AC, CD and DB),
3
− 1.5x3 ) dx + ⎛⎜ × 9.75 × 1.5 × 3.5 ⎞⎟
1
∫ (7.75x
– 2
ax =
⎝2 ⎠
0

+ ⎛⎜ × 7.875 × 1.5 × 4 ⎞⎟ + ⎛⎜ × 7.875 × 1.5 × 5 ⎞⎟

1 1
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
3
⎡ 7.75x3 1.5x 4 ⎤
= ⎢ − + 78.75
⎣ 3 4 ⎥⎦
0

⎡ 7.75 × (3)3 1.5 × (3)4 ⎤

= ⎢ − ⎥ + 78.75 = 118.1
⎢⎣ 3 4 ⎥⎦
and moment of µ′-diagram area about A (by splitting up the trapezium into two triangles),
⎛ 6 6⎞ ⎛ 6 2×6⎞
a ′ x′ = ⎜ M A × × ⎟ + ⎜ M B × ×
–
⎝ 2 3⎠ ⎝ 2 3 ⎟⎠
= 6MA + 12MB = 6 (MA + 2MB)
a ′ x′ = – a x
– –
We know that
∴ 6 (MA + 2MB) = – 118.1
118.1
or MA + 2MB = − = – 19.7 ...(ii)
6
Solving equations (i) and (ii), we get
MA = – 7.3 kN-m and MB = – 6.2 kN-m
Now complete the bending moment diagram as shown in Fig. 24.8 (b).
Shearing force diagram
Let RA = Reaction at A and
RB = Reaction at B.
Equating the clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about A,
RB × 6 + 7.3 = (3 × 3 × 1.5) + (4 × 4.5) + 6.2 = 37.7
37.7 − 7.3
∴ RB = = 5.07 kN
6
and RA = (3 × 3 + 4) – 5.07 = 7.93 kN
Now complete the shear force diagram as shown in Fig. 24.8 (c).

EXERCISE 24.1
1. A fixed beam of 2 m span is carrying a point load of 50 kN at its mid-point. Find the fixing
3 2
moments and deflection of the beam under the load. Take EI as 2 × 10 kN-m .
[Ans. –12.5 kN-m ; –12.5 kN-m ; 1.04 mm]
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  589
2. A fixed beam AB of span 3 m is subjected to a point load of 15 kN at a distance of 1 m from A.
Determine the fixing moments of A and B. [Ans. –6.67 kN-m ; –3.33 kN-m]
3. A built-in beam of span 3.6 m is carrying a uniformly distributed load of 15 kN/m. Find the
fixing moments at the supports. Also find the maximum positive bending moment.
[Ans. –16.2 kN-m ; 8.1 kN-m]
4. A fixed beam AB of span 6 m is subjected to two point loads of 20 kN and 15 kN at distances of
2 m and 4 m from A. Calculate the fixing moments at A and B.[Ans. –24.4 kN-m ; –22.2 kN-m]

24.8. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam Carrying a Gradually

Varying Load from Zero at One End to w per unit length at
the Other
Consider a beam AB fixed at A and B and carrying a gradually varying load from zero at A to w
per unit length at B as shown in Fig. 24.9 (a).

Fig. 24.9
Let l = Span of the beam,
MA = Fixing moment at A and
MB = Fixing moment at B.
First of all, consider the beam AB as a simply supported and taking moments about A,
l 2l wl 2
RB × l = w × × =
2 3 3
wl
∴ RB =
3
590  Strength of Materials
wl wl wl
and RA = − =
2 3 6
We know that the µ-diagram will be parabolic from A to B. The bending moment at any section
X, at a distance x from A (treating the beam as a simply supported),
wl wx x x wlx wx3
MX = ×x− × × = −
6 l 2 3 6 6l
l
⎛ wlx wx3 ⎞
∴ Area of µ-diagram, a = ∫
0
⎜
⎝ 6
− ⎟ dx
6l ⎠
l
w ⎛ x3 ⎞
=
6 ⎝
0
∫
⎜ lx − ⎟ dx
l ⎠
l
w ⎡ lx 2 x 4 ⎤
=
6 ⎢ 2 − 4l ⎥
⎣ ⎦0
w ⎛l l ⎞ wl
3 3 3
= ⎜ − ⎟=
6 ⎝ 2 4 ⎠ 24
l
and area of µ′-diagram, a′ = (M A + M B )
2
We know that a′ = – a
l wl 3
∴ (M A + M B ) = −
2 24
wl 2
or MA + MB = − ...(i)
12
Moment of µ-diagram area about A,
l
⎛ wlx 2 wx 4 ⎞
∫ −
–
ax = ⎜ ⎟ dx
⎝ 6 6l ⎠
0
l
w ⎛ 2 x4 ⎞
=
6 ⎝
0
∫
⎜ lx − ⎟ dx
l ⎠
l
w ⎡ lx3 x5 ⎤
=
6 ⎢ 3 − 5l ⎥
⎣ ⎦0

