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Illustrated Dictionary
of Mathematical Concepts
Aprende Matemáticas
.
Illustrated Dictionary of Mathematical Concepts
Efraín Soto Apolinar
Instructor at Aprende Matemáticas
www.aprendematematicas.org.mx
.
.
Copyright
Soto, A.E. (2023). Illustrated Dictionary of Mathematical Concepts.
Monterrey, N.L., Mexico: Aprende Matemáticas.
www.aprendematematicas.org.mx
All rights of this work are reserved in favor of the author. © 2023.
Permission is granted for the use of the textual information contained in this book (in whole or in part)
by public or private educational institutions for educational purposes and by departments of state gov-
ernment for governmental purposes. In any case, a reference to this work is requested.
The translation, reprint, adaptation, use or reuse of illustrations, the dissemination and/or reproduction
in any form (physical, electronic, etc.), the storage, recovery or transmission by any information system, by
any methodology already known or developed after the publication of this work, they are strictly prohib-
ited. Written permission may be obtained to use material contained in this book. For more information,
contact the owner of the rights of this work.
About the author
Prof. Efraín Soto Apolinar is an Energy Systems Engineer from the Autonomous University of the State
of Quintana Roo, a Master of Science in Systems Engineering from the Autonomous University of Nuevo
Leon and a PhD in Educational Innovation from the Tecnologico de Monterrey.
He is the author of several high-school mathematics books (Matemáticas Bachillerato SEP in 4 volumes,
published by the Trillas publishing house, among others) and he has also published articles in scientific
journals in the area of mathematics education.
He is the founder of the website Aprende Matemáticas, where free online courses on elementary mathe-
matics are offered, mainly for the secondary, high school and university levels, as well as courses for the
training of teachers in the area of mathematics.
Dr. Soto has taught mathematics since 2002 in middle school, high school, and at the higher level. In the
latter case, he has taught courses for engineering students, both regular and Honors, in Spanish and also
in English.
Preface
The Illustrated Dictionary of Mathematical Concepts (IDMC) was prepared for the first time in 2009, when
I was a student at the M.C. in Systems Engineering program at the Autonomous University of Nuevo Leon,
Mexico. The first edition was distributed free of charge through the website Aprende Matemáticas (AM).
The feedback I received from the readers of the first edition of this work allowed me to improve it and
launch the second edition in 2012. The third edition of this work was published at the end of 2014, after
adding more definitions to cover the contents of mathematics up to the baccalaureate level (elementary
algebra, plane geometry, analytical geometry, and calculus of functions of one variable).
After releasing the first three editions of the IDMC for free, I realized that this work had been highly
requested by users of the AM site (in a year it exceeded one million downloads). Seeing that it has been
used as a reference in multiple works (thesis, presentations, science outreach articles, etc.) I felt compelled
to improve it. Unfortunately, since I started working as a full-time teacher, I was very busy preparing my
courses and with other projects, so that I was forced to put this task aside for a long time.
Until 2019 I took up the idea of updating the IDMC. The initial intention was to make some corrections
in certain definitions and at the same time, to improve the figures that were already in the book. On the
other hand, with the intention of making this work a reference for a wider audience, I decided to include
definitions of the mathematical concepts that are addressed in the mathematics courses for careers in the
i
areas of science, technology and engineering.
The fourth edition was published as a commercial book, entitled Illustrated Glossary for School Mathematics.
This fifth edition of the Illustrated Dictionary of Mathematical Concepts, will serve as a reference for a larger
audience. It currently includes more than two thousand and six hundred definitions and more than
thirteen hundred figures. The number of illustrations included in this work is greater if the examples in
each definition are considered as an illustration. In that case, the number of illustrations should readily
duplicate.
In this new version the definitions of the elementary mathematical terms that are studied in infinitesimal
calculus, calculus of functions of several variables, linear algebra, differential equations, vector calculus,
finite mathematics, probability and statistics courses have been added. All Platonic solids, Archimedean
solids, Catalan solids and Johnson solids are also included. In addition, some polyhedra are included that
could arouse the curiosity of the readers of this work.
Definitely, this book will be a reliable reference for students, teachers, tutors, authors of various works
involving mathematical concepts, such as edutubers and researchers in the teaching and learning of
mathematics, and for anyone interested in understanding the meaning of school mathematics concepts
and techniques.
Efraín Soto Apolinar.
Monterrey, Nuevo Leon. Mexico. 2023.
Acknowledgments
I want to give my most sincere appreciation to my family: for all the support, patience and infinite
understanding they have shown in sacrificing time together so that I can finish this project.
In particular, to my wife Ana Gloria, who has supported me even before I began to write the first edition
of this work. I thank you so much for supporting me in this effort to disseminate mathematics.
Dedication
This book is dedicated to my parents: Mrs. Epifanía Apolinar Ramírez and Prof. Adán Soto Molina
(decd.) There is no way to show the gratitude that I feel for all that you both have done for me. I am
enormously proud to have had you as my mother and my father.
Disclaimer
Although the author and publisher have made every effort to ensure that the information in this work
is correct at the time of publication, neither the author nor the publisher assumes any responsibility
for any loss, damage, or interruption caused by errors or omissions, if such errors or omissions result
from negligence, accident or any other cause. Neither the author nor the publishers can accept any legal
responsibility or obligation in this regard.
This book has been typeset using LATEX 2ε in its entirety. The figures have been made using the TikZ and
TikZ-3Dplot packages. All the corresponding source code was written by the author.
A gratis distribution book
This is a gratis distribution book. Commercial use of this book is strictly prohibited.
ii
INDEX
Index
a 1
b 35
c 55
d 119
e 155
f 193
g 211
h 231
i 249
j 279
k 285
l 287
m 313
n 335
o 349
p 363
q 415
r 423
s 459
t 507
u 545
v 549
w 563
x 567
iii
y 569
z 571
Formulas from the elementary algebra 575
Formulas from the elementary geometry 576
Elementary formulas from the analytic geometry 577
Elementary formulas of trigonometry 581
Elementary formulas for derivatives 582
Elementary formulas of antiderivatives 583
Elementary formulas of Laplace transform 590
Greek alphabet 591
List of mathematical symbols 592
References 597
iv
A
A posteriori Affirmations or statements that are Abel’s lemma If { f k } and { gk } are two sequences,
based on empirical evidence (observations, exper- then
iments, etc.) that support their veracity.
n
A priori Statements or affirmations that can be ∑ f i ( gi + 1 − gi ) = ( f n g n + 1 − f m g m )
i =m
demonstrated from logical reasoning, for which
n
evidence is not required to support their veracity. − ∑ gi ( f i − f i − 1 )
i = m +1
AA Postulate Two triangles are similar if they have
This is equivalent to:
two equal corresponding angles.
n n −1
∑ f i ∆gi = ( f n gn+1 − f m gm ) − ∑ gi + 1 ∆ f i
i =m i =m
where ∆ f i = f i − f i−1 is the forward difference
operator.
Read also «Forward difference».
Abel polynomials Sequence of polynomials given
by:
p n ( x ) = x ( x − a n ) n −1
For a = 1, the first few Abel polynomials are:
ABC conjecture For each positive real number ϵ,
there exist a finite number of triples ( a, b, c) of n pn ( x )
integers relative prime to each other, such that
a + b = c, and 0 1
1 x
c > rad( abc)1+ϵ 2 −2 x + x 2
3 9 x − 6 x2 + x3
where rad( abc) is the radical of abc.
4 −64 x + 48 x2 − 12 x3 + x4
The inequality can be expressed equivalently as
ln(c)
> 1+ϵ Abel’s formula Given the homogeneous linear or-
ln (rad(( abc)))
dinary differential equation of the second order,
This is an open problem.
Read also «Radical of an integer number». y′′ + p( x ) y′ + q( x ) y = 0
Abel’s identity–Absolute convergence
where p and q are continuous functions on a This implies that
given interval I, Abel’s formula allows calculat-
A ing the Wronskian W = (y1 , y2 ) of the solutions
of the given differential equation,
y1 y2′′ − y2 y1′′ + p(t) y1 y2′ − y1′ y2 +
+ q ( t ) [ y1 y2 − y1 y2 ] = 0
y1 ( x ) y2 ( x )
W [ y1 , y2 ] =
y1′ ( x ) y2′ ( x ) Or,
= y1 ( x )y2′ ( x ) − y1′ ( x )y2 ( x )
y1 y2′′ − y2 y1′′ + p(t) y1 y2′ − y1′ y2 = 0
for all x ∈ I, by means of the formula:
Observe that W = y1 y2′ − y1′ y2 the wronskian of
Zx
the solutions y1 and y2 . Also, its derivative W ′ is:
W [y1 , y2 ] = C exp − p ( x̂ ) · d x̂
xo
W ′ = y1′ y2′ + y1 y2′′ − y1′ y2′ + y1′′ y2
for all x ∈ I, applicable for all x0 ∈ I, where C is = y1 y2′′ − y1′′ y2
an arbitrary constant.
Observe that if p ( x̂ ) = 0, then the Wronskian is
That is why it can be written:
constant.
Abel’s identity Abel’s identity is the following: W ′ + p(t) W = 0
n
∑ a i u i = s1 ( a1 − a2 ) + s2 ( a2 − a3 ) + · · · + This is a first order differential equation that can
i =1 be solved by applying the method of separation
+ s n −1 ( a n −1 − a n ) + s n a n of variables, from which it is obtained:
where: Z
n
W [y1 , y2 ] = c exp − p(t) · dt
sn = ∑ ui
i =1
Read also «Abel’s formula». where c is a constant of integration.
Abel’s Theorem If y1 and y2 are solutions of the
differential equation Abel-Ruffini theorem There is no general form for
the roots of the polynomial equation of degree n:
y′′ + p(t) y′ + q(t) y = 0
where p, q are continuous on an interval ( a, b), a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + · · · + a n x n = 0
then the Wronskian determinant W [y1 , y2 ] is:
Z that uses only a finite amount of addition, sub-
W [y1 , y2 ] = c exp − p(t) · dt traction, multiplication, division, and root extrac-
tion using the coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an , for
where c is a constant that depends on the solu- n ≥ 5.
tions y1 and y2 , and it is independent of t. This theorem is also known as Abel’s impossibility
Considering the homogeneous second order dif- theorem.
ferential equation
Abscissa To indicate one point on the plane, two
y′′ + p(t) y′ + q(t) y = 0 coordinates are required: P( x, y). The first coor-
if y1 y y2 are two independent solutions, then dinate (x) is known as the abscissa. The second
coordinate (y) is known as the ordinate.
y1′′ + p(t) y1′ + q(t) y1 = 0 The abscissa of point P( x, y) is the distance (x)
y2′′ + p(t) y2′ + q(t) y2 = 0 from the point P to the y−axis.
The term abscissa was coined by Leibniz.
Adding the results of multiplying the second
equation by y1 and the first one by −y2 , it is ob-
tained: Absolute convergence If
′′
y1 · y2 + p(t) y2′ + q(t) y2 + ∞
′′ ′
− y2 · y1 + p ( t ) y1 + q ( t ) y1 = 0 ∑ ai
i =1
2
Absolute degree–Absolute value
is a series whose terms ai are, some positive and Absolute maximum of a function The absolute
other negative, such that maximum of a function f is at the value x M of
∞
the independent variable for which, A
∑ | ai | f ( x M ) ≥ f ( x )∀ x ∈ D f
i =1
In words, if when evaluating the function y =
converges, then the series f ( x ) at x M we obtain the maximum value that
the function can take in its domain, then f has
∞ an absolute maximum at x M , and its maximum is
∑ ai f ( x M ).
i =1
also converges, and it is said to be absolutely con- y
vergent. Also, when the series is absolutely con- 1 xM = 0
vergent,
∞ ∞ 2
y = e−x
∑ ai ≤ ∑ | ai | x
i =1 i =1
Absolute minimum of a function If the number
Absolute degree The absolute degree of a polyno- xm , satisfies f ( xm ) ≤ f ( x ) for any x in the do-
mial is the greatest degree of all the terms of the main of f , then it is said that the function f has
polynomial. If the expression has several factors, an absolute minimum at x = xm , and its mini-
the sum of the exponents of each term is consid- mum value is f ( xm ).
ered. Mathematically this is written:
For example, the absolute degree of the mono-
mial: If ∃ xm | f ( xm ) ≤ f ( x )∀ x ∈ D f
7 x 3 y2 z5 Then f has an absolute minimum at x = xm , and
its value is f ( xm ).
is 3 + 2 + 5 = 10.
Read also «Relative degree» and «Degree of a poly-
nomial». y
2
y = 2 − 2 e−x
Absolute error The absolute error of a measure- 2
ment is defined as the absolute value of the differ-
ence between the measured value and the actual 1
value:
ϵabs = | x − x̂ | x
xm = 0
where x the actual value, and x̂ is the observed
(measured) value.
Absolute value The absolute value of a number x,
Absolute extreme value The function y = f ( x ) denoted by | x | is defined as:
has an absolute extreme value at x = x0 whether √
| x | = x2
it has an absolute maximum or an absolute mini-
mum there. Or equivalently,
If f ( x0 ) ≥ f ( x ) for all x in the domain of the func-
−x for x < 0
tion, then the function has an absolute maximum |x| =
x for x ≥ 0
at x = x0 .
If f ( x0 ) ≤ f ( x ) for all x in the domain of the func- That is, the absolute value of a number is its nu-
tion, then the function has an absolute minimum merical value, always considering that it has a
at x = x0 . positive sign.
Read also «Fermat’s theorem» (Calculus). For example, the absolute value of 3 is: |3| = 3,
and the absolute value of −18 is: | − 18| = 18.
Absolute frequency Number of times a value ap- Geometrically, the absolute value represents the
pears in a given interval in a data table. distance from the origin of the number line to the
Read also «Frequency distribution». point that corresponds to the number on the line.
3
Absolute value function–Acceleration
| − 3| |2| Absolute zero Total absence of magnitude.
For example, 4 − 4 = 0, is an absolute zero.
A −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
x Read also «Relative zero».
Abundant number A natural number such that
Some properties of absolute value are listed be- the sum of its proper divisors is greater than it.
low (a, b ∈ R). For example, the number 24 is an abundant num-
ber, because its proper divisors (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12)
• Product: | a b| = | a||b|.
add up to 36, which is greater than 24.
• Quotient: | a/b| = | a|/|b| (for b , 0). Abundant numbers are also known as excessive
• Difference: | a − b| = |b − a|. numbers.
• Inequality: | a + b| ≤ | a| + |b|.
Acceleration (1.) When it comes to motion on a
• | − a | = | a |. line, the average acceleration is:
• If | a| = b, then a = b or a = −b.
• If | a| < b, then −b < a < b. ∆v v f − vi
ā = =
∆t ∆t
• If | a| > b, then a > b or a < −b.
where v f is the final speed, vi is the initial speed
The symbol | is called vertical bar.
and ∆t is the time required to change the speed
Read also «Absolute value function».
from vi to v f .
Absolute value function Mathematical function The instantaneous acceleration a(t) is defined as
denoted as y = | x |, and defined by: the second derivative of the position function x (t)
√ with respect to time, which equals the first deriva-
y = | x | = x2 tive of the speed v(t) (the magnitude of the veloc-
The graph of the absolute value function y = | x |, ity vector) with respect to time.
is below.
d2 x dv
a(t) = =
y dt2 dt
|
|x
3 The units of acceleration are distance over the
=
y
square of time and in the international system of
2 units they correspond to [m/s2 ].
(2.) Vector ⃗a(t) whose magnitude indicates the
rate of instantaneous rate of change of the veloc-
1
ity vector ⃗v(t) per unit time.
If the curve of the path is:
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 ⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
The derivative of the absolute value function is: where ⃗r (t) is the position vector that depends on
dy 1 2 −1/2 x x the parameter t (time), x (t) is the component of
= x (2 x ) = √ = the position in the direction of the x axis, y(t) is
dx 2 x 2 | x|
the component of the position in the direction of
Its value is 1 for x > 0, and −1 for x < 0. Thus, the y axis, and z(t) is the component of the po-
for x , 0 it can be stated that y′ = sgn( x ). That sition in the direction of the z axis, the velocity
is, the derivative of the absolute value function ⃗v(t) is the derivative of ⃗r (t) with respecto to the
is the sign function for every real number except parameter t,
at zero. I.e., the derivative of the absolute value
function is undefined at x = 0. ⃗v(t) = ⃗r ′ (t) = x ′ (t) ı̂ + y′ (t) ȷ̂ + z′ (t) k̂
The antiderivative of the absolute value function
is: Z and the acceleration ⃗a(t) is the second derivative
x |x| of ⃗r (t) with respect to t, which is equal to the first
| x | · dx = +C
2 derivative of the velocity ⃗v(t) (with respect to t):
where C is an arbitrary constant.
Read also «Absolute value». ⃗a(t) = ⃗v′ (t) = ⃗r ′′ (t) = x ′′ (t) ı̂ + y′′ (t) ȷ̂ + z′′ (t) k̂
4
Acceptance region–Accuracy
z y
~v (t) A
~r(t) ~a(t)
t) x
1 ~r(
−1 −1
y
1 1
x
The data present precision, because all data is
close to each other. The data is accurate because
As can be seen in the figure, the velocity vector they are all close to the center of the target.
is a tangent vector to the path ⃗r (t), and the ac- The following figure shows a data set that has a
celeration vector ⃗a(t) indicates the change of the degree of precision similar to the previous one,
velocity vector ⃗v(t) (per unit time, in magnitude but with less accuracy.
as well as in direction).
Given the path ⃗r (t), if T̂ is its unit tangent vector,
N̂ its normal unit vector, s its arc length, and κ y
curvature, then the acceleration vector is:
2
d2 s ds
⃗a(t) = T̂ + κ N̂
dt2 dt
x
Read also «Curvature», «Frenet-Serret formulas»,
«Frenet’s Trihedron», and «Tangent vector».
Acceptance region In a hypothesis test, it is the
set of values for which the null hypothesis is ac- The data present precision again, because one is
cepted. close to the others, but the accuracy is reduced
For example, in a z test, if the significance level is from the previous case, because they are not close
0.05, the corresponding acceptance region is the to the center of the target.
interval −1.96 ≤ z ≤ 1.96. The following figure shows a data set that
Read also «Confidence interval» and «Statistical sig- presents a low degree of precision, compared to
nificance». the previous two (the points present greater dis-
persion), but with the same level of accuracy,
Accuracy The accuracy of a measurement is the de- since the points are around the center of the target
gree of closeness of the measurements of a quan- (the origin of the coordinate system).
tity to the true value of that quantity.
This value serves as a measure of the systematic y
errors that are made when making measurements
of a magnitude. The smaller the dispersion of the
measured values, the higher the accuracy, so the
accuracy is described as a function of the stan-
dard deviation of the data. x
To understand the difference between precision
and accuracy, consider shooting a target centered
at the coordinate origin.
The following figure shows a set of data that has
both precision and accuracy.
5
Actual infinity–Adjacency matrix
Finally, the following figure shows a data set that Ad infinitum Latin phrase meaning «to infinity»,
has both lower accuracy and precision than in the and is often represented by the symbol · · · to
A previous cases. indicate that a process or operation being per-
formed is repeated indefinitely.
y Observation: the symbol · · · may mean that the
process is repeated a finite number of times. It is
not only used to represent an infinite process or
operation.
Addend Number or algebraic expression that is
x used to perform the addition operation together
with one or more quantities.
1234 Addend
+ 5678 Addend
6912 Sum
Actual infinity Infinity considered complete,
An expression can include more than two ad-
which is reached in a single step.
dends.
This is contrary to potential infinity, which refers
to infinity as a quantity that can be approached, Addition Synonym of sum.
but never reached, in a process that has no end. Read also «Sum».
For example, when Leibniz defined the differen-
Additive function Function that has the property:
tial dx as dx = 1/N, where N is an infinitely
large quantity, he was using the actual infinity, f ( a + b) = f ( a) + f (b)
because he considered that he could divide the
for any a, b of its domain.
interval [0, 1] into an infinitely large number of
equal parts in one step, resulting in an infinitely Additive identity Element 0 of a set A on whose
small quantities dx. elements addition is defined. This element 0 has
the property that for any x ∈ A the following
Acute angle Angle whose measure is less than that holds: x + 0 = x.
of a right angle. In the set of real numbers, the additive identity is
represented by the number zero (0), because for
any real number x, x + 0 = x holds.
Additive inverse For every real number a there ex-
ists another number − a, such that
α a + (− a) = 0
The number − a is the additive inverse of the
That is, the measure of an acute angle is greater number a.
than or equal to 0◦ but smaller that 90◦ (that is,
Adjacency matrix (Graph theory) Square matrix
π/2 radians).
that algebraically represents a finite graph, such
Acute triangle A triangle with all its interior an- that a row of the matrix corresponds to a vertex
gles being acute angles. of the graph and the element aij = 1 if the vertex
i is adjacent to the vertex j.
For example, the adjacency matrix of the graph:
4 3
5 1 2
Read also «Triangle» and «Acute angle».
6
Adjacent–Adjoint matrix
is:
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
A
0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
The first line indicates that vertex 1 has edges
that join it with vertices 2, 4 and 5. Therefore,
in columns 2, 4 and 5 it has 1 and in the rest 0.
The second line indicates that vertex 2 has edges
that join it with vertices 1 and 5. That is why in (Graph theory) Two vertices of a graph are adja-
columns 1 and 5 it has a 1 and in the others zero, cent if there is one edge of the graph that joins
and so on. them.
In an undirected graph, the transpose matrix of For example, in the following graph, the vertices
the upper triangular matrix of its adjacency ma- 2, 4 and 5 are adjacent to the vertex 1.
trix is equal to the lower triangular matrix, and
vice versa. 4 3
Adjacent (Plane geometry) Two angles are adja-
cent when they share the vertex and a common
side. 5 1 2
In the figure below the angle ∠AOB is adjacent to
the angle ∠BOC.
Read also «Graph» and «Adjacency matrix».
C Adjacent angles Two angles are adjacent when
they have the same vertex and share a common
side (located between them).
B
O A β α
Read also «Adjacent angles». The angles α and β share a vertex and a side, so
(Trigonometry) In a right triangle, the adjacent they are adjacent.
leg to an acute angle α is the leg of the triangle
that starts at the vertex of angle α. Adjoint matrix The adjoint matrix of the square
matrix A, denoted by adj( A) is the transpose of
the cofactor matrix of A.
If A = [ aij ] is a matrix of dimension n × n, then,
Opposite leg
s e
nu T
ote A11 A12 ··· A1n
p
Hy A21 A22 ··· A2n
adj( A) = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
α An1 An2 ··· Ann
Adjacent leg
A11 A21 ··· An1
A12 A22 ··· An2
= .. .. .. ..
(Geometry) Two faces of a polyhedron are adja- . . . .
cent if they share an edge. A1n A2n ··· Ann
7
Affine transformation–Aleph (ℵ)
where Aij is the cofactor (i, j) of A. Agnesi curve Graph of the function
For example, if
A
1 1
y=
8 a3
A= x2 + 4 a2
1 −1
where a > 0.
Then A11 = −1, A12 = −1, A21 = −1 y A22 = 1.
So the cofactor matrix of A is: y
−1 −1 8 a3 a = 1.1
cof( A) = y=
−1 1
4 a2 + x2 a = 0.8
And the transpose of this matrix is the adjoint ma- a = 0.5
trix of A: a = 0.2
1
−1 −1
adj( A) =
−1 1
x
Another example, let
cos θ − sin θ The following figure illustrates the geometric con-
C=
sin θ cos θ struction used to draw the Agnesi curve.
The cofactors of this matrix are C11 = cos θ,
y 8 a3
C12 = − sin θ, C21 = sin θ, C22 = cos θ, so the y=
cofactor matrix of C is: 4 a2 + x2
2a
cos θ − sin θ B
cof(C ) = T
sin θ cos θ
The transpose of the cofactor matrix of C is the C
adjoint matrix of C: P
F
α A
T cos θ sin θ D
x
(cof(C )) = adj(C ) = O
− sin θ cos θ
The adjoint matrix is also known as transpose con- Given the radius a of the circle, plot the circle with
jugate matrix. center at C (0, a). Parallel to the x axis, draw a line
Read also «Cofactor» and «Inverse matrix». ℓ tangent to the circumference passing through
Affine transformation A transformation that pre- T (0, 2 a). From the origin, draw a line that inter-
serves parallel lines, although distance and angles sects the circumference at point A and the line ℓ
are not necessarily preserved. at point B. From point B draw a vertical line that
An affine transformation sends points to points, intersects the x axis at point D. Draw a line par-
lines to lines, planes to planes, etc. allel to the x axis, passing through A, intersecting
It is a transformation of the form: the y axis at point F and the segment BD at point
P.
x ′ = a1 x + b1 y + c1 The set of all the points P obtained with this con-
y′ = a2 x + b2 y + c2 struction, as the point A moves on the circumfer-
ence, so that the point B on the line ℓ goes from
where ∞ to −∞, is the Agnesi curve.
a1 b1 The Agnesi curve is also known as witch of Agnesi.
∆= = a1 b2 − a2 b1 , 0.
a2 b2
Examples of affine transformations are the trans- Aleph (ℵ) Symbol used to represent the cardinal-
lation (shift) (x ′ = x + a, y′ = y + b) rotation (x ′ = ity of sets with an infinite number of elements
x cos(θ ) + y sin(θ ), y′ = − x sin(θ ) + y cos(θ)), that can be well ordered.
reflection about the x axis (x ′ = x, y′ = −y), re- ℵ0 is the cardinality of the set of natural numbers,
flection about the y axis (x ′ = − x, y′ = y), elonga- ℵ1 is the cardinality of the set of real numbers, etc.
tion (or compression) (x ′ = x, y′ = k y or x ′ = k x, The symbol ℵ0 is read: aleph sub zero. Some au-
y′ = y) thors suggest reading it as: aleph zero.
8
Algebra–Algebraic number
Algebra Elementary algebra is the branch of algebraic expressions.
mathematics that studies the properties of real For example,
numbers through their abstraction in the form of x+2 A
literals and polynomials. x2 − 1
Elementary algebra is a generalization of arith-
metic, so that literals are treated as representa-
Algebraic function It is a function that is ex-
tives of numbers and algebraic expressions are
pressed based on operations of addition, subtrac-
considered as objects, granting them properties to
tion, multiplication, division, potentiation and
perform operations with them.
roots of polynomials.
Read also «Equation», «Algebraic expression» and
For example the function:
«Polynomial».
Given a nonempty set and one or more operations x + 1 ( x − 3)2
between its elements, algebra studies the proper- y= − + 4 x3/2 + 7
x+2 x−5
ties of mathematical objects under those opera-
tions. Thus, there is vector algebra, matrix alge- is an algebraic function.
bra, set algebra, Boolean algebra, etc. Read also «Transcendental function».
Algebraic equation Equation that is expressed as Algebraic language Language used to describe the
Qn ( x ) = 0, where Qn ( x ) is a polynomial of de- relationships between the quantities involved in
gree n ≥ 1. The degree n of the polynomial is the an algebraic expression.
degree of the algebraic equation. For example, semi means half, quotient indicates
For example, the equation the result of a division, double means to multi-
ply by two, and cubed means to multiply by itself
x4 − x3 − 7 x2 + x + 6 = 0 three times, etc.
is an algebraic equation of degree n = 4. Algebraic manipulation Application of the alge-
The roots of the algebraic equation are the values braic properties of a mathematical object to sim-
of x for which Qn ( x ) = 0. In the case of the equa- plify it equivalently so that a particular problem
tion given above, the roots are x = −2, x = −1, can be solved.
x = 1 and x = 3. For example,
Algebraic expression Mathematical representa- 1 1 + x5 − x5
tion of a quantity by means of numerical coeffi- =
x (1 + x 5 ) x (1 + x 5 )
cients, literals and operations between them.
An algebraic expression is a finite combination of 1 + x5 x5
= −
mathematical symbols (literals, numbers, signs of x (1 + x 5 ) x (1 + x 5 )
operation, grouping signs, functions, etc.) in a 1 x4
way that makes sense: the operators must have = −
x 1 + x5
the corresponding arguments, the order of oper-
ations must be clear, the literals and operations Read also «Solve for a variable».
between them must be valid, etc.
Algebraic multiplicity The algebraic multiplicity
For example, r µ A (λi ) of the eigenvalue λi is equal to the mul-
3
2
10 tiplicity of the root λi of the characteristic poly-
7x −
π nomial.
is an algebraic expression. On the other hand, Read also «Characteristic polynomial».
r
≈ ±+%
Algebraic number The number z is an algebraic
÷=∆ number if it satisfies a polynomial equation,
It is not an algebraic expression, at least in ele- a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + · · · + a n x n = 0
mentary algebra, since that use of the notation
does not make sense (it has not been defined to with rational coefficients
√ a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , a n .
be used that way). For example, 2 is an algebraic number, because
it satisfies the polynomial equation:
Algebraic fraction Fraction in which the elements
of the fraction (numerator and denominator) are x2 − 2 = 0
9
Algebraic operation–Allometric function
Notice that the coefficients are rational, because The algorism was used when the commonly used
all integers are rational numbers. numbering system was a non-positional system.
A All rational numbers are algebraic, since The word algorism is deprecated.
p Algorithm Procedure that indicates, step by step,
qx− p = 0 ⇒ x=
q the solution of a problem, in a finite number of
steps.
where p, q are integers and q , 0, so that you can (Computing) Instructions that indicate a detailed
choose p and q so that it is the root of the previ- procedure (step by step) that, starting with a set
ous linear equation. of initial values (or inputs) on these inputs, cer-
If a number is not algebraic, it is said to be a tran- tain operations are carried out that lead to certain
scendental number. For example, e y π are not al- results (or outputs) that are determined by the ini-
gebraic numbers. tial values.
Read also «Transcendental number». Read also «Pseudocode».
Algebraic operation In elementary algebra, the Aliquot sequence Sequence whose terms are posi-
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplica- tive integers in which each term sn is equal to the
tion, division, power, and root extraction are the sum of the proper divisors of the previous term
algebraic operations. sn−1 . Algebraically,
Algebraic solution Solution of an algebraic equa-
sn = σ1 (sn−1 ) − sn−1
tion in terms of sums, products, multiplication,
division, exponentiation (integer exponents), and where σ1 (d) is the sum of positive divisors of the
root extraction (n−th root with n ∈ N). positive integer d, and the first term of the se-
For example, the algebraic solutions of the quence is s0 = k ∈ N.
quadratic equation: a x2 + b x + c = 0, are given For example, the aliquot sequence for k = 9, is: 4,
by the formula: 3, 1, 0, because
√
−b ± b2 − 4 ac σ1 (9) − 9 = 3 + 1 = 4
x=
2a
σ1 (4) − 4 = 2 + 1 = 3
σ1 (3) − 3 = 1
Algebraic surface A surface that can be repre- σ1 (1) − 1 = 0
sented by an algebraic equation (which can in-
clude addition, subtraction, division, and multi- It is worth mentioning that not all aliquot se-
plication of polynomials with real coefficients). quences end in zero.
Allometric equation An equation of the form
x2 + y 2
z=
0.1 + (x2 + y 2 )2 ln |y| = a ln | x | + ln |k|
Or equivalently,
1
y = k · xa
Read also «Allometric function».
−1 −1
0 Allometric function An function of the form
1 y
1
x y = k · xa
The parameter a is known as the scaling exponent
Read also «Quadratic surface». of the power law.
The allometric function is the solution of the dif-
Algorism Method or technique to perform arith-
ferential equation:
metic operations by writing the digits according
to their place value and applying calculation rules dy y
to the digits. = a·
dx x
10
Almost prime number–Amicable numbers
Applying the natural logarithm to both sides of If { an } is a monotonically non-increasing se-
the allometric function, an equation known as the quence with limit zero, then the alternating series
allometric equation is obtained:
∞
A
ln |y| = a ln | x | + ln |k| a1 − a2 + a3 − · · · = ∑ (−1) i −1
ai
i =1
Read also «Power function». converges.
Almost prime number A number is k−almost For example,
prime if it has k prime factors.
1 1 1 1 1
For example, the number 10 is 2−almost prime − + − + − · · · = ln(2)
1 2 3 4 5
because it has 2 prime factors: 10 = (2)(5), while
the number 2 is 1−almost prime (any prime num- Read also «Infinite series».
ber is 1−almost prime. )
The smallest k−almost prime number is 2k . Alternative hypothesis The alternative hypothesis
is a position that indicates that something is hap-
Alphabet An alphabet is a finite, non-empty set pening, a new theory is preferred over a previous
of symbols. The symbols are called literals (or one (the null hypothesis).
letters). Sequences made up of a finite set of lit- This is built from previous studies or literature
erals are called strings (or words). A string with review.
zero literals is also considered as an element of The alternative hypothesis is denoted by H1 , or
the set of all words that can be formed with a also by Ha .
given alphabet. This string with zero elements is
denoted by λ. Ambiguous The result of a problem is said to be
For example, {1, 0} is a binary alphabet (consist- ambiguous if the problem has more than one so-
ing of 2 symbols). lution.
For example, when the law of sines is applied to
Alternate angles When a pair of parallel lines are solve certain triangles from the lengths of two of
cut by a secant, 8 angles are formed. If two an- their sides (say AC and BC) and an angle opposite
gles are on different sides of the secant and do to one of them (say, the side BC), an ambiguous
not share the vertex, then those angles are alter- case may arise.
nate angles.
For example, in the figure, the pairs of angles
C
(α, ζ) and (δ, ϵ) are alternate angles.
ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2
α ℓ1
β
γ
δ
ϵ A D B
ζ ℓ2
η
θ The triangle can be an acute triangle △ ABC, but
it can also be an obtuse triangle △ ACD (where
|CD | = | BC |).
Amicable numbers Two natural numbers are am-
Alternating series An alternating series is a series
icable numbers if the sum of the proper divisors
of the form:
∞ of one is equal to the other.
∑ (−1)n an For example, the numbers 220 and 284 are amica-
n =0 ble, because the proper divisors of 220 (1, 2, 4, 5,
where an > 0 for all n. 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, 110) add up to 284, and the
The adjective alternating is because the sign from proper divisors of 284 ( 1, 2, 4, 71, 142) add up to
one term to the next alternates (+ to −, and from 220.
− to +). The infinity of amicable numbers is still an open
11
Amortization–AND
problem. Another open problem related to am- If the complex number z = a + i b is written in
icable numbers is whether there exists a pair of polar form,
A amicable numbers with opposite parity. It is also
not known whether there exists a pair of amicable
z = a + i b = r [cos(θ ) + i sin(θ )]
√
numbers that are relatively prime to each other. r = a2 + b2 is the modulus of the complex num-
Amortization In business, amortization refers to ber, and θ = arctan(b/a) is its argument.
the payment of a loan through equal payments, Analytic function (Real analysis) A function is an-
spread over several periods (installments). The alytic at x = a, if and only if, its Taylor series
amount of the periodic installment A calculated about x = a converges to the function in some
from the amount M and the compound interest region about x = a.
rate r, is:
∞
r (1 + r ) n f (i ) ( a )
A = M·
(1 + r ) n − 1
f ( x ) = ∑ i! (x − a)i
i =0
Observation: the value of r it must be divided over If the above holds for any x = a for the domain
one hundred before doing the math. For example, of the function (or for all R), then the function is
if the interest rate is 5%, then r = 0.05. said to be analytic over its domain (or in R).
Amplitude In a sine wave, the amplitude is the (Complex analysis)) A function w = f (z) of a
distance from the axis of the wave to any of its complex variable, is an analytic function if its
peaks. derivative at every point in its domain is defined.
If the function w = f (z) is an analytic function,
y then it has continuous derivatives of all orders
and can be expressed as a Taylor series:
1
∞
∑ a i ( z − z0 )i
A
w = f (z) =
i =0
x
Analytic geometry Geometry that uses a Cartesian
-1 coordinate system to uniquely identify points in
the studied space.
y = sin x
In analytic geometry, loci (lines, circles, ellipses,
planes, surfaces, curves in space, etc.) are ex-
Equivalently: the amplitude of a periodic func- pressed algebraically in the form of equations in
tion is the half-difference between its absolute order to use algebraic methods to solve geometric
maximum and minimum values. problems.
(Complex variable) The amplitude of the com- Read also «Loci» and «Cantor-Dedekind axiom».
plex number z = a + i b is the angle that its geo-
AND Logical connective denoted by ∧, as well
metric representation makes with the real axis.
as & for the conjunction operation between two
In the following figure, the amplitude of the com-
prepositions.
plex number z = a + i b is the measure of the an-
The sentence p ∧ q (this is read as: «p and q») is
gle θ.
true only if both, p and q are true.
The truth table for this logical connective is
Im(z) shown below.
b p q p ∧ q
ib T T T
a+
z= T F F
F T F
θ F F F
Re(z)
a
where T means true, and F means false.
For example, the amplitude of the complex num- In English the word and symbolizes a logical con-
ber z = 1 + i, is π/4 radians (45◦ ). junction.
12
Angle–Angle bisector
Angle Plane figure formed by two rays that share y
y = f (x)
the initial point. The initial point that both rays
share is called the vertex of the angle. The rays
are the sides of the angle. The measure of the
A
angle quantifies the opening between its sides.
y = g(x)
θ
de
Si
x
α
Vertex
Side
Angle between two planes The angle between
In the figure, α represents the measure of the an- two planes is the smallest angle formed by their
gle. corresponding normal vectors.
Read also «Radian» and «Sexagesimal degree».
The angle α is also denoted by ∠ABC, where the z
point B is the vertex of the angle.
~n1
C θ ~n2
y
x
α
B A
The measure of an angle is positive when mea-
sured counterclockwise (levorotation) and nega-
tive when measured clockwise (dextrorotation). If the equations of the planes are:
a ( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c ( z − z1 ) = 0
Angle between two curves Given the graphs of α ( x − x2 ) + β ( y − y2 ) + γ ( z − z2 ) = 0
the two functions y = f ( x ) and y = g( x ) that
intersect at the point P( x0 , y0 ), the angle between then, the measure of the angle θ between the two
the curves at the point P is the angle formed by planes is:
the tangent lines to the graph of each function at !
P ( x0 , y0 ). aα+bβ+cγ
θ = arccos √ p
If the functions y = f ( x ) and y = g( x ), and their a + b2 + c2 α2 + β2 + γ2
2
derivatives are continuous at the point ( x0 , y0 )
where they meet, the measure of the angle θ is: Read also «Dihedral angle», «Plane», and «Equation
of the plane».
θ = arctan f ′ ( x0 ) − arctan g′ ( x0 )
Angle bisector A line that divides an angle into
two angles of the same measure. In other words,
where f ′ ( x0 ) represents the derivative of y = f ( x ) the angle bisector is the axis of symmetry of an
evaluated at x = x0 . angle.
13
Angle bisector
A Incenter
r
e cto
bis
gle
An
Since the incenter is equidistant from the three
α
B α sides of the triangle, it is the center of the in-
C scribed circle.
The angle bisector has the property that any of its
points equidistant from the sides of the angle. C
To draw the bisector of a given angle using com-
pass and ruler, open the compass to draw two
intersecting arcs of the same radius, one on each
side of the angle.
P
B A B
Read also «Incenter».
Given the triangle △ ABC, and the angle bisec-
tor of ∠BAC, meeting the side BC at D, then the
A length d of AD is given by:
Leaning on each intersection, draw two arcs with b·c
d2 = ( b + c ) 2
− a 2
the same radius, intersecting one another at the ( b + c )2
point Q. where a, b, and c represent the lengths of the sides
BC, AC, and AB, respectively.
C
B Q a
b
A D
The bisector of the angle is the line that passes
through the vertex of the angle and the point Q.
A c B
r
B e cto Q The internal and external bisectors of a given an-
bis gle are perpendicular.
gle
An
The three bisectors of a triangle coincide at a point
called the incenter.
14
Angle bisector theorem–Annuity
Read also «Angle bisector theorem». The angular diameter δ measured from point P is:
r
Angle bisector theorem Given the triangle △ ABC
that is in the plane let D be the point at which the
δ = 2 arcsin
H A
angle bisector ∠BAC meets the side BC. Then, where r is the radius of the circular object, H is the
distance from the center of the disk to the point P
CA CD from where the object is observed.
=
AB DB Angular function Synonym of trigonometric func-
tion.
C Read also «Trigonometric function».
Angular histogram Graphical representation of
the distribution of data from a sample or a popu-
lation, similar to a histogram (bar graph), but in a
D circular form.
24
23
1
22
30
2
21
3
20
A B 20
4
19 10
5
Angle trisection Problem that consists in the con- 18
6
struction of an angle with measure equal to one
17
third of a given angle. 7
This problem cannot be solved using only com- 16
8
pass and ruler.
15
9
14
10
13
11
12
α/3 The classes are distributed in the 360◦ of the cir-
α/3 cle and the frequency of each class points radially
outward from the center of the circle.
α/3
Annuity Succession of payments, deposits or with-
drawals, generally of the same amount, that are
made periodically with compound interest.
Angular diameter Apparent dimension of the di- The following elements are involved in an annu-
ameter of a body with a spherical or round as- ity: rent is the payment, deposit or withdrawal
pect (if it is a flat figure) that is expressed as the that is made periodically, annual rent is the sum
measure of the angle that is formed between two of payments made in a year, term is the duration
tangents to the body from a point P outside of it, of the annuity (the number of times the rent is
from where the measurement is being made. collected or paid), payment period is the time that
elapses between one payment and another, rate
Q refers to the interest rate that is set in the opera-
tion (annual, or nominal if it is capitalized more
than once in the year), and perpetual rent series of
payments that lasts forever.
P δ The present value P of an annuity of n payments
O
H of R dollars each one, paid at the end of each pe-
r riod, in an account with interest rate i per period
is:
1 − (1 + i ) − n
R P=R
i
15
Annulus–Antiderivative
Antibipyramid Synonym of trapezohedron.
Read also «Trapezohedron».
A Annulus Region of the plane bounded by two con-
centric circles.
Antiderivative A function F ( x ) is an antideriva-
tive of f ( x ), if the derivative of F ( x ) equals f ( x ).
In calculus, the antiderivative of f ( x ) is denoted
R
by writing it between the integral symbol and the
r differential of the independent variable (x).
Z
f ( x ) · dx = F ( x ) ⇒ F′ (x) = f (x)
The area A and the perimeter P of the annulus For example, an antiderivative of f ( x ) = cos( x )
are: is F ( x ) = sin( x ), because
h i
A = π R2 − r 2
P = 2 π [R + r] d [sin( x )]
= cos( x )
dx
The annulus is also known as ring. (The Latin
word annulus means little ring.)
If y = F ( x ) is an antiderivative of the function
Antecedent (Arithmetic) In a ratio, the first term y = f ( x ), it is also y = F ( x ) + C, where C is any
is called antecedent, the second is called conse- constant, because the derivative of any constant is
quent. zero.
For example, in the ratio 5 : 7, the number 5 is the For the calculation of the antiderivative of a func-
antecedent and 7 is the consequent. tion there are various techniques, which are based
(Logic) In a declaration of the form «If—Then» the on the classification of the given function. Among
antecedent is the part that accompanies the part the most commonly used techniques there are
«If ». change of variable (substitution), integration by
For example, in the statement If it’s raining then parts, trigonometric substitution, technique of
it’s cloudy, the antecedent is the clause it’s raining. partial fractions, among others. Sometimes an al-
gebraic manipulation is enough to express the in-
tegrand in a convenient way.
Antidiagonal Synonym of secondary diagonal.
For example, to calculate the antiderivative of the
Read also «Secondary diagonal».
rational expression:
Antidifferentiation Process of calculating the an-
tiderivative of a given function.
For a given function y = f ( x ), the antidifferentia- 1
tion process consists of calculating another func- x (1 + x n )
tion y = F ( x ) that satisfies:
F′ (x) = f (x) add and subtract x n in the numerator, so that:
There are various methods for calculating an-
tiderivatives. Among the most elementary are the 1 + xn − xn 1 + xn xn
= −
substitution method (change of variable), integra- x (1 + x n ) x (1 + x n ) x (1 + x n )
tion by parts, antidifferentiation through partial 1 x n −1
fractions, trigonometric substitution, etc. = −
x 1 + xn
Read also «Antiderivative», «Change of variable»,
«To complete the differential», «Integration by parts»,
«Partial Fractions», and «Trigonometric substitu- This way of expressing the integrand simplifies
tion». the calculation of the antiderivative, as shown be-
16
Antilogarithm–Antiprism
low.
Z
Z
dx
x (1 + x n )
=
1
−
x n −1
x 1 + xn
· dx A
Z Z
dx x n−1 · dx
= −
x 1 + xn
Z
1 n x n−1 · dx
= ln | x | −
n 1 + xn
1 1 Antipodal point On a sphere, given a fixed point
= (n) ln | x | − ln |1 + x n | + C
n n P on it, the antipodal point of P is another point
1 1 Q on the sphere that is diametrically opposite to
= ln | x n | − ln |1 + x n | + C
n n P. That is, the segment PQ passes through the
1 xn center of the sphere.
= ln +C
n 1 + xn
Q
The antiderivative is also known as indefinite in-
tegral, and as primitive function. The term inverse
derivative It is also synonymous with antideriva-
tive, although it is deprecated.
In the page 583 there is a list of formulas used to
calculate antiderivatives of functions. C
Read also «Derivative», «Differential», «Indefinite
integral», and «Fundamental theorem of calculus».
Antilogarithm If a x = y, then, it is said that y is
the antilogarithm of the number x in the base a. P
y = antiloga ( x )
Antiprism Polyhedron formed by two parallel
For example, since 23 = 8, it follows that 8 is the copies of a polygon of n sides connected by 2 n
antilogarithm of 3 in the base 2. alternating triangles.
The following figure shows a tetragonal an-
23 = 8 ⇒ 8 = antilog2 (3) tiprism.
Notice that the logarithm and antilogarithm func-
tions are inverse functions, because:
y = ax ⇒ y = antiloga ( x )
But also,
y = ax ⇒ x = loga (y)
so that A pentagonal antiprism is shown below.
y = antiloga ( x ) and x = loga (y)
are two expressions that contain the same idea:
y = ax .
Read also «Exponential function» and «Logarithm».
Antiparallelogram Flat geometric figure with two
opposite sides of equal length, and their longest
sides intersecting one another. Next is a hexagonal antiprism.
17
Antisymmetric–Apollonian circles
Since for an antisymmetric matrix aii = 0, it fol-
lows that the trace of an antisymmetric matrix is
A zero.
The antisymmetric matrix is also known as skew-
symmetric matrix.
Read also «Trace» (Linear algebra).
Apex In geometry, the apex of a geometric object
(triangle, pyramid, etc.) is the vertex that is high-
Next is a heptagonal antiprism. est with respect to its base when it is horizontal.
For example, in an isosceles triangle with its base
being horizontal, the apex is the vertex where its
two sides of equal length intersect.
C Apex
And the next one is an octagonal antiprism.
A B
The pyramid and the cone also have an apex,
which is the vertex opposite their respective base.
Apollonian circle Given two fixed points F and F ′
in the plane, called foci, the set of points P of the
plane whose constant quotient
Antisymmetric It is said that a relation R defined
for two mathematical objects a, b that are elements PF
k=
of the set S is antisymmetric if a R b does not im- PF ′
ply b R a for all a, b ∈ S. form a circumference.
For example, the relation a > b is antisymmet-
ric because (by trichotomy) a > b does not imply P
b > a.
If a relationship is not antisymmetric, it is said to
be symmetrical.
Antisymmetric matrix A square matrix A is a an- F E F0 C D
tisymmetric matrix if its negative is equal to its
transpose: A T = − A. That is, the elements of an
antisymmetric matrix satisfy: a ji = − aij .
For example, the matrix
This is an alternative way of defining the circum-
0 1 −7
A = −1 0 −2 ference.
7 2 0 Apollonian circles Family of circles that are de-
fined as follows. For the first pencil of circles, two
is antisymmetric because fixed points F1 and F2 called foci are considered.
The radius of each circle is defined as
0 −1 7
AT = 1 0 2 = −A ∥ PF1 ∥
r=
−7 −2 0 ∥ PF2 ∥
18
Apollonius’s theorem–Approximation polygon
That is, the radius r is the proportion of the dis- Apothem In a regular polygon, the apothem is the
tances from a point P on the plane to each of the segment that goes from the center of the polygon
foci.
For the second pencil of circles it is defined so that
to the midpoint of one of its sides. A
the inscribed angle ϕ = ∠F1 PF2 whose vertex P is
on the circle.
Apothem
x
The length a of the apothem is equal to the length
of the radius of the inscribed circle to the polygon.
By varying the angle φ from φ = 0 to φ = π, all
the circles that pass through the foci F1 and F2 are
generated. a
Apollonius’s theorem Given a triangle △ ABC in
the plane, the sum of the squares of any two of
its sides is equal to twice the square of the half of
the third side plus twice the square of the length The apothem of a polygon is perpendicular to the
of the median bisecting the third side. side to which it is drawn.
Applied mathematics The study of the techniques
| AC |2 + | BC |2 = 2 | AD |2 + 2 |CD |2 and methods of mathematics for solving prob-
lems that arise in the systems created by society
and in the study of nature (economic, industrial,
ecological, etc.)
Applied mathematics specializes in other
branches of science or the advancement of
technology (physics, chemistry, computer sci-
C ence, economics, business, cryptography, biology,
medicine, artificial intelligence, data science, etc.)
Strictly speaking, there are no non-applied mathe-
matics. All math are applicable. Even the most
advanced mathematics is applied within mathe-
matics itself to solve problems.
A D B
Approximation polygon Polygonal line that is
used to approximate a curve or the graph of a
given function.
In a given problem, for example, the calculation
If △ ABC is an isosceles triangle, Apollonius’s the- of the arc length, area bounded by a closed curve,
orem becomes the Pythagorean theorem for the etc., the approximation polygon can be used to
right triangle △ ACD. calculate the approximate value of what is to be
19
Arabic numerals–Arc length
calculated and, based on this model, deduce the B
exact value with the limit when the number of
A sides of the polygonal line (i.e., the approxima-
tion polygon) goes to infinity.
A
y
f (b)
y = f (x)
The arc whose ends are the points A and B is de-
⌢
noted by: AB. The arc considered is the one with
f (a) the shortest length, unless otherwise indicated.
x The length s of the arc subtended by a central an-
a b gle of θ radians is s = r · θ, where r is the radius
of the circumference on which the arc lies.
Read also «Riemann sum», «Definite integral» y Arc length The arc length of a curve or of the
«Euler method». graph of a function is the length (continuous in
both cases) between two fixed points on it.
Arabic numerals Symbols used to write numbers.
y
y = f (x)
Digit 0 1 2 3 4
f (b)
Name zero one two three four
L
Digit 5 6 7 8 9 f ( a)
Name five six seven eight nine
x
Arabic numerals are also known as Hindu-Arabic a b
numbers.
Read also «Roman numerals» and «Numeral sys-
To calculate the length of the graph of the func-
tem».
tion y = f ( x ) differentiable on the interval [ a, b],
divide the interval [ a, b] into infinitely many dif-
Arbitrary A value is said to be arbitrary when it ferential elements, each of length dx.
is not required to follow a rule or procedure to
be calculated or chosen: it may be chosen at con-
venience for a particular purpose or randomly. A y
constant is also said to be arbitrary if any constant
value can be assigned to it. f (b) y = f (x)
For example, the solution of the differential equa-
tion:
y′′ − 5 y′ + 6 y = 0 f (x + dx)
dL
dy = f 0 (x) · dx
f (x)
dx
includes two arbitrary constants c1 and c2 : f (a)
x
a x b
x + dx
y( x ) = c1 e2 x + c2 e3x
This means that regardless of the constant values
that are assigned to c1 and c2 , the function f ( x ) For each subinterval [ x, x + dx ], of length dx, the
satisfies the differential equation. corresponding part on the graph of y = f ( x ) is
considered as an infinitely small line segment of
Arc Part of a circle bounded by two of its points. length dL. Applying the Pythagorean theorem to
20
Arccosine
calculate its length, y
dL =
q
(dx )2 + (dy)2 A
q dθ
(dx )2 + [ f ′ ( x ) · dx ]2
dr
=
dL
r
= 1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · (dx )2 r · dθ
q
r
= 1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · dx
θ2
where f ′ ( x ) is the derivative of the function with θ1
respect to x. x
The arc length L of the graph of the function
y = f ( x ) from x = a to x = b is the sum of all From this,
the parts into which the curve was divided, and
q
is given by:
dL = r2 (dθ )2 + (dr )2
s
Zb q
r2 (dθ )2 (dr )2
L= 1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · dx = 2
+ · dθ
(dθ ) (dθ )2
a s
2
dr
Note that to compute L it is required for the func- = r2 + · dθ
dθ
tion y = f ( x ) to be continuous and differentiable
in the interval [ a, b].
So the arc length L from θ = θ1 to θ = θ2 , is:
Read also «Definite integral» and «Leibniz’s postu-
lates». s
Zθ2 2
If the curve is given in vector form in terms of the dr
L= r2 + · dθ
parameter t, as: dθ
θ1
⃗r (t) = ⟨ x (t), y(t), z(t)⟩
Similarly, if the curve in polar coordinates is of
the form θ = f (r ), the differential of arc length
then, similarly to the previous case, it can be jus-
can be written as:
tified that the arc length of the curve from t = a
to t = b is given by: q
dL = r2 (dθ )2 + (dr )2
s
Zb q
r2 (dθ )2 (dr )2
L= [ x ′ (t)]2 + [y′ (t)]2 + [z′ (t)]2 · dt = 2
+ · dr
(dr ) (dr )2
a s
2
dθ
where a ≤ t ≤ b. In this case, it is required that = r 2 + 1 · dr
the component functions x (t), y(t), and z(t) are dr
defined and differentiable on the interval [ a, b].
and the arc length L from r = r1 to r = r2 , is:
Read also «Ten-step rule» (to establish a definite
integral). s
Zr2 2
If the curve is given in polar coordinates, of the 2
dθ
L= 1+r · dr
form r = f (θ ), the differential of arc length is dr
r1
considered as the hypotenuse of a right triangle
whose legs are, one on a circumference of radius Read also «Leibniz’s postulates».
r, whose length is r · dθ and the other, perpendic-
ular to the first one, of length dr. Arccosine The arccosine function, denoted by
Applying the Pythagorean theorem to this right arccos( x ), is the inverse of the cosine function for
triangle we get: −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
dL2 = r2 (dθ )2 + (dr )2 If x = cos(y), then y = arccos( x ).
21
Archimedean Axiom–Archimedean solids
In words, if x is the cosine of angle y, then y is the Archimedean Axiom Axiom proposed by
arccosine of x. I.e., arccos( x ) is the angle whose Archimedes that introduces the idea of continuity
A cosine is x. Furthermore, in geometry.
For any two positive real numbers a, b there exists
cos(arccos( x )) = x and also a positive integer n such that a · n > b.
arccos(cos(y)) = y In words of Archimedes, the axiom says: Given
two unequal magnitudes a and b, if a part larger than
That is to say, the cosine and arccosine functions its half is cut from the greater, and then if a part larger
are inverse functions one of the other. than its half is cut from the rest, and if we continue
The domain of y = arccos( x ) is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, and in this way successively, there will be a magnitude
its range is 0 ≤ y ≤ π (in radians). that will be smaller than the lesser of the two given
magnitudes a and b.
y Equivalently, this property is stated in Euclid’s
Elements as follows: Magnitudes are said to be in a
π ratio to one other if, when multiplied, they can exceed
3
one other.
This property implies that if any of the elements
of a set of numbers satisfy the Archimedean prop-
2 erty, then none of its elements is either infinitely
y = arccos(x) small or infinitely large compared to any of the
elements in that set. In other words, the elements
1 of such a set are comparable to each other.
The Archimedean property is also known as
Archimedean axiom and as Eudoxus’ axiom, because
Archimedes gave credit to Eudoxus.
x
−1 1 Archimedean property Synonym of Archimedean
Axiom.
Read also «Archimedean axiom».
The derivative of the arccosine function is:
Archimedean solids Convex polyhedra whose
d[arccos(v)] 1 dv
=−√ · faces are regular polygons of two or more types,
dx 1 − v2 dx all with the same side length.
The antiderivative of the arccosine function is: Archimedean solids are listed below.
Z p • Truncated tetrahedron
arccos(v) · dv = v arccos(v) − 1 − v2 + C
• Cuboctahedron
In both the derivative and the antiderivative it is • Truncated cube
considered that v is in radians. • Truncated Octahedron
The Taylor series of the arccosine function is: • Rhombicuboctahedron
∞ • Truncated cuboctahedron
π (2 i ) !
arccos( x ) = −∑ i 2 x 2 i +1 • Snub cube
2 i=0 4 (i!) (2 i + 1)
• Icosidodecahedron
where x is in radians. • Truncated dodecahedron
Some authors use cos−1 ( x ) to denote the arcco-
sine function. This notation is due to the fact that • Truncated icosahedron
the cosine and the arccosine functions are inverse • Rhombicosidodecahedron
one of the other. Thus, the superindex −1 indi- • Truncated icosidodecahedron
cates inverse function, and it is not an exponent.
• Snub dodecahedron
That is to say,
Read also each of the definitions corresponding
1
arccos( x ) = cos−1 ( x ) , [cos( x )]−1 = to each of these solids to find out how many faces
cos( x ) it has, what polygons they are, the number of ver-
tices and edges, their volume, their area, etc.
22
Archimedean spiral–Arcsine
Archimedean spiral Spiral whose equation in po- Arcsine The arcsine function, denoted by
lar coordinates is: r = a + b θ. arcsin( x ), is the inverse of the sine function for
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1. A
y
If x = sin(y), then y = arcsin( x ).
In words, if x is the sine of the angle y, then y is
the arcsine of x. I.e., arcsin( x ) is the angle whose
sine is x. Furthermore,
sin(arcsin( x )) = x and also
arcsin(sin(y)) = y
x
That is to say, the sine and arcsine functions are
inverse functions one of the other.
The domain of the arcsine function is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
and its range is −π/2 ≤ y ≤ π/2 (in radians).
π
2
Its parametric equations in rectangular coordi- 1
nates are:
x (t) = (v t + a) cos(ωt) y = arcsin(x)
x
y(t) = (v t + a) sin(ωt)
−1 1
for t ≥ 0.
−1
Archimedes theorem The surface area of the
sphere is equal to the area of the convex surface − π2
of its circumscribed cylinder.
Considering a sphere of radius r, the radius of
the circumscribed cylinder is r and its height is
2 r. So, the area S of its convex surface is equal to The derivative of the arcsine function is:
the product of its circumference times its height.
d[arcsin(v)] 1 dv
= √ ·
S = (2 π r )(2 r ) = 4 π r2 dx 1−v 2 dx
The antiderivative of the arcsine function is:
Z p
r arcsin(v) · dv = v arcsin(v) + 1 − v2 + C
In both the derivative and the antiderivative it is
considered that v is in radians.
The Taylor series of the arcsine function is:
∞
(2 i ) !
2r arcsin( x ) = ∑ 4i (i!)2 (2 i + 1) x2 i+1
i =0
where x is in radians.
Some authors use sin−1 ( x ) to denote the arcsine
function. This notation is due to the fact that the
sine and the arcsine functions are inverse one of
23
Arctangent–Area under the curve
the other. Thus the superindex −1 indicates in- the tangent and the arctangent functions are in-
verse function, and it is not an exponent. That is verse one of the other. Thus the superindex −1
A to say, indicates inverse function, and it is not an expo-
nent. That is to say,
1
arcsin( x ) = sin−1 ( x ) , [sin( x )]−1 =
sin( x ) 1
arctan( x ) = tan−1 ( x ) , [tan( x )]−1 =
tan( x )
Arctangent The arctangent function, denoted by
arctan( x ), is the inverse of the tangent function. Area Measure of the surface that a body or geo-
metric figure covers. This number indicates the
If x = tan(y), then y = arctan( x ).
number of times a unit square fits on the surface.
In words, if x is the tangent of the angle y, then y
is the arctangent of x. I.e., arctan( x ) is the angle
whose tangent is x. Furthermore,
tan(arctan( x )) = x and also
arctan(tan(y)) = y
1 1
That is to say, the tangent and arctangent func-
tions are inverse functions one of the other.
The domain of the arctangent function is the set
Its units are measured in square units, also called
of all real numbers, and its range is −π/2 ≤ y ≤
surface units, such as square centimeters (cm2 ),
π/2 (in radians).
square meters (m2 ), etc.
When the area is calculated as a product of two
y quantities, it is assumed that both lengths are
measured in the same unit.
1 Area under the curve The area under the graph of
y = f ( x ) is the area of the region bounded by the
graph of the function y = f ( x ), the x axis and the
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 vertical lines x = a, and x = b, where a and b are
y = arctan(x) constants.
−1
y
y = f (x)
f (b)
The derivative of the arctangent function is:
d[arctan(v)] 1 dv
= 2
·
dx 1 + v dx f (a)
A
The antiderivative of the arctangent function is:
Z x
1 a
arctan(v) · dv = v arctan(v) − ln 1 + v2 + C b
2
In both the derivative and the antiderivative it is The value A of the area under the curve is calcu-
considered that v is in radians. lated by means of the definite integral:
The Taylor series of the arctangent function is:
Zb
∞
(−1)i 2 i+1 f ( x ) · dx
arctan( x ) = ∑ x A=
i =0
2i +1 a
for | x | < 1, where x is in radians. In this calculation it is assumed that y = f ( x ) is
Some authors use tan−1 ( x ) to denote the arctan- continuous and not negative on the interval [ a, b].
gent function. This notation is due to the fact that Read also «Definite integral».
24
Argand diagram–Arithmetic progression
Argand diagram The Argand diagram is a coordi- Argumentum ad absurdum Synonym of reductio
nate system with the real numbers in the horizon- ad absurdum.
tal axis and the imaginary numbers in the vertical
axis, so that the complex number z = a + i b is
Read also «Reductio ad absurdum» and «Proof by
contradiction».
A
represented geometrically as the point in the co-
ordinates ( a, b). Arithmetic Branch of mathematics that study the
properties and the relationships of quantities ex-
pressed as numbers, as well as their properties
Im(z) under the operations of addition, subtraction,
z = 3 + 2i multiplication and division.
2
Arithmetic mean The mean, or arithmetic mean x
of a sample of n data { x1 , x2 , · · · , xn }, is:
1
x + x2 + · · · + x n
x= 1
0 Re(x) n
0 1 2 3 In other words, the arithmetic mean of a sample
is equal to the average of the data.
The arithmetic mean of two (positive) numbers is
Argument (Analysis) The argument of a function
greater than the geometric mean, and the geomet-
is the value of its domain in which it is evaluated.
ric mean is greater than the harmonic mean:
For example, if the argument of the cosine func-
tion is π 2 + 1,then we write: cos(π 2 + 1). a+b √ 2 ab
It is worth mentioning that there are functions ≥ ab ≥
2 a+b
that require several arguments. For instance,
Furthermore,
xy n
f ( x, y) = p an + bn a+b
1 + x 2 + y2 >
2 2
is a function of two variables, and therefore, two That is, the arithmetic mean of the n−th powers
arguments (x, y) are needed to compute it value. is greater than the n−th power of the arithmetic
(Complex variable) The argument of the complex mean.
number z = a + i b, denoted by Arg(z), is the
magnitude of the angle φ that the geometric rep- Arithmetic-geometric mean The arithmetic-
resentation of z forms with the real (horizontal) geometric mean of the numbers a and b is de-
axis. noted as MAG( a, b) and is calculated iteratively
by defining a0 = a, and b0 = b, and using
I a+b
a n +1 =
b p2
bn + 1 = a n · bn
i b
until an ≈ bn with a certain predefined preci-
a+ sion.
z =
Arithmetic progression Sequence whose terms
ϕ have the property that any two consecutive terms
R have a constant difference.
a
The first term in the list is denoted by a1 and the
common (or constant) difference by d.
In the figure above, the complex number argu-
ment z = a + i b is φ. a1 , a2 = a1 + d, a3 = a1 + 2 d, · · ·
The principal value of the z argument is consid- Therefore, the arithmetic progression is a numer-
ered in the interval [0, 2 π ). ical sequence defined by a first term a1 and a con-
(Logic) Oral or written expression that expresses stant difference d, whose elements satisfy:
an idea that tries to justify, demonstrate or refute
some proposition. a i +1 = a i + d
25
Arithmetic triangle–Astroid
The n−th term an of the progression is obtained compute its value.
using the formula: Depending on the number of arguments required,
A a n = a1 + d ( n − 1)
the name of the arity of the function or operator
changes.
And the sum Sn of the first n terms with:
No. arguments Name
( a + an ) n
Sn = 1 0 Nullary
2 1 Unary
For example, let a1 = 5 and d = 3, then the terms 2 Binary
of the arithmetic progression are: a1 = 5, a2 = 8, 3 Ternary
a3 = 11, a4 = 14, etc.
Given a1 , an , d and Sn , then Arrangement Given a set with n elements, the
a n − a1 number of arrangements equals the number of
n=1+ ways to choose k elements, where a change in the
d
a n + a1 ( an + a1 )( an − a1 ) order of the elements creates a different arrange-
Sn = + ment.
2 2d
For example, suppose you want to create three-
Given an , d and n, then color flags using 10 different colors. Obviously,
if you change the order of the colors you get a
a1 = a n − d ( n − 1) different flag. The number of different flags that
n we can create is equal to the number of 3-color
Sn = [2 an − d (n − 1)]
2 arrangements out of the ten available. Arrange-
Given Sn , d and n, then ment is synonymous with permutation.
Read also «Permutation» and «Combination».
Sn ( n − 1) d
a1 = − Arroba Unit of weight that is equal to 11.4 kg, or
n 2
Sn ( n − 1) d equivalently 25 pounds.
an = +
n 2 Associative property The associative property for
Given a , a and n, then the sum is:
1 n
a n − a1 ( a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
d=
n−1
and for multiplication:
( a1 + a n ) n
Sn =
2 ( a · b) · c = a · (b · c)
The arithmetic progression is also known as arith- Read also «Real number».
metic sequence.
Astroid An astroid is the locus of a point in a cir-
Arithmetic triangle Triangular array of numbers cle of radius b that rolls (without sliding) within
used to compute the coefficients of the binomial a fixed circle of radius a = 4 b.
( a + b)n . It is also known as the Pascal’s triangle
and as the Pascal’s tetrahedron. y
Read also «Pascal’s triangle» and «Newton’s bino-
mial». a
Arity The arity of a mathematical operator or of
a function is the number of arguments that are
required to be able to compute the value of the
function or to perform the operation indicated by x
the operator. −a a
For example, the square root is of arity 1, and the
sum (+) is of arity 2p(it’s a binary operator), the
function f ( x, y) = x2 + y2 is of arity 2, since
two arguments are required, x, y to be able to −a
26
Asymmetric–Asymptotic discontinuity
Its equation in rectangular coordinates is: y
x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 A
2 1
And its parametric equations are: y= +1
x
x (t) = a cos3 (t) 1
Asymptote
y(t) = a sin3 (t)
x
This curve encloses an area of 3 π a2 /8 square 0 1 2 3 4 5
units, and its 6 a linear units in length.
The astroid is also known as tetracuspid. (2.) In a hyperbola, the asymptotes are the lines
that pass through the center of the hyperbola and
Asymmetric A geometric figure is asymmetrical through the vertices of the rectangle with sides
when it does not present some type of symmetry. equal in length to the transverse axis and the con-
jugate axis.
y
As e
ym
pto p tot
te ym
As
b
x
Asymmetry (Statistics) It is a number that mea- F 0 −a a F
sures the bias of the probability distribution, and −b
is defined as the third moment with respect to the
mean of the random variable X:
h i
µ3 = E ( X − µ )3 Read also «Equation of Hyperbola».
Asymptotic curve A curve that is always tangent
The third moment with respect to the mean of to the asymptotic direction of a surface.
the random variable X divided by the cube of the
standard deviation consists of a standard moment, z
or normalized moment, and it is known as the coef-
ficient of the Pearson moment of asymmetry.
" 3 #
X−µ µ3
µ̃3 = E =
σ σ3
A negative value for asymmetry indicates that the y
x
tail of the probability distribution graph is on the
left (the values with the highest probability are
on the right) and a positive value for asymmetry Asymptotic discontinuity A function y = f ( x )
indicates that the tail of the graph is on the right presents an asymptotic discontinuity at the point
(the most likely values are predominantly to the x = x0 if there are lateral limits (on the left and
left of the mean). on the right) and both are infinite:
The asymmetry of the random variable X also
known as its skewness. lim f ( x ) = ±∞
x → x0−
Read also «skewness».
lim f ( x ) = ±∞
x → x0+
Asymptote (1.) A curve is said to have an asymp-
tote if it gets closer and closer to a straight line Geometrically, the graph of the function at the
without actually touching it. The straight line point x0 is undefined; and the limit of the func-
represents the asymptote of the curve. tion at x0 exists when both limits (from the left
27
Augmented cube–Augmented hexagonal prism
and from the right) coincide. It can also happen
that the lateral limits are different, one equal to ∞
A and the other one equal to −∞.
x
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √
V= 95 + 43 5 a3
24
√ r q
5 √ √
A= √ 310 + 121 5 + 11 75 + 30 5a2
2 2
Augmented cube Polyhedron that has 24 faces in
the shape of equilateral triangles. It also has 14 The augmented dodecahedron is a Johnson solid.
vertices and 36 edges.
Augmented equilateral tetrahedron Polyhedron
that has 60 faces in the shape of an equilateral
triangle. It also has 32 vertices and 90 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√
5 2 3
V= a
12√
A = 15 3 a2
The augmented equilateral tetrahedron is ob-
tained by adding a regular tetrahedron to each
of the faces of a regular tetrahedron.
The augmented cube is obtained by adding a
square pyramid on each of the cube’s faces.
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
its area A are:
√
V = 1 + 2 a3
√
A = 6 3 a2
Read also «Deltahedron».
Augmented dodecahedron Polyhedron with 16
faces, of which 5 are equilateral triangles and 11
are regular pentagons. It also has 21 vertices and
35 edges. Augmented hexagonal prism Polyhedron that has
The augmented dodecahedron is obtained by 11 faces of which 4 are equilateral triangles, 5 are
adding a pentagonal pyramid to one of the faces squares, and the other two are regular hexagons.
of the dodecahedron. It also has 13 vertices and 22 edges.
28
Augmented icosahedron–Augmented pentagonal prism
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its The augmented matrix corresponding to this sys-
area A are: tem of linear equations is:
V=
1 √ √
2 + 9 3 a3
a11 a12 a13 b1
A
a21 a22 a23 b2
6 √
A = 5 + 4 3 a2 a31 a32 a33 b3
And its corresponding matrix of coefficients is:
The augmented hexagonal prism is a Johnson
solid that is obtained by adding a square pyramid a11 a12 a13
to an equatorial face of a hexagonal prism. a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
In general, an augmented matrix A is a matrix
formed by the concatenation of two matrices B and
C of the same number of lines, separated by a ver-
tical bar (|).
For example, if
b11 b12 b13
B = and
b21 b22 b23
c11 c12 c13
C =
Augmented icosahedron Polyhedron that has 60 c21 c22 c23
faces in the shape of an equilateral triangle. It
also has 32 vertices and 90 edges. then, the augmented matrix A = [ B|C ], is:
b11 b12 b13 c11 c12 c13
A=
b21 b22 b23 c21 c22 c23
The main part of the augmented matrix is written
to the left of the vertical bar and the augmented
part (C) to its right.
Augmented pentagonal prism Polyhedron that
has 10 faces, of which 4 are equilateral triangles,
4 are squares, and 2 are regular pentagons. It also
has 11 vertices and 19 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
r q
1 √ √
V= 233 + 90 5 + 12 50 + 20 5 a3
12 r q !
The augmented icosahedron is obtained by 1 √ √
adding a tetrahedron to each of the faces of an A= 8 + 37 + 10 5 + 4 75 + 30 5 a2
2
icosahedron.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its The augmented pentagonal prism is a Johnson
area A are: solid that is obtained by adding a pyramid with a
5 √ √ square base to one of the faces of the regular right
V= 3 + 4 2 + 5 a3 pentagonal prism.
12 √
2
A = 15 3 a
Read also «Deltahedron».
Augmented matrix Given a system of linear equa-
tions
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3
29
Augmented sphenocorona–Augmented truncated cube
Augmented sphenocorona Polyhedron that has 17 Augmented tridiminished icosahedron Polyhe-
faces of which 16 are equilateral triangles and one dron that has 10 faces, of which 7 have the shape
A is a square. It also has 11 vertices and 26 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
of an equilateral triangle and 3 have the shape of
a regular pentagon. It also has 10 vertices and 18
area A are: edges.
s r
q √
1 3 1
V= 1+3 + 13 + 3 6 + √ a3
2 2 3 2
√
A = 1 + 4 3 a2
The augmented sphenocorona is a Johnson solid
that is obtained by adding a square pyramid to a
square face of the sphenocorona.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √ √
V= 15 + 2 2 + 7 5 a3
24s
1 3 √ q √ 2
A= 62 + 15 5 + 7 75 + 30 5 a
2 2
The augmented tridiminished icosahedron is a
Johnson solid.
Augmented truncated cube Geometric solid that
Augmented triangular prism Polyhedron that has
has 22 faces, of which 12 are equilateral triangles,
8 faces, of which 2 are squares and 6 are equilat-
5 are squares, and 5 are regular octagons. It also
eral triangles. It also has 7 vertices and 13 edges.
has 28 vertices and 48 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
area A are:
its area A are:
1 √ √ √ !
V= 2 2 + 3 3 a3 16 2
12
√ ! V = 8+ a3
3
3 3
A= 2+ a2 √ √
2 A = 15 + 10 2 + 3 3 a2
The augmented triangular prism is a Johnson The augmented truncated cube is a Johnson solid
solid that is obtained by adding a pyramid with a that is obtained by adding a square cupola to an
square base to one of the faces of the right trian- octagonal face of the truncated cube.
gular prism.
30
Augmented truncated dodecahedron–Auxiliary circumference
Augmented truncated dodecahedron Polyhedron
formed by 42 faces, of which 25 are equilateral
triangles, 5 are squares, 11 are regular decagons
and one is a regular pentagon. It also has 65 ver-
A
tices and 105 edges.
The augmented truncated dodecahedron is a
Johnson solid that is obtained by adding a pentag-
onal cupola on a decagonal face of the truncated
dodecahedron.
Automedian triangle A triangle that lies in a plane
whose medians are proportional to the sides of
the triangle.
That is, the triangle with sides equal to the
lengths of the medians of the given triangle is
similar to the given triangle.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
49
31
1 √
A= 20 + 25 3 + k a2
4
V ≈ 87.3637 a3
where 41
q r
√ √
k = 110 5+2 5+ 5 5+2 5 If a, b, and c are the lengths of its sides, then
2 a2 = b2 + c2
Some triplets ( a, b, c) that form automedian trian-
Augmented truncated tetrahedron Polyhedron gles are: (1, 1, 1), (13, 17, 7), (17, 23, 7), (25, 31, 17),
that has 14 faces, of which 8 are equilateral trian- (37, 47, 23), and (41, 49, 31).
gles, 3 are squares, and 3 are regular hexagons. Read also «Pythagorean triplet» and «Fermat’s right
In addition, it has 15 vertices and 27 edges. triangle theorem».
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its Autonomous equation Differential equation of the
area A are: form:
√ dy
= f (y)
11 2 2 dt
V= a
4 in which the independent variable t does not ap-
√ !
13 3 pear.
A= 3+ a3 The autonomous equation is also called time-
2
invariant equation, when the independent variable
is t.
The augmented truncated tetrahedron is a John-
son solid that is generated by adding a triangular Auxiliary circumference Synonym of eccentric cir-
cupola to a hexagonal face of the truncated tetra- cumference.
hedron. Read also «Eccentric circumference».
31
Auxiliary rectangle–Axis
Auxiliary rectangle In a hyperbola, the auxiliary
rectangle is the rectangle that has its vertices on
A the asymptotes of the hyperbola, and one pair of
Axis of symmetry
its sides are tangent to the graph of the hyperbola,
touching it at their vertices.
x Axiom Statement that is accepted as true and that
0 aF
F−a
is used to demonstrate other statements (theo-
−b rems, lemmas, propositions, etc.)
Axioms are not proven, but accepted as true, or
considered self-evident. They are the basis of all
mathematical theory, since from them all known
results in each branch of mathematics are de-
duced.
For example, «the sum of two real numbers is another
Average Given n data { x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn }, its aver- real number», is an axiom.
age x is: Read also «Proof ».
x1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + x n ∑ xi Axiom of existence Axiom that supposes the exis-
x= =
n n tence of an object or several mathematical objects.
where ∑ xi indicates the sum of all values xi .
The average is also known as «arithmetic mean».
Read also «Sigma notation», «Mean» and «Arith- Axiom of separation If P is a property and X is a
metic mean». set, then there exists a set Y:
Y = { x ∈ X : x satisfies the property P}
Avogadro constant Number of elementary entities
(molecules, atoms, electrons, etc.) in one mole of The axiom of separation is also known as axiom of
some substance. It is denoted by NA and it is specification.
equal to:
Axiom of the empty set There exists a set that has
NA = 6.022 140 857 × 1023 mol−1 no elements and is denoted as ∅ or {}.
Read also «Empty set».
A mole is the unit corresponding to the amount
of substance in the international system of units. Axiomatic system A sequential and systematic
When the Avogadro’s constant is considered way of organizing a theory of the exact sciences.
without units it is known as the Avogadro number. Read also «Axiom», «Lemma», «Theorem», «Propo-
sition» and «Proof ».
Axial symmetry A geometric object exhibits axial Axis Straight line that serves as a reference to con-
symmetry when it has a line of symmetry. That struct a coordinate system.
line is said to be the axis of symmetry of the fig- Generally the axes are drawn perpendicular. In
ure. rectangular coordinates the horizontal axis is la-
For example, the isosceles triangle has line sym- beled with the literal x and the vertical axis with
metry. the literal y.
32
Axis of symmetry–Azimuth
y Read also «Square» (Geometry).
3 Azimuth In the spherical coordinate system, the
azimuth angle (θ) is the one formed between the
A
2 reference axis (the x axis of the rectangular sys-
Axis y tem of coordinates) and the projection on the xy
1 plane (in rectangular coordinates) of the segment
from the origin to P(ρ, θ, ϕ).
Axis x
x z
1 2 3 4
z
In some figures, one or more axes are defined to
be used as a reference. For example, in conic sec- P (x, y, z)
tions.
Read also «Coordinate», «Conic», «Parabola», «El- φ P (ρ, θ, φ)
lipse», «Hyperbola», «Cartesian plane», «Complex ρ
plane», «Argand diagram» and «System of cartesian y
θ y
coordinates». x
Axis of symmetry The line that divides a geomet- x
ric figure into two equal parts that can be super-
imposed one on the other by folding the figure on In spherical coordinates the range for the azimuth
this line. angle θ is 0 ≤ θ < 2 π. For the establishment of
For example, the square has four lines of symme- triple integrals, the integration limits usually go
try. The following figure shows a square with one from θ = 0 to θ = 2 π.
of its axes. Read also «Triple integral».
ry
et
m
m
sy
of
s
xi
A
33
A
34
B
Back substitution Technique that is applied in the y
Gaussian elimination method to calculate the val-
ues of the unknowns once a triangular matrix has y = f (x)
been obtained after having applied elementary
operations on the rows of the augmented matrix. f (x)
For example, in the system of equations, f (x) − f (x − h)
f (x − h)
h
x + y + z = 10
2x+y−z=2 x
x−hx
x + 2 y + z = 13
Bar chart A way of graphing data that facilitates
First we write the system of equations as an aug-
comparison between different groups of data.
mented matrix:
The bar chart shows quantitatively through hori-
1 1 1 10 zontal or vertical bars of the same thickness with
2 1 −1 2 heights proportional to the quantities being rep-
1 2 1 13 resented.
After applying the Gaussian elimination method
to this matrix it is obtained:
90
1 1 1 10
0 −1 −3 −18
Grade
0 0 1 5 80
From here the back substitution method is ap-
plied. To this end, notice that the third row in- 70
dicates that z =5, while the second row indicates
that y + 3 z =18. Substituting the value of z into
this equation, the value of the unknown y = 3 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
can be readily calculated. Knowing the values of Mathematics Language History
y and z we can calculate the value of x substitut-
ing in the first equation: x + 3 + 5 = 10 which Vertical bars are commonly drawn to facilitate
implies that x = 2. comparison, although it is also sometimes con-
Read also «Gaussian elimination method». venient to consider horizontal bars, particularly
Backward difference Finite difference of the form: when due to the amount of data groups to be
compared, the size of the diagram requires more
∇h [ f ] ( x ) = f ( x ) − f ( x − h) space.
Barycenter–Base
Barycenter The center of gravity of a triangle is the
point at which its three medians meet.
B
Baricenter Base
(2.) The base of a triangle is one of its sides from
which the height is measured.
The center of gravity is the centroid of the trian-
gle.
Read also «Median» and «Centroid».
Base (Arithmetic) (1.) In the expression br = p the h
base is the number b that is multiplied the num-
ber of times indicated by the exponent (n).
Exponent
Base
Base 25 = 32 Power (3.) The base of a polyhedron is the face from
25 = 2| × 2 ×{z
2 × 2 × 2 = 32 which the height of the polyhedron will be mea-
}
5 factors sured.
(2.) The base of a numeration system is the num-
ber that is used to build the numbers. Usually
the base 10 is used, that is why it is said that the
system of numeration has a decimal base.
h
3 2
2 375 = 2 × 10 + 3 × 10 + 7 × 10 + 5
For example, the mayan culture used a system of
numeration base 20 (they counted by 20’s).
Read also «Binary».
(3.) The base of the logarithm loga M is the num-
ber a. Read also «Pyramid» and «Polyhedron».
For example, in log5 125 = 3, the base is 5. (Linear algebra) A set of n vectors
The base of the logarithm can be changed using: {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn } is a base of the vector space V
of dimension n, if (i) the set of vectors is linearly
logb M independent, and (ii) the set generates the vector
loga M = space V .
logb a
Any set of n linearly independent vectors in Rn
For example, to compute log5 10 using ths for- is a base for the space Rn .
mula, write in the scientific calculator log 10 ÷ A vector space of dimension n has a base that is
log 5 and you will obtain: 1.430676558. In this a set of (exactly) n linearly independent vectors.
case: M = 10, b = 10 and a = 5. For example, with two non-collinear vectors, and
(Geometry) (1.) The base of a polygon is the side different from zero ⃗u, ⃗v a set of vectors can be
on which it rests. created {⃗u, ⃗v} that works as a base for a plane.