w ⎛l l ⎞ wl
4 4 4
= ⎜ − ⎟=
6 ⎝ 3 5 ⎠ 45
and moment of µ′-diagram about A (by splitting up the trapezium into two triangles),
l l l l
a′ x′ = M A × × + M B × ×
2 3 2 3
2
l
= ( M A + 2M B )
6
a ′ x′ = – a x
– –
We know that
l2 wl 4
∴ ( M A + 2M B ) = −
6 45
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  591
2wl 2
or MA + 2MB = − ...(ii)
15
Solving equations (i) and (ii),
wl 2 Wl ⎛ wl ⎞
MA = − =− ... ⎜∵ W = 2 ⎟
30 15 ⎝ ⎠
wl 2 Wl ⎛ wl ⎞
and MB = − =− ... ⎜∵ W = 2 ⎟
20 10 ⎝ ⎠
Alternative method
Consider a strip of width dx at a distance x from the support A. We see that the load at this section
wx
=
l
wx
∴ Weight of the strip, W = ⋅ dx
l
We know that the fixing moment at A, due to the strip
wx 2
2 dx ⋅ x (l − x)
Wab l
= − 2 = 2
l l
2 2
wx (l − x) dx
= −
l3
Total fixed end moment at A will be given by integrating the above equation from 0 to l,
l
wx 2 (l − x)2 dx
MA = ∫
0
−
l3
l
w 2 2
∫
2
= − 3
x (l + x − 2lx) dx
l 0
l
w
∫
2 2 4 2
= − (l x + x − 2lx ) dx
l3 0
l
w ⎡l x 2lx ⎤
2 3 5 4
x
= − 3⎢ + − ⎥
l ⎢⎣ 3 5 4 ⎥⎦
0

w ⎡l l ⎤
5 5 5
l
= − 3 ⎢
+ − ⎥
l ⎣3 5 2⎦
wl 2 Wl ⎛ wl ⎞
= − =− ... ⎜∵ W = 2 ⎟
30 15 ⎝ ⎠
wx
l dx ⋅ x 2 (l − x)
Similarly, MB = −
0
∫l
l2
l
w 3
∫
= − 3 x (l − x) dx
l 0
592  Strength of Materials
l
w
∫
3 4
= − 3 (lx − x ) dx
l 0
l
w ⎡ lx x ⎤
4 5
= − 3⎢ 4
− ⎥
l ⎣ 5⎦
0

w⎛l l ⎞
5 5
= − 3 ⎜ − ⎟
l ⎝4 5⎠
wl
2
Wl ⎛ wl ⎞
= − =− ... ⎜∵ W = 2 ⎟
20 10 ⎝ ⎠
We know that the maximum* bending moment equal to 0.128 Wl will take place at a distance of
0.577 l from A, treating the beam as a simply supported. Now complete the bending moment diagram
as shown in Fig. 24.9 (b).
Shear force diagram
Let RA = Reaction at A and
RB = Reaction at B.
Equating the clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about A,
2
l 2l wl
RB × l + MA = M B + w × × = MB +
2 3 3
M B − M A wl
∴ RB = +
l 3
Similarly, equating clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about B,
2
l l wl
RA × l + MB = M A + w × × = MA +
2 3 6
M A − M B wl
∴ RA = +
l 6
Now complete the shear force diagram as shown in Fig. 24.9 (c).
EXAMPLE 24.7. A beam AB of span 5 m is built-in at its both ends. It carries a gradually
varying load from zero at A to 4 kN/m at B. Determine the fixed end moments and reactions at
both ends of the beam.
SOLUTION. Given: Span (l) = 5 m and load at B (w) = 4 kN/m
Fixed end moments
We know that fixed end moment at A,
2
wl
2
4 × (5)
MA = − =− = – 3.33 kN-m Ans.
30 30
and fixed end moment at B,
2
wl
2
4 × (5)
MB = − =− = – 5.0 kN-m Ans.
20 20
Reactions at both ends of the beam
We also know that reaction at A,
M A − M B wl −3.33 − (−5.0) 4 × 5
RA = + = + kN
l 6 5 6
* For details, please refer to Art. 13.14
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  593
= 0.33 + 3.33 = 3.66 kN Ans.
and reaction at B,
M B − M A wl −5.0 − (−3.33) 4 × 5
RB = + = + kNm
l 3 5 3
= – 0.33 + 6.67 = 6.34 kN Ans.