36
Basic feasible solution–Bernoulli differential equation
z (P( B| A)) is equal to the product of the probability
of event A occurring given that B has already oc-
curred (P( A| B)) by the probability of occurrence
of the event B (P( B)), divided by the probability
y of occurrence of the event A (P( A)). B
Beal’s conjecture If
x
~u
~v
A x + By = C z
where A, B, C, x, y, z are nonzero integers with
x, y, z ≥ 3, then A, B and C have a prime com-
mon factor.
This is an unsolved problem in mathematics.
A vector ⃗v of the vector space V can be uniquely Bell series The Bell series of an arithmetic function
written as a linear combination of the vectors f (n), and a prime number p, is:
{⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn } of the base of V .
∞
⃗v = c1 ⃗v1 + c2 ⃗v2 + · · · + cn ⃗vn f p (x) = ∑ f ( pn ) x n
n =0
Read also «Linear independence», «Linear combina-
tion» and «Vector space».
Basic feasible solution In a linear programming Benchmark angles Angles that are frequently
problem with m constraints and n variables (in- found in geometric constructions and in solving
cluding slack variables), a solution is a basic fea- problems involving triangles or polygons in gen-
sible solution if it has m nonzero variables and eral.
n − m variables equal to zero. The notable angles are: 0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ .
Geometrically, the basic feasible solutions are at
the vertices of the polygon corresponding to the
90◦
feasible region of the problem in question. 60 ◦
45 ◦
Basic variable In the solution of a system of lin-
ear equations that has more unknowns than ◦
30
equations, the value of the basic variables
x1 , x2 , · · · , xk , depends on the value of other vari-
ables xk+1 , · · · , xn , called free variables.
For example, in the system of equations: 0◦
x1 − 3 x3 = 2 Benchmark angles are also known as notable an-
x2 − 2 x3 = 5 gles.
The solution is obviously
Bernoulli differential equation Nonlinear ordi-
x1 = 2 + 3 x3 nary differential equation of the form:
x2 = 5 + 2 x3
dy
+ p( x ) y = yn q( x )
The basic variables are x1 and x2 , because their dx
value depend on the free variable x3 .
where n is a real number.
Bayes’ theorem Let A and B be any two events If n = 0, it is a linear equation, and if n = 1 the
with non-zero probability of occurrence. Then, equation is separable. For other values of n the
change of variable v = y1−n can be used to get:
P( A| B) · P( B)
P( B| A) =
P( A) dv
− (n − 1) p( x ) v = −(n − 1) q( x )
In words, the probability of the event B occur- dx
ring given that the event A has already occurred
37
Bernoulli distribution–Bernoulli’s theorem
Bernoulli distribution A random variable X with where n > 0 and 0 ≤ k ≤ n. Besides,
two possible results (called success and failure) has
a Bernoulli distribution, if and only if, its proba- n
T (n, k ) = T (n, k − 1) +
bility distribution is of the form: k
B f ( x; θ ) = θ x (1 − θ )1− x
A part of Bernoulli’s triangle is shown below.
for x = 0, 1, where θ is the probability of success
and 1 − θ is the probability of failure. k 0 1 2 3 4 5
Read also «Binomial distribution». n
Bernoulli method Method to decompose a ratio- 0 1
nal algebraic expression (with polynomials in the 1 1 2
numerator and in the denominator) into simple 2 1 3 4
algebraic fractions, with linear or quadratic de- 3 1 4 7 8
nominators at most. 4 1 5 11 15 16
For example, 5 1 6 16 26 31 32
1
=
x3 −x Bernoulli’s inequality Inequality established by
1 Jacob Bernoulli, which states that:
=
x ( x + 1) ( x − 1)
A
= +
B
+
C (1 + x ) n ≥ 1 + n x
x x+1 x−1
A ( x + 1)( x − 1) + B x ( x − 1) + C x ( x + 1) for any integer number n ≥ 0 and for any real
=
x ( x + 1) ( x − 1) number x ≥ −1. If n is even, then the inequality
holds for all x ∈ R.
Multiplying by x ( x + 1) ( x − 1), and considering To justify this inequality by induction, note that it
the first and last fractions of the previous system holds for n = 1.
of equalities, we obtain:
1 = A ( x + 1)( x − 1) + B x ( x − 1) + C x ( x + 1) (1 + x )1 ≥ 1 + x
Substituting x = 0 it follows, 1 = − A. That is,
Assuming it is true for n = k, since 1 + x ≥ 0,
A = −1.
multiplying by 1 + x both sides of the inequality,
Substituting x = −1 it follows, 1 = 2 B. That is,
it is obtained
B = 1/2.
Substituting x = 1 it follows, 1 = 2 C. That is,
(1 + x )k+1 ≥ (1 + x )(1 + k x )
C = 1/2. Therefore,
= 1 + x + k x + k x2
1 1 1 1
=− + + = 1 + (1 + k ) x + k x 2
x3 −x x 2 ( x + 1) 2 ( x − 1)
≥ 1 + (1 + k ) x
Read also «Partial fractions».
Bernoulli trial Random experiment in which there Which was to be proved.
is only one of two possible outcomes (success or
failure). Bernoulli’s theorem If in a randomized experi-
For each Bernoulli trial, if p is the probability of ment for each trial there can be only one of two
success, then 1 − p is the probability of failure. possible outcomes (called success and failure),
Bernoulli’s trial is also known as Binomial essay. and if p is the probability of success, then the
Read also «Experiment». probability of obtaining r times success in n es-
says, is:
Bernoulli triangle Array of partial sums of the bi-
nomial coefficients, such that the element T (n, k) n r
P (r ) = p (1 − p ) n −r
of the n−th row and k−th column is: r
k
n Read also «Bernoulli trial» and «Binomial distribu-
T (n, k) = ∑
i =0
i tion».
38
Bertrand’s postulate–Bezier curve
Bertrand’s postulate For any integer n > 3, there The beta function satisfies B( x, y) = B(y, x ) for all
exists at least one prime number p that satisfies: x, y. Moreover,
n < p < 2n−2 m+n
This conjecture was proved by Chebyshev, which B(m, n) =
( m − 1) ! ( n − 1) !
( m + n − 1) !
=
m·n
m+n
B
is why it is also known as Bertrand–Chebyshev the- m·n
orem.
for m, n positive integers.
Bessel’s differential equation The differential
equation of the form Bezier curve Parametric curve obtained as the
trace of a point moving at constant speed in a seg-
d 2y dy ment whose ends, in turn, also move at constant
x2 2 + x + x 2 − n2 y = 0 speed over segments whose ends are known fixed
dx dx
points.
where n is an arbitrary number, known as the or- Consider two points A and B, and the segment
der of the Bessel function. AB. On this segment a point moves so that it trav-
Best fit curve A function that fits a data set of the els the distance from A to B in one unit of time.
form: In this case, the Bezier curve is the segment AB.
The parametric equations that correspond to this
{( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ), · · · , ( xn , yn )} Bezier curve are:
To obtain the best fit curve, there are techniques x ( t ) = x a + t ( x b − x a ) = (1 − t ) x a + t x b
such as the least squares method, regression anal- y ( t ) = y a + t ( y b − y a ) = (1 − t ) y a + t y b
ysis, among others.
Read also «Least squares method» and «Simple linear for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, where A( x a , y a ), and B( xb , yb ).
regression». In the case of three points A, B and C, consider
the segments AB and BC. On AB the point P is
Beta distribution A random variable X has a beta moving, and on BC the point Q is moving, so that
distribution, if and only if, its probability density both travel the distance between the ends of each
is given by: segment in a unit of time. On the segment PQ
another point R moves at constant speed, so that
Γ ( α + β ) α −1 it covers the length of the segment in one unit of
f (x) = x (1 − x ) β −1
Γ(α)Γ( β) time, and whose trace is the Bezier curve.
for 0 < x < 1, and f ( x ) = 0 for any other value y
of x, where α > 0, β > 0, and Γ is the gamma B
function.
The mean of the beta distribution is:
α
µ=
α+β
The variance of the beta distribution is: A
αβ
σ2 = C
(α + β )2 ( α + β + 1)
x
Beta function The beta function is defined as:
The parametric equations of this Bezier curve
Z1 are:
B( x, y) = t x−1 (1 − t)y−1 · dt
0 x ( t ) = x a + (1 − t )2 ( x a − x b ) + t2 ( x c − x b )
y ( t ) = y a + (1 − t )2 ( y a − y b ) + t2 ( y c − y b )
where x, y are complex numbers whose real parts
are positive and the literal B is the uppercase beta for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, where A( x a , y a ), B( xb , yb ), and
Greek letter. C ( x c , y c ).
39
Bézout’s identity–Biaugmented truncated cube
This process can be generalized to more points,
obtaining parametric equations of degree 3, 4, 5,
etc.
B Bézout’s identity If a and b are integers with great-
est common divisor d, then there are integers x
and y such that:
ax+by = d
The integer numbers x and y are colled Bézout co- Biaugmented triangular prism Polyhedron that
efficients of a and b. has 11 faces, of which 10 are in the form of an
If a = 0, and b = 0, then (0, 0) = 0. equilateral triangle and one is a square. It also
In general, numbers of the form a x + b y are the has 8 vertices and 17 edges.
multiples of d. If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
Bi- Prefix that is used to indicate two, or the dou- s
ble of something. 59 1
For example, binomial, is a polynomial that has V= + √ a3
144 6
two non-similar terms. √ !
5 3
A= 1+ a2
Bias A characteristic of the distribution of data in 2
a population that indicates that the population is
not symmetric. This polyhedron is a Johnson solid that is ob-
Colloquially it is said that a datum has bias if it tained by adding a pyramid with a square base to
was calculated in such a way that it is (system- two equatorial faces of the right triangular prism.
atically) different from the population parameter
that is estimated, but in statistics it does not have
this meaning.
In this sense, a biased sample is a sample that is
not representative of the population from which
it was taken.
Read also «Asymmetry».
Biased sample Sample that is not representative of
the population from which it was taken.
Biaugmented pentagonal prism Polyhedron that
has 13 faces, of which 8 are triangles, 3 are
squares, and 2 are pentagons. It also has 12 ver- Biaugmented truncated cube Geometric solid that
tices and 23 edges. has 30 faces, of which 16 are equilateral triangles,
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its 10 are squares, and 4 are regular octagons. It also
area A are: has 32 vertices and 60 edges.
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
r q its area A are:
1 √ √
V= 257 + 90 5 + 24 50 + 20 5 a3 √ 3
12 r q ! V = 9 + 6 2 a
1 √ √ 2 √ √
A= 6 + 73 + 10 5 + 8 75 + 30 5 a A = 18 + 8 2 + 4 3 a2
2
The biaugmented pentagonal prism is a Johnson The biaugmented truncated cube is a Johnson
solid that is obtained by adding a square-based solid that is obtained by adding a square cupola
pyramid to two non-adjacent equatorial faces of to two opposite octagonal faces of the truncated
the regular right pentagonal prism. cube.
40
Biconditional–Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
And its parametric equations are:
x (t) = a sin(t) cos3 (t)
y(t) = a sin(t) cos2 (t)
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π where t is in radians. B
y
a a = 6.0
2
Biconditional Logical operator denoted by ↔ 1
(read as, «if and only if »).
The value of thruth of p ↔ q (read as «p if and
only if q»), when both, p and q are true, or both x
− a2 1 a
2
are false.
The truth table for this logical operator is shown
below. Bifrustum Polyhedron that is obtained by joining
two congruent (identical) frusta by their respec-
p q p ↔ q tive bases.
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
where T means true, and F means false.
Bidimensional We say that a figure or an object is
bidimensional when it is two-dimensional. That
is, when a figure is in the plane, we say that it is
two-dimensional.
Bienaymé–Chebyshev inequality If X is a random If it was built from an n sided frustrum, then
variable with expected value µ and finite variance the bifrustum has 2 n + 2 faces, of which 2 n are
σ2 > 0, then for any real number k > 0, isosceles trapezoids and the other two faces are
regular polygons of n sides.
1
P (| X − µ| ≥ k σ) ≤
k2 Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Polyhedron with 52 faces, of which one is a reg-
That is, of all the values of the distribution, no
ular decagon, 11 are regular pentagons, 25 are
more than 1/k2 can be k standard deviations away
squares, and 15 are equilateral triangles. It also
from its mean.
has 55 vertices and 105 edges.
This inequality is also known as Chebyshev’s in-
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
equality.
area A are:
Read also «Chebyshev’s sum inequality».
Bifolium Polar curve whose equation in polar co- V ≈ 39.2913 a3 !
√
ordinates is: 15 3
A = 25 + + k a2
4
ρ = a sin(θ ) cos2 (θ )
where
Its equation in rectangular coordinates is: s √ q
2 55 2 5 5 √
2
x +y 2
= ax y2 k = 1 + + 5+2 5
4 5 2
41
Bijective function–Bimodal
This polyhedron is a Johnson solid that is ob-
tained by removing a pentagonal cupola from
a rhombicosidodecahedron and rotating 36◦ two
pentagonal cupolas.
B
The bilunabirotunda is a Johnson solid.
Bimedian The bimedian of a convex quadrilateral
is the line segment that has its ends at the mid-
points of opposite sides of the quadrilateral.
Bijective function A function is bijective if it is R
both injective and surjective.
For example, the function y = x3 is a bijective D
function. Q
Read also «Injective function» and «Surjective func-
tion». P
Bilinski dodecahedron Polyhedron that has 12
congruent faces in the shape of a golden rhom- A
S
bus. It also has 14 vertices and 24 edges. B
In the figure above, the points P, Q, R, S are the
midpoints of the sides of the quadrilateral ABCD,
respectively. The segments PQ and RS are the bi-
medians of the quadrilateral ABCD.
Read also «Concave» and «Convex».
Bimodal When the frequency diagram of a popula-
tion presents two classes with the same maximum
frequency, we say that it is bimodal. That is, the
two values are the most frequent, and therefore,
both are the mode of the population. Hence the
prefix bi.
This polyhedron is also known as dodecarombus
f
and as golden rhombic dodecahedron.
Bilunabirotunda Polyhedron that has 14 faces of
which 8 are equilateral triangles, 2 are squares
and 4 are regular pentagons. It also has 14 ver-
tices and 26 edges.
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
and its area A are:
1 √
V= 17 + 9 5 a3
12 !
r
√ √ x
A= 2+2 3+ 5 5+2 5 a2 A B C D E F
42
Binary–Binet’s formula
In the shown histogram, classes C and E have the y
same (maximum) frequency. Therefore, this dis- y = log2 (x)
tribution is a bimodal one. 2
Binary The binary system is the base 2 numbering
1 B
system, which uses the digits 1 and 0.
x
This system is used in the design of electronic 1 2 3 4
components, such as electronic circuits for com-
putational purposes. −1
The number 8 (eight) in binary system is:
10002 ,and the number 100 (one hundred) in this −2
numerical system is: 11001002 .
The subindex 2 indicates that the number is writ-
ten in the base 2 numbering system. −3
To convert from a decimal number (base 10) to its
equivalent in base 2, the number is divided by 2,
Some authors use the notation lb( x ) for the bi-
successively and the residuals of the divisions are
nary logarithm.
written in order from left to right. The result is
a sequence of zeros and ones that represent the Binary number system Positional numbering sys-
decimal number written in base 2. tem in base 2.
In the binary system, only the digits 0 and 1 are
used.
Quotient Residue
21 1 Base 10 Base 2 Base 10 Base 2
10 0
5 1 1 1 6 110
2 0 2 10 7 111
1 1 3 11 8 1000
4 100 9 1001
5 101 10 1010
Thus, 2110 = 101012 .
To convert a number written in base 2 to its dec- Binary operation A mathematical operation is bi-
imal equivalent, multiply its digits, from right to nary if exactly two arguments are required to
left, by the powers of 2, starting with 20 . perform it.
For example, to convert 101012 to base 10, For example, division is a binary operation.
21 ÷ 7 = 3
101012 = 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
= 1610 + 010 + 410 + 010 + 110 = 2110 Arguments are also called operands.
Read also «Arity».
If the number is written without indicating the Binary search method Synonym of bisection
base, it is understood that it is written in base 10. method.
Read also «Bisection method».
Binary variable A variable that can be assigned
only two values, usually denoted by 0 and 1.
Binary logarithm The logarithmic function base 2
Binet’s formula Formula to calculate the numbers
y = log2 ( x ) of the Fibonacci sequence,
φn − ϕn
is also known as the binary logarithm. Fn = √
5
43
Binomial–Binomial distribution
n
where: n
√ √
• ∑ i p i (1 − p ) n −i = 1
1+ 5 1− 5 i =0
φ= and ϕ= n
n
2 2 • ∑i = n 2n −1
B Read also «Fibonacci Sequence». i =0
n
1
i
n+1
2n +1 − 1
Binomial Polynomial formed by two non-similar • ∑ =
i =0
i+1 i n+1
terms.
For example, 2 x2 + x. n
n 2
2n
• ∑ =
Binomial coefficient Positive integers obtained as i =0
i n
coefficients of the terms of the expansion of the The binomial coefficient (ni) (for non-negative n, i,
n−th power of the binomial: with n ≥ i ≥ 0) represents the number of combi-
n nations of n objets, choosing i at a time. That is,
n i
( x + 1) n = ∑ x the binomial coefficient is the number of subsets
i =0
i
of i elements in a set of n elements.
Some authors use the notation Cni to represent the
where (ni) are the binomial coefficients
binomial coefficient (ni), and suggest reading it as
n n! binomial coefficient from n to i. That is, Cni repre-
= sents the number of different ways that i objects
i i! (n − i )!
can be selected from a set of n elements, regard-
for 0 ≤ i ≤ n, where i! is the factorial of i. less of the order of the elements. That is, two dif-
Substituting x = 1 in the binomial ( x + 1)n it is ferent selections made up of the same elements
obtained that the sum of its binomial coefficients are the same, regardless of the order in which
is 2n . they are considered. (choosing A and B is the
If k > n > 0, then the binomial coefficient is zero, same as choosing B and A).
which implies that the series: Read also «Newton’s binomial», «Pascal’s triangle»,
n «Combination» and «Factorial».
n i n 0 n 1 n n
∑ i x =
0
x +
1
x + · · · +
n
x Binomial distribution Distribution that indepen-
i =0
dent events with two possible and mutually ex-
has a finite number of terms. clusive results present.
By convention, if k < 0, the binomial coefficient is For example, tossing a coin ten times presents
zero. a binomial probability distribution, because this
The binomial coefficients also satisfy: event has two possible and mutually exclusive re-
sults.
n n The binomial distribution with parameters n and
• = =1
0 n p is the distribution of probability of x successes
n n in p trials (independent among of the other) each
• = =n one with probability of success p with 0 ≤ p ≤ 1.
1 n−1
Its density function is:
n n
• =
i n−i n!
f (x) = p x qn− x
n+1 n+1 n x! ( n − x )!
• =
i n−i+1 i • Expected value: E[ X ] = n p.
n n−i n
• = • Variance: σ2 = n p (1 − p).
i+1 i+1 i
• If n p is an integer number, then the mean,
n+1 n n the mode and the median are all equal to
• = +
i+1 i+1 i n p.
p
Other known results that involve binomial coeffi- • Standard deviation: σ = n p (1 − p).
cients are:
A trial is known as a Bernoulli trial or as a Bernoulli
n
n experiment.
• ∑ =2 n
i =0
i Read also «Binomial experiment».
44
Binomial equation–Binomial series
Binomial equation An equation of the form: Usually, the probability of a success on each trial
is denoted by p, while the probability of failure
xn − a = 0 with q, where q = 1 − p.
√ For example, the experiment may consist of flip-
and its solution is: x = n
a. ping a coin 10 times and success is getting tails
on each try. The random variable counts in how
B
Binomial expansion A binomial expansion con- many attempts out of 10 in each experiment you
sists of applying Newton’s binomial get tails.
n
Read also «Bernoulli trial».
n
( x + y) = ∑
n
x n−k yk Binomial formula Formula to calculate the n−th
k =0
k
power of a binomial.
to an algebraic expression consisting of the addi- n
n
tion (or subtraction) of two algebraic expressions ( x + y)n = ∑ x n−k yk
k =0
k
for n rational.
Let f (n) = ( x + y)n for n ∈ Z. From this, it fol- Read also «Newton’s binomial», «Binomial expan-
lows that sion» and «Fixed exponent method».
( x + y )m+n = ( x + y )m · ( x + y )n Binomial inequality For any real numbers a, b, it
holds:
That is to say, f (m + n) = f (m) · f (n). a2 + b2 ≥ 2 | ab|
Now let m = −n, then f (−n + n) = f (0) = 1. This result becomes plausible when considering
This indicates that the binomial expansion for- that
mula can be applied to negative integer expo-
nents. a2 + b2 ≥ 2 | ab| ⇒
On the other hand, if one considers 2 2
a − 2 | ab| + b ≥ 0 ⇒
2 2
q a ± 2 ab + b ≥ 0 ⇒
m = n = p = ··· =
k ( a ± b )2 ≥ 0
being in total k terms, then it is concluded that where the corresponding sign instead of ± will
the same formula can be applied for rational ex- depend on the sign of the product ab.
ponents.
Binomial probability In a binomial experiment,
For example,
the probability P( x ) of x successes in n trials is
1 1 1 3 5 4 given by:
(1 + x ) /2 = 1 + x − x2 +
1
x − x +···
2 8 16 128 n!
1 3 2 5 3 35 4 P( x ) = p x (1 − p ) n − x
(1 + x ) −1/2
=1− x+ x − x + x +··· x! ( n − x ) !
2 8 16 128
where p is the probability of success in each trial,
which is considered the same for all trials.
Read also «Binomial distribution».
Binomial experiment A binomial experiment is a
probabilistic experiment that meets the following Binomial series Series obtained by applying New-
conditions: ton’s binomial:
n
n
i. The experiment consists of carrying out a ( x + y) = ∑
n
x n−k yk
fixed number n of identical trials. k =0
k
ii. The result of each trial is independent of the to an algebraic expression consisting of the addi-
other trials. tion (or subtraction) of two algebraic expressions
for a (non-zero) rational n.
iii. There are exactly two possible outcomes for
For example,
each trial, usually labeled as success and fail-
ure. 1 3 5 3 35 4
(1 + x )−1/2 = 1 − x + x2 − x + x +···
iv. The random variable X counts the number 2 8 16 128
of successes obtained in the trials. Read also «Newton’s binomial».
45
Binomial theorem–Bipyramid
Binomial theorem For any non-negative integer n Bipyramid Polyhedron that is formed from two
the following holds: pyramids with equal bases (of n sides) joining
them symmetrically by their respective bases.
n
n i n −i If the base of a bipyramid has n sides, then the
( x + y) = ∑
n
B i =0
i
xy
bipyramid
faces.
has n + 2 vertices, 3 n edges and 2 n
The binomial theorem is also known as the New- The following figure shows the triangular bipyra-
ton’s binomial. mid.
Read also «Newton’s binomial»
Binormal vector Given a curve of the form:
⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
the binormal vector of this curve at the point t is
the vector:
⃗B(t) = T̂ (t) × N̂ (t)
where T̂ is a unit vector and tangent to the curve
at t, and N̂ is a unit vector normal to the curve at
t. That is,
d T̂
⃗r ′ (t) ds Next is the square bipyramid.
T̂ = ′ , N̂ =
∥⃗r (t)∥ d T̂
ds
where s is the arc length of ⃗r (t).
Tˆ B̂
~r(t) N̂
1
−1 −1
Next is the pentagonal bipyramid.
1 y
1
x
Since T̂ and N̂ are unit vectors, B̂ is also a unit
vector, because
∥⃗B∥ = ∥ T̂ ∥ ∥ N̂ ∥ sin θ
where sin θ = 1, since T̂ and N̂ are perpendicular
to each other.
Since T̂, N̂ and B̂, are unit vectors and mutually
perpendicular, they form an orthonormal basis
that is often used in physics as a reference sys-
tem moving along the curve ⃗r (t).
Read also «Frenet’s trihedron». Next is the hexagonal bipyramid.
46
Biquadratic equation–Biscribed pentakis dodecahedron
Biscribed pentagonal icositetrahedron Polyhe-
dron with 24 faces, all in the shape of a pentagon.
It also has 38 vertices and 60 edges.
And the next one is the heptagonal bipyramid.
If its circumradius measures a, then the shortest
edge measures
s
1 √ q √
· 3 11 − 4 3 − 1 + 8 3
3
its median edge measures
Read also «Deltahedron» and «Pyramid».
v !
Biquadratic equation Polynomial equation of de- u r
1 u √ √
gree 4. · t3 5 3 − 3 − 6 15 3 − 22
a x4 + b x3 + c x + d = 0 3
The term biquadratic is deprecated. It is more com-
mon to call this equation a polynomial equation Its longest edge measures
of degree 4.
v !
u r
Birthday problem Probability problem that asks to 1 u √ √
calculate the probability that in a group of n peo- · t3 15 − 5 3 − 6 15 3 − 22
3
ple 2 of them have the same birthday.
Making aside leap years, twin in the group, a ran-
domly formed group (without bias), the probabil- and its volume V and its inradius r are:
ity p(n) that two members of a group of n < 365 q
members share their birthdays is given by: 2 √ √
V= · 15 3 − 22 + (52 3 − 89) · a3
3
n! 365 a
p(n) = 1 − · r= q
365n n √ p √
7 + 5 3 − 103 + 60 3
where
365 365!
= Read also «Biscribed polyhedron».
n n! (365 − n)!
Obviously, by the pigeonhole principle, if n > 365
then there are necessarily at least two people shar- Biscribed pentakis dodecahedron Polyhedron
ing their birthday. with 60 faces in the form of isosceles triangles.
Read also «Birthday paradox». It also has 32 vertices and 90 edges.
47
Biscribed polyhedron–Biscribed truncated icosahedron
The biscribed polyhedron is also known as bi-
sphere polyhedron.
Read also «Inscribed sphere» and «Circumscribed
sphere».
B Biscribed snub cube Polyhedron with 38 faces of
which 6 are squares, 8 are equilateral triangles
and 24 are acute triangles. The biscribed snub
cube also has 24 vertices and 60 edges.
If its circumradius measures a, then its short edge
measures
v !
u r
1 u √
· t30 15 − 15 5 + 2 5 ·a
15
and its longest edge measures
1 √ √
· 15 − 3 · a
3
and its volume V and its inradius r measure:
r
2 √ If its inradius measures a, then its short edge mea-
V = · 10 5 − 5 · a3 sures
3
a s
r= s r √ q √
√ √ 2 6 + 5 3 − 103 + 60 3 · a
10 − 5 − 6 5 + 5
whereas its median edge measures
Read also «Biscribed polyhedron».
s
Biscribed polyhedron It is said that a convex poly- √ q √
hedron is a biscribed polyhedron if it is possible 3 6 + 5 3 − 103 + 60 3 · a
to draw both its inscribed sphere and its circum-
scribed sphere in such a way that both spheres Its longest edge measures
are concentric and their center is the centroid of r
the vertices of the circumscribed polyhedron and √ q √
it is also the centroid of the points of tangency of 27 + 16 3− 1441 + 832 3·a
the inscribed polyhedron.
and its volume V and its circumraduis R mea-
sure:
√ q √
V = 120 + 74 3 − 2 7411 + 4280 3 · a3
r q
√ √
R = 7 + 5 3 − 103 + 60 3 · a
Read also «Biscribed polyhedron».
Biscribed truncated icosahedron Polyhedron that
has 32 faces, of which 12 are regular pentagons
and 20 are hexagons with triple mirror symme-
try. It also has 60 vertices and 90 edges.
48
Biscribed truncated octahedron–Bisecting plane
√ √
measures 6 − 2 and its volume V and its cir-
cumscribed radius R are:
√
V = 20 2 − 3 · a3
q √ B
R= 5−2 3·a
Read also «Biscribed polyhedron».
Bisect (1.) Divide an angle into two equal parts.
The action of bisecting refers to drawing an axis
of symmetry of the angle (the bisector).
Read also «Bisector».
If its inradius
q measures a, its short edge mea- (2.) Divide a geometric object into two congruent
√ √
sures 2 (5 + 5) − 2 3, while its long edge parts.
measures: For example, to bisect a given segment AB, a ray
q is traced that passes through one of its ends (A),
1 √ √ √ and two points are marked with the compass P
· (5 3 − 15 − 2 (5 + 5))
2 and Q on the ray, such that ∥ AP∥ = ∥ PQ∥.
and its volume V and its circumradius R are:
r !
√ √
V = 10 2 145 − 19 5 − 8 3 · a3 Q
q √
1
R= 58 + 18 5·a P
4
Read also «Biscribed polyhedron».
A B
Biscribed truncated octahedron Polyhedron that
has 14 faces, of which 8 are hexagons with triple
mirror symmetry and the other 6 are squares. It Draw the segment QB, and parallel to it draw
also has 36 edges and 24 vertices. another segment passing through P meeting the
segment AB at M.
A M B
The point M bisects the segment AB. That is, M
is the midpoint of the segment AB.
If its inscribed radius
√ measures
√ a, then its short Bisecting plane Plane that divides a dihedral an-
edge measures 2 2 − 6, while its long edge gle into two dihedral angles of the same measure.
49
Bisection method–Bolzano’s theorem
i. If f ( a) · f (c) < 0, assign b = c and go to
step 2.
ii. If f ( a) · f (c) > 0, assign a = c and go to
step 2.
B
y = f (x)
y
f (b)
If
L1 : A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 x2
L2 : A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0 a x0 x1
x
b
are two planes that intersect, then the equation f (a)
L1 + λ L2 = 0, where λ = ±1 is a real number,
corresponds to the plane bisector of the dihedral
angle formed by L1 and L2 . When programming this algorithm it is conve-
Read also «Concurrent lines» and «Dihedral angle». nient to ensure that the algorithm ends after hav-
ing repeated a certain number of times.
Bisection method Numerical method to compute Bit Digit of a number written in binary system (the
a root of the equation f ( x ) = 0. The method con- numbering system in base 2).
sists of finding two values x = xi , and x = xi+1 That is, a bit is either a one or a zero.
close enough in an interval [ a, b] where y = f ( x )
is continuous, so that a < xi < xi+1 < b, and Bivalence principle (Logic) Property that every
f ( xi ) · f ( xi+1 ) < 0. This implies that the value of proposition has of being either true or false, with-
x that makes f ( x ) = 0 is in the interval [ xi , xi+1 ]. out the possibility of a third truth value.
The average of xi and xi+1 is computed to In logical reasoning this principle allows the con-
get xi+2 . If f ( xi+1 ) · f ( xi+2 ) < 0 the interval struction of valid arguments.
[ xi+2 , xi+1 ] is considered, or if f ( xi ) · f ( xi+2 ) < 0,
Bolzano’s theorem If y = f ( x ) is a continuous
the interval [ xi , xi+2 ] is considered instead, be-
function in the interval [ a, b], and also, f ( a), and
cause in this way the root of f ( x ) = 0 lies in the
f (b) have different sign, then y = f ( x ) has a real
considered interval.
root, x = c in the interval [ a, b].
This process is repeated as many times as nec-
essary to obtain | xi+1 − xi+2 | as close to zero as
y
required.
In the figure below x0 is the midpoint of a and b,
f (a)
x1 is the midpoint of x0 and b, and x2 is the mid-
point of x0 and x1 .
Given a and b, the algorithm of the bisection
method is stated below.
x
a c b
1. Assign ϵ (acceptable level of error).
2. Compute the midpoint x = c of a and b.
a+b f (b)
c= y = f (x)
2
3. Calculate f (c). Of course, it is possible for the function to have
4. If f (c) = 0, or if f (c) < ϵ, end. more than one root in the given interval [ a, b].
Otherwise, Read also «Intermediate value theorem».
50
Boole’s inequality–Boundary value problem
Boole’s inequality The Boolean inequality states Boundary point A point x ∈ Rn is a boundary
that for any set with a finite number of events point of A ⊂ Rn if all neighborhood of x contains
{ E1 , E2 , · · · , En }, it is satisfied: at least one point of A and at least one point not
! in A.
P
[
Ei ≤ ∑ P( Ei )
For example, the boundary points of the interval
A = [ a, b] are the points x = a and x = b, because
B
i i
any subinterval that centered at x = a or at x = b
That is, the probability that at least one of the contains points that belong to A as well as points
events occurs is not greater than the sum of the that do not belong to A.
probabilities of the individual events.
This makes sense because if E1 y E2 are events
from the same sample space, then, [a, b]
x
P( E1 ∪ E2 ) = P( E1 ) + P( E2 ) − P( E1 ∩ E2 ) O
If you consider in the representation of events in a Let A be the circle of radius r wth center at (h, k).
Venn diagram: in the sum of the probabilities the Any point P of its circumference is a boundary
intersections of the sets are considered repeatedly, point, because any neighborhood with center in
while in the union, it is considered only once. P will contain points that are in A as well as oth-
This is the reason for the inequality. ers that are not in A.
Boolean algebra Symbolic algebra that studies the
truth values of variables assigning values of 0 for
true and 1 for false. P
Some authors denote the value of true with T,
while false they denote it with F. r
The elementary operations of Boolean algebra are (h, k)
the following logical operations: conjunction (∧,
also known as AND), disjunction (∨, also OR), and
negation (¬, also NOT).
Boolean algebra gives the rules to obtain the truth
values of the logical operations indicated above. This definition can be generalized to mathemati-
cal objects of dimension 3, 4, etc., even when they
x y x∧y x∨y cannot be represented geometrically.
0 0 0 0 Boundary value problem Problem that consists of
1 0 1 0 calculating a solution of a differential equation (or
0 1 1 0 a system of differential equations) that satisfies
1 1 1 1 certain conditions at the extremes of an interval,
or else, at the border of the domain considered
for the problem.
Bound variable Variable on which the value of an
As a comparison, the initial value problem indi-
expression depends.
cates the values of the function and its derivatives
For example, in the expression
at a point, while the boundary value problem in-
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) dicates a function at a specific value of the inde-
lim pendent variable of the solution. This function
h →0 h
specifies the behavior of the solution in a value of
the bound variable is h, while x is a free variable. the independent variable of the solution.
On the other hand, in In a similar way to the problem with initial condi-
tions, the boundary conditions allow to calculate
5
x+1 a particular solution of the whole family of solu-
∑ 2i tions of the differential equation (or the system of
i =1
differential equations).
i is the bound variable, and x is the free variable. In certain cases the boundary conditions are
Read also «Free variable». known as contour conditions.
51
Bounded function–Brahmagupta theorem
Bounded function Function that never takes val- where the parameter t is the time measured from
ues greater than a finite value M. the instant the object is allowed to slide starting
For example, the function: y = 1/( x2 + 1) is at the point (0, 0).
bounded, so y ≤ 1 for all x ∈ R.
B y
y
x
1 1 r 2r πr
y= 2
x +1
x r
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
2r
Box plot Method of representing data from its
quartiles.
In this diagram, the items in each box indicate The time t required for a particle with initial ve-
(from bottom to top) the minimum, the first quar- locity v0 moves along the graph of a continuous
tile, the mean, the third quartile, and the maxi- function y = f ( x ), from ( x1 , y1 ) to ( x2 , y2 ) is:
mum, omitting all outliers. s
Zx2
1 1 + y21
y t= p · dy
2g y−a
x1
6 where a = (y1 − v20 )/(2 g). The function y = f ( x )
minimizing this integral is the solution to the
5 problem.
Read also «Cycloid».
4 Brahmagupta’s formula Given a quadrilateral ly-
ing in a plane, with side lengths a, b, c, and d, its
3 area is:
q
A = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)
2
where s = ( a + b + c + d)/2 is its semiperimeter.
1
c
0 x
O A B C D
b
Brachistochrone curve Faster descent curve be- d
tween two points A and B (the path from A to B is
not a vertical one) in which a marble glides with-
out friction under the influence of a gravitational a
(uniform) field in the shortest possible time.
The solution to this problem is the cycloid curve Brahmagupta theorem If a cyclic quadrilateral has
(the brachistochrone), its diagonals perpendicular to each other, then the
p q perpendicular to a side through the point of inter-
2 gy 1 + [y′ ]2 = C section of the diagonals always bisects the oppo-
being C a constant. The parametric equations for site side.
this curve are: In the figure, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. Its
r r diagonals AC and BD are mutually perpendicu-
g g lar. The segment MN is perpendicular to the side
x (t) = r t − sin t
r r AB, and passes through the point of intersection
r
g of the diagonals of the quadrilateral, so that the
y(t) = r 1 − cos t point N is the midpoint of the side CD.
r
52
Branch–Brocard point
B Q
P
R
B
B
M
C A U
S
N
T
D
Branch A graph has branches when it is discontin- Brianchon’s theorem If the hexagon PQRSTU has
uous. Each part of the graph is called a branch of all six sides tangent to a conic section, then the
the graph. lines PS, QT and RU are concurrent lines and
The following figure shows the two branches of a they intersect at point B.
hyperbola.
y Q
Left Right
P
branch branch
R
x U
S
This point is called Brianchon point.
Brianchon point If the hexagon PQRSTU has all Brocard point In the triangle △ ABC lying in a
six sides tangent to a conic section, then the lines plane, there exists a point P such that the angles
PS, QT and RU meet at the Brianchon point (B). ∠PAB, ∠PBC and ∠PCA are equal.
53
Brocard’s problem–Byte
Brocard’s problem Are there integers m, n that sat-
isfy:
C n! + 1 = m2
B F
besides n = 4, 5, 7?
This is an open problem proposed by Srinivasa
Ramanujan in 1913.
E The only known solutions (n, m) are (4, 5), (5, 11)
and (7, 71).
P
Brute force method Mathematical demonstration
method in which all possible values or possible
cases for the hypothesis are considered, verifying
A B that in each case the conclusion is true.
A particular case of the brute force method con-
sists of proving by cases, considering all the pos-
D
sible cases exhaustively and proving each of them
as true.
This method is also known as complete induction,
To get the location of Brocard’s point, draw the proof by case analysis, and Proof by exhaustion.
perpendicular bisector of the side AB and the
perpendicular to the side BC passing through B. Buffon’s needle problem Problem that asks to cal-
The intersection of these two lines is the point culate the probability p that when a needle of
D. Draw the circle with center at D that passes length l is thrown onto a table on which paral-
through A and B. This circumference is the epicy- lel lines with distance a > l between them have
cle that passes through A and B. been drawn, the needle will land on one of the
Then draw the perpendicular bisector of side BC lines intersecting it.
and the perpendicular line to side AC that passes The probability of such an event is:
through C. The intersection of these two lines is
2l
the point E. The circumference with center at p=
E that passes through the points B and C is the πa
epicycle that passes through B and C.
Similarly trace the epicycle passing through A
Byte Information unit, denoted by B and that is
and C. The three epicycles of the triangle coin-
equivalent to an ordered set of 8 bits.
cide at the Brocard point (the point P).
The byte is also known as Octet.
54
C
C Symbol that represents the set of complex num- fraction so that it is possible to simplify it.
bers. For example,
Read also «Complex number».
1 1+u−u
=
Calculate Get or find the result of an operation. u ( u + 1) u ( u + 1)
In mathematics, the word calculate is also often 1+u u
understood as a synonym for applying an algo- = −
u ( u + 1) u ( u + 1)
rithm or solving a problem.
1 1
= −
Calculator Device or apparatus used to perform u u+1
calculations.
It is worth mentioning that this artifice cannot be
Calculus Branch of mathematics that deals with applied systematically to all rational algebraic ex-
the study of continuously varying quantities and pressions, like Bernoulli’s method.
the relationships between them. Read also «Partial fractions» and «Bernoulli
In calculus, the concepts of limit, continuity, method».
derivative, antiderivative, integral, infinite series Of course, this artifice may be applied in different
and their applications are studied. algebraic situations. For example,
Calculus is also known as infinitesimal calculus. Z
Read also «Infinitesimal», «Limit», «Derivative», x2
· arctan( x ) · dx
«Differential», «Definite integral», «Improper inte- x2 + 1
Z 2
gral», «Antiderivative», «dx», «dy», «Differential x +1−1
= · arctan( x ) · dx
Calculus», «Integral calculus», and «Multivariable x2 + 1
calculus». Z 2 Z
x +1 arctan( x )
= · arctan ( x ) · dx − · dx
Camel’s principle Principle that is based on the x2 + 1 x2 + 1
Z Z
following property of real numbers: dx
= arctan( x ) · dx − arctan( x ) · 2
x +1
a + [− a] = 0 1 arctan 2 (x)
= x arctan( x ) − ln x2 + 1 − +C
For example, to decompose an algebraic frac- 2 2
tion into simpler fractions (with linear or The title of this principle is due to the following
quadratic denominators at most), without using story attributed to the Bedouin tradition. An old
the Bernoulli method traditionally used in calcu- Arab leaves 17 camels to his three sons. Half of
lus (known as the method of partial fractions). the camels are for the oldest, a third for the mid-
The principle consists of algebraically transform- dle one, and a ninth for the youngest. But 17 is
ing the numerator to simplify the algebraic frac- not divisible by 2, nor 3, neither 9, so they ask
tion. Often, it is enough to add and subtract the a wise man for advice. Noticing that 18 can be
same amount in the numerator of the algebraic evenly divided between 2, 3, and 9, his solution
Cancelling out–Capital pi notation
was to temporarily borrow his camel to the inher-
itance for the total to be 18 camels. The oldest son
receives 9 camels, the middle son receives 6, and
the youngest 2 camels. The sum of the distributed
camels is 9 + 6 + 2 = 17, leaving the camel bor-
rowed by the wise man untouched, and ready to
C be returned to its owner. The three brothers were
happy, since all received more than they were ex-
pecting and none of the camels was sacrificed.
Cancelling out We say that we have canceled out a
number or an algebraic expression when we ap-
ply to it one of the following properties of real
numbers:
Examples of canonical polyhedrons are the
Archimedean solids. Read also «Midsphere».
a + (− a) = 0 (aditive inverse)
Cantor set Set that is built from the interval [0, 1]
1
a· =1 (multiplicative inverse) applying the following iterative algorithm: the in-
a terval [0, 1] is divided into three subintervals of
the same length and the subinterval in the mid-
For example, when we simplify the fraction: dle is eliminated (is that is, the interval (1/3, 2/3)
is eliminated.) The same procedure is applied
to each of the remaining subintervals, dividing
12 (3)(4) 4
= = into three subintervals and eliminating the mid-
21 (3)(7) 7 dle one. This process is carried out an infinite
number of times. The end result is the Cantor set.
we say that we have canceled out the 3, because Numerically, the set of all points that do not use
we have applied the second property listed above. the digit 1 in their base-3 representation is ob-
tained.
Cantor–Dedekind axiom Axiom that postulates
that there is a one-to-one correspondence between
Cancellation law Every non-zero integer x, satis-
real numbers and points on a number line.
fies
Capacity Volume that a solid occupies.
x · y = x · z implies y = z For example, if a cube has a capacity of one liter,
it means that the cube has a volume of one liter.
One liter is equivalent to 1 dm3 .
If x = 0, then this implication does not hold nec-
essarily.
Canonical Standard or usual. It is generally used
to indicate that the conventional case is consid- 1 dm3
1 dm
ered.
For example, when saying that we use a canonical
coordinate system, it is understood that a coordi-
nate system is used where the axes are mutually
perpendicular and all have the same unit of mea- 1 dm 1 dm
surement.
Read also «Volume».
Canonical polyhedron Polyhedron whose mid- Capital pi notation Mathematical notation used to
sphere can be drawn. indicate the product of the terms of a sequence.
56
Cardano formula–Cardioid
If x1 , x2 , · · · , xn are the terms of a sequence that Cardinality The cardinality of a given set A, de-
must be multiplied, this operation is indicated as noted as ν( A), is the number of elements it con-
follows: tains.
n
For example, the cardinality of the set
∏ x i = x1 · x2 · · · x n {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} is 10.
i =1
The notation n( A) is also used to indicate the car-
And it is read: the product of the factors xi from i = 1
to n, or, the product for i equal to 1 up to n of xi .
dinality of the set A.
If A and B are not disjoint sets, then, C
Some properties of the notation ∏ are listed be-
low. n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n( B) − n( A ∩ B)
n
• ∏ a = an If A and B are disjoint sets, then,
i =1
n n n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n( B)
• ∏ ( c ai ) = c n ∏ ai
i =1 i =1
Read also «Disjoint sets» and «Inclusion-exclusion
n n n
• ∏ ( a i bi ) = principle».
∏ ai ∏ bi
i =1 i =1 i =1
! Cardioid Plane curve generated by a point on a
n m m n
• ∏ ∏ aij = ∏ ∏ aij circle of radius a that rotates (without sliding)
i =1 j =1 j =1 i =1 around another fixed circle (also of radius a).
Read also «Product of a sequence». y
Cardano formula Formula to solve the cubic equa-
tion of the form:
y3 + p y + q = 0
Let
s
r
3 q 2 p 2
q x
u= − +
+ a
2 2 3 −a
s r
3 q q 2 p 2
v= − − +
2 2 3
The roots y1 , y2 , y3 , of the previous cubic equation
are:
y1 = u + v
√ The parametric equations of this curve are:
u+v 3
y2 = − + (u + v) i
2 2
√ x (t) = 2 a (1 + cos(t)) cos(t)
u+v 3 y(t) = 2 a (1 + cos(t)) sin(t)
y3 = − − (u + v) i
2 2
for 0 ≤ t < 2 π. The cardioid equation in polar
coordinates is:
Cardinal number Numbers we use to indicate
quantities. r (θ ) = 2 a (1 − cos(θ ))
In particular, they are used to indicate the cardi-
nality of sets, that is, the number of elements that The equation of the cardioid in rectangular coor-
a set has. dinates is:
The cardinal numbers are 1, 2, 3, etc. 2
Read also «Ordinal number». x 2 + y2 + 4 a x x2 + y2 − 4 a2 y2 = 0
57
Cartesian coordinate system–Cassini oval
The area A, the arc length L, and the radius of For example, let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {4, 5, 6}.
curvature ρ, of the cardioid curve are: Then,
A = 6 π a2 A × B = {(0, 4), (0, 5), (0, 6), (1, 4),
L = 16 a (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)}
8 θ
ρ = a sin Note that the Cartesian plane is the Cartesian
C 3 2 product of R × R.
cas function Function defined as the sum of the
Cartesian coordinate system Rectangular coordi- sine function plus the cosine function of the same
nate system formed by mutually perpendicular angle:
axes, all with the same scale. cas( x ) = cos( x ) + sin( x )
y
z
2
2
1
y = cas(x)
1
x
1 π π 3π
2 2
−1
1 y
1 2 −2
x 2
Being the sum of two periodic functions, the cas
function is also a periodic function.
Cartesian plane A plane that uses a Cartesian
(rectangular) coordinate system to determine the Cassini oval Given two fixed points F ( a, 0) and
F ′ (− a, 0) in the plane, the Cassini oval is the lo-
coordinates of points.
For its representation, two mutually perpendicu- cus of points P( x, y) that satisfy that the product
lar axes are used, and a unit of measurement is of their distances PF times PF ′ is a constant b2 .
assigned to each of them (usually the same unit y
in both) to indicate the coordinates of the points
b = 1.25 a
of the plane based on these axes and their respec- a
tive units of measurement. P
y
x
P( x, y) F′ F
x It’s algebraic equation in rectangular coordinates
is:
2
The Cartesian plane is due to Rene Descartes. x 2 + y2 − 2 a2 x 2 − y2 + a4 = b4
Cartesian product The cartesian product of the and its equation in polar coordinates is:
sets A and B denoted by A × B is the set of all
ordered pairs ( a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B. r4 − 2 a2 r2 cos(2 θ ) = b4 − a4 .
A × B = {( a, b) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}
58
Cassini’s identity–Cauchy principal value
Cassini’s identity Let Fn denote the n−th Fi- Catalan’s identity Let Fn denote the n−th Fi-
bonacci number. Then, bonacci number. Then,
Fn−1 Fn+1 − Fn2 = (−1)n Fn+i Fn+ j − Fn Fn+i+ j = (−1)n Fi Fj
Catenary Flat curve that an idealized hanging ca-
Catalan number Sequence of numbers calculated
using the formula:
ble assumes under its own weight when sup-
ported only at its ends.
C
1 2n y
Cn =
n+1 n
2a
for n ≥ 0, where
2n n!
=
n (2 n)! n! a
The first Catalan numbers are: 1, 1, 2, 5, 14, 42,
132, 429, 1 430 and 4 862.
x
Catalan solids Convex polyhedra corresponding a
to the dual polyhedron of some Archimedean
solid. The equation of this curve corresponds to the hy-
Catalan solids are listed below. perbolic cosine function.
a h x/a i
• Triakis tetrahedron y= e + x − x/a
2
• Rhombic dodecahedron
where x is measured from its minimum and a is
• Triakis octahedron a scale factor of the catenary curve.
• Tetrakis hexahedron (or tetrahexahedron) In any horizontal interval, the ratio of the area
• Deltoidal icositetrahedron (or trapezoidal under the catenary to its length is equal to a, for
icositetrahedron) any finite interval.
• Disdyakis dodecahedron Cauchy principal value Method to assign value to
an improper integral that is undefined in the in-
• Rhombic triacontahedron
terval of integration.
• Triakis icosahedron For an indeterminacy at the finite point x = b,
• Pentakis dodecahedron
bZ−ϵ Zc
• Deltoidal hexecontahedron lim f ( x ) · dx + f ( x ) · dx
ϵ →0+
• Disdyakis triacontahedron (or hexakis icosa- a b+ϵ
hedron) where a < b < c, and also,
• Pentagonal icositetrahedron Zb
• Pentagonal hexecontahedron f ( x ) · dx = ±∞ for any a < b, and
a
Read also each of the definitions corresponding
Zc
to each of these solids to find out how many faces
f ( x ) · dx = ∓∞ for any c > b.
it has, what polygons they are, the number of ver-
tices and edges, their volume, their area, etc. b
For a singularity in x = ∞, the Cauchy principal
Catalan’s conjecture The unique solution to the value is calculated using
equation
Za
x a − yb = 1
lim f ( x ) · dx
a→∞
for a, b ∈ Z, a, b > 1, x, y > 0 is x = 3, a = 2, −a
y = 2, b = 3.
59
Cauchy problem–Cavalieri’s formula
Cauchy problem Cauchy’s problem consists of the Cauchy-Riemann equations Let f ( x + i y) =
problem of calculating a solution of a differential u( x, y) + i v( x, y), be a function of a complex vari-
equation that satisfies certain initial conditions. able z. Then, if f is differentiable at z0 , it is satis-
fied:
y′ = f (t, y) y ( t0 ) = y0 ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
C Cauchy root test The infinite series:
The equations given above are known as the
Cauchy-Riemann equations and are necessary
∞
(but not sufficient) conditions for the differen-
∑ ai tiability of the function f ( x + i y) = u( x, y) +
i v( x, y).
i =0
When the function is expressed in polar form, the
is convergent, if and only if, for each ϵ > 0 there corresponding Cauchy-Riemman equations are:
is an integer N for which
∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
| a n +1 + · · · + a m | < ϵ = =−
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
as long as m > n > N.
Cauchy–Schwarz inequality For any pair of vec-
Cauchy sequence A sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · , of real tors ⃗u, ⃗v,
numbers is a Cauchy sequence if for each ϵ > 0 |⃗u · ⃗v| ≤ |⃗u| |⃗v|
there exists a positive finite number N, such that
In words, the absolute value of the dot product
for all natural numbers m, n > N,
of two vectors is less than or equal to the product
| xm − xn | < ϵ of their magnitudes. Considering n−dimensional
vectors, we have
y
| a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn |
q q
≤ a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n b12 + b22 + · · · + bn2
/2
The equality holds only if ⃗b is a multiple of ⃗a, or
x if any of the vectors is the zero vector (⃗0).
−/2
Since ⃗u · ⃗v = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ cos(θ ), where θ is the angle
between ⃗u and ⃗v, and also 0 ≤ | cos(θ )| ≤ 1, it
follows:
That is, only a finite number of terms of the se-
quence are at a distance greater than ϵ among |⃗u · ⃗v| = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ |cos(θ )| ≤ ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥
them. This is considered one of the most important in-
equalities in mathematics.
Cauchy theorem If f is an analytic function on a
region D, and γ is a closed curve on D that is Causality Relationship established between a
homotopic to a point on D, then cause and its corresponding effect. This relation-
Z ship allows the association of ideas or statements
f (z) · dz = 0 to draw valid conclusions from them.
γ
Cavalieri’s formula Formula to compute the area
above the x axis under the graph of the function
Cauchy’s integral formula Considering an ana- y = x n for n > 0, from x = 0 to x = a, which is
lytic function f (z) in a simply connected region currently denoted by means of the definite inte-
D and if γ is a closed curve in D, let z0 be an gral:
Za
interior point of D (not in γ). Then, a n +1
x n · dx =
I n+1
1 f (z) 0
f ( z0 ) = · dz
2 π i z − z0 Bonaventura Cavalieri found this result when
γ
solving quadrature problems.
In words, the values of f over γ determine the Cavalieri’s formula is also known as Cavalieri’s
values of f inside of γ. quadrature formula.
60
Cavalieri’s principle–Center of curvature
Cavalieri’s principle (1.) Consider two regions R1 y = xn
and R2 of the plane that lie between two parallel y
lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 . If when these regions are cut by a
third line ℓ parallel to the other two, the segments f (a)
obtained by the intersections of R1 and R2 with ℓ an+1
have the same length, no matter the height ℓ is A=
n+1
placed between ℓ1 and ℓ2 , then R1 and R2 have
the same area. C
x
O a
C |P Q| = |P 0 Q0 | C0 `2
This formula is also known as Cavalieri’s formula.
This result was discovered by Cavalieri before in-
finitesimal calculus was created by applying his
Q Q0 Cavalieri’s principle.
P P0
Read also «Cavalieri’s principle» and Cavalieri’s for-
mula.
Ceiling function Function denoted as y = ⌈ x ⌉ and
A B A0 B 0 `1
that for every real number x, returns the smallest
|AB| = |A0 B 0 | `1 k `2 integer that is greater or equal to x.
y
(2.) Consider two solids S1 and S2 of the three- y = dxe
dimensional space that lie between two parallel 3
planes π1 and π2 . If we cut S1 and S2 by a third
plane π̂ parallel to π1 and π2 , and the cross sec- 2
tions obtained have the same area, independently
of the height that π̂ is placed between π1 and π2 , 1
then S1 and S2 have he same volume.
x
−1 1 2 3
π2
For example, ⌈2.5⌉ = 3.
Center The center of a figure is its point of sym-
metry.
π̂
C C
π1
In the figures shown, C is the center.
Read also «Centroid».
Cavalieri’s theorem Result that Bonaventura Cav-
alieri found and that consists of a formula to cal- Center of curvature The center C of an oscu-
culate the area A bounded by the graph of the lating circle is the center of curvature of the
n
function y = x for n ≥ 0, the x axis and the curve: ⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂ at the point
vertical lines x = 0, and x = a. ( x (t), y(t), z(t)).
61
Center of mass–Central difference
z Centi- Prefix denoting hundredth part.
For example, a centimeter indicates one hun-
C dredth of a meter.
~r(t)
C −1 −1
1 cm
y
1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
Read also «Osculating circle». Central angle In a circumference, the central angle
is one that has its vertex in the center of the cir-
Center of mass Point where the mass of a physi-
cumference and whose sides are two radii.
cal object can be considered concentrated for its
study.
The center of mass is used when the spatial dis-
tribution of the object’s mass is not important to
the discussion.
y
α
C(x̄, ȳ)
x
The central angle is defined similarly for the cir-
cle.
The central angle of a regular polygon of n sides
measure 2 π/n radians, or 360/n sexagesimal de-
grees. It has its vertex at the center of the regular
The coordinates of the center of mass C ( x̄, ȳ, z̄) of polygon and the sides of the central angle pass
a system of n particles of mass mi are: through two consecutive vertices of the polygon.
n n n
∑ xi · mi ∑ yi · mi ∑ zi · mi
i =1 i =1 i =1
x̄ = n , ȳ = n , z̄ = n
∑ mi ∑ mi ∑ mi
i =1 i =1 i =1
For a solid, if the continuous mass distribution α
function of the solid is known, the coordinates of
the center of mass C ( x̄, ȳ, z̄) are:
Z Z Z
x · dm and · dm z · dm
R R R
x̄ = Z , ȳ = Z , z̄ = Z
dm dm dm
R R R Read also «Regular polygon».
where R represents the limits of the integral so Central difference Finite difference of the form:
that the body is covered in its entirety, and dm
represents the differential of mass. δh [ f ] ( x ) = f ( x + h/2) − f ( x − h/2)
62
Central limit theorem–Centroid
In this sense, a number that describes a data set
y is a measure of the central tendency of that set.
The most frequently used measures of central ten-
y = f (x) dency are the arithmetic mean, the median, and
the mode.
There are other measures of central tendency such
f (x + h/2)
f (x − h/2)
h
f (x + h/2) − f (x − h/2) as the harmonic mean and the weighted mean.
C
Centroid The center of gravity of a plane region.
x
x − h/2 The centroid of the triangle is the point where its
x + h/2 three medians meet.
The central difference is equal to the average of
the corresponding forward and backward differ-
ences.
Central limit theorem If X1 , X2 , X3 , · · · , Xn are Centroid
random variables, identically distributed, with
mean µ and variance σ2 , then, the limit distribu-
tion of:
X̄ − µ
Z= √
σ/ n
as n tends to infinity is the standard normal dis- The centroid of a triangle is also known as bari-
tribution. center.
Equivalently: If X is a random variable with pop- If the vertices of the triangle are at the points
ulation mean µ and variance σ2 , then the sample A( x1 , y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ), and C ( x3 , y3 ), the centroid of
mean x̄ of a sample of size n is a random variable the triangle is at:
that, for n large enough, has approximately a nor-
mal distribution with mean µ and variance σ2 /n. x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3
Read also «Standard normal distribution». x̄ = ȳ =
3 3
Central symmetry A plane figure is said to have Read also «Baricenter».
central symmetry if the figure has a point C, The coordinates ( x̄, ȳ) of the centroid of a plane
called the center of symmetry, such that when the region bounded by the graphs of the functions
figure is rotated 180◦ relative to C, the figure cov- y = f ( x ) above and y = g( x ), below, from x = a
ers itself. to x = b, are:
A regular polygon with an even number of sides
has central symmetry. Zb
1
x̄ = x [ f ( x ) − g( x )] · dx
A
a
Zb
1
ȳ = [ f ( x ) + g( x )] [ f ( x ) − g( x )] · dx
2A
a
where
Zb
A= [ f ( x ) − g( x )] · dx
a
represents the area of the region.
Central tendency The measure of central tendency
is a typical value of the probability distribution.
63
Century–Chain rule
y where AF represents the directed distance (with
dx sign).
y = f (x)
C
f (x) − g(x)
C f (x) + g(x)
2
y = g(x)
E D
x
a x b
A F B
The coordinates ( x̄, ȳ) of the centroid of the graph
of the function y = f ( x ) from x = a to x = b, are:
Cevian Line segment that has one end at a vertex
Zb q of a triangle and the other end on the opposite
x· 1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · dx side of the given vertex.
a
x̄ =
Zb q
1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · dx
n
a
Cevia
Zb q
f (x) · 1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · dx
a
ȳ =
Zb q
1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · dx
Height and median are examples of cevian.
a
Chain Unit of length used in ancient times equiv-
where f ′ ( x ) represents the derivative of the func-
alent to 22 yards, or 20.1168 meters.
tion y = f ( x ).
Chain rule (Calculus) The chain rule applies when
Century A century equals one hundred years.
differentiating a composite function y = f (u)
Cesáro summation The Cesáro sum of an infinite when f is differentiable at u( x ) and u is differ-
series that is not convergent is defined as the limit entiable at x.
of the sequence of the arithmetic mean of the first dy df d f du
n partial sums. = = ·
dx dx du dx
For example, for the case of the Grandi’s series,
For example, if y = sin 1 + x2 , its derivative is
n
calculated by applying the chain rule:
Sn = ∑ (−1)i
i =0 dy
= cos 1 + x2 · [2 x ] = 2 x cos 1 + x2
If i is considered even,S = 1, but if i is odd, then dx
i
Si = 0. The limit of the arithmetic mean of the The inverse operation to the application of the
first n partial sums Sn when n tends to infinity is chain rule is to verify that the differential is
1/2. This is Cesáro’s sum of Grandi’s series. complete when calculating the antiderivative of
Read also «Grandi’s series». a function using the change of variable method
(also known as substitution).
Ceva’s theorem Given a triangle △ ABC on the
Read also «Antiderivative».
plane, and the points D, E and F on the sides
(Mutivariable calculus) The chain rule applied to
BC, AC and AB, respectively, then, the segments
the function w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), of n variables,
AD, BE and CF are concurrent, if and only if,
is:
AF BD CE dw ∂ f dx1 ∂ f dx2 ∂ f dxn
· · =1 = · + · +···+ ·
FB DC EA dt ∂x1 dt ∂x2 dt ∂xn dt
64
Chamfered cube–Chamfered tetrahedron
where w is a continuous and differentiable func-
tion of the n variables x1 , x2 , · · · , xn in a given
region R, and these variables (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) are
continuous and differentiable functions of t.
For example, if z = x2 + y2 , and also x (t) = 2 t,
and y( x ) = 1 + t, then,
dz
=
∂z dx
· +
∂z dy
·
C
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= (2 x )(2) + (2 y)(1)
= 4x+2y
= 4 (2 t ) + 2 (1 + t )
= 10 t + 2
q √
(Probability) The chain rule of random events A If its long edge measures 2 (5 − 5) a/4, its
q √
and B is:
short edge measures ( 2 (5 − 5) − 2) a/2 , and
P( A ∩ B) = P( B| A) · P( A) its volume V is:
√ p √
where P( A ∩ B) is the probability of events A and 33 − 13 5+8 5−2 5
V=5 a3
B occurring simultaneously, P( A) is the probabil- 12
ity of occurrence of the event A and P( B| A) is the
probability that event B occurs given that event A
has already occurred.
Chamfered octahedron Polyhedron that has 20
Chamfered cube Polyhedron that has 18 faces, of faces of which 8 are equilateral triangles and 12
which 12 are regular hexagons and 6 are squares. are hexagons with mirror symmetry. It also has
It also has 32 vertices and 48 edges. 30 vertices and 48 edges.
The chamfered cube is obtained from a cube, ap-
plying the chamfering operation, which consists
of substituting the edges of the initial polyhedron
with a hexagonal face, but keeping its vertices, to
obtain another polyhedron. √
If its long edge
√ measures
√ 3 a/2, its short edge
The chamfered cube is also known as tetratrun-
measures ( 3 − 2) a, and its volume V is V =
cated rhombic dodecahedron.
11 a3 /3.
Read also «Truncation».
Chamfered icosahedron Polyhedron that has 50 Chamfered tetrahedron Polyhedron that has 10
faces of which 20 are equilateral triangles and 30 faces of which 4 are equilateral triangles and 6
are hexagons with mirror symmetry. It also has are hexagons with mirror symmetry. It also has
72 vertices and 120 edges. 16 vertices and 24 edges.
65
Change of base
y
γ1 ~c1
4
3
~c1
C 2
~b2
1 ~v
~b1 β1 ~b1
x
1 2 3 4 5
If its long edge
√ measures a, its short edge mea- −1
sures (2 − 2) a, and its volume V is: ~c2
√ −2
2· 7−2 2
V= · a3
3 −3
γ2 ~c2
The values of γ1 and γ2 are obtained by solving
Change of base (Arithmetic) The logarithm of the the system of linear equations (S.L.E.):
number x in the base a, denoted by loga ( x ), writ- γ1 + γ2 = 5
ten in the base b, is:
2 γ1 − γ2 = 1
loga ( x ) The solution of this S.L.E. is: γ1 = 2 and γ2 = 3,
logb ( x ) = and so ⃗v written in the base C is ⃗v = ⟨2, 3⟩C , be-
loga (b)
cause
Read also «Logarithm». 5 ⟨1, 0⟩ + 1 ⟨0, 1⟩ = 2 ⟨1, 2⟩ + 3 ⟨1, −1⟩
(Linear algebra) If V is an n−dimensional vec-
More synthetically, if ⃗b1 , ⃗b2 are the vectors of the
tor space, B = {⃗b1 ,⃗b2 , · · · ,⃗bn }, and C =
base B, and if the vector ⃗v written in the base B is:
{⃗c1 , ⃗c2 , · · · , ⃗cn }, are two bases of V and ⃗v ∈ V ,
written in the base B is: ⃗v = v1 ⃗b1 + v2 ⃗b2
the components v1 and v2 of the vector ⃗v in the
⃗v = β 1 ⃗b1 + β 2 ⃗b2 + · · · + β n ⃗bn base B can be calculated based on the dot prod-
uct as follows:
then ⃗v can be written in terms of the base C, by
⃗v · ⃗b1 = v1 ⃗b1 + v2 ⃗b2 · ⃗b1 = v1 ⃗b1 · ⃗b1 + v2 ⃗b2 · ⃗b1
computing scalars γ1 , γ2 , · · · , γn , such that:
⃗v · ⃗b2 = v1 ⃗b1 + v2 ⃗b2 · ⃗b2 = v1 ⃗b1 · ⃗b2 + v2 ⃗b2 · ⃗b2
⃗v = γ1 ⃗c1 + γ2 ⃗c2 + · · · + γn ⃗cn
If written in matrix notation,
* + " #
where γ1 , γ2 , · · · , γn are the components of the ⃗v · ⃗b1 ⃗b1 · ⃗b1 ⃗b2 · ⃗b1 v1
vector ⃗v written in the base C and β 1 , β 2 , · · · , β n = ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗v · ⃗b2 b1 · b2 b2 · b2 v2
are the components of ⃗v in the base B.
For example, if V is the two-dimensional vec- the solution is immediate:
tor space, considering B = {⟨1, 0⟩, ⟨0, 1⟩}, C = " # −1 * +
v1 ⃗b1 · ⃗b1 ⃗b2 · ⃗b1 ⃗v · ⃗b1
{⟨1, 2⟩, ⟨1, −1⟩}, and the vector ⃗v = ⟨5, 1⟩ B writ- = ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
ten in the base B, to write this vector in the base
v2 b1 · b2 b2 · b2 ⃗v · ⃗b2
C, it is required to calculate the scalars γ1 and γ2 This procedure can be generalized for change of
that satisfy: base of dimension greater than 2.
Read also «Base» (Linear algebra), «Linear combi-
5 ⟨1, 0⟩ + 1 ⟨0, 1⟩ = γ1 ⟨1, 2⟩ + γ2 ⟨1, −1⟩ nation» and «Gram–Schmidt process».
66
Change of variable–Characteristic equation
Change of variable (Algebra) Algebraic artifice linear differential equation with constant coeffi-
that consists of defining an auxiliary variable to cients, of order n,
facilitate the solution of a problem.
For example, to solve the equation a0 y + a1 y′ + a2 y′′ + · · · + an y(n) = 0
2 2 where a0 , 0, is:
x2 − 1 − 11 x2 − 1 + 24 = 0
it is convenient to define v = x2 − 1 to reduce the
a0 + a1 r + a2 r2 + · · · + an r n = 0.
C
The roots r1 , r2 , · · · , rn of the characteristic equa-
quartic equation to a quadratic equation:
tion serve to construct the general solution of the
differential equation as:
v2 − 11 v2 + 24 = 0
y ( t ) = c 1 e r1 t + c 2 e r2 t + · · · + c n e r n t
This equation can be factored as:
where c1 , c2 , · · · , cn are abritrary constants.
v2 − 11 v2 + 24 = (v − 3)(v − 8) = 0 For example, the characteristic equation of the ho-
mogeneous second-order linear differential equa-
From here v = 3, or, v = 8. Thus for v = 3,
tion
x2 − 1 = 3 ⇒ x2 = 4 y′′ + 5 y′ + 6 y = 0
is:
This implies that x = ±2. On the other hand, for r2 + 5 r + 6 = 0
v = 8, we have that
with roots r1 = −2, r2 = −3. And the general
2 2 solution of the given differential equation is:
x −1 = 9 ⇒ x =9
Consequently, x = ±3. y(t) = c1 e−2t + c2 e−3t
(Calculus) Integration technique that consists of
making a substitution by changing a variable to If there are repeated roots, the solutions have to
obtain an immediate antiderivative. be generated by applying alternative methods of
For example, to calculate: solving differential equations, such as variation of
parameters or reduction of order.
Z
x+2 (Linear algebra) The characteristic equation of
· dx the square matrix A is the polynomial equation
x2 +4x+5
that is obtained by calculating:
it is convenient to define u = x2 + 4 x + 5, because
this implies, u′ ( x ) = 2 x + 4 = 2 ( x + 2). There- det ( A − λ I ) = 0
fore, du = u′ ( x ) · dx = 2 ( x + 2) · dx.
For example, if
Multiplying in the numerator by 2 and dividing
to the left of the integral symbol by 2, we get: 2 3
A=
Z Z 1 5
1 2 ( x + 2) · dx 1 du 1
= = ln(u) + Ĉ
2 x2 + 4 x + 5 2 u 2 then,
1 2−λ 3
= ln x2 + 4 x + 5 + C A−λI =
1 5−λ
2
p
= ln x2 + 4 x + 5 + C When calculating its determinant, we obtain:
Read also «Antiderivative» and «Method of substi- 2−λ 3
det ( A − λ I ) =
tution». 1 5−λ
= (2 − λ)(5 − λ) − 3
Characteristic (Algebra) The integer part of a log-
λ2 − 7 λ + 7
arithm, that is, the part to the left of the decimal
point. For example, knowing that ln(π ) ≈ 1.1447, And the characteristic equation of the matrix A,
its characteristic is 1. is:
λ2 − 7 λ + 7 = 0
Characteristic equation (Differential equations)
The characteristic equation of the homogeneous
67
Characteristic polynomial–Chebyshev’s sum inequality
Characteristic polynomial The characteristic poly- Chebyshev polynomials The Chebyshev polyno-
nomial of a square matrix is a polynomial of the mials are the polynomial solutions of the differ-
form: ential equations:
det (λI − A) = 0
1 − x2 y′′ − x y′ + n2 y = 0
where I is the identity matrix (of dimension n),
1 − x2 y′′ − 3 x y′ + n (n + 2) y = 0
C λ is an eigenvalue of the square matrix A (of di-
mension n × n), and the degree of the character-
istic polynomial is n. The Chebyshev polynomials of the first type
Read also «Characteristic equation». Tn ( x ) are defined as the only polynomials that
satisfy:
Characteristic triangle In infinitesimal calculus,
the Leibniz’s characteristic triangle is a right tri- cos (n arccos( x )) if | x | < 1
angle with infinitely small sides, whose legs mea- Tn = cosh (n arccosh( x )) if x ≥ 1
sure dx and dy, respectively, and whose hy- (−1)n cosh (n arccosh(− x )) if x ≤ −1
potenuse is on the graph of the function.
The characteristic triangle is similar to the one and can be calculated using the following recur-
formed between the tangent to the graph of a rence rule:
function y = f ( x ), the subtangent Qx, and the
ordinate y = f ( x ) = xP. T0 ( x ) = 1
T1 ( x ) = x
Tn+1 ( x ) = 2 x Tn ( x ) − Tn−1 ( x )
y y = f (x)
The Chebyshev polynomials of the second type
Un ( x ) are defined as the only polynomials that
satisfy:
P α dy
f (x)
dx Un−1 (cos θ ) · sin θ = sin (n θ )
and can be calculated using the following recur-
rence rule:
U0 ( x ) = 1
α U1 ( x ) = 2 x
x
Q x
Un ( x ) = 2 x Un ( x ) − Un−1 ( x )
Leibniz viewed curves as polygonal lines with
an infinitely large amount of sides, each one in- Chebyshev theorem If µ is the mean and σ the
finitely small. For him, the derivative of the func- standard deviation of the random variable X,
tion y = f ( x ) is: then for any positive constant k, the probability
is at least 1 − 1/k2 that X will take a value k stan-
dy f ( x + dx ) − f ( x ) dard deviations away from the mean.
=
dx dx
1
so that dy/dx is equal to the tangent of the angle P(| X − µ| < k σ ) ≥ 1 − 2
k
α formed by the tangent with the positive direc-
tion of the x axis.
the Leibniz’s characteristic triangle is also known Chebyshev’s sum inequality If x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , sat-
as the Barrow’s differential triangle, because Isaac isfy:
Barrow used it to compute tangents to curves in x1 ≤ x2 ≤ · · · ≤ x n
his treatise titled Lectiones opticae et geometricae.
Read also «Derivative», «Differential», and «Leib- as well as y1 , y2 , · · · , yn , satisfy:
niz’s postulates».
y1 ≤ y2 ≤ · · · ≤ y n
68
Chi-squared distribution–Circle
Then,
x1 y1 + x2 y2 + · · · + x n y n
x̄ · ȳ ≤
n
Where x̄, is the arithmetic mean of xi , and ȳ is the
arithmetic mean of yi .
This inequality is also fulfilled if the values of
both sequences are increasing or decreasing, or if
C
the elements of one sequence are increasing and
those of the other decreasing.
Read also «Bienaymé-Chebyshev inequality».
Chord Line segment that has its ends on the same
Chi-squared distribution A random variable X circumference.
has a chi-square distribution, if and only if, its The length l of the chord subtended by an angle
probability density is given by: of θ radians is:
θ
1 l = 2 r sin
x (ν−2)/2 e− x/2 for x > 0 2
f (x) = 2ν/2 Γ(ν/2)
0 for x ≤ 0
l
s
where Γ is the gamma function and the parame-
ter ν is the number of degrees of freedom.
h
Read also «Gamma distribution».
The mean of the chi-square distribution is: µ = ν,
and its variance is: σ2 = 2 ν.
If X has a standard normal distribution, then X 2 d
has a chi-square distribution with ν = 1 degrees r
θ
of freedom.
If X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn are independent random vari-
ables that have a standard normal distribution,
then, The lengths indicated in the figure can be calcu-
n lated using the following formulas.
Y= ∑ Xi2
i =1 s=r·θ
has a chi-square distribution with ν = n degrees 1 p 2 θ
d= 4 r − l 2 = r cos
of freedom. 2 2
If X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn are independent random vari- h=r−d
ables that have a chi-square distribution with s d
θ = = 2 arccos
ν1 , ν2 , · · · , νn degrees of freedom, respectively, r r
then,
n where θ is measured in radians, and s is the
Y= ∑ Xi length of the arc subtended by the angle of mag-
i =1 nitude θ.
The longest chord that can be drawn to a circum-
has a chi-square distribution with ν1 + ν2 + · · · +
ference is its diameter.
νn degrees of freedom.
Read also «Diameter».
Chiliad Group of 1 000 things. Circle Plane figure consisting of the set of points
For example, a chilliad of roses, are one thousand that are, at most, at a distance of r units from a
roses. fixed point C, called the center of the circle. The
circumference is the perimeter of the circle. The
Chiral hexahedron Hexahedron whose faces are 4 points on the circumference also belong to the cir-
scalene triangles and 2 quadrilaterals. It also has cle. That is, the circle is a flat figure bounded by
6 vertices and 10 edges. a circumference.
69
Circular annulus–Circular segment
ce Circular plot Synonym of pie chart.
en
Read also «Pie chart».
er
mf
Circu
Circular random variable Random variable θ
whose values are in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 π, so
Circle
that it can be considered distributed in a circum-
ference.
C Circular sector A circular sector is a portion of the
circle bounded by an arc and two radii drawn at
the ends of the arc.
A radius is a line segment that is drawn from the
center of the circle to any point on its circumfer-
ence.
Radius
The area of the circular sector of magnitude α sex-
agesimal degrees is:
The length of the radius of the circle is denoted απr2
A=
by r. 360
The area A of the circle is:
If the angle α is measured in radians, the area of
A = π r2 the circular sector is:
A diameter of the circle is a line segment that α r2
A=
has its ends on the circumference and that passes 2
through the center of the circle.
Circular segment Portion of a circle bounded by a
chord and the corresponding arc.
Diameter
s
c
The length of the diameter is denoted by D. No- d
tice that D = 2 r.
Read also «Number Pi (π)». θ
r
Circular annulus Circular annulus is a synonym
of annulus.
Read also «Annulus». The length of the arc s is: s = r · θ, where the an-
gle θ is measured in radians.
Circular function Synonym of trigonometric func- The length c of the chord is:
tion.
Read also «Trigonometric function». c = 2 r sin (θ/2)
70
Circumcenter–Circumcircle
The height h is:
C
h = r (1 − cos (θ/2))
The measure of the angle θ is:
d
θ = 2 arccos
r
r
P
C
The distance d from the chord to the center of the B
circle is:
d = r − h = r · cos (θ/2) A
The area A of the circular segment is:
1 1
A= rθ− cd
2 2
where θ is measured in radians. In general, the circumcenter of a polygon is the
Circumcenter The circumcenter of a triangle is the center of the circumference circumscribed to the
point where the three bisectors of a triangle meet. polygon. The circumcenter is always at the inter-
section of the bisectors of the sides of the (cyclic)
polygon.
In the following figure, point C is the circumcen-
ter of the octagon shown.
Circumcenter
Read also «Cyclic polygon» and «Regular polygon».
The circumcenter is equidistant from the three
vertices of the triangle, so it is the center of the
circumscribed circumference of the triangle. Circumcircle The circumcircle of a polygon is the
The coordinates ( x p , y p ) of the circumcenter of circumference that passes through each of its ver-
the triangle with vertices at the points A( x a , y a ), tices.
B( xb , yb ) and C ( xc , yc ), are:
1 h 2
xp = x a + y2a (yb − yc ) + xb2 + y2b (yc − y a )
D i
+ xc2 + y2c (y a − yb )
1 h 2
yp = x a + y2a ( xc − xb ) + xb2 + y2b ( x a − xc )
D i
+ xc2 + y2c ( xb − x a )
where:
D = 2 [ x a (yb − xc ) + xb (yc − y a ) + xc (y a − yb )] Read also «Circumscribed circumference».
71
Circumference–Circumscribed circumference
Circumference The circumference is the set of for 0 ≤ t < 2 π. The area of the circumference
points in the plane that are at the same distance is zero, since it is a curved line segment, but its
from a fixed point C which is the center of the cir- length (C) is:
cumference. C = 2πr
The distance from the center of the circumference Read also «Equation of the circumference» and «Cir-
to any of its points is called the radius (r). cle».
C en
ce Circumgon Geometric figure (not necessarily a
polygon) that circumscribes a circle.
er
mf
Circu
r
C
The equation of the circumference that has its cen-
ter at the point C (h, k) and radius r is:
( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 = r 2
If the circumference has its center at the origin, It is worth mentioning that all the sides of the
the equation simplifies to: geometric figure must be tangent to the circum-
scribed circumference or must be arcs on it.
x 2 + y2 = r 2
Circumradius Radius of the circle circumscribed to
The equation of the circumference in its general a triangle.
form is:
C
x 2 + y2 + D x + E y + F = 0
Or,
2 2
D E D 2 + E2 − 4 F P
x+ + y+ =
2 2 4
R
The center of this circumference is at the point
C (− D/2, − E/2), and its radius r is: A B
√
D 2 + E2 − 4 F
r=
2
Read also «Circumscribed circle» and «Circumcen-
If D2 + E2 − 4 F > 0, then r > 0, so the circumfer- ter».
ence exists.
Circumscribed circumference A circle is circum-
If D2 + E2 − 4 F < 0, then r is imaginary, so the
scribed to a polygon if it passes through all its
circumference does not exist.
2 2 vertices.
If D + E − 4 F = 0, r = 0 and the equation cor-
The center of the circumscribed circumference is
responds to a point (circumference with radius
called circumcenter and its radius circumradius.
r = 0).
The circumradius R of the circumference circum-
The parametric equations of the circumference of
scribed to a triangle whose sides measure a, b and
radius r centered at the point (h, k) are:
c, respectively is:
x (t) = h + r cos(t) abc
R= p
y(t) = k + r sin(t) 4 s (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
72
Circumscribed polygon–Class interval
where s is the semiperimeter of the triangle.
P C
A B
To draw a circumference circumscribed to a given
triangle △ ABC, draw the perpendicular bisectors
of two of the sides of the triangle. The point
P where the bisectors intersect is the circumcen-
ter. With its center at P, draw a circle that passes
through the vertices of the given triangle. Cissoid of Diocles Plane curve whose parametric
Read also «Circumcenter» and «Mediatrix». equations are:
The circumradius R of the circumference circum-
scribed to a regular polygon of n sides of length
L is: 2 a t2
1 180 ◦ x ( t ) =
R = L · csc 1 + t2
2 n 2 a t3
y(t) =
Read also «Cyclic polygon» and «Regular polygon». 1 + t2
Circumscribed polygon A polygon is said to be
circumscribed if all its sides are tangent to the y
same circumference.
x
a 2a
Circumscribed hexagon
In this case, the circumference is said to be in-
scribed in the polygon.
Circumscribed sphere A sphere is said to be cir-
cumscribed to a convex polyhedron if all the ver-
tices of said polyhedron are on the surface of the Class interval Interval in which the values of a
sphere and the center of the sphere is the centroid random variable are grouped in a frequency ta-
of the vertices of the polyhedron. ble.
73
Class limit–Closed form
Range Frequency class.
Read also «Frequency distribution».
0 – 10 250
11 – 20 1 200 Classical probability Probability of an event E that
21 – 30 2 500 is calculated with the formula:
31 – 40 1 225 Number of favorable outcomes to E
41 – 50 850 P( E) =
C 51 – 60
61 – 70
750
425
Number of possible outcomes
where all possible outcomes are assumed to have
71 – 80 250 the same probability of occurrence.
81 – 90 37
91 – 100 13 Closed curve Curve that delimits a region of the
plane.
Each of the rows of the table where values are in- The circumference and ellipse are examples of
dicated is called class interval. The table above has closed curves.
ten class intervals.
The values 0 and 10 are the class limits (upper
and lower, respectively) of the first class interval
(first row with values in the table), 11 and 20 are
the class limits (upper and lower, respectively) of
the second interval of class, etc.
Read also «Frequency distribution».
Class limit In a frequency distribution, the class
limits of a particular class interval are the extreme
(upper and lower) values of said class interval.
Read also «Frequency distribution».