24.9. Fixing Moments of a Fixed Beam due to Sinking of a Support

Sometimes, one of the two supports of a fixed beam sinks down, whereas the other remains at the
same level. The effect of sinking of a support is to produce some additional moment at the two
supports. Consider a beam fixed at A and B without any load. Let the support B sink down from its
original level as shown in Fig. 24.10 (a).
Let l = Span of the fixed beam AB and
δ = Amount, by which the support B has sunk down.
Since the beam is not loaded, therefore
d4y
EI = 0
dx 4
Integrating the above equation,
d3y
EI = – FA ...(ä FA is negative)
dx3
where FA is the shear force at A.

Fig. 24.10
Integrating the above equation again,
d2y
EI = – FA · x – MA ...(ä MA is negative)
dx 2
where MA is the bending moment at A,
Integrating the above equation once again,
2
dy FA ⋅ x
EI = − − M A ⋅ x + C1
dx 2
594  Strength of Materials
dy
where C1 is the first constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then = 0. Therefore C1 = 0.
dx

dy F ⋅ x2
∴ EI = − A − MA ⋅ x ...(i)
dx 2
Integrating the above equation once again,

FA ⋅ x3 M A ⋅ x 2
EI · y = − − + C2
6 2
where C2 is the second constant of integration. We know that when x = 0, then y = 0. Therefore C2 = 0.
FA ⋅ x3 M A ⋅ x 2
∴ EI · y = − − ...(ii)
6 2
dy
We know that when x = l, then = 0,
dx
F ⋅ l2
∴ 0 = − A − MA ⋅l
2
2M A
or FA = − ...(iii)
l
We also know that when x = l, then y = δ
FA ⋅ l 2 M A ⋅ l 2
∴ EI · δ = − −
6 2
Substituting the value of FA in the above equation,
2M A l 3 M A ⋅ l 2
EI · δ = × −
l 6 2
M A ⋅ l2 M A ⋅ l2
= − +
2 3
2
M ⋅l
= − M A ⋅ l ⎛⎜ − ⎞⎟ = − A
2 1 1
⎝ 2 3 ⎠ 6
6EI δ
∴ MA = −
l2
Now substituting the value of MA in equation (iii),
⎛ 2 6EI δ ⎞ 12EI δ
FA = − ⎜ − × 2 ⎟ = + 3
⎝ l l ⎠ l
12EI δ 6EI δ
∴ MB = FA · l + MA = 3
⋅l − 2
l l
6EI δ
= +
l2
The bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 24.10 (b).
NOTE. If the support A sinks down by δ from its original level, then

6EI δ 6EI δ
MA = 2
and MB = − 2
l l
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  595