Closed disc Set of points of the plane delimited by
Class mark When data from a sample are grouped, a circumference including the points that are on
classes are defined from intervals. The class mark it.
is equal to the average of the extremes values (the
upper class limit and lower class limit) of each in-
terval.
For example, suppose that the fractions of the
population in the following age ranges of a town
are distributed as shown in the following table.
Range Frequency Class mark
0 – 10 250 5.0
11 – 20 1 200 15.5
21 – 30 2 500 25.5
31 – 40 1 225 35.5 Closed form A mathematical expression that can
41 – 50 850 45.5 be represented using a finite number of terms and
51 – 60 750 55.5 elementary mathematical operations and func-
61 – 70 425 65.5 tions.
71 – 80 250 75.5 For example, the solution of the quadratic equa-
81 – 90 37 85.5 tion: a x2 + b x + c = 0,
91 – 100 13 95.5 √
−b ± b2 − 4 ac
The class mark for each one of the classes are 5, x1,2 =
2a
15.5, 25.5, 35.5, 45.5, 55.5, 65.5, 75.5, 85.5 and 95.5,
is a mathematical expression that is considered a
respectively.
closed form.
Class width In a frequency distribution, the class Usually in a closed form one can include elemen-
width is equal to the difference between the up- tary operations (sums, products, etc.) of poly-
per limit of the class minus the lower limit of the nomials, integer or fractional roots, logarithms,
74
Closed interval–Codomain
exponentiation, trigonometric functions and their y
inverses, hyperbolic functions and their inverses.
If the solution of an equation includes limits, in-
finite series, definite integrals, transformed inte-
grals, etc., it is not considered a closed form.
Closed interval Interval that does include its ex-
treme values. If the ends of the closed interval
are the points a and b, it is denoted by [ a, b].
C
x
Geometrically, the closed interval [ a, b] is indi-
cated as shown in the figure below.
x
O a b
Closed set A set containing all its boundary
points.
In plane geometry, a point p that belongs to the
set A, ( p ∈ A) is a boundary point if when draw-
ing a circle of radius r > 0 with center at p, it This curve is also known as Euler spiral and as
always happens that some points within the cir- Cornu spirals.
cle are not in the set A, no matter how small r is. Read also «Fresnel integral».
In the following figure, the point p is a boundary
point of the set A.
Cluster sample Sample whose individuals are cho-
A
p sen from groups into which the population has
been previously divided and all the members of
one or more groups of the population are chosen.
Closed surface Surface that delimits a region of Codomain The codomain or range of the function
three-dimensional space. y = f ( x ) is the set of all the values that the func-
For example, a sphere is a closed surface. tion assigns to the dependent variable y as the
values of the independent variable x (in the do-
Closure The elements of a set A satisfy the clo- main of f ) are assigned.
sure property under a binary operation if when That is, the range of y = f ( x ) is the set of all
performing that operation with any two of its el- the images corresponding to all the values of the
ements the result is another element of the set A. domain of the function.
For example, even numbers are closed under the
sum, because when we add two even numbers,
the result is another even number. On the con-
trary, the odd numbers are not closed under the X Y
f
sum, because when we add two odd numbers we
do not get an odd number, but an even number.
x y
Clothoid Plane curve whose parametric equations
are: Domain Range
Zt
π x2
x (t) = cos · dx
2
0
Zt Graphically, if the graph of the function y = f ( x )
π x2
y(t) = sin · dx is projected on the y axis, a representation of the
2 range of y = f ( x ) is obtained.
0
75
Coefficient–Colinear
y by eliminating the i −th row and the j−th column
from the matrix A.
For example, if
2 1 5
y = f (x) A = 3 4 −1
1 2 3
C then, the cofactor (1, 1) is:
x
−1
4
A11 = (−1)1+1 ·
Read also «Function», «Image», and «Domain». 2
3
Coefficient It is a number or an expression (that = (1) [(4)(3) − (−1)(2)] = 14
represents a constant number) that multiplies an
algebraic expression. That is, it is the numerical
factor of a term. Cofunction For each of the trigonometric functions
For example, in 2 x, the number 2 is the coeffi- sine, secant and tangent, its corresponding co-
cient, while in function is defined according to the following.
q
dS = 2 π f ( x ) 1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · dx Function Cofunction
Sine (sin( x )) Cosine (cos( x ))
2, π and 2 π are considered to be coefficients.
Secant (sec( x )) Cosecant (csc( x ))
Coefficient matching method In the case of two Tangent (tan( x )) Cotangent (cot( x ))
polynomial expressions that are equal,
The prefix «co» comes from the fact that the value
an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and of a trigonometric function for an angle x is equal
bn x n + bn−1 x n−1 + · · · + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 to the value of its corresponding cofunction eval-
uated at the complementary angle of x. That is to
necesarily, an = bn , an−1 = bn−1 , · · · , a2 = b2 , say,
a1 = b1 , y a0 = b0 .
To compute the unknown coefficients b0 , b1 , b2 , sin( x ) = cos(90◦ − x )
· · · , bn of the second polynomial, the coefficients sec( x ) = csc(90◦ − x )
of like terms (of the same degree) are equal. Of- tan( x ) = cot(90◦ − x )
ten this leads to a system of equations that must
be solved to obtain the values of the unknown co- C
efficients.
90
Coefficient of variation The coefficient of varia-
−x ◦
tion is a measure of the dispersion of a probability
distribution or a frequency distribution.
The coefficient of variation, denoted by cv , is
σ x
cv =
µ A B
where σ is the standard deviation of the distribu-
tion and µ is its population mean. Colinear It is said that several points are collinear
when they are on the same line.
Cofactor If A = [ aij ] is a square matrix of dimen-
sion n × n, the cofactor (i, j), denoted by Aij , is: ℓ
Aij = (−1)i+ j | Mij | S
R
where Mij is the minor (i, j), that is the matrix Q
of dimension (n − 1) × (n − 1) which is obtained P
76
Collatz function–Combinatorics
In the figure above, the points P, Q, R, and S are Combination A combination C (n, r ) is a selection
colinear, because each one is on the straight line of r (one or more) objets out of a set of n objets,
ℓ. regardless of the order. That is, two selections
Three points P, Q, and R are colinear if Q is be- of r objects are equal if their elements are equal,
tween P and R, and, regardless of the order ({ x1 , x2 } is the same as
{ x2 , x1 }).
| PR| = | PQ| + | QR|
The condition for the points A( x1 , y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ),
C (n, r ) is read: combinations of n elements, taking r
at a time, or, combinations of n in r. To compute the C
and C ( x3 , y3 ) be colinear is: value of C (n, r ), note that it is basically the num-
ber of permutations, but canceling out those that
y1 ( x2 − x3 ) + y2 ( x3 − x1 ) + y3 ( x1 − x2 ) = 0 are repeated because in the combinations, the per-
mutations with the same elements are considered
This is equivalent to the following determinant: to be the same. Since the number of permuta-
x1 y1 1 tions of r elements is r!, it is required to divide
x2 y2 1 = 0 the number of permutations by r!. Then,
x3 y3 1
P(n, r ) n! n
C (n, r ) = = =
(Linear algebra) Two nonzero vectors ⃗u and ⃗v r! r! (n − r )! r
are colinear if they have the same direction and
are on the same line. where P(n, r ) are the permutations of n taking r
If ⃗u and ⃗v are colinear, then there is a unique at a time and n! is the factorial of the number n.
(scalar) number λ different from zero, such that: Note that the number of combinations of r objects
in a set of n elements is equal to the binomial co-
⃗u = λ ⃗v efficient (nr).
Read also «Binomial coefficient».
where ⃗u , ⃗0 as well as ⃗v , ⃗0.
For any n ∈ N, and r = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n, it is satis-
Collatz function Function whose domain is posi- fied:
tive integers defined as: n n
=
r n−r
n/2 if n ≡ 0 mod 2
f (n) = For any n ∈ N, and r = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1, it is
3 n + 1 if n ≡ 1 mod 2
satisfied:
Read also «Collatz conjecture».
n n−1 n−1
= +
Collatz’s conjecture Consider any positive integer r r r−1
number a1 = n. Generate the sucession ai for
i = 1, 2, 3, · · · , applying the following algorithm. For example, if you need to form 2-member teams
from a group of three people, say {Armando, Ben-
• If ai is even, then ai+1 = ai /2. jamin, Charles}, then the team formed by {Ar-
• If ai is odd, then ai+1 = 3 ai + 1. mando, Benjamin} is the same team as the one
formed by {Benjamin, Armando}. Note that the
The Collatz conjecture states that regardless of the order does not matter: regardless of the order, the
initial value n, there is a finite positive number in two chosen members form the same team.
the sequence k ∈ Z, such that ak = 1. However, if you are going to make flags that have
The Collatz’s conjecture is also known as conjec- two vertical lines among the possible colors white
ture 3 n + 1, Ulam’s conjecture, Thwaites’ conjecture, (1), blue (2) and yellow (3), considering the colors
problem of Siracusa, or as 3 n + 1 problem. ordered away from the flagpole, the white and
Column In a matrix, a column is a vertical line of blue flag is different to the flag of blue and white
its elements. colors. In this case the order does matter, so these
In the matrix A the elements a, d and g are in the are not combinations, but permutations.
first column. Read also «Permutation».
a b c Combinatorics Branch of mathematics that study
A= d e f the techniques to solve problems of counting, or-
g h i dering and grouping of the elements of a set of
constant finite cardinality.
77
Commensurable–Complement of a set
Commensurable Two nonzero numbers a, b are Common logarithm Logarithm in base 10. The
commensurable if there is a rational number p , 0 common logarithm of the number x is denoted
such that a = p b. √ √ as log( x ), and is equivalent to:
For example, the numbers 7 5 and 3 5 are
commesurable because log( x ) = log10 ( x )
√ 7 √ That is, when the base of the logarithm is not
C 7 5=
3
·3 5 specified, it is understood to be 10.
For example, since 10 000 = 104 ,
No irrational number is commensurable with a
rational number. log(10 000) = log10 (10 000) = 4
Common denominator When several fractions The common logarithm is also known as decimal
have the same denominator it is said that those logarithm as well as standard logarithm.
fractions have a common denominator.
When several fractions that do not have the same Commutative A binary operation is commutative
denominator are going to be added or subtracted, if the order of the operands does not matter; that
the procedure basically consists of writing each is, if the order of the operands in the operation is
fraction in an equivalent way with the intention changed, the same result is obtained.
that they all have a common denominator. For example, the commutative property of real
For example, to calculate the sum of numbers for addition is:
1 1 a+b = b+a
+
2 3 and for multiplication:
multiply the first fraction (1/2) by 3/3, to get 3/6,
and multiply the second fraction (1/3) by 2/2 to a·b = b·a
get 2/6. That is, each fraction has been multiplied Read also «Real numbers».
by the number 1, but conveniently expressed (so
that in both equivalent fractions the same denom- Compass An instrument used in geometry to draw
inator is obtained). Once this is done, the sum of circles and to compare lengths of segments.
the fractions is immediate:
1 1 1 3 1 2 3 2 5
+ = · + · = + =
2 3 2 3 3 2 6 6 6
Read also «Least common denominator» and «Equiv-
alent fraction».
Common divisor (Arithmetic) A common divisor
of two or more numbers is a number that is a fac-
tor of all of them.
For example, a common divisor of 10 and 30 is
the number 2, since
10 = (2)(5) Complement of a set The complement of the set
A, denoted by A′ , or by Ac , with respect to the
30 = (2)(3)(5) universal set U, is the set formed by the elements
(Algebra) A common divisor of two or more that are in the universal set U that are not in A.
polynomials is a polynomial that is a factor for That is, the complement of the set A is U − A.
all of them.
For example, x + 1 is a common divisor of the A
3 2 3
polynomials −6 − 7 x + x , and 2 − x − 2 x + x ,
since
−6 − 7 x + x3 = ( x − 3)( x + 1)( x + 2)
2 − x − 2 x2 + x3 = ( x − 1)( x + 1)( x − 2)
A0
78
Complement of an arc–Completing the square
Complement of an arc The complement of an arc For example, to calculate:
is the difference between an arc of 90◦ and the
Z
given arc. x2 · dx
1 + x3
s it is convenient to define u = 1 + x3 , so that
du = 3 x2 · dx. Since in the numerator of the inte-
grand we have x2 · dx, it is clear that multiplying
C
a by 3 is required to complete the differential of the
variable u. So, to complete the differential, but at
the same time not to modify the given expression,
it is multiplied by 3 and also divided by 3. Since
1/3 is constant, it can be written outside of the
sign of integration:
Z Z
x2 · dx 1 3 x2 · dx
In the figure above, the arc s is the complement of 3
=
1+x 3 1 + x3
the arc a.
Applying the change of variable, we obtain:
Complement of an event The complement of the
event E is denoted by E′ (read it as E prime), and 1
Z
du 1 1
it is the set of all the results of the sample space = ln |u| + Ĉ = ln 1 + x3 + C
3 u 3 3
that are not included in the event E.
Completing the differential is the equivalent of
Complementary angles Two angles are comple-
applying the inverse rule of the chain rule of dif-
mentary if the sum of their measures is equal to
ferentiation.
the measure of a right angle. In other words, if
Read also «Antiderivative», «Chain rule», «Change
the sum of two angles equals 90◦ (or, π/2 rad),
of variable», and «Differential».
then the angles are complementary.
Completing the square Algebraic procedure to ex-
press a non-perfect square trinomial as the sum of
a squared binomial plus a constant term.
To complete the square of a square trinomial,
half the coefficient of the linear term is calculated
and the square of that number is added and sub-
β tracted. Then the polynomial is expressed as the
α sum of a squared binomial plus a constant.
For example, considering x2 + 6 x + 10, to com-
If two angles are complementary, one is said to be plete the square compute half of 6, (that is 3), then
the complement of the other. add and subtract its square (that is 9):
Complete sequence A sequence whose terms are x2 + 6 x + 10 = x2 + 6 x + 10 + 9 − 9
natural numbers is said to be a complete sequence
= ( x2 + 6 x + 9) + 10 − 9
if each positive integer can be expressed as the
sum of a finite number of terms of the sequence, = ( x + 3)2 + 1
using each value at most once.
For example, the sequence of powers of 2 is a When this procedure of expressing a non-perfect
complete sequence. square trinomial as the sum of a squared bino-
mial and a constant, the we have completed the
Completing the differential When an antideriva- square.
tive is to be calculated, to correctly apply the cor- If it is a polynomial of degree 2 without the con-
responding antiderivative formula, it must be ver- stant term, the square can also be completed by
ified that the differential is complete in the inte- adding and subtracting the square of half the co-
grand. efficient of the linear term.
79
Complex exponential function–Complex logarithm
For example, d(exp(z))
• = exp(z).
dx
25 25 • (exp(z))n = exp(n z).
x2 + 5 x = x2 + 5 x + −
4 4
25 25 Furthermore,
= x2 + 5 x + −
4 4
2 exp( x + y) = exp( x ) · exp(y)
C = x+
5
2
−
25
4 By Euler’s formula,
If the coefficient of the quadratic term is different exp(i z) = cos(z) + i sin(z)
from 1, factor this coefficient out of all the terms
of the polynomial before applying the previous Also, if z = a + i b,
procedure.
For example, to complete the square of the tri- exp(z) = exp( a + i b) = exp( a) [cos(b) + i sin(b)]
nomial: 2 x2 + 5 x + 1, factor out the coefficient 2
first, where x, y ∈ R, and exp( a), cos(b), sin(b) are the
exponential, cosine, and sine functions of a real
2 2 5 1 variable, respectively.
2x +5x+1 = 2 x + x+ Some differentiation formulas related to the com-
2 2
plex exponential function are:
and then half the coefficient of the linear term is
considered (half of 5/2 is 5/4). Add and sub- d (ez )
• = ez .
tract the square of 5/4 (that is 25/16) inside of dz
the brackets, dn (e az )
• = an e az .
dzn
5 1
2 x2 + 5 x + 1 = 2 x2 + x + d ( az )
2 2 • = az log( a).
dz
5 1 25 25
= 2 x2 + x + + − On the other hand,
2 2 16 16
Z
5 25 1 25 1 az
= 2 x2 + x + + − e az · dz = e
2 16 2 16 a
And finally the expression is simplified:
Complex fraction Fraction in which at least one of
5 25 1 25
2 x2 + 5 x + 1 = 2 x2 + x + + − the numerator or denominator are fractions.
2 16 2 16 For example,
" 2 #
5 17 2
=2 x+ − 1+
4 16 3
7
2 2+
5 17 11
=2 x+ −
4 8 is a complex fraction.
Read also «Perfect square trinomial». Complex logarithm If z is a complex variable, the
logarithm function of z is defined as:
Complex exponential function If z is a complex
variable, the exponential function of z is: log(z) = log |z| + i arg(z)
∞
zi where log(z) is the natural logarithm of the posi-
exp(z) = ∑ i! tive real number |z|, and arg(z) take values in the
i =0
interval [y0 , y0 + 2 π ). The range of the function
The complex exponential function has the follow- log(z) is y0 < Im(z) < y0 + 2 π.
ing properties. Equivalently,
Zz
• exp(0) = 1. dt
log(z) =
• exp(z) , 0, for any z ∈ C. t
1
80
Complex number–Complex plane
√
where the path does not pass through the origin. where r = a2 + b2 is the modulus of the com-
Similar to the case of a real variable, the complex plex number, and θ = arctan(b/a) is its argu-
logarithm function is the inverse function of the ment.
complex exponential function. That is, if z = ew The product of two complex numbers written
(with 0 ≤ arg(z) < 2 π), then w = log(z), where in polar form is calculated by multiplying their
both, z and w are complex numbers. modules and adding their arguments.
The logarithmic function satisfies:
• log(−1) = i π.
For example, if z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ), y
z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ). C
z1 · z2 = r1 · r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 )]
• log(±i ) = ±πi/2.
• log ( az ) = z log( a), for one of the values of And its quotient is calculated by dividing the
log ( az ). modules and subtracting the arguments:
z1 r
Read also «Logarithm». = 1 [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )]
z2 r2
Complex number A complex number is a number From the representation of the complex number z
that has a real part and an imaginary part. in polar form, it is very easy to calculate its n−th
root z1/n .
z = a+ib
I
In the complex number z, a is the real part and b z = 4 + 3i
is its imaginary part. 3
For example, if z = 3 + 2 i, 3 is the real part of z
and 2 its imaginary part.
2
r1
I
1
z = 3+2i
2 r0
φ
0 R
1 0 1 2 3 4
0 R
0 1 2 3 r2
Consider the complex numbers: z1 = a + i b, For this, the following formula is used:
z2 = c + i d. Its sum is:
φ + 2 kπ φ + 2 kπ
z1/n = ρ cos + i sin
z1 + z2 = ( a + c ) + i ( b + d ) n n
p
Its difference is: where ρ = n |z|, for k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1.
Notice that n complex roots are obtained.
z1 − z2 = ( a − c ) + i ( b − d ) Some equations have complex numbers for roots.
Its product is:
Complex plane Plane that assigns the real num-
z1 · z2 = ( ac − bd) + i (bc + ad) bers to the horizontal axis and the imaginary
numbers to the vertical axis to graphically rep-
Its quotient is: resent complex numbers.
z1 ac + bd bc − ad I
= 2 2
+i 2
z2 c +d c + d2 z = 3+2i
whenever z2 , 0 + i 0.
The complex number z = a + i b written in the
polar form is:
z = a + i b = r [cos(θ ) + i sin(θ )] R
81
Component–Computer
The complex plane is also known as the Gauss For example, if f ( x ) = x2 , and g( x ) = 2 x − 3,
plane and as Argand plane. then,
Read also «Complex number».
f ◦ g = f ( g( x ))
Component The components of the vector = (2 x − 3)2
⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ⟩, are each of the numbers
v1 , v2 , · · · , vn . The first component is v1 , the sec- = 4 x2 − 12 x + 9
C ond component is v2 , and so on.
The component of the vector ⃗u in the direction of
And also,
the vector ⃗v , ⃗0, is: g ◦ f = g ( f ( x ))
⃗u · ⃗v = 2 x2 − 3
∥⃗v∥ = 2 x2 − 3
Read also «Projection». Observe that in general, f ◦ g , g ◦ f .
Composite function Given the functions: y = f ( x ) If it is hold that f ◦ g = g ◦ f = x, then f and g
y y = g( x ), the composition of f in g, denoted by are inverse functions one of the other.
f ◦ g is obtained substituting g( x ) instead of x in Read also «Inverse function».
the function y = f ( x ): Compound interest Interest that is calculated each
agreed time interval (monthly, quarterly, semi-
f ◦ g = f ( g( x ))
annual, annual, etc.) where the interest that was
2
For example, let: f ( x ) = x , and g( x ) = 2 x − 3, generated in the last time interval will form part
then, of the capital for the calculation of the interest for
the following time interval.
f ◦ g = f ( g( x )) If n is the number of time intervals the money
= (2 x − 3) 2 was used, i is the interest rate, and C is the initial
2 capital, the interest I is:
= 4 x − 12 x + 9
I = M−C
And also,
= C [(1 + i )n − 1]
g ◦ f = g ( f ( x ))
And the amount M to pay is:
= 2 x2 − 3
M = C (1 + i ) n
2
=2x −3
If interest is compounded q times per year,
Observe that in general, f ◦ g , g ◦ f .
i nq
M = C 1+
Composite number A natural number that has q
more than two (natural) divisors.
For example, the number 9 is composite, because
it has three divisors: 1, 3, and 9. Computable number A real number r is a com-
The number 5 is not a composite number, since it putable number if it can be computed to a pre-
only has two natural divisors (1 and 5). defined precision, using an algorithm in a finite
If a number is not composite, it is either the num- number of steps.
ber 1 or it is a prime number. Computable numbers are also known as Recursive
The only natural number that is neither prime nor numbers.
composite is the number 1. Computer Electronic machine capable of perform-
Note: not only even numbers are composite. ing arithmetic and logical operations, accepting
Read also «Prime number». and processing information, applying processes
Composition Given the functions: y = f ( x ) and to it and returning results.
y = g( x ), the composition of f in g, denoted by The computer is made up of input devices (key-
f ◦ g, is obtained by evaluating f in g (that is, board, mouse, scanner, etc.), processing, arith-
sustituting g( x ) into the function y = f ( x )). metic calculation and control units, storage units
(hard disk, etc.) and output devices (monitor,
f ◦ g = f ( g( x )) printer, etc.)
82
Concave–Concavity
Concave A curve is concave when its curvature is y
directed towards the point from which it is ob-
served.
f (a)
Convex Concave f (b)
C
x
a b
y = f (x)
A polygon is concave if at least one of its interior If f ′′ ( x ) ≤ 0 for x ∈ [ a, b], then y = f ( x ) is con-
angles is a reflex angle. cave in [ a, b].
Equivalently, it is said that y = f ( x ) is a concave
down function in [ a, b] if it is a concave function
in said interval.
If a continuous function is concave in all its do-
main, then it has exactly one maximum.
Concave polygon A polygon is concave if at least
one of its internal angles is a reflex angle.
If it is possible to draw a line segment with ends
inside the polygon, intersecting at least two sides
of the polygon, then it is a concave polygon.
Concave dodecahedron Polyhedron having 12
faces all with the form of mirror-symmetric con-
If it is possible to draw a line segment with end-
cave pentagons (all congruent to each other). It
points inside the polygon, but part of the segment
also has 20 vertices and 30 edges.
outside the figure, then it is a concave polygon.
Read also «Reflex angle».
Concavity Measurement of the curvature of the
graph of a function y = f ( x ) at a point x =
x0 which is quantized by means of the second
derivative of the function.
When f ′′ ( x0 ) > 0, the curve is said to be concave
up at the point x0 (or convex),
y
y = f (x)
Concave function It is said that a function of one
real variable y = f ( x ) is a concave function in
the interval [ a, b] if the segment with endpoints at
( a, f ( a)) and (b, f (b)) is located under the graph
of the function in said interval. x
83
Concentric–Concurrent lines
and if f ′′ ( x0 ) < 0 the curve is said to be concave x
down at the point x0 .
3a
y 2a
a
C y
Observation: in the figure the axes are rotated 90◦ .
y = f (x) Conchoid of Dürer Plane curve whose parametric
x equations are:
b cos(t)
x (t) = + a cos(t)
Read also «Concave». cos(t) − sin(t)
If f ′′ ( x0 ) = 0 at the point x0 the graph of the func- y(t) = a sin(t)
tion changes from being concave up (convex) to
concave down (or vice versa). This point is known for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π, where t is in radians, and a and b
as the point of inflection. are constants.
For a greater value for | f ′′ ( x0 )| the curvature of
the graph of the function y = f ( x ) is steeper, that y
is, the graph changes direction faster for a higher
value of | f ′′ ( x0 )|. b
Read also «Point of inflection» and «Curvature».
x
−a a
Concentric Two or more geometric objects are said
to be concentric if the center of all of them is the
same point.
For example, in the following figure, the hexagon
and the circumference are concentric, because
both of them have their center at C.
Strictly speaking, this curve is not a conchoid.
Conclusion It is the result of a logical implication.
For example, considering the premises: «All men
are mortal», and «Luis is a man», the conclusion is:
«Luis is mortal», since it is the result of the logical
implication of the initial premises.
C
Concurrent lines Three or more lines are concur-
rent when they all pass through the same point.
Given the lines:
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0
Conchoid Plane curve created by Nicomedes and
a third concurrent line can be obtained using:
whose parametric equations are:
( A1 x + B1 y + C1 ) + λ ( A2 x + B2 y + C2 ) = 0
x (t) = a + d cos(t)
y(t) = a tan(t) + d sin(t) with −∞ < λ < ∞.
84
Conditional discrete probability function–Conditional expectation
y 0 then the conditional distribution of Y given that
= X = x is:
C1
1
y+ f ( x, y)
B w(y| x ) = { g ( x ) , 0}
1
x+ g( x )
A
If f ( x, y) is the value of the joint probability den-
A
sity of the continuous random variables X and
Y at ( x, y) and h(y) is the value of the marginal
C
2 x+ distribution of Y at y, then the conditional distri-
B bution of X given that Y = y is:
2 y+
C f ( x, y)
2 = x f ( x |y) = { h ( y ) , 0}
0 h(y)
for −∞ < x < ∞. Similarly, if g( x ) is the value
of the marginal density of X at x, then the condi-
If λ = ±1 the bisectors of the angle formed by the
tional density of Y given that X = x is:
two given lines are obtained.
If the lines f ( x, y)
w(y| x ) = { g ( x ) , 0}
g( x )
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0
A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0 for −∞ < y < ∞.
A3 x + B3 y + C3 = 0 Conditional distribution function If X and Y are
two continuous random variables with joint den-
are concurrent, then
sity function f ( x, y), then the conditional distri-
A1 B1 C1 bution function of X given that Y = y, is:
A2 B2 C2 =0
F ( x | y ) = P ( X ≤ x |Y = y )
A3 B3 C3
Conditional discrete probability function If X Conditional expectation If X is a discrete random
and Y are two discrete random variables with variable and f ( x |y) is the value of the conditional
joint probability function p( x, y) and marginal probability distribution of X given Y = y at x, the
probability functions p x ( x ) and py (y), respec- conditional expectation of u( X ) given that Y = y,
tively, then the conditional discrete probability is:
function of X is: E[u( X )|y] = ∑ u( x ) · f ( x |y)
x
P( X = x, Y = y)
p ( x | y ) = P ( X = x |Y = y ) = If X is a continuous random variable and f ( x |y)
P (Y = y )
is the value of the conditional probability density
p( x, y) of X given that Y = y at x, the conditional expec-
=
py (y) tation of u( X ) given that Y = y, is:
whenever py (y) > 0. Z∞
E[u( X )|y] = u( x ) · f ( x |y) · dx
Conditional distribution If f ( x, y) is the value of
−∞
a joint probability distribution of the discrete ran-
dom variables X and Y at ( x, y) and h(y) is the If X and Y are random variables, then,
value of the marginal distribution of Y at y, then
the conditional distribution of X given that Y = y E[ X ] = E [ E[ X |Y ]]
is: where E[ X |Y ] is the expectation with respect to
f ( x, y) the conditional distribution of X given Y, and
f ( x |y) = { h ( y ) , 0} E[ E[ X |Y ]] is the computed expectancy with re-
h(y)
spect to the distribution of Y.
for each x in the range of X. Similarly, if g( x ) is The conditional expectancy is also known as con-
the value of the marginal distribution of X at x, ditional expected value, conditional mean.
85
Conditional expected value–Confocal
Conditional expected value Synonym of condi- The equation of the cone in rectangular coordi-
tional expectation. nates is:
Read also «Conditional expectation». x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 = 2
Conditional mean Synonym of conditional expecta- a a c
tion. In spherical coordinates the equation of the cone
Read also «Conditional expectation».
C Conditional probability Probability of occurrence
is tan(ϕ) = a/c where a and c they are positive
constants (the same ones used in the equation in
rectangular coordinates).
of an event, given that another event has already
The cone is a ruled surface.
occurred.
P( A ∩ B) Read also «Ruled surface» and «Quadratic surface».
P( A| B) =
P( B)
where P( A| B) is the conditional probability that Confidence interval A confidence interval for a
event A occurs given that event B has already oc- population parameter with significance level c is
curred and P( A ∩ B) is the probability that both the interval ( p − δ, p + δ) where the true value of
events A and B occur. the given parameter is considered to be found.
That is, with a probability of 1 − c, the value of
Conditional variance If X and Y are random vari-
the population parameter will be within the in-
ables, then the conditional variance of X given
terval ( p − δ, p + δ).
that Y = y, denoted by V [ X |Y = y], is:
The value of δ depends on the distribution of the
parameter for which the confidence interval is cal-
V [ X |Y = y] = E[V ( X 2 |Y = y)] − ( E[ X |Y = y])2
culated.
In this case, the conditional distribution of X is For example, a confidence interval for the popu-
used since Y = y. lation mean µ, calculated from the sample mean
Notice that the conditional variance is a function x̄, with probability size c, is:
of y. If Y is varied over its entire range, then
V [ X |Y ] is a random variable that depends on Y. x̄ − E < µ < x̄ + E
If X and Y are variables, then,
where E is the tolerance error,
V [ X ] = E[V [ X |Y ]] + V [ E[ X |Y ]]
σ
E = zc √
where E[ X |Y ] is the conditional expectation with n
respect to the distribution of X given Y.
Read also «Conditional expectation». Read also «Tolerance error».
Cone Geometric figure obtained by rotating a line
Confidence level In statistics, the confidence level
about a fixed point and around another fixed line
c is the value of the probability that the interval
that passes through the fixed point. The rotating
[ x̄ − c, x̄ + c] contains a value x of a population
line is called the generatrix, the fixed point is the
parameter being estimated.
vertex of the cone, and the fixed line is the axis of
the cone.
z [x̄ − c, x̄ + c]
x
0 x̄ − c x̄ x̄ + c
Confocal Two or more conics lying in the same
plane are said to be confocal if the focus for all of
them is the same point.
rix For example, in the figure below, all the parabolas
rat
e ne shown have the focus at the origin, and therefore
G
they are confocal parabolas.
86
Confounding variable–Congruence of matrices
y 4. Two polygons are congruent if their corre-
sponding sides are equal as well as their corre-
sponding angles.
That is, if one polygon can be superimposed on
another, the polygons are congruent.
The congruence in geometry presents the reflec-
tive (a = a), simmetric (if a = b, then b = a) and
transitive (if a = b and b = c, then a = c) proper- C
x ties.
(Number theory) Given the integer numbers
a, b, m, we say that the number a is congruent to b
modulo m, and is denoted by: a ≡ b mod m, if it
can be written:
a = km+b
where k ∈ Z.
In other words, if the number a − b is divisible by
Two different ellipses, or two different hyper- m, then a is congruent to b modulo m.
bolas with the same foci, are confocal ellipses. For example, 14 ≡ 4 mod 5, because:
Similarly, an ellipse and a hyperbola that share 14 = 5 × 2 + 4
the foci are confocal conics.
That is, 14 − 4 is divisible by 5. In other words, the
two numbers, 14 and 4, leave the same remainder
y when divided by 5.
All the numbers a that satisfy a ≡ b mod m form
a set called congruence class modulo m.
That is, if a and b leave the same remainder when
divided by m, then both belong to the same con-
gruence class (modulo m).
The elements of the congruence classes have the
following properties:
x • a ≡ a mod m for all a ∈ Z.
F′ F
• If a ≡ b mod m, then, b ≡ a mod m
• If a ≡ b mod m, and b ≡ c mod m, then,
a ≡ c mod m.
• If a ≡ b mod m, and c ≡ d mod m, then,
( a + c) ≡ (b + d) mod m.
• If a ≡ b mod m, and c ≡ d mod m, then,
( a · c) ≡ (b · d) mod m.
Read also «Parabolic coordinates». • If a · c ≡ (b · c) mod m, and (c, m) = 1, then,
a ≡ b mod m.
Confounding variable A variable that modifies
both the independent and dependent variables in • If a · c ≡ (b · c) mod m, and c , 0, then,
a way that changes the measure of association be- a ≡ b mod (m/(c, m)).
tween those variables. where (c, m) is the greatest common divisor of c
and m.
Congruence (Geometry) 1. Two line segments are
congruent if they have the same length. Congruence of matrices Two matrices A and B of
2. Two angles are congruent if they have the same dimension n × n are congruent to each other, if
magnitude. there is an invertible matrix P, such that
3. Two triangles are congruent if the measures of
B = P T AP
their corresponding sides have the same length.
Read also «Criterion for congruence of triangles». where P T is the transpose matrix of P.
87
Congruence of triangles–Conic
Congruence of triangles Two triangles are con- Conic Curve obtained from the intersection of a
gruent if any of the following three conditions is cone with a plane. For this reason conics are also
true: called conic sections. They are:
i. They have their three corresponding sides • Circumference
congruent (SSS).
C ii. They have two corresponding sides and the
angle between them congruent (SAS).
iii. They have one side (ℓ) and the interior an-
gles (with common side ℓ) congruent (ASA)
Congruent angles Two angles are congruent if
they have the same measure.
• Ellipse
α α
Congruent number (Number theory) A positive
integer that is the area of a right triangle whose
side lengths are rational numbers.
• Parabola
5
3
The first congruent numbers are 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 15,
and 20.
• Hyperbola
Congruum (Number theory) If a2 , b2 , and c2 are
three perfect saquare that form an arithmetic pro-
gression satisfying b2 − a2 = c2 − b2 , then the
common difference b2 − a2 is the congruum of the
progression.
Read also «Fermat’s Right Triangle Theorem».
Congruum problem The congruum problem con-
sists in finding perfect square numbers in arith-
metic progression and the congruum of said pro-
gression.
Es decir, se deben encontrar números cuadrados The section generated by the plane and the cone
perfectos. a2 , b2 , and c2 that form an arithmetic may be a straight line or a point. These particular
progression. cases are known as degenerate conics.
The congruum of this sequence is the difference Given five points in a plane, where three of them
between two consecutive terms b2 − a2 = c2 − b2 . are not collinear, they uniquely determine a conic
Read also «Congruum». that passes through these points.
88
Conical helix–Conjecture
Read also «Cone», «Equation of the circumference»,
«Equation of the ellipse», «Equation of the hyperbola», h
«Equation of the parabola», and «Section».
Conical helix Curve in space whose parametric R
equations are: r
x (t) =
at
cos(ω t)
C
2πc
at
y(t) = sin(ω t)
2πc
ωt The volume V of the conical frustum can also be
z(t) =
2πc calculated using the formula:
√
where a, c and ω are positive constants.
b+B+ bB ·h
V=
3
z
where b and B represent the area of the bases and
h is the height of the conical frustum.
The truncated cone is also known as truncated
cone.
Read also «Cone» and «Conicity».
Conicity The conicity c of a truncated cone with
major radius R, minor radius r, and height h, is:
2 (R − r)
c=
h
y
h
x
R
r
The conical helix is also known as conical spiral
and as conchospiral.
Conical frustum Solid obtained when cutting a
cone with two planes perpendicular to the axis
of the cone.
The height of the conical frustum is the distance
Read also «Truncated cone».
between its circular bases (which are parallel).
Its volume V, the surface area Stotal , and the con- Conjecture Affirmation of a result, which is sus-
vex (lateral) area Slateral are: pected to be true from the evidence available, but
which has not yet been proven or refuted.
π 2
V= r + rR + R2 For example, «there are an infinite number of twin
3 prime numbers», it is a conjecture that has not yet
Stotal = π r2 + R2 + s(r + R) been proven or disproved.
Read also «Twin prime numbers».
Slateral = π s(r + R) When a conjecture is proved it becomes a theo-
rem. If it turns out to be false, then it becomes a
where false conjecture.
q
s = ( R − r )2 + h2 If the conjecture cannot be proved in some ax-
iomatic system, it can be adopted as a postulate
is the slant height of the conical frustum. to develop a theory.
89
Conjugate–Conoid
Conjugate (Algebra) The conjugate of the two- Conjugate axis In a hyperbola, the conjugate axis
term expression is the expression obtained by is a line segment perpendicular to the transverse
changing the sign of the second term.√ √ axis that passes through its midpoint.
For example, the conjugate of 1 + x is: 1 − x.
(Complex variable) The conjugate of the complex
number z = a + i b denoted by z̄ is the com- y
C plex number obtained by changing the sign of its
imaginary part, z̄ = a − i b.
Conjugate axis
Geometrically, the conjugate of the complex num-
ber z is the reflection of z with respect to the real x
axis.
I
z = a+bi
R
Read also «Equation of the hyperbola» and «Trans-
z̄ = a − b i verse axis».
Also, the square of the modulus of z is: Conjunction The logical conjunction of two propo-
sitions p and q denoted by p ∧ q, is the operation
z · z̄ = ( a + i b)( a − i b) = a2 + b2 that returns true for its true value only when both
Some properties of the conjugate of a complex p and q are true, and false in any other case.
number are:
• z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 . p q p ∧ q
• z1 z2 = z1 z2 . T T T
• z1 /z2 = z1 /z2 , for z2 , 0. T F F
• z z = | z |2 . F T F
• z−1 = z/|z|2 , for z , 0. F F F
• z = z, only if z is real.
• z = z. where T means true, and F means false.
A conjunction is the assertion formed by two
• Re(z) = (z + z)/2.
premises joined by the word and.
• Im(z) = (z − z)/(2 i ). For example, the number 2 is even and is prime is
where |z| is the modulus of the complex number a conjunction. That is, the word and simbolizes a
z, Re(z) is the real part of z, y Im(z) is the imagi- logic conjunction.
nary part of z. Read also «AND» and «Disjunction».
Read also «Complex number». (Set theory) Operation equivalent to the intersec-
tion of two sets, denoted by ∩.
Conjugate angles Two angles are conjugate angles Read also «Intersection».
if the sum of their measures is equal to the mea-
sure of a full angle. In other words, two angles Conoid Given a fixed plane and a fixed line, a
are conjugate angles if the sum of their measures conoid is a ruled surface that satisfy the follow-
equals 360◦ (or, 2 π rad). ing two conditions:
1. all the lines forming the surface are parallel
α to a plane, and
2. all the lines intersect a fixed line.
The fixed plane is known as the directrix of the
conoid and the fixed line is its axis.
β
For example, the helicoid
90
Consecutive–Consistent
C
Consequent The consecuent of the ratio a : b is b.
For example, in the ratio 5 : 7, the number 5 is the
antecedent and 7 is the consecuent.
Conservative vector field A vector field ⃗F is a con-
servative vector field if ⃗F is the gradient of some
scalar function f .
If ⃗F ( x, y, z) = M ı̂ + N ȷ̂ + P k̂, is a conservative
and the hyperbolic paraboloid field, then it satisfies:
z rot ⃗F = ⃗0
1 That is,
∂M ∂N ∂M ∂P ∂N ∂P
= = =
∂y ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
−1 0 −1 y
1 1
x For example, the vector field
⃗F ( x, y, z) = ey+z ı̂ + x ey+z ȷ̂ + x ey+z k̂
are conoids.
Read also «Ruled surface». is a conservative vector field because it is the gra-
dient of the scalar function:
Consecutive The consecutive of the natural num-
ber n is n + 1. f ( x, y, z) = x ey+z
For example, the consecutive number 9 is 10.
The function f is the potential function of the
Consecutive angles In a polygon, two angles are given vector field ⃗F.
consecutive if they have a common side.
In the next pentagon, the angles α and β are con- Consistent (Algebra) A set of axioms is consistent
secutive angles. when it is not possible to prove a proposition and
its negative.
(Linear algebra) A system of linear equations is
β
consistent when it has at least one solution.
If the system of linear equations has exactly one
α solution, it is also said that it is independent.
If the system has an infinite number of different
solutions, then it is also said that the system is
dependent.
If the system of linear equations has no solution,
it is said to be inconsistent.
Consecutive vertices In a polygon, two vertices are Independent (unique solution)
Consistent
consecutive if they are endpoints of the same side. Dependent (infinitely many sol’s)
In the figure below, vertices A and B are consecu- Inconsistent (no solutions)
tive.
91
Constant–Constraint
Constant Mathematical expression whose value It follows,
does not change. Z
For example, ln(π ) ≈ 1.1447298858 is constant. dx
= ln [ln( x )] + C
Some important constants in mathematics are the x ln( x )
following.
regardless of the value of the real constant C (be-
cause the derivative of a constant is zero).
C Name Value
Constant of proportionality A constant of propor-
Pi π ≈ 3.141592654
√ tionality k is the number that causes an equality
Imaginary unit i = −1 relation to be fulfilled between two quantities that
Euler’s number √e ≈ 2.718281828 vary proportionally.
Pythagorean constant 2 ≈ 1.414213562 If y is directly proportional to x, then,
Golden ratio φ = 1.618033989
y = kx
In infinitesimal calculus the constants are denoted
where k is the constant of proportionality.
using the first letters of the alphabet (a, b, c, d, e, f ),
For example, if a ball costs $35.00, x is the number
except in cases where by tradition a literal that is
of balls we want to buy and M is the amount that
not at the beginning of the alphabet is used to de-
we must pay, then, the amount is directly pro-
note a constant (for example, r is used to denote
portional to the number of balls, because when
the radius of a circle).
the number of balls is doubled, the amount also
Read also «Number Pi (π)», «Number e»,
grows twice, and if the number of balls is de-
«Pythagorean constant», and «Golden ratio».
creased by a third, the amount also decreases in
Constant of integration Given a function y = f ( x ) the same proportion. Therefore,
whose antiderivative y = F ( x ) is known, the con-
M = 35 x.
stant of integration is an arbitrary constant that is
added to the antiderivative to express it as: In this case, the constant of proportionality is
Z k = 35.
f ( x ) · dx = F ( x ) + C This example shows direct proportionality, al-
though it can also be inverse.
where C is the constant of integration. If y is inversely proportional to x, then,
By definition, an antiderivative y = F ( x ) of the
k
function y = f ( x ) satisfies: F ′ ( x ) = f ( x ). There- y=
fore, two antiderivatives of y = f ( x ) differ by a x
constant. And if y varies jointly with x, and z, then,
Geometrically this means that the antiderivative
is a family of functions. y = kxz
y and if y varies directly proportional to x and in-
versely proportional to z, then,
y = F (x) + C
kx
y= .
z
Read also «Directly proportional» and «Inversely
proportional».
x Constraint Condition that is imposed on a prob-
lem, such that its solution must satisfy each con-
dition imposed in the description of the problem.
Read also «Indefinite integral». In an optimization problem, the constraints de-
For example, since limit the polygon (or polyhedron) of the feasible
region.
d (ln [ln( x )] + C ) 1 Read also «Feasible region» and «Simplex method».
= For example, in the problem: compute the maxima
dx x ln( x )
92
Constructible number–Continuity
of z = 9 − x2 − y2 subject to x + y = 2, the con- Constructible polygon Regular polygon that can
straint is the condition that the values of x and y be constructed using compass and ruler only.
satisfy that their sum is 2 (given by the equation Gauss showed that a regular polygon of n sides
x + y = 2). is constructible if n is the product of a power of
The solution of the problem must satisfy the func- 2 and any number other than the primes of the
m
tion z = 9 − x2 − y2 , as well as x + y = 2, simul- form 22 + 1.
taneously. Therefore, regular polygons of n sides can be con-
structed for n = 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, C
z 24, 30, 32, 34, 40, 48, 51, 60, 64, 68, 80, 85, 96, etc.
Read also «Fermat number».
z = 9 − x2 − y 2
Construction Algorithm for drawing a figure us-
ing only compass and ruler.
In geometrical constructions, the ruler is used to
(1, 1, 7) draw lines, not to measure distances.
x+y =2 Continued fraction Expression of the form:
1
a0 +
1
a1 +
1
a2 +
a3 + · · ·
which is obtained iteratively to represent the sum
of a whole number and the reciprocal of another
number.
For example, to write 25/7 as a continued frac-
y tion, observe that:
25 4 1
x = 3+ = 3+
7 7 7
4
Read also «Method of Lagrange multipliers». But 7/4 = 1 + (3/4). Thus,
Constructible number A real number r is con- 25 1 1 1
= 3+ = 3+ = 3+
structible, if and only if, it can be constructed on 7 7 3 1
1+ 1+
a given straight line, based on a unit distance, us- 4 4 4
ing only compass and ruler. 3
Algebraically, the number r is constructible, if it Now, 4/3 = 1 + (1/3). Consequently:
can be expressed using the numbers 0 and 1, and
the operations of addition, subtraction, multipli- 25 1 1
= 3+ = 3+
cation, division, and square rooting, only. 7 1 1
1+ 1+
4 1
1+
y 3 3
Continuity A function y = f ( x ) is continuous at
1
the point x = a if
√
2
lim f ( x ) = f ( a).
x→a
0 √ x
0 1 2 2 3 It is said that the function y = f ( x ) is continuous
on an interval [ a, b] if it is continuous for every
√ x ∈ [ a, b].
The number 2 is constructible because it is the If the function is continuous on [ a, b] then it takes
diagonal of a √
square of side length one. all the values between f ( a) and f (b) and it is pos-
The number 3 is also constructible because the sible to draw its graph in this interval without
measure of the height of√ an equilateral triangle detaching the tip of the pencil from the paper on
with length of side 2 is 3. which it is drawn.
93
Continuous–Continuous uniform distribution
y y
f (b)
f (b)
y = f (x)
y = f (x)
C f ( a)
f ( a)
x
a b x
a b
If y = f ( x ), and y = g( x ), are two continuous If y = f ( x ) and y = g( x ) are continuous functions
functions on the interval [ a, b], then, at x = x0 , and c ∈ R, then:
• f ( x ) + g( x ) is continuous on [ a, b]. • c f ( x ) is also continuous at x0 .
• f ( x ) · g( x ) is continuous on [ a, b]. • f ( x ) + g( x ) is also continuous at x0 .
• f ( x )/g( x ) is continuous on [ a, b], except • f ( x ) · g( x ) is also continuous at x0 .
those points where g( x ) = 0. • 1/ f ( x ) is also continuous at x0 whenever
• f ( g( x )) is continuous on [ a, b], for all points f ( x0 ) , 0.
of g( x ) in the domain of f . • f ( g( x )) is also continuous at x0 , whenever
f ( x0 ) is in the domain of y = g( x ).
For example, polynomial functions are continu-
ous on all real numbers, while rational functions Read also «Limit».
are continuous on all real numbers, except for the
values of x where the denominator is zero. Continuous random variable If F ( X ) is a contin-
The sine and cosine functions are also continuous uous probability distribution function for −∞ <
in all R. x ≤ ∞, then X is said to be a continuous random
The exponential functions y = a x , as well as variable.
y = e x are continuous for all R. In this case,
The composition of the sine function in any poly- d ( F ( x ))
f (x) =
nomial is continuous in all real numbers, just like dx
y=e cos ( x ) is continuous for all real numbers. is the probability density function of the continu-
Read also «Limit». ous random variable X.
The expected value of the continuous random
Continuous A variable is continuous in an interval variable X, denoted by E[ X ], is:
when it can take any real value of that interval.
When the variable cannot take all the possible val- Z∞
ues within the interval, but instead takes certain E[ X ] = x · f ( x ) · dx
values (but not all in the given interval), we say −∞
that the variable is discrete.
Read also «Discrete» and «Discrete variable». assuming that the improper integral exists.
If g( X ) is a function of X, then its expected value
is:
Continuous function A function f is continuous Z∞
in a given interval [ a, b] if it takes all the values
E[ g( X )] = g( x ) · f ( x ) · dx
between f ( a) and f (b).
−∞
Informally, the function f is continuous in [ a, b] if
its graph can be drawn in the given interval with- assuming that the improper integral exists.
out detaching the tip of the pencil from the paper Read also «Expected value».
on which it is drawn.
In the figure below, the function y = f ( x ) is con- Continuous uniform distribution A random vari-
tinuous in the interval [ a, b]: able X has a continuous uniform distribution on
94
Continuous variable–Convention
the interval [ a, b], if and only if, its probability dis- z = x2 + y 2
tribution is:
z
0 for x < a
5
1
f (x) = for x ∈ [ a, b]
b−a c=4
0 for x > b 4
for all x ∈ R. c=3
3
C
The mean and the median of this distribution are
equal, and their value is: c=2
2
a+b c=1 1
x̄ =
2
−2
The mode can be any value in the interval [ a, b]. −1
0
Its cumulative distribution function is: 1 y
1 2
x 2
0x − a for x < a
CDF = for x ∈ [ a, b]
b−a The level curves f ( x, y) = c are drawn for equally
1 for x > b spaced values of c such that the regions in which
the curves are closest to each other on the contour
Read also «Uniform density».
map, the values of the function (the values of z)
Continuous variable Variable that can be assigned change slowly and in regions where the curves
any value within a given interval [ a, b]. are further apart on the contour map, the func-
Generally the values assigned to a continuous tion values grow faster.
variable are real numbers. Read also «Level curve».
Read also «To aproximate». Contradiction Sentence that is false.
Continuum hypothesis There is no set A whose For example, 2 + 3 = 1, is a contradiction.
cardinality | A| satisfies: (Logic) Incompatibility between two proposi-
tions.
ℵ 0 < | A | < 2ℵ0 Contraposition In logic, the counterpositive of a
conditional statement is true, if and only if, its
Read also «Aleph» and «Cardinality».
counterpositive is true.
Contour Line or closed curve that delimits a figure.
P → Q if and only if ¬Q → ¬P
Contour For example, considering the conditional state-
ment If I solve the problem then I have a hamburger for
dinner, its contrapositive is: If I don’t have a ham-
burger for dinner then I won’t solve the problem.
Convenience sample Sample whose individuals
have been selected because they are the only ones
in the population to which there is access.
Convention In mathematics, when a result is given
The perimeter of a plane geometric figure repre- by convention, it is defined that way because it is
sents its contour. convenient, since the rest of the theory continues
Read also «Perimeter». to be valid.
For example, by convention 0! = 1, because the
Contour map Geometric representation of several factorials holds:
level curves of a function of two variables (z =
f ( x, y)) in the same xy plane. (k + 1)! = (k + 1) · k!
95
Converge–Conversion
Making k = 0, it is obtained: because:
∞
1! = 1 · 0! 1
∑ n (n + 1)/2
n =1
So that it is convenient to define 0! = 1, in this
∞
way, the mentioned property for the factorial con- 1 1
=2 ∑ −
tinues to be valid. n n+1
C Converge Getting closer and closer to a fixed
n =1
= 2 lim
1−
1
+
1 1
−
+···
value. N →∞ 2 2 3
For example, if we give values to x in 1/x, the 1 1
n−th term of the sequence gets closer and closer + −
N N+1
to zero, so the n−th term of the sequence con-
1 1 1 1
verges to zero as n approaches infinity. = 2 lim 1 + − + + − + +···
N →∞ 2 2 3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , , ,··· converges to 0. + − + −
1 2 3 4 5 N N N+1
y 1
= 2 lim 1 − =2
1 N →∞ N+1
1
1 1
1
2
3
1 1 Read also «Triangular number» and «Camel’s prin-
4 5 ciple».
0 x Another example of a convergent series is:
0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1
Read also «Infinite series» and «Limit» (Analysis). 1+ + + + + +··· = e
1 2! 3! 4! 5!
If the series is not convergent, then it is said to be
Convergent sequence A sequence such that its divergent.
successive terms are getting closer to a fixed Read also «Divergent series», «Cauchy root test»,
value. «Integral test», «Ratio test», «Root test» and «Tele-
For example, the sequence: scoping sum».
0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001, · · · Converse The converse of a theorem of the form
P → Q is another theorem of the form Q → P.
converges to zero.
That is, the roles of the hypothesis and the con-
Convergent series Given the sequence a1 , a2 , · · · , clusion in the theorem are exchanged.
an , its corresponding partial sum Sn is: For example, considering the Pythagorean theo-
rem: For any right triangle lying in a plane, the sum
n
of the squares of the lengths of its legs is equal to
Sn = ∑ a i
i =1
the square of the length of its hypotenuse, the corre-
sponding converse theorem is: If the lengths of the
If the sequence S1 , S2 , · · · , Sn , of the partial sums sides of a triangle lying in a plane satisfy that the sum
tends to a finite limit when n tends to infinity, of the squares of the lengths of its legs is equal to the
then the series: square of the length of its hypotenuse, then the triangle
∞
S= ∑
a i
is a right triangle.
i =1
Conversion (Logic) Simple logical conversion con-
is said to converge and its value is S. sists of inverting subject by predicate and vice
In other words, if Sn has a finite value, regardless versa.
of the number of terms that are considered in the The logical conversion of P → Q is Q → P.
sum, then the series is convergent. Q → P is also denoted with P ← Q.
For example, the sum of the reciprocals of the tri- For example, the converse assertion if it’s a cat,
angular numbers is convergent, then it’s an animal, is: if it’s an animal, then it’s a cat
1 1 1 1 1 (obviously this is not necessarily true).
+ + + + +··· = 2 Read also «Reciprocal» (Algebra).
1 3 6 10 15
96
Conversion factor–Convex function
Conversion factor When it is required to represent Convex A polygon is convex when all of its interior
a given quantity in certain units in an equivalent angles measure less than a straight angle (that is,
way in other units, a conversion factor is used. none of its interior angles is a reflex angle).
For example, knowing that 180◦ = π [rad], to
convert θ degrees to x radians, the conversion fac-
tor π/180, is used, so that:
x=
π
180
·θ C
Observe that by dividing π [rad]/180◦ you get
how many radians are equal to one sexagesimal
degree. So when you multiply this factor by an In other words, a polygon is convex if all its in-
angle measured in sexagesimal degrees, you get terior angles measure less than 180◦ (or, 2 π radi-
the measure of that angle, but in radians (be- ans).
cause the units of sexagesimal degrees kill off More formally, a geometric figure is said to be
each other). convex if there is no line segment with ends
The conversion factor for a particular unit con- within the figure that cuts through its outline (or
version is easily obtained by applying a cross- perimeter).
multiplication. When a polygon is not convex, it is said to be
Read also «Unit conversion» and «Cross- concave, or a non-convex polygon. The following
multiplication». figure shows a concave polygon.
Conversion of units Converting a measure in a
given unit to another unit of the same nature
means to express a quantity measured in a cer-
tain unit into a different unit.
For example, 10 cm is equivalent a 1.0 dm.
To convert a unit, it is necessary to know the
equivalence to the second unit involved in the op-
eration.
For example, knowing that one inch equals 2.54
centimeters, to convert 1 [in2 ] to [cm2 ] use a cross- A curve is convex when its curvature is directed
multiplication: away from the point from which it is observed.
(1 [in])2 ⇒ (2.54 [cm])2
1 [in2 ] ⇒ 6.4516 [cm2 ]
Similarly, since 1 [ft] is equivalent to 12 [in], then
Convex Concave
3 3
(1 [ft]) ⇒ (12 [in])
3
1 [ft ] ⇒ 1 728 [in3 ]
To convert 35 [km/h] to meters per second
([m/s]), the magnitude is multiplied by its equiv-
A polyhedron is convex when for any two points
alent in the form of a fraction such that with the
P and Q that lie on different faces of the polyhe-
simplification meters per second are obtained.
dron, the segment PQ is enterely contained in the
[km
35 ]
1 [h] 1 000 [m] polyhedron.
· · ] = 9.72 [m/s] Read also «Convex polyhedron» and «Non-convex
[h] 3 600[s] 1[km
polyhedron».
Note that the equivalence between hours and sec-
onds was used, written as a fraction, so that when Convex function It is said that a function of one
simplifying, the end result is in seconds. The real variable y = f ( x ) is a convex function in
same for the equivalence between kilometers and the interval [ a, b] if the segment with endpoints at
meters. ( a, f ( a)) and (b, f (b)) is located above the graph
Read also «Conversion factor». of the function in said interval.
97
Convex polyhedron–Coordinate system
y = f (x) f ∗ g is read the convolution of f and g.
y Some properties of the convolution are listed be-
low.
f (b) • f ∗g = g∗ f
• f ∗ ( g ∗ h) = ( f ∗ g) ∗ h
f (a)
C •
•
f ∗ ( g + h) = ( f ∗ g) + ( f ∗ h)
( f ∗ g)′ = f ′ ∗ g = f ∗ g′
Z Z
Z
• ( f ∗ g)( x ) dx = f ( x ) dx g( x ) dx
x
a b
Coordinate A coordinate is the number that cor-
If f ′′ ( x ) ≥ 0 for x ∈ [ a, b], then y = f ( x ) is convex responds to a point on a number line. In other
in [ a, b]. words, the coordinate is a number that indicates
Equivalently, it is said that y = f ( x ) is a concave the location of a point on an axis.
up function in [ a, b] if it is a convex function in In the Cartesian plane, a point can be located with
said interval. its two coordinates P( x, y).
If a continuous function is convex in all its do-
main, then it has exactly one minimum. y
3
Convex polyhedron A polyhedron is a convex
polyhedron if it contains all points of any segment
with endpoints in the interior of the polyhedron. 2 P(3, 2)
x
1 2 3 4
In the figure, the first coordinate of the point P is:
x = 3 and the second: y = 2.
To each point of the plane there correspond a
pair of coordinates and to each pair of coordinates
there correspond to a point of the plane.
In three-dimensional space, a point can be located
by indicating three coordinates.
If there is a segment whose endpoints are in the In the three-dimensional rectangular coordinate
interior of the polyhedron, but part of the seg- system, the coordinates of the point P are x, y and
ment passes through the faces of the polyhedron, z.
then the polyhedron is said to be non-convex. z
Read also «Non-convex polyhedron».
z
Convolution Mathematical operation denoted by
f ∗ g, over two functions f and g, which quanti- P (x, y, z)
fies the magnitude that the shape of one affects
the other, and is defined as: y
x y
Z∞ x
( f ∗ g) (t) = f (τ ) · g(t − τ ) · dτ
−∞ Coordinate system Set of axes used to indicate co-
ordinates of points. When the axes are mutually
or equivalently,
perpendicular and all use the same unit of mea-
Z∞ surement on each axis, it is a Cartesian coordinate
( f ∗ g) (t) = f (t − τ ) · g(τ ) · dτ system.
−∞ Read also «Coordinate».
98
Coordinate transformation–Coplanar
Coordinate transformation Changing from one And to convert an equation in polar coordinates
coordinate system to another coordinate system. (r, θ ) to its equivalent in rectangular coordinates
The basic transformations are translation, rota- ( x, y), the following formulas are used:
tion, and translation together with rotation.
x = r cos(θ )
In a rectangular coordinate system, the transla-
tion from the xy system to the x ′ y′ system is done y = r sin(θ )
by means of the formulas:
′
Basically, to transform an equation written in rect-
angular coordinates ( x, y, z) to cylindrical coordi-
C
x = x+h
nates (t, θ, z), or vice versa, the same formulas are
y′ = y + k used as in the transformation from rectangular to
polar coordinates and vice versa, leaving the vari-
where x ′ and y′ are the coordinates of the final able z unchanged.
coordinate system. To transform an equation written in rectangular
To perform a rotation of an angle θ radians leav- coordinates ( x, y, z) to its equivalent in spherical
ing the origin fixed, the following formulas are coordinates (ρ, θ, ϕ), it is used:
used: q
ρ = x 2 + y2 + z2
x ′ = x cos(θ ) + y sin(θ )
x
y′ = − x sin(θ ) + y cos(θ ) cos(θ ) = p
x + y2
2
z
y cos(ϕ) = p
y′ x + y2 + z2
2
y
P
θ To transform an equation from spherical coordi-
sin
(θ
)
nates (ρ, θ, ϕ) to rectangular coordinates ( x, y, z),
x
y
the following formulas are used:
sin
(θ
)
x = ρ sin(ϕ) cos(θ )
y′
y = ρ sin(ϕ) sin(θ )
y
x′
co
z = ρ cos(ϕ)
s
(θ
x′
)
)
Read also «Spherical coordinate», «Polar coordinate»,
s(θ
θ x
co
θ
«Cylindrical coordinate», and «Rectangular coordi-
θ
nate».
x
x
Coplanar When several objects are in the same
plane, they are said to be coplanar.
To perform a translation and then a rotation in For example, in the following figure the points P,
a rectangular coordinate system, the transforma- Q, R and S are coplanar because they are all in
tion formulas are: the same plane.
x ′ = x cos(θ ) + y sin(θ ) + h
y′ = − x sin(θ ) + y cos(θ ) + k
To transform the equation of a locus from one co-
ordinate system to another system, substitute the R
variables according to the transformation formu-
las from one system to the other.
For example, to transform an equation written in
S P
rectangular coordinates ( x, y), to its equivalent in Q
polar coordinates (r, θ ), the following formulas
are used:
q
r = x 2 + y2
y ⃗ , · · · are
(Linear algebra) Several vectors ⃗u, ⃗v, w
θ = arctan coplanar if they are parallel to the same plane.
x
99
Coprime–Corresponding parts
Coprime (Arithmetic) Two natural numbers are ables (X and Y), and it is:
coprime or relatively prime if their greatest com-
mon divisor is the number one. That is, if two E( XY ) − E( X ) E(Y )
numbers are coprime, then there is no prime ρ XY = p p
E ( X 2 ) − E ( X ) 2 E (Y 2 ) − E (Y ) 2
number that divides them both.
For example, 7 and 9 are coprime.
where E( X ) represents the expected value of the
C Note that the numbers are not required to be
prime for them to be coprime. variable X. Observe that ρ XY = ρYX .
If the value of the correlation coefficient is close
If c is coprime to both a and b, then c is also co-
prime to ab. to 1, it is said that the variables are (positively)
If two numbers are coprime numbers they are correlated. If its value is very close to zero, it is
also said to be mutually prime and relatively prime said that the variables are not correlated.
one another. Read also «Simple linear regression».
(Algebra) Two polynomials are relatively prime
(one another) if their only common factors are Correspondence There is a correspondence be-
constants. tween the elements of two given sets X and Y if
For example, x2 + 1, and x − 1 are two prime there is a relationship that associates to each ele-
polynomials relative to each other because they ment of X exactly one element of Y.
do not share polynomial factors (besides 1). The word correspondence with this meaning is
deprecated. The term relation one to one is cur-
Coprime integers We say that two numbers p and rently used.
q are coprime, or prime relative to one another, if Read also «Injective function».
their greatest common divisor is 1.
In other words, two numbers are coprime if,
when forming a fraction with them, it cannot be Corresponding angles When two parallel lines are
simplified. cut by a secant (the transversal), 8 angles are
For example, 8 and 7 are relatively prime. formed. If two nonadjacent angles are on the
Note that it is not required that the two numbers same side with respect to the transversal line, one
considered a, b be prime, but that they satisfy that being internal and the other external, then these
GCD( a, b) = 1. are corresponding angles.
The figure below shows the pairs of correspond-
Corollary Proposition that is an immediate conse- ing angles (α, ϵ), ( β, ζ ), (γ, η ) and (δ, θ ).
quence of another, and whose demonstration is
very simple.
For example, knowing that the sum of the interior ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2
angles of a quadrilateral is equal to 360◦ , from
the theorem that states that the opposite angles of α ℓ1
β
a parallelogram are equal, a corollary that can be γ
deduced is that if one of the interior angles of the δ
parallelogram is a right angle, then the other interior
angles are also right angles and the parallelogram is a ϵ
ζ ℓ2
rectangle. η
Read also «Lemma» and «Theorem». θ
Correction If x0 is the approximate value of the ex-
act value of x, then the correction to x is the value
that must be added to x0 to get x.
Corresponding angles are congruent.
Read also «Absolute error».
Read also «Congruence» (2).
Correlation Two variables are said to be correlated
when there is a certain degree of association (not Corresponding parts In two similar figures, the
necessarily a causal one) between the variables. corresponding parts (sides, angles, diagonals,
The correlation coefficient ρ XY quantifies the cor- etc.) are those that are located in correspondence
relation that exists between two statistical vari- one to the other.
100
Corresponding side–Cosecant
y
y = csc(x)
x
C
1 π π 3π 2π
Corresponding side Given two congruent poly- −1 2 2
gons A and B, each side of A is equal to its corre-
sponding side in B.
` ` Notice that the graph of the cosecant function has
vertical asymptotes at the points where the sine
function becomes zero.
In the figure above, the base denoted by ℓ is exem-
plified as corresponding sides of the shown con-
gruent polygons. y
Read also «Congruence». 1
y = csc(x) =
sin(x)
Cosecant In a right triangle, the cosecant of a pos-
itive angle α smaller than 90◦ is a trigonometric
ratio that is defined as the ratio of the length of
the hypotenuse (h) to the length of the opposite 1
leg (b): y = sin(x)
h x
csc(α) = 1 π π 3π 2π
b
−1 2 2
Here the measure of the opposite leg is assumed
to be different from zero.
h
b
The derivative of the cosecant function is:
α
a d (csc(v)) dv
= − csc(v) · cot(v) ·
dx dx
Equivalently, the cosecant function is defined for
The antiderivative of the cosecant function is:
any angle x as the reciprocal of the sine function.
That is to say, Z
csc(v) · dx = − ln |csc(v) + cot(v)| + C
1
csc( x ) =
sin( x )
The following figure represents the cosecant of
The graph of the cosecant function is as follows. the angle θ in the unit circle.
101
Cosine
y The graph of the cosine function is as follows.
y
1 1
x
C θ)
c( -1 y = cos( x )
cs
Considering x in radians, the graph of the cosine
function has a period T = 2 π.
θ The roots of the cosine function are at the points
x
1 x = (2 k + 1) π/2, with k ∈ Z.
The maxima of the cosine function are at the
points x = 2 k π, with k ∈ Z.
Read also «Cofunction» and «Trigonometric func-
The minima of the cosine function are at the
tion».
points x = (2 k + 1) π, with k ∈ Z.
Cosine In a right triangle, the cosine of a positive The derivative of the cosine function is:
angle α smaller than 90◦ is a trigonometric ratio d[cos(v)] dv
that is defined as the ratio of the length of the ad- = − sin(v) ·
dx dx
jacent leg (a) to the length of the hypotenuse (h):
And the antiderivative of the cosine function is:
a Z
cos(α) =
h cos(v) · dv = sin(v) + C
The Maclaurin series of the cosine function is:
x2 x4 x6
h cos( x ) = 1 − + − +···
b 2! 4! 6!
∞
(−1)i 2 i
=∑ x
i =0
(2 i ) !
α
a The Taylor series of the cosine function about
x = a, is:
The cosine function is defined for any angle α.
( x − a )2 ( x − a )4
Considering a unit circle centered at the origin cos( x − a) = 1 − + −···
of a rectangular coordinate system, the cosine of 2! 4!
∞
the angle α with one of its sides on the horizontal (−1)i
=∑ ( x − a )2 i
axis, denoted by cos(α), is defined as the coordi- i =0
(2 i ) !
nate on the x axis of the point of intersection of
the other (non-horizontal) side of the angle with The general case of the cosine function is:
the unit circle.
y = A cos(ωx + δ)
y where A is the amplitude of the wave, δ is the
horizontal displacement (phase shift) and ω is the
angular frequency of the wave (measured in radi-
ans per second), so that 2 π f = ω, where f is the
regular frequency (measured in hertz).
sin(α)
The cosine function can be transformed into the
sine function by means of a horizontal shift:
α
x π
cos(α) 1 y = A cos(ωx + δ) = A sin ωx + δ +
2
102
1
Cosine integral–Cotangent
By Euler’s formula, the cosine function can also Notice that the measure of the opposite leg is as-
be defined as: sumed to be different from zero.
Equivalently, the cotangent function is defined as
eix + e−ix
cos( x ) = the reciprocal of the tangent function. That is to
2 say,
for x ∈ R. 1
cot( x ) =
Read also «Euler’s formula».
In terms of complex numbers, the cosine function
tan( x )
The graph of the cotangent function is shown be-
C
can be written as:
low.
cos( x ) = Re eix
y
If z is a complex variable, the cosine of z is defined y = cot(x)
as:
eiz + e−iz
cos(z) =
2
The Laplace transform of the cosine function is:
1
s
L {cos( a x )} =
s2 + a2 x
Read also «Law of cosines», «Arccosine», and «Co- 1 π π 3π 2π
function». −1 2 2
Cosine integral The cosine integral, denoted as
Ci( x ) is the function defined by:
Zx
1 − cos(t)
Ci( x ) = · dt
t
0
The cosine integral function is an even function, Since tan( x ) = sin( x )/ cos( x ),
that satisfies:
1 1 cos( x )
Zx Z∞ cot( x ) = = =
1 − cos(t) cos(t) tan( x ) sin( x ) sin( x )
Ci( x ) = · dt = γ + ln( x ) + · dt
t t cos( x )
0 x
for |Arg( x )| < π, where γ ≈ 0.57721566 · · · is the So the graph of the cotangent function becomes
Euler-Mescheroni constant. zero at the points where cos( x ) = 0, and its verti-
Read also «Euler-Mescheroni constant». cal asymptotes are at the points where sin( x ) = 0.
Cotangent In a right triangle the cotangent of the y
positive angle α smaller than 90◦ , denoted as y = cot(x)
cot(α), is a trigonometric ratio that is defined as
the ratio of the length of the adjacent leg (a) to
that of the opposite leg (b).
a
cot(α) = 1
b y = sin(x)
x
1 π π 3π 2π
−1 2 2
h
b
α
a
103
Counterexample–Cramer’s rule
The derivative of the cotangent function is: if the covariance is zero, it means that there is no
linear relationship between the values of the ran-
d (cot(v)) dv dom variables X and Y.
= − csc2 (v) ·
dx dx The covariance has the following properties:
The antiderivative of the cotangent function is:
i. cov( X, a) = 0, for a constant a.
Z
C cot(v) · dx = ln |sin(v)| + C ii. cov( X, X ) = var( X ).
iii. cov( X, Y ) = cov(Y, X ).
The representation of the cotangent trigonometric
iv. cov( a X, b Y ) = a b cov( X, Y ).
ratio of the angle θ in the unit circle is shown in
the following figure. v. cov( X, Y ) = E( XY ) − E( X ) E(Y ).
y where var( X ) is the variance of X, and E( X ) is
the expected value of the random variable X.
When X and Y are independent, their covariance
cot(θ) is zero.
1 If the random variables X1 , X2 , X3 , · · · , Xn are in-
dependient,
n n
Y1 = ∑ a i Xi and Y2 = ∑ bi X i ,
i =1 i =1
then,
n
cov(Y1 , Y2 ) = ∑ ai bi · var(Xi )
θ i =1
x
1 where var( Xi ) is the variance of Xi .
Read also «Cofunction» and «Trigonoetric function». Coversine Trigonometric function denoted by
coversin( x ), and it is defined as:
Counterexample Argument that serves to discard coversin( x ) = 1 − sin( x )
a hypothesis or to show that a given statement is
not always true. y
It can also be an exception to a general statement.
For example, if we assume that all odd numbers 1
are prime, the number 21 is a counterexample,
since 21 has 4 divisors (1, 3, 7 and 21), and there-
coversin θ
fore, it is not prime.
Another example: if suppose that a2 = b2 implies
that a = b, a counterexample is a = 1, b = −1,
because the hypothesis is fulfilled (a2 = b2 ), but
the conclusion (a = b) does not hold.
sin θ
Covariance The covariance quantifies the joint
variability of two random variables with respect θ
to their means. The covariance of the random x
1
variables X and Y, denoted by cov( X, Y ) is:
cov( X, Y ) = E [( X − µ X )(Y − µY )] The coversine function is deprecated.
If the covariance is a positive number, it means Cramer’s rule Given the system of linear equations
that large values of X correspond to large values (S.L.E.) with n unknowns written in matrix form
of Y; if the covariance is negative, it means that as:
large values of X correspond to small values of Y; A ⃗x = ⃗b
104
Cramer’s rule
where A is a square matrix n × n with determi- Solving for x1 , it is obtained:
nant different from zero and ⃗x is the column vec-
tor formed by the unknowns of the system. The c b
S.E.L. solution is: f e ce − b f
x1 = =
a b ae − bd
det( Ai )
xi = d e
det( A)
where det( A) represents the determinant of the In a similar way, from the main determinant of C
matrixA, y det( Ai ) represents the determinant of the S.L.E., multiplying its second column by x2 ,
the matrix that is obtained when the i −th column a b a b x2
of matrix A is replaced by the vector ⃗b. x2 ·
d e
=
d e x2
For example, in the case of an S.L.E. of two equa-
tions with two unknowns, And adding the first column multiplied by x1 to
column 2, we get:
a x1 + b x2 = c
d x1 + e x2 = f a b a a x1 + b x2
x2 · =
if it is expressed as follows: d e d d x1 + e x2
a b c x1 c Substituting the values of the second column, ac-
A= ⃗x = ⃗b =
d e f x2 f cording to the S.L.E., it follows that:
its solution is: a b a c
x2 · =
d e d f
c b a c
f e d f Therefore,
x1 = x2 =
a b a b
d e d e a c
d f a f − cd
x2 = =
Because considering the main determinant of the a b ae − bd
system, d e
a b
d e In a similar way, S.L.E. of 3 × 3, and in general of
n × n can be solved.
Due to the properties of determinants, if the first
If the main determinant is equal to zero,
column is multiplied by x1 , the value of the deter-
minant is multiplied by that same value: a b
=0
a b a x1 b d e
x1 · =
d e d x1 e
The S.L.E. has an infinity of solutions if det( Ai ) =
And applying the property of determinants that 0.
says that if you add a multiple of one column to In this case, one equation is a multiple of the
another column, then the determinant does not other,
change, if you add the second column multiplied
a b
by x2 to the first column, you get: = abk−abk = 0
ka kb
a b a x1 + b x2 b
x1 · = Geometrically, the two equations have the same
d e d x1 + e x2 e
graph, so if a point satisfies the first equation, it
But according to the S.L.E., also satisfies the second. Viewing the determinant
as an area, we are calculating the area of a paral-
a x1 + b x2 = c lelogram of height zero.
d x1 + e x2 = f On the other hand, det( Ai ) = 0 in the S.L.E. of
3 × 3 indicates that an equation (row) is a linear
Therefore,
combination of the other two. Geometrically, the
a b c b line where two planes intersect is the same line
x1 · = where they intersect with the third plane.
d e f e
105
Crest–Critical point
Viewing this determinant as a volume, the vol- • If the two legs of a right triangle are congru-
ume of the parallelepiped is the volume of a plane ent with the corresponding parts of another
(which is zero). right triangle, then the triangles are congru-
In general for an S.L.E. of n × n, if det( Ai ) = 0, a ent.
row (or a column) is a linear combination of the • If the hypotenuse and an acute angle of a
other rows (or columns). right triangle are congruent with the cor-
C If det( Ai ) , 0 the S.L.E. has no solution. Geomet-
rically, in the S.L.E. of 2 × 2 there are two different
responding parts of another right triangle,
then the triangles are congruent.
parallel lines, so there is no point shared by the
• If a leg and an acute angle of a right triangle
graphs of those equations.
are congruent with the corresponding parts
If det( Ai ) , 0 in a S.L.E. of 3 × 3 indicates that
of another right triangle, then the triangles
the line that is the intersection of two planes is
are congruent.
parallel to the line that is obtained with the inter-
section of the other plane.
Critical point The value of x = x0 is the critical
Colin Maclaurin used this technique for solv-
point of the function y = f ( x ), if f ′ ( x0 ) = 0.
ing systems of linear equations 21 years before
Geometrically, the tangent line to the graph of the
Gabriel Cramer published it, however Cramer is
function y = f ( x ) at the critical point x = x0 is a
traditionally given credit. Maclaurin even pub-
horizontal line.
lished it two years before Cramer.
Read also «Determinant» and «Matrix». y
P y = f (x)
Crest In a wave curve a crest is each one of the
highest points of its trajectory.
On the contrary, a trough corresponds to each of
x
the lowest points of its trajectory. x0
Crest Trough
The location of the critical points of a function are
calculated by setting the derivative of the function
equal to zero and solving the resulting equation.
dy
f ′ (x) = =0
dx
There are three types of critical points:
i) Maximum: when the curve is concave down-
Criterion for congruence of triangles For all tri- wards at x0 (that is, f ′′ ( x0 ) < 0).
angles, ii) Minimum: when the curve is concave up-
wards at x0 (that is, f ′′ ( x0 ) > 0).
• (SSS) If three sides of one triangle are con-
gruent with the corresponding sides of an- iii) Point of inflection: when the curve changes
other triangle, then the two triangles are con- its concavity at x0 (that is, f ′′ ( x0 ) = 0).
gruent. The critical point of a function of one variable is
• (SAS) If two sides of a triangle and the an- also known as the stationary point.
gle formed by them are congruent with the Read also «Concavity».
corresponding parts of another triangle, then (Multivariable calculus) The point ( x0 , y0 ) is a
the two triangles are congruent. critical point of the function z = f ( x, y), if it is
in the domain of the function and it satisfies,
• (ASA) If two angles of one triangle and the
side they share are congruent with the corre- ∂f ∂f
=0 =0
sponding parts of another triangle, then the ∂x ( x0 ,y0 ) ∂y ( x0 ,y0 )
two triangles are congruent.
or, at least one of the partial derivatives ∂ f /∂x,
For right triangles, ∂ f /∂y, does not exist.
106
Critical value–Cross product
If the former occurs (both partial derivatives exist product of the denominator of the first fraction by
and are equal to zero), the tangent plane to the the numerator of the second.
graph of the function z = f ( x, y) at the critical a c
= ⇒ a·d = b·c
point ( x0 , y0 ) is horizontal. b d
If all numbers are positive, cross-multiplication is
z = f (x, y) applicable even if it is an inequality.
a
b
<
d
c
⇒ a·d < b·c C
In both cases (equality and inequality) this re-
−1 0 −1 y sult is obtained by multiplying both sides of the
1 1 inequality by the product of the denominators
x
(b · d).
The location of these critical points of the function Cross product The cross product of the vectors
z = f ( x, y) are calculated by setting the partial ⃗u = u1 ı̂ + u2 ȷ̂ + u3 k̂, and ⃗v = v1 ı̂ + v2 ȷ̂ + v3 k̂
derivatives of the function equal to zero with re- is defined as:
spect to each of the variables on which it depends,
and solving the resulting system of equations. ⃗u × ⃗v = (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) ı̂ − (u1 v3 − u3 v1 ) ȷ̂ +
In general, the fuction w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), has + (u1 v2 − u2 v1 ) k̂
a critical point at ( a1 , a2 , · · · , an ), if
A mnemonic to remember this definition is based
∂f on the determinant of dimension 3 × 3, and it is:
= 0
∂xi (a1 ,a2 ,··· ,an ) ı̂ ȷ̂ k̂
⃗u × ⃗v = u1 u2 u3
for i = 1, 2, · · · , n. v1 v2 v3
To compute the coordinates of the critical points
of w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) the partial derivatives are Some properties of the cross product of non-zero
set equal to zero with respect to each of the vari- vectors ⃗u, ⃗v and w ⃗ are listed below.
ables x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , and the system of equations i. ⃗u × ⃗0 = ⃗0 × ⃗u = ⃗0
thus obtained is solved.
ii. ⃗u × ⃗v = −⃗v × ⃗u
Critical value (Statistics) In a hypothesis test, the iii. ( a ⃗u) × ⃗v = a (⃗u × ⃗v)
critical value is the value that is used as a crite- iv. ⃗u × (⃗v + w ⃗ ) = ⃗u × ⃗v + ⃗u × w
⃗
rion to decide whether to accept or reject the null
v. (⃗u × ⃗v) · w ⃗ = ⃗u · (⃗v × w⃗)
hypothesis. Of course, the critical value depends
on the significance level assigned. vi. ⃗u · (⃗u × ⃗v) = ⃗v · (⃗u × ⃗v) = 0
(Analysis) Value that the function takes at a criti- vii. If ⃗u × ⃗v = ⃗0 then ⃗u and ⃗v are parallel.
cal point.
where a ∈ R.
For example, considering the function y = 1 − x2 ,
Observe that ⃗u ×⃗v is perpendicular to both, ⃗u and
it has a critical point x = 0. The critical value
⃗v.
corresponding to this critical point is: f (0) = 1.
z
Cross-multiplication Method used to calculate an ~u × ~v
unknown value of a direct proportion, given the
other three.
For example, to calculate the value of x in: ~v
x 3
=
7 21
use:
(3)(7) y
x= =1
21
Considering the equivalent fractions a/b and c/d, ~u
the product of the numerator of the first fraction
by the denominator of the second is equal to the x
107
Cross section–Cube
The direction of the vector ⃗u × ⃗v is chosen so that and from this arrangement, observe that
if the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v are placed on a horizontal
w x = uy vz − uz vy
plane, and the angle θ is measured from vector ⃗u
to vector ⃗v, then ⃗u × ⃗v is vertical and it’s pointing wy = uz v x − u x vz
upwards. wz = u x vy − uy v x
Since
The component wx is obtained by omitting the
C 2 2
∥⃗u × ⃗v∥ = (u2 v3 − u3 v2 ) + (u1 v3 − u3 v1 ) + 2
first component of the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v, and com-
puting the products uy vz and vy uz and subtract
+ ( u1 v2 − u2 v1 )2
them.
= u21 + u22 + u23 v21 + v22 + v23 For the component wy omit the second compo-
nent of ⃗u and ⃗v and compute the products, v x uz
− ( u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 )2 and u x vz , then subtract them and finally, change
= ∥⃗u∥2 ∥⃗v∥2 − (⃗u · ⃗v)2 its sign.
For the third component, start with the vector ⃗u,
= ∥⃗u∥2 ∥⃗v∥2 − ∥⃗u∥2 ∥⃗v∥2 · cos2 θ
omitting the third component of the vectors, the
= ∥⃗u∥2 ∥⃗v∥2 1 − cos2 θ products are calculated u x vy and v x uy and sub-
tract them.