EXAMPLE 24.8. A steel fixed beam AB of span 6 m is 60 mm wide and 100 mm deep. The
support B sinks down by 6 mm. Find the fixing moments at A and B. Take E = 200 GPa.
SOLUTION. Given: Span (l) = 6 m = mm ; Width (b) = 60 mm ; Depth (d) = 100 mm ; Sinking
3 2
of the support B (δ) = 6 mm and modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 × 10 N/mm .
We know that moment of inertia of the beam section,
3
bd 3 60 × (100)
I = = = 5 × 106 mm4
12 12
∴ Fixing moment at A,
3 6
6EI δ 6 × (200 × 10 ) × (5 × 10 ) × 6
MA = − 2
=− 3 2 N-mm
l (6 × 10 )
= – 1 × 106 N-mm = – 1 kN-m Ans.
and fixing moment at B,
3 6
6EI δ 6 × (200 × 10 ) × (5 × 10 ) × 6
MB = + 2
= 3 2 N-mm
l (6 × 10 )
= + 1 × 106 N-mm = 1 kN-m Ans.
EXAMPLE 24.9. A beam AB of 8 m span is fixed at its both ends. When a uniformly distrib-
uted load of 20 kN/m is placed on the beam, its support B sinks 12 mm below the support A. What
6 4
are the support moments, if I for the section is 98.75 × 10 mm and E = 200 GPa.
SOLUTION. Given: Span (l) = 8 m ; Uniformly distributed load (w) = 20 kN/m ; Sinking of
6 4
support B (δ) = 12 mm ; Moment of inertia of the beam section (I) = 98.75 × 10 mm and modulus
3 2
of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 × 10 N/mm .
First of all, let us find out the support moments due to uniformly distributed load. We know that
support moments at A,
2
wl 2 20 × (8)
MA = − =− = – 106.67 kN-m
1 12 12
Similarly, MB = – 106.7 kN-m
1
Now let us find out the support moments due to sinking of the support B. We know that support
moment at A,
3 6
6EI δ 6 × (200 × 10 ) × (98.25 × 10 ) × 12
MA = − 2
=− 3 2
N-mm
2
l (8 × 10 )
6
= – 22.2 × 10 N-mm = – 22.2 kN-m
∴ Support moment at A,
MA = MA + MA = – 106.7 + (– 22.2) = – 128.9 kN-m Ans.
1 2
We also know that support moment at B,
3 6
6EI δ 6 × (200 × 10 ) × (98.75 × 10 ) × 12
MB = + 2
=+ 3 2
2 l (8 × 10 )

= + 22.2 × 106 N-mm = 22.2 kN-m

596  Strength of Materials
∴ Support moment at B,
MB = MB + MB = – 106.7 + 22.2 = – 84.5 kN-m Ans.
1 2

EXERCISE 24.2
1. A fixed beam AB of span 3 m carries a gradually varying load from zero at A to 5 kN/m at B.
Find the fixed end moments at A and B. [Ans. –1.5 kN-m ; 2.25 kN-m]
2. A fixed beam AB is of span 4 m. The support B sinks down by 10 mm. Find the fixing moments at
3 2
A and B if the flexural rigidity of the beam is 4 × 10 kN-m . [Ans. –15 kN-m ; +15 kN-m]
3. A built-in beam AB of span 4 m is carrying a uniformly distributed load of 15 kN/m. The
support B sinks down by 10 mm. Determine the fixing moments at A and B. Take E = 200 Gpa
6 4
and I = 8 × 10 mm . [Ans. –26 kN-m ; –14 kN-m]
2
wl 2 15 × (4)
Hints: MA = − =− = – 20 kN-m
1 12 12
6EI δ 6 × (200 × 103) × (8 × 106 ) × 10
and MA = − 2
= − 3 2
N-mm
2
l (4 × 10 )
6
= – 6 × 10 N-mm = – 6 kN-m
∴ MA = MA + MA = – 20 – 6 = – 26 kN-m
1 2
Similarly, MB = MB + MB = – 20 + 6 = – 14 kN-m
1 2

QUESTIONS
1. What is your idea of an encastre beam and the arrangement of fixing it at its two supports ?
2. What is meant by an encastre beam? Is there any advantage in using it ?
3. If a fixed beam AB carries a central load W, find out the value of maximum deflection.
4. Derive an expression for the maximum deflection of an encastre beam, carrying a uniformly
distributed load of w per unit length.
5. A beam, built-in at its both ends, has a uniform flexural rigidity EI throughout its length l. It
carries a single point load W, which is placed at a distance a from the left end. Calculate, from
first principles, the fixed end moments developed at two ends.
6. Derive an expression for the fixing moments, when one of the supports of a fixed beam sinks
down by δ from its original position.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. When a fixed beam of span l is subjected to a central point load W, then the fixing moments are
Wl Wl Wl Wl
(a) − (b) − (c) − (d) −
4 8 12 16
2. A fixed beam AB of span l is carrying a point load W at a distance a from the support A and at
a distance of b from the support B. The fixing moment at A will be
Wab 2 Wa 2b Wab2 Wa 2b
(a) (b) (c) 2
(d)
l l l l
2
 Chapter 24 : Fixed Beams  597
3. A fixed beam AB of length l is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of w per unit length. The
support moments are
wl 2 wl 2 wl 2 wl 2
(a) − (b) − (c) − (d) −
8 12 24 48
4. A built-in beam AB of span l is loaded with a gradually varying load from zero at A to w per unit
length at B. The fixing moment A will be
wl
2
wl 2 wl 2 wl 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 12 20 30

ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d)