= ∥⃗u∥2 ∥⃗v∥2 sin2 θ,
Cross section When a plane intersects a solid so
the magnitude of ⃗u × ⃗v can be computed using: that the plane is perpendicular to an axis of that
∥⃗u × ⃗v∥ = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ sin θ solid, the intersection (that is, the points common
to the plane and the solid) form a cross section of
where θ is the angle between the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v. the solid.
z ~v
in θ
k~v k s
θ
y
~u
x
This result is equal to the area of the parallelo- Some authors define the cross section without the
gram formed by the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v. restriction that the plane be perpendicular to the
If ⃗n = ⃗u × ⃗v, then, ⃗n is perpendicular to both, ⃗u axis of the solid.
and ⃗v, and also, ∥⃗n∥ = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ sin θ, where θ is Conic sections are examples of cross sections.
the angle formed by ⃗u and ⃗v. Because of this, Read also «Conic».
ı̂ × ȷ̂ = k̂ ȷ̂ × k̂ = ı̂ Cube (Arithmetic) The cube of the number a, de-
k̂ × ı̂ = ȷ̂
noted by a3 , is the result of multiplying it by itself
Furthermore, three times.
ı̂ × ı̂ = ȷ̂ × ȷ̂ = k̂ × k̂ = ⃗0 For example, the cube of 2 is: 23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.
The notation 23 is read: two cubed.
Read also «Right-hand rule». (Geometry) Regular geometric solid whose 6
⃗ = ⃗u × ⃗v, a mnemonic to do the calculation
If w faces are squares. In other words, the cube is
without writing the determinant is to write the a regular hexahedron, or a square-based right
vectors prism whose edges are the same length.
* + * + * + The cube has 12 edges and 6 faces. Their adjoin-
ux vx wx
⃗u = uy ⃗v = vy ⃗ = wy
w ing faces as well as their adjoining edges form
uz vz wz right angles to each other.
108
Cube duplication–Cubic equation
This equation can be reduced using the substitu-
tion:
p
y = x−
3
to further reduce it to the form:
x3 + a x + b = 0
where
C
1
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and a= (3 q − p2 )
3
its area A are: 1 3
b= 2 p − 9 pq + 27 r
V = a3 27
A = 6 a2 whose solutions x1 , x2 , x3 are given by:
The length D of the x1 = A + B
√ space diagonal of a cube with √
edge a is: D = a 3. 1 i 3
x2 = − ( A + B ) + ( A − B)
2 2
√
z 1 i 3
x3 = − ( A + B ) − ( A − B)
2 2
a where i2 = −1,
s r
3 b b2 a3
A= − + +
2 4 27
s r
3 b b2 a3
B= − − +
2 4 27
y If p, q, r are real numbers, and
x a
a b2 a3
• if + > 0, there is a real root and two
4 27
complex conjugate roots,
Cube duplication One of the three problems of an-
tiquity. The problem consisted in building a cube b2 a3
• if + = 0, there are three real roots, of
with twice the volume of a given cube, using only 4 27
compass and ruler. which two are repeated, and
b2 a3
Cubic Unit of volume that is denoted by writing • if + < 0, there are three different real
4 27
the number 3 as a superscript of the unit consid- roots.
ered.
For example, one liter equals one cubic decimeter, For the latter case, the following formula is used
which is denoted as 1 dm3 . In other words, a box to calculate the roots of the equation:
with an edge one decimeter in length contains a r
a ϕ ◦
volume of one liter. xk = ∓2 − cos + 120 K
3 3
Cubic equation A cubic equation is any equation
where K = 0, 1, 2, and
of the form:
r
a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 = 0 b2 − a3
cos ϕ = ÷
4 27
where a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 are constants and a3 , 0.
If b > 0, use the negative sign of the symbol ∓,
To solve the cubic equation, divide all the terms of
and if b < 0, use the positive sign of ∓.
the equation by a3 to obtain the equivalent equa-
If
tion: b2 a3
r + q x + p x2 + x3 = 0 + >0
4 27
109
Cubic foot–Cuboctahedron
the real root is:
r
a
x = ±2 cot(2 ϕ)
3
where 1 m3
p
C tan ϕ =
r
tan ψ 3
1m
b2 a3
cot(2 ψ) = ÷
4 27 1m
1m
If b > 0, use the positive sign of the symbol ±,
and if b < 0, use the negative sign of ±.
If
b2 a3
+ =0 Cubic parabola The curve that results from graph-
4 27
ing a function of the form: y = a x3 + b x2 + c x +
the roots are: d.
r r
a a
x1 = ∓2 − , x2 = x3 = ± − ,
3 3 y
If b > 0, use the upper sign of ∓ and of ±, and if y = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d
b < 0, use the lower sign of ∓ and of ±.
Cubic foot Unit of volume used in the English sys-
tem equivalent to 0.02832 cubic meters. x
Cubic function Third degree polynomial function.
That is, a function of the form:
y = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d
Cubic root The cube root of the number x is the
where a , 0. number r that has the property that when multi-
The graph of the cubic function y = x3 − x is be- plied by itself three times gives x.
low. In other words, the cube root of x is the number r
that satisfies: r3 = x.
y y = x3 − x For example, the cube root of 1000 is 10, because:
2 103 = 10 · 10 · 10 = 1000
1 The cube root of integers is not always a whole
number.
x
−1 1 2
Cubic unit Unit of volume formed by a cube with
−1 edges of measure equal to the unit.
Read also «Unit cube».
Cuboctahedron Polyhedron with 14 faces, of
Read also «Polynomial function». which 8 are equilateral triangles and 6 are
squares. It also has 24 edges and 12 vertices.
Cubic meter Unit of volume denoted by m3 , and The cuboctahedron is obtained by joining two tri-
that is equivalent to the volume contained in a angular cupolas at their bases, rotating one of
cube whose edges measure one meter in length. them 60◦ with respect to the other.
110
Cuboid–Cumulative frequency
X.
The cumulative distribution function of the real
random variable X is a function that when evalu-
ated at x the probability that X takes a value less
than or equal to x is obtained.
If X is a continuous random variable, the cumu-
lative distribution of X is:
Zx
C
F ( x ) = P( X ≤ x ) = f (t) · dt
−∞
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and where f (t) is the probability distribution function
its area A are: of the variable X in t.
The cumulative distribution is also known as dis-
5 √ 3 tribution function.
V= 2a
3 √ Cumulative frequency Frequency that considers
A = 6 + 2 3 a2
for each interval the values less than or equal
to the value that corresponds to the limit of said
The cuboctahedron is an Archimedean solid.
class.
Cuboid Polyhedron formed of 6 rectangular faces, For example, considering the following frequency
so that any two adjacent faces form a right dihe- table:
dral angle. It also has 8 vertices and 12 edges.
Range Frecuency Cumulative F.
z 0 – 10 250 250
10 – 20 1 200 1 450
c 20 – 30 2 500 1 950
30 – 40 1 225 5 175
40 – 50 850 6 025
50 – 60 750 6 775
60 – 70 425 7 200
y 70 – 80 250 7 450
x a b
80 – 90 37 7 487
90 – 100 13 7 500
The area A and the volume V of the cuboid whose
edges measure a, b, c, respectively, are: its corresponding graph of cumulative frequen-
cies is:
A = 2 ab + 2 ac + 2 bc
V = abc Cumulative F.
The length D of its space diagonal is: 8000
p 7000
D= a2 + b2 + c2
6000
Read also: «Space diagonal», «Hexahedron», and 5000
«Golden orthohedron». 4000
Cumulative distribution If X is a discrete random 3000
variable, the function given by: 2000
1000
F ( x ) = P( X ≤ x ) = ∑ f (t) for − ∞ < x < ∞
0 Class
t≤ x A B C D E F G H I J
where f (t) is the value of the probability distri-
bution of X in t, is the cumulative distribution of Read also «Ogive».
111
Cupola–Curvature
Cupola A polyhedron made up of the following: where Fr , Fθ and Fz are the component of ⃗F in the
one polygon at the top having n sides and another direction of r, θ, and z, respectively.
at the base having 2 n sides, and 2 n equatorial The components of the curl of ⃗F in spherical co-
faces that join these two polygons, of which n are ordinates are:
isosceles triangles and the other n are rectangles.
⃗ 1 ∂ (sin(ϕ) Fθ ) ∂Fϕ
∇×F = −
ρ sin ϕ
C
∇ × ⃗F =
ρ
1 ∂Fρ
−
∂ϕ
1 ∂ (ρ Fθ )
∂θ
ϕ ρ sin ϕ ∂θ ρ ∂ρ
" #
1 ∂ ρ Fϕ ∂Fρ
∇ × ⃗F = −
θ ρ ∂ρ ∂ϕ
If the bases (top and bottom polygons) are regular where Fρ , Fθ and Fz are the components of ⃗F in
polygons, the triangles are equilateral triangles, the direction of ρ, θ, and ϕ, respectively.
and the rectangles are squares, a Johnson solid is If rot(⃗F ) = ⃗0, it is said that ⃗F is an irrotational
obtained. field. A conservative vector field satisfies that
Read also «Johnson solid». rot(⃗F ) = ⃗0. However, the fact that rot(⃗F ) = ⃗0,
does not necessarily imply that ⃗F is conservative.
Curl The curl is a vector whose magnitude and di- The curl has the following properties.
rection describe the (infinitesimal) rotation that a
vector field undergoes at each point where both, • rot ⃗F + G ⃗ = rot ( F ) + rot ( G ).
its components and its partial derivatives are de-
fined. • rot c ⃗F = c rot ( F ).
The direction of the curl of the vector field ⃗F, de-
noted by rot(⃗F ), as well as ∇ × ⃗F, is the direction • rot f ⃗F = f rot ⃗F + ∇ f × ⃗F.
of the axis of rotation and the magnitude of ∇ × ⃗F
is twice the angular speed about that axis of rota- Gradient fields are irrotational. This is,
tion. rot (∇ f ) = ⃗0.
The curl of the vector field Read also «Gradient», «Conservative field», «Poten-
tial function», and «Divergence».
⃗F ( x, y, z) = M ı̂ + N ȷ̂ + P k̂
Curvature A measure of the change in direction of
a curve at a point.
in rectangular coordinates is a vector function
The curvature of the graph of the vector function
given by:
⃗r (t) = ⟨ x (t), y(t), z(t)⟩
ı̂ ȷ̂ k̂
rot ⃗F = ∇ × ⃗F =
∂ ∂ ∂ is calculated with:
∂x ∂y ∂z
M N P d⃗T
κ=
∂P ∂N ∂M ∂P ds
= − ı̂ + − ȷ̂
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
where s is the parameter of the curve that repre-
∂N ∂M
+ − k̂ sents its arc length, and ⃗T is a unit tangent vector
∂x ∂y to the curve. In words, the curvature is the rate of
change of the unit vector ⃗T tangent to the graph
The components of the curl of ⃗F in cylindrical co- of this function with respect to its arc length.
ordinates are: To apply this formula when the curve is not pa-
1 ∂Fz ∂F rameterized with respect to its arc length, the
∇ × ⃗F = − θ chain rule is applied to obtain:
r r ∂θ ∂z
∂Fr ∂Fz
∇ × ⃗F = − ⃗T ′ (t)
θ ∂z ∂r d⃗T
κ= =
1 ∂ (r Fθ ) ∂Fr ds ds
∇ × ⃗F = −
z r ∂r ∂θ dt
112
Curve–Curvilinear coordinates
Since
Curve
Zt
ds
s(t) = ∥⃗r ′ (u)∥ · du ⇒ = ∥⃗r ′ (u)∥,
dt
a In mathematics, the word curve is often used as a
synonym for a function or an equation.
It can be written: Read also «Equation» and «Function».
κ=
∥⃗T ′ (t)∥ Curve arc Part of a curve bounded by two of its
C
∥⃗r ′ (t)∥ points.
It can also be justified that: Q
∥⃗r ′ (t) ×⃗r ′′ (t)∥ P
κ=
∥⃗r ′ (t)∥3
The length of the arc of a curve is known as its
For the function y = f ( x ) written in rectangular arc length.
coordinates, the curvature is given by: Read also «Arc length» and «Rectification».
Curve fitting Given a set of data {( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ),
f ′′ ( x ) . . ., ( xn , yn )}, the curve of best fit is the function
κ= 3/2
(1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 ) y = f ( x ) if its graph is the best fit to the given data.
Here, fit may mean (a) that the graph of the func-
In engineering, the second derivative of the func- tion passes through every data point, i.e., yi =
tion y = f ( x ) with respect to x is often used to f ( xi ) for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, or either (b) that the sum
approximate the curvature when the first deriva- of the squares of the vertical distance from each
tive of the function is small. data point to the graph of the function is minimal.
A straight line has zero curvature, since it never That is to say, if δi = yi − f ( xi ), then the best fit
changes its direction. A circumference has a con- curve minimizes:
stant curvature, since it changes direction by the n n
same amount by moving the same distance along E= ∑ δi2 = ∑ (yi − f (xi ))2
the curve. i =1 i =1
The curvature of a circumference of radius r is: Read also «Least squares method», «Lagrange polyno-
1 mial», and «Newton’s interpolation polynomial».
κ=
r Curvilinear coordinates Coordinate system where
the axes are curved. This system can be gener-
so a circumference with a small radius has a
ated from a transformation of the points in space
greater curvature than one with a larger radius.
by applying transformation formulas.
In this case, r is the radius of curvature, so the
curvature is the reciprocal of the radius of curva- u3
ture.
z
1 Tˆ
κ
1 ~r(t)
−1 −1
y
1 1 u2
x
u1
Read also «Radius of curvature».
Examples of curvilinear coordinates are cylindri-
Curve A line drawn on a plane or in space. cal coordinates and spherical coordinates.
113
Cyclic polygon–Cycloid
Cyclic polygon A polygon is a cyclic polygon if all Cycloid A plane curve drawn by a point on a cir-
its vertices are on the same circle. cumference as it rolls along a fixed straight line
without sliding.
C
x
Consider the point P( x, y) upon the circle of ra-
All sides of the cyclic polygon are chords of its dius r centered at (Cx , r ) that rolls withous slid-
circumscribed circumference. ing over the x −axis, so that at t = 0 radians the
All triangles, all rectangles, and all regular poly- point P is at the origin.
gons are cyclic polygons.
Read also «Inscribed polygon» and «Circumscribed y
circumference».
Cyclic quadrilateral Quadrilateral whose vertices P
are on the same circumference. y r
B r
x
x Cx
C
The horizontal distance Cx that the center of the
circle has been displaced equals the length of the
A arc with endpoints at P and at the point of con-
tact of the circle with the x −axis. That is, Cx = r t.
Therefore, the parametric equations of the cycloid
are:
x (t) = r t − r sin(t) = r (t − sin t)
D y(t) = r − r cos(t) = r (1 − cos t)
where t is measured in radians.
The sum of the interior angles of a cyclic quadri- In Cartesian coordinates, the equation of this
lateral is equal to 180◦ . curve is expressed as:
q
Read also «Cyclic polygon». y
x = r arccos 1 + − y (2 r − y )
Cyclogon Curve drawn by the vertex of a polygon r
that rotates without sliding along a straight line. valid for 0 ≤ y ≤ 2 r.
The rotating circumference is called generating cir-
y cle. The point on the generating circle whose trace
is drawn by the cycloid is called generating point.
The point where the cycloid touches the line is
called the cusp. A cycloid segment from one cusp
to the next is called arc of the cycloid. The first arc
of the cycloid is obtained by graphing the para-
metric equations on the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π.
The cycloid with the cusps pointing upward is
x the fastest descent curve assuming constant grav-
ity (this curve is known as brachistochrone curve).
114
Cyclometric function–Cylindrical coordinates
The area A enclosed by a cycloid arc with the line z
on which the circumference rolls is:
A = 3 π r2
That is, the area of a cycloid arc is three times the
area of the generating circle.
The length L of one arc of the cycloid is:
C
y
L = 8r
Read also «Epicycloid», «Epitrochoid», «Hypocy-
cloid», and «Trochoid».
x
Cyclometric function The cyclometric functions
are the inverse functions of the trigonometric
functions.
For example, the function y = arcsin( x ), is a cy- For example, the equation of a right circular cylin-
clometric function. der of unit radius that is parallel to the z axis is:
Read also «Arccosine», «Arcsine», and «Arctan-
gent».
x 2 + y2 = 1
Cyclotomic polynomial A polynomial is a cyclo-
tomic polynomial of order n, denoted by ϕn if its Read also «Right circular cylinder» and «Ruled sur-
roots are all roots that satisfy zn = 1 (including face».
complex roots).
The cyclotomic polynomial of order n is given by:
n Cylindrical coordinates The cylindrical coordi-
ϕn = ∏ ( x − zk ) nates (r, θ, z) are a generalization to three-
k =1 dimensional space of the polar coordinate system
(which are used for the plane).
where zk are the roots of unity in the field of com- The cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) of the point
plex numbers. ( x, y, z) in rectangular coordinate are:
Some cyclotomic polynomials are:
q
x2 + 1 r = x 2 + y2
x2 + x + 1 y
θ = arctan
x2 − x + 1 x
4
z=z
x +1
where r ≥ 0, and 0 ≤ θ < 2 π.
Observe that r and θ are defined as in polar coor-
Cylinder A cylinder is a surface generated by a dinates. Only the coordinate z of the rectangular
line that moves in three-dimensional space so that coordinate system has been added, without any
it is always parallel to a fixed straight line. transformation.
Equivalently, a cylinder is any surface whose To convert the cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) to
traces are equal in every plane parallel to a given rectangular coordinates ( x, y, z) use:
fixed plane.
The equation of a cylinder involves only two of
x = r cos(θ )
the coordinates x, y, z, and the lines that generate
this surface are parallel to the axis whose coordi- y = r sin(θ )
nate does not appear in the equation. z=z
115
Cylindrical helix–Cylindrical sinusoid curve
z For example, consider the solid of revolution that
z is generated when the region bounded by the
graph of the function y = f ( x ), the x axis and
the vertical lines x = a and x = b is rotated about
the y axis.
P( x, y, z)
The method consists in dividing the interval [ a, b]
into n subintervals of the same size ∆x and to
C P(r, θ, z)
consider the part of the region that corresponds to
each subinterval as a rectangle that rotates around
θ y
y the y axis, generating a cylindrical shell, as shown
x r in the following figure.
x
y
Read also «Polar coordinates».
The differential of volume in cylindrical coordi-
nates is: y = f (x)
dV = r · dz · dr · dθ
z
z + dz a
x
x
x + ∆x
z z
b
dV = r · dz · dr · dθ
First calculate the approximate volume ∆Vi of a
cylindrical shell, by considering it as a rectangu-
r θ lar plate of base 2 π xi , height f ( xi ), and thickness
r + dr y ∆x = (b − a)/n.
x θ θ + dθ ∆Vi ≈ 2 π xi · f ( xi ) · ∆x
Adding the volume of each cylindrical shell an
Cylindrical helix Circular helix lying on the sur- approximation of the volume of the solid is ob-
face of a cylinder of radius r, such that the dis- tained.
tance between two points on the helix lying on the n n
same vertical line (parallel to the z axis) is called V= ∑ ∆Vi ≈ ∑ 2 π xi · f (xi ) · ∆x
i =1 i =1
step of the helix and it is constant along the curve.
This approximation gets better and better as the
solid is divided into more and more parts, so that
z to get the exact value, the limit as n approaches
infinity is calculated, which leads to the definite
integral.
n Zb
V = lim
n→∞
∑ ∆Vi = 2 π x · f ( x ) · dx
i =1 a
−r
−r The method of cylindrical shells is also known as
r y the rings method.
r
x Cylindrical sinusoid curve Sinusoid curve found
on the surface of a circular cylinder. Its paramet-
ric equations are:
Cylindrical shells method Method to establish a
x (t) = b cos(t)
definite integral to calculate the volume of a solid
of revolution by dividing the solid into concentric y(t) = b sin(t)
cylindrical shells. z(t) = c cos( a t)
116
Cylindrical wedge
for 0 < t < 2 π, and a, b, c different from zero. If its radius is r and its height is h, then its volume
V is:
2
z V = r2 h
3
its surface area S is:
1 1 p
−r
−r
r y
S = π r 2 + π r r 2 + h2 + 2 r h
2 2 C
r whereas the surface area s of its convex face is:
x
s = 2rh
and the surface area of its slanted face is:
Cylindrical wedge Solid obtained by cutting a 1 p
S = π r r 2 + h2
right circular cylinder with an oblique plane 2
(oblique to its base).
The cylindrical wedge is also known as cylindri-
z cal ungula.
y
r
x
117
C
118
D
Dabba Name of the symbol ∂, used to indicate par- shaped like an acute triangle is △ BCD, then
tial differentiation.
For example, the partial derivative of the function [ A BCD ]2 = [ A ABC ]2 + [ A ABD ]2 + [ A ACD ]2
z = f ( x, y) with respect to the x variable, is de-
noted by:
D
∂f
∂x
This symbol is also called cursive d, stilized d or
Jacobi’s delta.
Data (Algebra) In a problem, data is information
that is extracted from the text of the problem that A
will be used in its solution.
C
(Statistics) Element of information that is ex- B
tracted from a population or a sample based on
observations, measurements, responses to sur- where A BCD , A ABC , A ABD , and A ACD , represent
veys, or counting, from which parameters that the area of the triangles △ BCD, △ ABC, △ ABD,
describe said population or sample will be cal- and △ ACD, respectively, that correspond to the
culated or estimated. faces of the trirectangular tetrahedron.
For example, the height of kids is data that is ex- The De Gua theorem is considered a generaliza-
tracted from the sample of a population when tion of the Pythagorean Theorem.
measuring them and from which the average Read also «Pythagorean theorem».
height of all the children considered in the study
can be estimated. De Moivre’s formula If z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ), and
n is a positive integer, then
Day Time interval equal to 24 hours. It is approx-
imately equal to the time it takes for the Earth to zn = (r [cos( x ) + i sin( x )])n
complete one rotation around its axis. = r n [cos(n θ ) + i sin(n θ )]
De Gua’s theorem In a trirectangular tetrahedron, Read also «Euler’s formula».
the area of the face opposite the right trihedron
is equal to the sum of the areas of the other three De Moivre’s theorem De Moivre’s theorem is a
faces. generalization of Euler’s formula, for any integer
If the vertices of the trirectangular tetrahedron are n:
A, B, C and D, so that their faces are the right tri-
angles △ ABC, △ ABD, and △ ACD, and its face (cos(θ ) + i cos(θ ))n = cos(n θ ) + i sin(n θ )
De Moivre-Laplace theorem–Decagram
De Moivre’s Theorem is also known as De
Moivre’s formula.
In general, it is also true:
(cos(α) + i sin(α)) (cos( β) + i sin( β))
= cos(α + β) + i sin(α + β)
Or equivalently,
D cos(α) + i sin(α)
= cos(α − β) + i sin(α − β)
cos( β) + i sin( β)
To draw a regular decagon using compass and
Read also «Euler’s formula». ruler, draw two perpendicular lines that intersect
at the point O. Centered at O, draw a circle of ra-
dius r. Let’s call this circle the initial circle. This
De Moivre-Laplace theorem As n approaches in-
circle cuts the horizontal line at P and Q, and the
finity, for a value of k close to n p, the following
vertical line at M and N. Let R be the midpoint
approximation holds:
of the segment OQ. With radius ∥OR∥ draw a cir-
cle centered at R. The segment MR cuts the circle
n k n−k 1 (k − np)2 with center at R at the point S. Draw a circle with
p q ≈ p exp −
k 2 π npq 2 npq center at M and radius ∥ MS∥. The points A and
B are the intersections of this circle with the ini-
where p + q = 1, with p > 0, and q > 0. tial circle. The points A, M and B are consecutive
In words, this theorem states that the normal vertices of the regular decagon.
distribution can be used as an approximation of
the binomial distribution when the number n of
Bernoulli trials is very large. In this case, p is N
the probability of success of the Bernoulli trial,
and q is the probability of failure, the distribu-
has mean np and its standard deviation is
tion p
σ = np (1 − p).
De Morgan’s laws The laws that apply to sets, and
are: O R
P Q
( A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∩ B′
( A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′ S
In words, the first law says: the complement of the
union of two sets is equal to the intersection of their A B
complements, and the second one: the complement
of the intersection of two sets is equal to the union of M
their complements.
Deca- Prefix that indicates ten times used in multi-
ples of the units of the international measurement
system.
For example, a decameter is equivalent to ten me- Leaning on each previously found vertex, draw
ters. arcs of radius ∥ MS∥ intersecting the initial circle
to find the other vertices of the regular decagon.
Decagon Polygon with ten sides and ten angles. Read also «Perpendicular bisector».
The regular decagon has all its sides and all its
angles equal. Decagram Figure in the shape of a ten-pointed star.
120
Deci-–Decimal system
decimal system because we count by tens.
The numbering system we use is also positional
because the value of each digit in a number de-
pends on the position it is in (ones, tens, hun-
dreds, etc.)
Decimal fraction A fraction is decimal when there
is a power of 10 in its denominator.
For example, 0.25 can be expressed as:
0.25 =
25 25
= 2
D
100 10
On the other hand, the number 3.06 can be writ-
ten as:
6 6
To construct the decagram, one begins by locat- 3.06 = 3 + 0.06 = 3 + = 3+ 2
ing the vertices of a regular decagon. The vertices 100 10
are numbered clockwise from 1 to 10. Finally, the
polygonal line is drawn with vertices at 1, 4, 7, 10, Decimal point Mathematical sign used to separate
3, 6, 9, 2, 5, 8, and 1. the integer part of a number from its fractional
Read also «Decagon» and «Octagram». part.
Deci- Prefix that indicates the tenth part used in For example, in the number: 3.1416, the integer
the submultiples of the units of the international part is: 3, and the fractional part is: 0.1416.
units system. When the number is an integer, the decimal point
For example, decimeter indicates one-tenth of a is not explicitly written, unless you want to ex-
meter and deciliter indicates one-tenth of a liter. press one or more decimals (for example, when
Read also «International System of Units». you indicate a price and you want to indicate
cents, as in $ 25.00).
Decibel Unit of measurement of sound intensity In some countries it is customary to write a deci-
abbreviated as dB. mal comma instead of a point.
A sound of one decibel has the lowest intensity
that the healthy human ear can perceive. Decimal representation Representation of a num-
ber in the decimal number system (base 10).
Decidable Given a decision problem (its answer is If the number has a non-integer part, usually a
either yes or no) the problem is said to be decid- decimal period is used to separate its integral part
able if there is an algorithm that solves it in finite from its fractional or non-integer part. For exam-
time. ple, in the number
For example, to determine if a number is prime
3
or not, it is a decidable problem, because an algo- = 1.5
rithm already exists to solve it (in a finite time). 2
If it is impossible to create an algorithm that al- 1 is the integer part, whereas .5 is the non-integer
ways solves the problem in a finite amount of part of the number.
time, then the problem is said to be indecidable. Read also «Decimal system».
Decimal system Numeral system that uses 10 as a
Decile Values that divide the data in an increasing- base and that we usually use to count.
ordered distribution into ten approximately equal For example, the number 2 745, can be written as:
parts.
2 745 = 2 000 + 700 + 40 + 5
The d decile is the value it has (10 × d)% of all
values below it and (100 − 10 × d)% above it. = 2 × 1 000 + 7 × 100 + 4 × 10 + 5
For example, the third decile is greater than 30% = 2 × 103 + 7 × 102 + 4 × 101 + 5 × 100
of all values and is less than 70% of all values.
In our numbering system, each figure has a value
Decimal It refers to a system based on the number that depends on its position with respect to the
ten. decimal point, which is why it is said to be a po-
For example, the numbering system we use is a sitional numbering system.
121
Decomposition of a vector–Definable number
Decomposition of a vector When the n−dimen- y
sional vector ⃗v of a vector space V is written as
a linear combination of the n vectors {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , De
cre
⃗vn } of the base of V , it is said that ⃗v has been de- asi
ng
composed into its components on that basis.
For example, the decomposition of the vector x
⃗v = ⟨3, 4, 2⟩ of dimension n = 3, in the canoni- y = f (x)
cal base {ı̂, ȷ̂, k̂} is:
D ⃗v = 3 ı̂ + 4 ȷ̂ + 2 k̂
If y = f ( x ) is a decreasing function at x = x0 ,
where ı̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩, ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ and k̂ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩. then f ′ ( x0 ) < 0.
z Deduction Process of reaching out a conclusion
from a general principle and already known
proven results (i.e., theorems, etc.), and properties
vz = 2 of the mathematical objects involved in a prob-
i lem.
4, 2
h3, (Logic) Procedure used in logic that consists of
k̂ ~v =
applying inference rules (and perhaps logical op-
erations) to premises in order to obtain a conclu-
sion.
ı̂ O ̂
vy = 4
y
x vx = 3
Deductive reasoning Process of reaching a conclu-
sion of a particular case from a general case or
Decreasing We say that a function f is decreasing general statements. The conclusion is justified on
in an interval [ a, b] if for any u, v values in said the basis of inferences from the premises.
interval such that u < v, then f (u) > f (v). For example, when proving a theorem in math-
For example, the function y = 2 − x2 is decreasing ematics, a conclusion (particular case) is reached
in the interval [0, 2]. from general properties of the mathematical ob-
jects involved in an initially given hypothesis.
f (x)
Deferred interest Deferred interest is applied
2
when a payment does not cover the total inter-
est generated in the corresponding period.
De
It is also known as negative amortization.
cre
Read also «Amortization».
asi
1
ng
Deficient number A natural number such that the
sum of its proper divisors is less than it.
For example, the number 5 is deficient, since its
x
0 0.5 1 only proper divisor is the number 1.
Another number that is deficient is 8, since its
proper divisors (1, 2, 4) add up to 7, which is less
Observe that f (0.5) > f (1.0), and also 0.5 < 1.0. than 8.
If f ′ ( x0 ) < 0, then y = f ( x ) is decreasing at
x = x0 . For example the function y = 2 − x2 is
decreasing for all x > 0, since y′ = −2 x, is nega- Definable number A real number r is a definable
tive for all x > 0. number, if it can be uniquely specified by means
of a description.
Decreasing function A function f is a decreasing For example, the number 4 can be specified by
function in the interval [ a, b] if for any u, v ∈ [ a, b], saying that it’s the smallest number that has ex-
such that u ≤ v, then f (u) ≥ f (v). actly 3 natural divisors, and the number 2 can be
For example, the function y = 1 − x2 /4 is decreas- specified by saying that it’s the only prime num-
ing in the interval (0, ∞). ber that is even.
122
Definite integral–Deltohedron
Definite integral The definite integral of the func- that a definition does not refer to itself in the se-
tion y = f ( x ) from x = a to x = b is denoted quence of dependencies of definitions based on
by: other mathematical terms.
Zb
Degenerate case Particular case of a mathematical
f ( x ) · dx
object, which corresponds to a limit case.
a
For example, the point is a generated case of a
The numerical value of the definite integral is cal- circle (when the length of its radius is 0).
culated by applying the fundamental theorem of
calculus through the formula: Degenerate solution In linear programming, a de-
generate solution is a feasible solution in which D
Zb at least one decision variable is zero.
f ( x ) · dx = F (b) − F ( a)
Degree of a polynomial Exponent of greater value
a
that the variable of a polynomial has.
where, a and b are the limits of integration, and For example, the polynomial:
y = F ( x ) is one antiderivative of y = f ( x ).
If y = f ( x ) is positive in the interval ( a, b), the 1 + 2 x2 − 4 x3 + 7 x8 − x13
definite integral can be interpreted geometrically
is of degree 13.
as the area under the graph of y = f ( x ) above the
x axis from x = a to x = b. Degree of an equation The degree of a polyno-
mial equation is the highest exponent to which
y its unknown is raised.
y = f (x)
For example, the polynomial equation:
f (b)
9 − 2 x + 5 x2 − 4 x3 + 7 x4 − x5 = 0
is of degree 5.
f ( a)
A Deltahedron Polyhedron whose faces are equilate-
x ral triangles.
a b
Formally, the definite integral is defined by the
limit:
Zb n
f ( x ) · dx = lim
n→∞
∑ f (xi ) · ∆x
a i =0
where ∆x = (b − a)/n.
Read also «Antiderivative», «Integral», «Indefinite Some convex deltahedra are: tetrahedron, octahe-
integral», «The ten-step rule», «Fundamental theorem dron, icosahedron, triangular bipyramid, pentag-
of calculus», and «Method of exhaustion». onal bipyramid, snub biosphenoid, triaugmented
triangular prism, and the gyroelongated square
Definition Statement that exposes the meaning bipyramid.
of a concept clearly and completely through its The name deltahedron has its root in the Greek let-
characteristics (qualities, attributes, properties), ter delta (∆), which has the shape of a triangle.
so that it can be determined if a given object (ma- Read also «Snub biosphenoid», «Triangular bipyra-
terial or ideal) satisfies that statement. mid», «Gyroelongated square bipyramid», «Pentago-
In logic it is considered that within a discussion nal bipyramid», «Icosahedron», «Triaugmented trian-
each term has the same meaning throughout a gular prism», «Tetrahedron», and «Octahedron».
chain of reasoning, and therefore it is important
to know the precise definition of each term used Deltohedron Synonym of trapezohedron.
in the discussion. This term should not be confused with deltahe-
The definition of a mathematical term must be dron.
carried out based on other terms, taking care Read also «Trapezohedron».
123
Deltoid–Denominator
Deltoid A three cusps hypocycloid whose para- If the length of its shortest
edge is a, then the
√
metric equations are: longest edge measure 7 + 5 a/6, and its vol-
x (t) = 2 a cos(t) + a cos (2 t) ume V and its surface area A, are:
q √
y(t) = 2 a sin(t) − a sin (2 t) 1
V= 29530 + 13204 5 a3
3q
where a > 0. √
A = 4370 + 1850 5 a2
D The deltoidal hexecontahedron is also known as
trapezoidal hexecontahedron.
The deltoidal hexecontahedron is a Catalan solid
and is the dual polyhedron of the rhombicosido-
decahedron.
Deltoidal icositetrahedron Polyhedron with 24
faces, all in the shape of a quadrilateral. It has
26 vertices and 48 edges.
The deltoid curve is also known as Steiner curve.
Read also «Hypocycloid».
(2) Quadrilateral that is a symmetrical trapezoid
with two pairs of equal consecutive sides, without
all 4 being the same length.
√ is a, then the
If the length of its shortest edge
longest edge measure [2 − (1/ 2)] a, and its vol-
ume V, its area A, and its inradius r are:
q √
V = 122 + 71 2 a3
q √
A = 6 29 − 2 2 a2
Deltoidal hexecontahedron Polyhedron that has s
60 faces in the shape of a quadrilateral. It has 39 47
r= + √ a
62 vertices and 120 edges. 34 34 2
The deltoidal icositetrahedron is a Catalan solid
and is the dual polyhedron of the rhombicuboc-
tahedron.
Denominator In a fraction, the denominator indi-
cates into how many parts a whole will be di-
vided and the numerator indicates how many of
those parts are considered to make the number
(the fraction).
In a fraction the numerator is written above the
line that denotes the fraction and the denomina-
tor below it.
Numerator
Fraction =
Denominator
124
Density–Derivative
For example, in the fraction 3/5, the denominator Depression angle Angle formed by the horizontal
is the number 5, which indicates that the whole and the line that joins an observer with an object
is divided into 5 equal parts, and the number 3 located below the level of observation.
is the numerator which indicates that 3 of these 5 In the following figure, the angle α corresponds
parts are considered. to the depression angle for the person observing
a fish with respect to the location of the eye.
3
5
α D
Derivation Process by which the derivative of a
function is calculated.
Read also «Numerator» and «Fraction». The most common process is to directly employ
applicable differentiation rules or formulas upon
Density (Analysis) We say that a set of numbers A
the function to be derived.
is dense, if for each pair of numbers a, b ∈ A there
The differentiation formulas are deduced by ap-
exists another number c ∈ A such that a < c < b.
plying the four-step rule.
For example, rational numbers are dense, because
Read also «Four-step rule».
no matter how close two numbers are, we can al-
ways find one between them (in particular, the
average of the two satisfies that). The real num- Derivative In calculus, the derivative of the func-
bers are also dense. tion y = f ( x ) is denoted as f ′ ( x ), or by dy/dx,
(Physics) The result of dividing the mass of an and is defined as the limit:
object by its volume.
For example, one liter (1 dm3 ) of mercury has a dy f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
mass of 13.7 kilograms, so its density δ is: f ′ (x) = = lim
dx ∆x →0 ∆x
13.7 kg
δ= = 13.7 kg/L
1L
y y = f (x)
In the International System of Units, density is
measured in kilogram per cubic meter ([kg/m3 ]).
f (x + ∆x)
Dependent events Two events are dependent f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
when the outcome of one is affected by the out- f (x)
∆x
come of the other. x
Read also «Independent events». x x + ∆x
Dependent variable A variable is dependent if its
value depends on the value of one or more other
variables. It is said that the function is differentiable at
For example, in the function y = x2 , the depen- x = x0 if the limit evaluated at x = x0 does exists.
dent variable is y, since its value depends on the The derivative of a function evaluated at a point
value assigned to the variable x. In this case, x is (if it exists) is equal to the slope of the tangent
said to be the independent variable. line to the graph of the function at that point. For
Read also «Function», «Functional relation», and this reason it is used to compute the best linear
«Independent variable». approximation to the curve.
125
Derivative
y y = f (x) independent variable. That is, the derivative tells
us how the function grows at a point.
Historically, the idea of derivative was created be-
fore the concepts of function and limit. The defi-
nition of derivative according to Leibniz is:
f (x0 )
dy f ( x + dx ) − f ( x )
=
x dx dx
x0
where dx is an infinitely small increment to the
D The equation of the tangent line to the graph of
variable x, and dy represents an infinitely small
change in the variable y caused by the infinitesi-
y = f ( x ) at the point ( x0 , f ( x0 )) is: mal change in the variable x.
Leibniz thought the definition of the derivative
y − f ( x0 ) = f ′ ( x0 ) · ( x − x0 ) the same as the slope of a line that passes through
two points:
whenever f ′ ( x0 ) exists.
The notation f ′ ( x0 ) indicates that the derivative ∆y f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
m= =
of the function is evaluated at the point x0 . An- ∆x ∆x
other notation used with the same meaning is: with the only difference that the increment ∆x
is considered infinitely small (infinitesimal), for
dy
= f ′ ( x0 ) which he created the differential notation: dx.
dx x0 The same goes for the increment ∆y: he assumed
it to be infinitesimal and denoted it using dy. In
For example, the best linear approximation to the
other words, Leibniz considered the derivative
graph of the function y = x2 , at the point P(1, 1)
as the quotient of the differentials dy and dx, in
is the tangent line to the graph of the function
the same way that the slope of a line that passes
at that point. To compute it, in addition to the
through two points is calculated.
given point, its slope is required. The slope of
the tangent line is equal to the derivative of the ∆y
m=
function evaluated at the point of tangency. Since ∆x
the derivative of the function is f ′ ( x ) = 2 x, such The definition of differential according to Leibniz
slope is: m = f ′ (1) = 2 (1) = 2. Therefore, the is:
equation of the tangent line is: dy = f ′ ( x ) · dx
y − y0 = f ′ (1) ( x − x0 ) The Leibniz’s differential is understood from the
y − 1 = 2 ( x − 1) analogy for the computation of ∆y using the slope
of the line:
y=2x−1
∆y
m= ⇒ ∆y = m · ∆x
y ∆x
The derivative of functions is applied in the study
of functions in different branches of mathematics.
−1
For example, considering that for | x | < 1,
2x
3 1
y=
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + · · ·
1−x
2 Calculating the derivative on both sides of the
equal sign, another valid series for | x | < 1 is ob-
y = x2
1 tained:
1
= 1 + 2 x + 3 x2 + 4 x3 + 5 x4 + · · ·
x (1 − x )2
1 2
On page 582 there is a list of formulas to calculate
derivatives of functions.
Read also «Infinitesimal», «Differential», «Euler
The derivative is interpreted as an instantaneous method», «Four-step rule», «Leibniz’s postulates»,
rate of change of the function with respect to the «Linear approximation», and «Taylor series».
126
Descartes’ rule of signs–Determinant
Descartes’ rule of signs If the (nonzero) terms of a inversions of the numbers 1, 2, · · · , n in the suces-
polynomial with real coefficients are in decreas- sion i, j, k, · · · , l, of the factors a1i , a2j , a3k , · · · ,
ing order according to their degree, the number anl .
of positive real roots is either equal to the num- In this way the determinant of order n can be cal-
ber of their sign variations between consecutive culated from n determinants of order n − 1, and
terms, or it is less than this number by an even each of these are calculated based on determi-
integer. nants of order n − 2, etc., until determinants of
A root of multiplicity k counts as k roots. order 2 are reached.
For example, in the polynomial equation Note that each element of the first row is multi-
x5 − 3 x4 + 7 x3 − 4 x2 + x − 1 = 0
plied by its corresponding minor, keeping its sign
for those products that include an element of the
D
first row that is in an odd column and changing
the terms are already written in descending order
the sign of those products that include an element
according to their degree. The number of changes
of the first row that is in even column.
in the sign of the terms is 5 (first from x5 to x4 ,
For example, the determinant of order 3 × 3, is:
second from x4 to x3 , third from x3 to x2 , fourth
from x2 to x, and fifth from x to the constant term a b c
−1.) This indicates that possibly there are 5 posi- ∆ 3×3 = d e f
tive real roots, or maybe 3 or 1. g h i
Descriptive statistics Branch of statistics that is e f d f d e
= a −b +c
dedicated to representing numerical information h i g i g h
in an understandable and useful way in the form = a (ei − f h) − b (di − f g) + c (dh − eg)
of tables, graphs and diagrams to extract from
= aei − a f h + b f g − bdi + cdh − ceg
them information about the data.
Determinant The determinant of the matrix A of The determinant expressed in cofactors expan-
size n × n, denoted by det( A), is defined as fol- sion is:
lows. n
If n = 1, so that A = [ a], then det( A) = a. det( A) = ∑ a1k A1k
The determinant of a matrix of size 2 × 2 is: k =1
= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + · · · + a1n A1n
a b
∆ 2×2 = = ad − bc
c d Read also «Cofactor».
Some properties of the determinants are listed be-
And the determinant of a matrix of size 3 × 3 is: low.
a b c • If a row or column consists of zeros in all its
∆ 3×3 = d e f elements, det( A) = 0.
g h i
• If one row (column) of the matrix A is a mul-
= aei + cdh + b f g tiple of another row (column), det( A) = 0.
−ceg − a f h − bdi
• If B is the matrix that is obtained by adding
Determinants are also defined for higher order a multiple of a row to another row of the ma-
square matrices (4 × 4, 5 × 5, etc.) trix A, or by adding a multiple of a column
To calculate the determinant of a square matrix to another column of the matrix A, then,
A = [ aij ] of size n × n the Laplace’s expansion det( B) = det( A).
formula is used: • If B is the matrix that is obtained by exchang-
n ing two rows or two columns of A, then
det( A) = ∑ (−1)i+ j aij Mij det( B) = − det( A).
j =1
• If B is the matrix obtained by multiplying by
where Mij is the minor ij, that is the matrix of size the constant c all the elements of a row or
(n − 1) × (n − 1) obtained eliminating the i −th a column of the matrix A, then, det( B) =
row and the j−th column of A. c det( A).
The factor (−1)i+ j of each term of the determi- • det(c A) = cn det( A), where A is a matrix of
nant corresponds to the parity of the number of size n × n.
127
Determination coefficient–Deterministic
• det( In ) = 1, where In is the identity matrix A system of linear equations can be solved using
of size n × n. determinants.
• det( AT ) = det( A), where AT is the trans- For example, the system of equations:
pose matrix of A.
• det( A−1 ) = 1/ det( A). a x1 + b x2 = c
• For square matrices of the same size: d x1 + e x2 = f
det( A B) = det( A) det( B) = det A T B can be solved using determinants as follows:
D
= det A B T = det A T B T
c b a c
• If A is a triangular matrix of size n × n, then, f e d f
x1 = x2 =
a b a b
det( A) = a11 a22 a33 · · · ann
d e d e
Geometrically, the absolute value of the determi-
nant of 2 × 2: whenever ae − bd , 0. If ae − bd = 0, then the sys-
a b tem of equations either has no solution or it has
∆ 2×2 = an infinite number of solutions.
d e
Read also «Cramer’s rule».
represents the area of the parallelogram formed
by the vectors ⃗u = ⟨ a, d⟩, and ⃗v = ⟨b, e⟩.
Determination coefficient The determination co-
y efficient denoted by r2 , it is a measure of how well
a model replicates observed values. the value of
r2 quantifies the proportion of the variance of the
~v dependent variable that can be explained or pre-
dicted from the independent variable.
For a set of n data {y1 , y2 , · · · , yn }, each one asso-
ciated with a value ŷ1 , ŷ2 , · · · , ŷn , the value of r2
~u is:
n
2
x ∑ (yi − ŷi )
i =1
r2 = 1 − n
The absolute value of the determinant 2
∑ (yi − ȳ)
i =1
a b c
∆ 3×3 = d e f
where ȳ is the mean of the observed data
g h i
y1 , y2 , · · · , y n .
represents the volume of the parallelepiped In linear regression, the value of r2 is an indicator
whose edges lie on the vectors ⃗u = ⟨ a, d, g⟩, of how well the data fit a curve calculated using
⃗v = ⟨b, e, h⟩, and w
⃗ = ⟨c, f , i ⟩. the least squares regression method. A value of r2
very close to 1 indicates that the points are very
z close to the regression line. If r2 it is very close to
zero means that the points are not close enough
w
~ to the regression line and there is no correlation
between the variables.
~v Deterministic An event or phenomenon is deter-
ministic when it is predictable. We generally use
y a mathematical formula to find out its behavior.
For example, there are formulas to accurately cal-
culate the relative position of the Earth with re-
x spect to the Sun, so it is a deterministic phe-
~u nomenon.
128
Deviation–Diameter of an ellipse
Deviation (Statistics) The deviation δ of a mea- possible to draw a diagonal to the adjacent ver-
surement xi is defined as the difference of the tices). If n (n − 3) is multiplied, twice the diag-
sample mean x to the measured value: onals that can be drawn from the n vertices are
obtained (each diagonal has been counted twice,
δ = xi − x because each diagonal touches two vertices), so
the number of diagonals that can be drawn in a
The absolute deviation is equal to the absolute convex polygon with n sides is n (n − 3)/2.
value of the deviation. (Linear algebra) In the matrix A = [ aij ] of di-
Some authors call the deviation as discrepancy. mension m × n, the elements of the diagonal are
Dextrorotation Rotation in the clockwise direction. a11 , a22 , a33 , · · · . those elements form the diagonal
of A.
D
Read also «Levorotation».
Read also «Main diagonal».
Diameter The diameter of a circle is a chord that
passes through its center C. Diagonal matrix A square matrix A = [ aij ] of di-
mension n × n is a diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for
all i , j.
r
ete
In other words, a diagonal matrix is a square ma-
am
trix in which all elements not on the main diago-
Di
nal are zero. For example,
C
1 0 0
0 −3 0
0 0 7
The length D of the diameter of a circle is equal
to twice its radius (r): D = 2 r. The diameter of a
Diagonalizable matrix A matrix A of dimension
circle is the longest chord that can be drawn to it.
n × n is diagonalizable if there exist a diagonal
Read also «Circumference», «Radius», and «Chord».
matrix D similar to A.
If a matrix A of dimension n × n has exactly n
Diagonal (Plane geometry) The diagonal of a distinct eigenvalues, then A is diagonalizable.
polygon is the line segment that has its ends at Read also «Similar matrices» and «Eigenvalues».
two non-consecutive vertices of the polygon.
If the line segment has its ends at two consecutive Diagram In mathematics, a diagram is a graphical
vertices of the polygon, then it is one of its sides. representation of the relationship between vari-
ous mathematical objects.
For example, the following diagram represents
the relationship between a function, its domain,
and its range.
Diag
ona
l
Function
Domain Range
X f Y
Side x f (x)
The number of diagonals D that we can draw to Values given Values returned
to the function by the function
a convex polygon with n sides is:
n ( n − 3)
D=
2
Diameter of an ellipse A chord of an ellipse that
If the convex polygon has n sides, then n − 3 di- passes through its center is a diameter of an el-
agonals can be drawn from each vertex (it is not lipse.
129
Diamond–Difference of vectors
y skin into thin strips. When finished she had a
rope of finite length and by shaping it into a cir-
b cumference, she managed to circumscribe a large
amount of ground.
ter
me Read also «Isoperimetric theorem».
Dia
x Difference The difference between the numbers a
−a a
and b is the number b − a.
In other words, the difference of two numbers is
D −b
the result of subtracting them.
9 876 Minuend
Read also «Ellipse».
− 5 324 Subtrahend
Diamond Informal name for the rhombus. 4 552 Difference
The symbol − is called minus sign and is read:
minus.
Difference of an arithmetic progression Given
any two consecutive terms of an arithmetic se-
That is, a diamond is a quadrilateral whose 4 quence, ai , ai+1 , the difference of the progression
sides are congruent. is: d = ai+1 − ai .
Read also «Rhombus». Actually, the difference of the progression is de-
fined to calculate its terms and not vice versa.
Dichotomous variable Variable to which only two For example, let a1 = 5 and d = 3, then the terms
values can be assigned. of the arithmetic progression are: a1 = 5, a2 = 8,
For example, true or false, yes or no, etc. a3 = 11, a4 = 14, etc.
Read also «Arithmetic progression».
Dichotomy (Set theory) Operation performed on
a nonempty set given A that consists of dividing Difference of sets The difference of the sets A and
A into two proper subsets B and C so that: B, denoted by A − B, is the set of all elements that
are in A, but are not in B.
i. each element of A belongs to exactly one of
The following figure shows a Venn diagram with
the subsets B or C, and
the representation of A − B.
ii. no element of A is an element of the two sub-
sets B and C.
A B
The dichotomy is also known as bipartition.
Read also «Partition».
(Algebra) A relation R defined for the elements
of the sets A and B is said to be a dichotomous
relation if for any a ∈ A, and b ∈ B it is true that
a R b, or, b R a, but not both. A−B
Dido’s problem It is required to find the shape of
a region of the plane that can be enclosed by a Difference of vectors Let ⃗u = ⟨u , u , u ⟩, and ⃗v =
x y z
curve of constant length. ⟨v x , vy , vz ⟩ two vectors in space. Their difference
The problem stems from Dido, also known as is:
Elisa of Tire, the founder and first queen of
Carthage (now Tunis). Elisa, upon seeing her ⃗ = ⃗u − ⃗v = ⟨u x − v x , uy − vy , uz − vz ⟩
w
brother murdered by her husband, emigrates to
the coasts of Africa, in the lands of the Getulos, Geometrically, the difference of the vectors is the
to whom she requests asylum. King Jarbas pro- vector that has its initial point at the terminal
poses to her that she can grab as much land as point of ⃗v and its terminal point at the terminal
she could cover with an Ox skin. She cut said point of ⃗u.
130
Difference quotient–Differential
z For example, the function y = x2 is differentiable
for all x ∈ R, because y′ = 2 x is defined for any
~u − ~v ~u
real number x.
If a function is differentiable at a given point, then
the function is continuous at that point. However,
~v ~u − ~v the fact that a function is continuous at x = x0
does not imply that it is differentiable there.
√
y For example, the function y = | x | = x2 is de-
fined for all x ∈ R, but it is not differentiable at
x the origin, because D
dy x x
From the previous figure it is easy to see that: = √ =
dx x 2 | x|
⃗ = ⃗u − ⃗v
w ⇒ ⃗v + w
⃗ = ⃗u If we evaluate the derivative of the absolute value
function at x = 0, an indetermination is obtained,
indicating that this function is not differentiable
Difference quotient Given the function y = f ( x ), there.
its finite difference quotient is:
y
|
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
|x
=
h 2
y
where h is a finite quantity.
1
y
f (x + h) − f (x) x
−2 −1 0 1 2
h
y = f (x)
f (x + h)
f (x + h) − f (x)
If the functions y = f ( x ), and y = g( x ) are differ-
f (x) entiable at x = x0 , then,
h
a) f + g is continuous at x = x0 .
x
xx+h b) f − g is continuous at x = x0 .
c) f · g is continuous at x = x0 .
For example, if y = f ( x ) represents position, and d) f /g is continuous at x = x0 if g( x0 ) , 0.
x represents time, then the difference quotient
represents the average speed. Read also «Sign function» and «Absolute value».
Differentiable function A function y = f ( x ) is dif- Differential (Differential according to Leibniz) If
ferentiable at the point x = x0 if f ′ ( x0 ) exists. y = f ( x ) is a differentiable function, the differ-
Similarly, a function y = f ( x ) is differentiable in ential of y (at any point where its derivative is
the interval [ a, b] if its derivative is defined for all defined), denoted by dy is:
x ∈ [ a, b].
dy = f ′ ( x ) · dx
y
where f ′ ( x ) is the derivative of the function eval-
uated at some point (x), and dx is an infinitely
f (b)
y = f (x) small quantity (an infinitesimal).
For example, if y = x2 , then dy = 2 x · dx.
f (a)
This definition of the differential refers to the in-
finitely small change that the value of the func-
tion undergoes when its argument changes from
x the initial value x to the final value x + dx, where
a b
dx is an infinitesimal quantity.
131
Differential calculus–Differential element
Considering the derivative as a quotient of in- y
y = y(x)
finitely small quantities, according to Leibniz,
dy f ( x + dx ) − f ( x )
f ′ (x) = = f (x + ∆x)
dx dx
∆y f 0 (x) · ∆x
where dx is an infinitely small change in the vari- f (x)
able x. If you multiply on both sides of the equal-
∆x
ity by dx you get precisely the differential:
D f ′ (x) =
dy
⇒
dx
x
dy = f ′ ( x ) · dx = f ( x + dx ) − f ( x ) x x + ∆x
Observe that dy = f ( x + dx ) − f ( x ) is the change
caused in the function by the increment dx given
to the variable x.
Read also «Derivative», «dx», «dy», «Euler method»,
y y = f (x) and «Jacobian matrix».
P dy = f 0 (x) · dx
f (x) Differential calculus Analytical study of functions
dx through the concepts of limit, derivative and dif-
ferential.
The successive derivatives of the function (first
derivative, second derivative, etc.) evaluated at a
point in its domain indicate the behavior of the
function at that point (intervals where it is in-
x creasing or decreasing, points at which it has a
Q x
maximum or a minimum, if it is concave up or
concave down, etc.)
Since the increment dx is infinitely small, Leib- The idea of the differential of a function, such
niz considered dx as an increment so small that as the infinitesimal difference of the values of a
the rate of change f ′ ( x ) remained constant from function due to infinitesimal changes of its inde-
point x to point x + dx. That is, Leibniz consid- pendent variable, is used for the development of
ered curves as polygonal lines, made up of an in- mathematical models in physics, chemistry, etc.
finite amount of line segments, each one infinitely Read also «Infinitesimal», «Derivative», and «Dif-
small. The use of this assumption is required ferential».
in order to use the equal sign in the expression
dy = f ′ ( x ) · dx.
The word differential was coined by Leibniz be-
cause it is the diminutive of difference in Latin. Differential coefficient Synonym of derivative.
Read also «Leibniz’s postulates». The term differential coefficient is deprecated.
Some authors define the differential as: Read also «Derivative».
dy = f ′ ( x ) · ∆x
That is, the approximate value of the change of
the function (dy ≈ ∆y), calculated from point x to Differential element The differential element of a
the point x + ∆x. geometric magnitude is an infinitely small por-
This way of considering the differential coincides tion of said magnitude.
with Euler’s method used in numerical methods. For example, the differential of arc length is an
infinitely small portion of the graph of a curve.
132
Differential equation–Differential of area
y = y(x) The solution of this equation is a function y =
y f (t) such that by substituting the function (and
its corresponding derivatives according to the dif-
y(b)
ferential equation), you get a true equality.
Read also «Ordinary differential equation» and «Par-
tial differential equation».
f (x + dx)
dL
f (x) Differential of area The differential of area of a re-
gion of the plane xy, bounded by the graph of the
y(a)
function y = f ( x ), the x axis, and the vertical lines
x = a, and x = b, is:
D
dA = f ( x ) · dx
a
x
b
x
x + dx
y
y = f (x)
f (b)
The differential of area is an infinitely small ele- f (a)
ment of the area of a region of the plane
dA
y x
y = f (x) a dx b
f (b)
The differential of area in polar coordinates
f (a)
dA to compute the area of a region of the plane
bounded by the curve r = f (θ ) and the angles
x θ = α and θ = β, is:
a dx b
1 2
dA = r · dθ
2
and the differential of surface area is an infinitely
small part of the surface area of the graph of a y
function of two variables.
z = f (x, y)
dθ
dr
dS r · dθ
dA
r
dy β
y α
dx x
dA
R
x And the area A of this region is:
Read also «Differential», «Differential of area», «Dif- Zβ
1
ferential of surface area», and «Differential of vol- A= [ f (θ )]2 · dθ
ume». 2
α
Differential equation Equation that contains one The differential of area corresponding to a double
or more derivatives of an unknown function. integral in rectangular coordinates is:
F t, y, y′ , y′′ , · · · , y(n) = 0 dA = dx · dy
133
Differential of surface area–Differential of volume
z The differential of surface area represents the area
of an infinitely small part of the surface of the
graph of the function z = f ( x, y), which is ex-
actly above the differential of area dA = dx · dy
on the xy plane.
dy The differential of surface area in spherical coor-
dinates is:
y
dx dS = ρ2 sin ϕ · dϕ · dθ
D where ρ, θ, ϕ are the coordinates of the point in
R
spherical coordinates where the differential of
x area is located.
z
The differential of area corresponding to a double
integral in polar coordinates is:
ρ sin φ dθ
dA = r · dr · dθ
ρ ρ dφ
sin
φ
z
dφ
dS
φ
θ
θ ρ y
y
x θ θ + dθ
r
r + dr θ + dθ
θ Read also «Surface integral» and «Surface of revolu-
x tion».
Differential of volume The differential of volume
Read also «Double integral», «Definite integral»,
dV corresponding to a double integral in rectan-
«Polar coordinates», and «Area under the graph».
gular coordinates is:
Differential of surface area The differential of sur- dV = f ( x, y) · dx · dy
face area, denoted by dS, of the function of two
variables z = f ( x, y) in rectangular coordinates The value of dV represents the volume of a right
is: q rectangular prism of base dA = dx · dy and height
2 z = f ( x, y).
dS = 1 + ( f x )2 + f y · dA
where f x is the partial derivative of f with respect z = f (x, y)
to x, and f y is the partial derivative of f with re-
spect to y, and dA = dx · dy is the differential of
area (on the xy plane).
z = f (x, y)
dS
dV
a c
dy d
y b y
dx dA
R
x x R
134
Digit–Dihedral angle
The volume V bounded by the graph of the func- The differential of volume corresponding to a
tion z = f ( x, y), above the region R of the xy triple integral in spherical coordinates is:
plane, where the function is defined, is:
x dV = ρ2 sin ϕ · dρ · dϕ · dθ
V= f ( x, y) · dx · dy z
R ρ sin φ dθ
where R represents the limits of the integral to ρ dφ
cover the whole region of integration.
The differential of volume corresponding to a
triple integral in rectangular coordinates is: D
dV = dx · dy · dz dφ
z = f (x, y) φ
ρ θ
ρ + dρ y
x θ θ + dθ
Digit One of the ten symbols used to write num-
bers in the number system of base 10:
dV
c d 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9
a y
b Observation: the term digital refers to the base 2
R numbering system, not the digits.
x
Dihedral angle Angle formed between two planes
In this case, the volume V bounded by the graph that intersect one another.
of the function z = f ( x, y), above the region R
of the xy plane where the function is defined, is
represented as a triple integral as:
y
V= dV
Q
where Q represents the limits of the triple inte-
gral to cover the solid whose volume is to be cal-
culated.
The differential of volume corresponding to a The angle θ between the planes
triple integral in cylindrical coordinates is:
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
dV = r · dz · dr · dθ A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
z is:
z + dz A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1 C2
cos θ = q q
z A21 + B12 + C12 A22 + B22 + C22
If these planes are perpendicular, then
dV = r · dz · dr · dθ
A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1 C2 = 0
And if these planes are parallel, then
r θ
r + dr y A1 B C
= 1 = 1
A2 B2 C2
x θ θ + dθ
Read also «Equation of the plane».
135
Dimension–Diophantine equation
Dimension (Linear algebra) The dimension of a This geometric solid is obtained by removing a
matrix of m rows and n columns is m × n. pentagonal cupola from a rhombicosidodecahe-
(Linear algebra) The dimension of a vector space dron.
V equals the number n of linearly independent If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
vectors that has any of its bases (and therefore, area A are:
generate V ). If n is a finite number, then it is a
finite dimensional vector space. Otherwise, it is V ≈ 39.2913 a3 !
√
an infinite dimensional vector space. 15 3
A = 25 + + k a2
The vector space {⃗0} is zero-dimensional, and its
D base is the empty set (∅). Observe that this means
that the empty set is a linearly independent set of
4
where
vectors because it is the base of a vector space. s √ q
(Geometry) The dimension of a geometric space 55 2 5 5 √
is defined as the number of coordinates that must k= 1+ + 5+2 5
4 5 2
be indicated to uniquely determine each one of its
points. The diminished rhombicosidodecahedron is a
For example, the plane is of dimension two, be- Johnson solid.
cause two coordinates are required to uniquely
determine each one of its points. Diminished Trapezohedron Trapezohedron of
In mathematics, spaces of 3, 4, 5, etc., dimensions which one of the polar vertices has been replaced
can be defined without no conceptual problem, by a face in the shape of a regular polygon with n
although it is not possible to represent them geo- sides, which serves as the base of the polyhedron.
metrically from 4 dimensions on.
z
The study of geometric spaces is done in linear
algebra.
Diminished rhombicosidodecahedron Polyhe-
The faces of the diminished n−gonal trapezohe-
dron with 52 faces, of which 1 is a regular
dron are n deltoids that share the polar vertex, a
decagon, 11 are regular pentagons, 25 are squares,
regular polygon with n sides, and n triangles that
and 15 are equilateral triangles. It has 55 vertices
share vertices with the deltoids and the base.
and 105 edges.
Diophantine equation Polynomial equation in-
volving at least two unknowns that must be
solved for integer solutions.
For example,
w3 + x 3 = y3 + z3
of which one known solution is:
123 + 13 = 93 + 103 = 1 729
This solution is known as the Hardy-Ramanujan
or the taxicab number.
136
Dirac delta function–Direction cosines
Dirac delta function The Dirac delta function, de- Direction The direction of a two-dimensional vec-
noted by δ( x ) is defined by: tor is defined as the angle that it forms with the
horizontal axis.
+∞ for x = 0
δ( x ) =
0 for x , 0 y
⃗v
and also satisfies
Z∞
δ( x ) · dx = 1
−∞ D
The Dirac delta function is also known as the im-
pulse function. θ x
Direct proof Mathematical proof method in
which, based on the axioms, lemmas, theorems, The direction of a vector ⃗u of dimension n > 2 is
previously demonstrated, the desired conclusion defined as the direction of the unit vector
is logically established. ⃗u 1
For example, to prove that (− a)(−b) = a b for = q ⟨ u1 , u2 , · · · , u n ⟩
∥⃗u∥ u21 + u22 + · · · + u2n
any two real numbers a, b, consider:
a b + a (−b) + (− a)(−b) = a b + a (−b) + (− a)(−b) Read also «Unit vector», «Direction vector» and
a [b + (−b)] + (− a)(−b) = a b + (−b) [ a + (− a)] «Direction cosines».
after applying the distributive law of real num- Direction angles The angles α, β and γ that a line
bers. But for every real number x, we have that or a vector forms with the positive direction of
x + (− x ) = 0. Therefore, the coordinate axes x, y, and z, respectively, are
the direction angles.
a [b + (−b)] + (− a)(−b) = a b + (−b) [ a + (− a)]
a (0) + (− a)(−b) = a b + (−b) (0) z
0 + (− a)(−b) = a b + 0
(− a)(−b) = a b
~u
Consequently, (− a)(−b) = a b. γ
Direct variation The two variables x, y show direct α β
variation if they are in direct proportion. y
Read also «Direct proportion». x
Directed line segment Segment with a defined di-
rection, where one of its endpoints is defined as The direction angles are also known as steering an-
the start point and the other one as its endpoint. gles.
If the starting point of the directed segment is Read also «Direction cosines».
point A and its end point is point B, the directed Direction cosines Given a vector ⃗v = ⟨v , v , v ⟩
−→ 1 2 3
segment is denoted by AB. (⃗v , ⃗0) in rectangular coordinates, if α, β, γ are
the angles that ⃗v forms with the coordinate axis
−→ x, y, z respectively, the direction cosines of ⃗v are:
AB
x
O A B v v1
cos(α) = 1 = q
∥⃗v∥ v21 + v22 + v23
The directed segment is used to geometrically
represent a vector. It is worth mentioning that a v2 v2
cos( β) = = q
vector is not a directed segment. A directed seg- ∥⃗v ∥ v1 + v22 + v23
2
ment is a geometric object, while the vector is an v3 v3
algebraic object represented as ⟨v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ⟩. cos(γ) = = q
∥⃗v∥ v1 + v22 + v23
2
Read also «Vector».
137
Direction of the vector–Directional derivative
z Directional derivative The directional derivative
of the function z = f ( x, y) in the direction of the
unit vector û = ⟨u1 , u2 ⟩, is defined as:
~u ∂f ∂f
γ ∇ f · û = , · ⟨ u1 , u2 ⟩
∂x ∂y
α β ∂f ∂f
= u1 + u2
y ∂x ∂y
x
D For example, to calculate the directional deriva-
tive of the function: z = f ( x, y) = cos( x ) sin(y)
The direction cosines of ⃗v , ⃗0 satisfy: at the point (2, 2) in the direction of the vector
⟨3, −1⟩, compute first:
cos2 (α) + cos2 ( β) + cos2 (γ) = 1 f x ( x, y) = cos( x ) cos(y)
Read also «Vector». f y ( x, y) = − sin( x ) sin(y)
Direction of the vector The direction of the vector Therefore ∇ f (2, 2) = ⟨cos2 (2), − sin2 (2)⟩.
⃗v = ⟨ a, b⟩ refers to its geometric representation as The unit vector in the direction of ⃗u, is:
a directed segment with initial point at (0, 0) and 3 −1
end point at ( a, b), while the negative (or oppo- ê⃗u = √ , √
10 10
site) direction of ⃗v has initial point at ( a, b) and
end point at (0, 0). And the solicited directional derivative is:
Of course, if ( a, b) is the origin, then the direction 3 cos2 (2) + sin2 (2) 1 + 2 cos2 (2)
of the vector cannot be defined, so it is said that ∇ f (2, 2) · ê⃗u = √ = √
10 10
the vector ⟨0, 0⟩ has not a defined direction.
Therefore, the best way to define the vector is as By definition of dot product,
an n−tuple of ordered values and not as a di- ∇ f · û = ∥∇ f ∥ ∥û∥ cos θ
rected segment with direction and sense, since
these characteristics cannot be defined for the where θ is the angle between the vectors ∇ f and
zero vector. û. Since û is a unit vector, the dot product reduces
Read also «Vector». to ∥∇ f ∥ cos θ. In words, the directional deriva-
tive is the component of ∇ f in the direction of
Direction vector Vector used to define a specific the vector û. That is, the directional derivative is
direction. Unit vectors are often used for this pur- the rate of change of the function f at the point
pose. ( x, y, z), in the direction of the vector û.
The following figure shows the (unit) direction
vector û, which has the same direction as the
(non-unit) vector ⃗u. z = f (x, y)
1
z
−1
uz −1 0
1 y
1
∇f (x0 , y0 )
k̂ ~u x
û û
uy When θ = 0, we have the maximum value of
̂ y
ı̂ the directional derivative (because cos θ = 1 for
ux θ = 0). So when the vector û points in the same
direction as the gradient vector, the function has
x
its maximum rate of change. Therefore, the gradi-
ent of a function evaluated at a point is the vector
Read also «Unit vector». that points in the direction of the maximum rate
138
Directional field–Directrix
of change and whose magnitude is the maximum For example, when the number of hours worked
rate of change of the function at that point. increases, the number of minutes worked in-
This definition can be generalized to functions of creases.
more variables. For example, for the case of a If the quantity a is directly proportional to the
function of 3 variables: w = f ( x, y, z) quantity b, it is denoted as: a ∼ b. This means
that if a doubles, then b also doubles, and if a
∂f ∂f ∂f decreases by a third, then b also decreases in the
∇ f · û = , , · ⟨ u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩
∂x ∂y ∂z same proportion.
∂f ∂f ∂f In this case, the number k that satisfies y = k x for
=
∂x
u1 +
∂y
u2 +
∂z
u3 any two values x, y of the variables is called the
constant of direct variation.
D
where û = ⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩ is a unit vector. For example, if the price of each soft drink is
Read also «Gradient». $7.00, then k = 7, because this is the constant
that satisfies y = 7 x, for any x, y, where y is the
Directional field Collection of short segments amount to pay and x is the number of soft drinks
whose slope coincides with the value of the purchased.
derivative of the solution of the differential equa- The constant of direct variation is also known as
tion y′ = f ( x, y), at each point where these are the constant of direct proportion and as proportional-
drawn. ity factor.
For example, the directional field of the differen-
tial equation: Director circle The director circle of an ellipse (or a
hyperbola) is the locus of all the points of intersec-
dy tion of two perpendicular lines that are tangent to
= 1−2xy
dx the ellipse (or the hyperbola).
is obtained by evaluating the derivative at dif-
ferent points ( x, y), and a small line segment is y
drawn centered at that point to indicate the direc-
tion of the solution of the differential equation at
that particular point.
dy P
y = 1 − 2xy
dx
x
x
−1 1
−1 If the lengths of the semi-axis of the ellipse are
a and√b then the radius of the director circle is
r = a2 + b2 , and its center coincides with the
center of the ellipse.
The radius
√ of the director circle of the hyperbola
is r = a2 − b2 , where a is half the length of its
transverse axis and b is half the length of its con-
Directly proportional When two quantities vary jugate axis and its center coincides with the center
jointly such that as one quantity increases, the of the hyperbola.
other increases the same number of times, then
they are directly proportional and it is said that Directrix In a conic section, the directrix is a fixed
those quantities are proportional one to the other. straight line that together with one or two fixed
139
Dirichlet integral–Disc method
points called foci are used to measure proportions for each N ∈ N, where M is some constant, then
of distances to determine the points of a conic sec- the series:
∞
tion according to its definition.
The conic sections are
S= ∑ a n bn
i =0
is convergent.
• Circumference
• Parabola Disc method Method to set up a definite integral
to calculate the volume of a solid of revolution by
• Ellipse dividing the solid into disks.
D • Hyperbola For example, consider the solid of revolution that
is generated when the region delimited by the
For example, the directrix of the parabola y2 = graph of the function y = f ( x ), the x axis and
4 px, is the line that is p units from its vertex on the vertical lines x = a, and x = b is rotated about
the opposite side of the focus with respect to the the x axis. The method consists of dividing the
vertex of the parabola. interval [ a, b] into n subintervals of the same size
∆x and considering the part of the solid that cor-
y responds to each subinterval as a disk, as shown
in the following figure.
Directrix
y = f (x)
y
x ∆Vi
F
x1 x2 ···
x
a
xi
xi + ∆x
b
z
Read also «Conic».
Dirichlet integral The improper integral
First, the approximate value of the volume ∆Vi is
Z∞ calculated using the volume of the generic disk
sin( x ) π
· dx = located at xi (the volume is equal to the area of
x 2 the circular base times its thickness). In this case,
0
the radius of the disk is f ( xi ), and its thickness is
is known as the Dirichlet integral. ∆x = (b − a)/n. Therefore,
Dirichlet’s box principle Synonym of pigeonhole ∆Vi ≈ π [ f ( xi )]2 · ∆x
principle. The approximate volume of each part is then
Read also «Pigeonhole principle». added to obtain an approximation of the total vol-
ume of the solid.
Dirichlet’s test Method to prove the convergence
n n
of a series.
The method consists in verifying that an is mono-
V= ∑ ∆Vi ≈ ∑ π [ f (xi )]2 · ∆x
i =1 i =1
tonically decreasing, so that,
This approximation gets better as the solid is di-
lim an = 0 vided into more parts, so to obtain the exact
n→∞
value, the limit is calculated as n tends to infin-
and if it also holds: ity, through the definite integral.
N n Zb
∑ bn ≤M V = lim
n→∞
∑ ∆Vi = π [ f ( x )]2 · dx
n =1 i =1 a
140
Discontinuity–Discount
Read also «The ten-step rule». y
Discontinuity A function is said to be discontinu-
ous at a point x = x0 when it is not continuous at
it. y = f (x)
The following figure shows the graph of a func-
tion that presents a discontinuity in the interval
[ a, b].
y
a b
x D
Informally, the function is not continuous if it can-
not be drawn without lifting the tip of the pencil
from the paper on which it is drawn.
y = f (x)
A function can be discontinuous at x = x0 for
other several reasons. For example, (a) the func-
tion tends to infinity when x tends to x0 , (b) the
function is undefined at x = x0 , (c) the lateral lim-
its (on the left and on the right) when x tends to
x
a x0 b x0 are not equal, (d) the lateral limits (on the left
and on the right) when x tends to x0 are equal,
but the value of the function f ( x0 ) is not equal to
Note that the graph of the function cannot be the value of the limit, (e) the limit of the function
drawn without detaching the tip of the pencil as x tends to x0 does not exist.
from the paper on which it is drawn. Disconti- Read also «Continuous function».
nuity cases are classified as follows:
Discorectangle Closed plane geometric figure that
is made up of two parallel segments of the same
i. Removable discontinuity length that are joined by two semicircles at their
ends.
ii. Essential discontinuity
The removable discontinuity is known as avoid-
able discontinuity while the essential discontinuity r
is also known as non evitable discontinuity or un-
avoidable discontinuity.
The unavoidable or essential discontinuity is clas- h
sified as:
a) Of the first kind The perimeter P and the area A of the discorect-
b) Of the second kind angle made up of semicircles of radius r and par-
allel segments of length h are:
Within the essential discontinuities of the first P = 2πr+2h
kind are found (a) of finite jump, (b) of infinite
A = π r2 + 2 r h
jump, and (c) asymptotic.
Read also «Asymptotic discontinuity», «Jump dis-
The discrectangle is also known as stadium.
continuity», and «Avoidable discontinuity».
Readalso «Spherocylinder».
Discontinuous function A function is said to be Discount Reduction that is made to a quantity or
discontinuous when it is not continuous. to a price or value of something.
For example, the following figure shows a discon- Generally, the discount is determined based as a
tinuous function on the interval [ a, b]. percentage of the amount or price.
141
Discrepancy–Disdyakis dodecahedron
Discrepancy Synonym of deviation. the discriminant D is defined as the argument of
Read also «Deviation». the radical:
Discrete It is said that a variable is a discrete vari- D = b2 − 4 ac
able if there is a finite number of values it can
The sign of the discriminant indicates the type of
take in a given finite interval and the difference
roots that the quadratic equation has:
between any two of its different values is greater
than zero. That is to say, the values are at a cer-
tain distance (not necessarily the same) one of the Discriminant Roots
D other (so to speak, it takes values in the form of
finite increments.)
D>0
D=0
different real numbers
repeated real numbers
For example, the number of members in a family
D<0 complex numbers
is a discrete variable.
Read also «Discrete variable» and «Continuous vari-
able». (2) Correspondingly, for the cubic equation
Discrete mathematics Branch of mathematics that
a x3 + b x2 + c x + d = 0
deals with the study of mathematical structures
whose objects are discrete. Finite sets or sets
the discrimnant is:
whose cardinality is equal to that of the set of
natural numbers are the object of study in dis-
D = b2 c2 − 4 ac3 − 4 b3 d − 27 a2 d2 + 18 abcd
crete mathematics.
Applications of discrete mathematics are found Here, D = 0 if and only if, at least two roots are
in computer science, cryptography, operations re- equal. If the coefficients are real numbers and
search, among many other scientific disciplines. D , 0, then (a) D > 0 if the roots are three differ-
ent real numbers, and (b) D < 0 if there is a real
Discrete uniform distribution A random variable root and two conjugate complex roots.
X has a discrete uniform distribution, if and only Read also «Third-degree equation» and «Cubic equa-
if, its probability distribution is: tion».
(Multivariable calculus) In the second derivative
1
f (x) = test to compute local extrema of functions of two
k
variables, the discriminant D is
for x = x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xk , where xi , x j for i , j.
If the random variable X represents the outcome 2
D ( x0 , y0 ) = f xx ( x0 , y0 ) f yy ( x0 , y0 ) − f xy ( x0 , y0 )
of an event with k different possible outcomes all
with the same probability, then X has a discrete where z = f ( x, y) is the given function, f xx ( x0 , y0 )
uniform distribution. is the second derivative of the function with re-
Discrete variable A variable for which there is spect to x evaluated at ( x0 , y0 ), f yy ( x0 , y0 ) is the
a one-to-one correspondence between the values second derivative of the function with respect to y
that the variable can take and the set of natural evaluated at ( x0 , y0 ), and f xy ( x0 , y0 ) is the mixed
numbers (N). derivative of the function, first with respect to x
Given a finite interval a discrete variable can be and then with respect to y, evaluated at ( x0 , y0 ).
assigned only certain values and not all potential Read also «Second derivative test».
values for which a continuous variable could be
assigned. Discussion In mathematics, a discussion refers to
For example, the variable that indicates the num- the process of analysis in order to investigate a
ber of people living in each household is a dis- mathematical concept or object through reasoning
crete variable, because it only accepts values from and argumentation, applying the known proper-
the set {0, 1, 2, · · · }. ties of the object under study to justify other of
Read also «Continuous variable». its properties or theorems in which such concept
intervenes.
Discriminant (Algebra) In the formula to solve
second degree equations, a x2 + b x + c = 0, Disdyakis dodecahedron Catalan solid that has 48
√
−b ± b2 − 4 ac triangular faces. It also has 26 vertices and 72
x= edges.
2a
142
Disjoint–Disphenocingulum
For example, the sets A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, and B =
{1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, are disjoint sets because A ∩ B = ∅.
Disjunction Statement formed by two premises
linked by the word or.
For example, since it is greater than unity, this num-
ber is prime or composite is a disjunction.
The mathematical symbol used for the disjunction
is ∨, which is called vel.
The truth table for the disjunction is shown below.
D
p q p ∨ q
T T T
If its shortest edge measures a, then
√
the other T F T
edges measure, respectively, 10 + 2 a/7, and F T T
√ F F F
3 2 + 3 2 a/14.
If its shortest edge measures a, then its volume V Read also «Conjunction» and «OR».
and area A are: (Set theory) Operation equivalent to the union of
q √ two sets, denoted by ∪.
1
V= 6582 + 4539 2 a3
7 q Dispersion index A measure of how spread out
6 √ a distribution is, compared to the corresponding
A= 783 + 436 2 a2 standard distribution, and is calculated with:
7
The disdyakis dodecahedron is the dual polyhe- σ2
D=
dron of the truncated cuboctahedron. µ
The disdyakis dodecahedron is also known as
hexakis octahedron, octakis hexahedron, octakis where D is the dispersion index, σ2 is the vari-
cube, hexoctahedron, and as kisrhombic dodeca- ance of the distribution, and µ is its mean.
hedron. Read also «Distribution», «Population mean», and
«Variance».
Disjoint Two sets are disjoint if their intersection
is the empty set. Disphenocingulum Polyhedron formed by 24
In other words, if two sets have no elements in faces, of which 20 are equilateral triangles and 4
common, then they are disjoint sets. are squares. It also has 16 vertices and 38 edges.
A B
Disjoint sets Two sets A and B are disjoint sets if
their intersection is the empty set.
In other words, if none of the elements of A is an
element of B, and none of the elements of B is an
element of A, then A and B are disjoint sets. If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
and its area A are:
V ≈ 3.77763
a3
√ 2
A B A= 4+5 3 a
The disphenocingulum is a Johnson solid.
143
Distance–Distance between two vectors
Distance Number that quantifies the separation The distance D from the point P( x p , y p , z p ), to the
between two points. The distance D between origin in rectangular coordinates is:
the points P( x p , y p ) and Q( xq , yq ) in the cartesian q
plane is: D= x2p + y2p + z2p
q
D ( P, Q) = ( xq − x p )2 + (yq − y p )2 z
zp
y
P
D yp P D
= p
(x
q D(
O,
P )
−x
p)2
+(
yq
−y O y
p)2 yp
x xp
yq Q
x Distance between crossing lines Given two lines
O xp xq in R3 space that cross each other, but they do not
meet,
If the points are given in polar coordinates,
⃗x =⃗a + λ ⃗u
P(ρ p , θ p ), and Q(ρq , θq ), the distance is given by:
⃗y = ⃗c + µ ⃗v
q
D= ρ2p + ρ2q − 2 ρ p ρq cos θq − θ p the distance d between them is the projection of
a vector that joins both lines upon the vector ⃗n
If the points are in three-dimensional space, ex- perpendicular to both lines.
pressed in rectangular coordinates, P( x p , y p , z p ),
and Q( xq , yq , zq ), the distance between them is: d = |⃗n · (⃗c −⃗a)|
q
where
D= ( x q − x p )2 + ( y q − y p )2 + ( z q − z p )2 ⃗u × ⃗v
⃗n =
∥⃗u × ⃗v∥
z
In other words, the distance between two skew
zq
lines is equal to the length of the segment per-
Q pendicular to both lines that intersects them.
) z
, Q
(P
D
zp
P ~u
n̂
~v
yp y ~y
xp yq ~x
x xq
y
The euclidean distance satisfies: x
• D ( P, Q) ≥ 0. That is, the distance between
two points is a nonnegative number. If the lines are parallel, ⃗u × ⃗v = ⃗0, and this
method is not applicable.
• D ( P, P) = 0. That is, the distance from one
point to itself is zero. Distance between two vectors The distance D be-
• D ( P, Q) ≤ D ( P, R) + D ( R, Q). That is, in a tween the vectors ⃗u = ⟨u x , uy , uz ⟩ and ⃗v =
triangle, the sum of the lengths of two sides ⟨v x , vy , vz ⟩ is the magnitude of the vector ⃗u − ⃗v.
is always at least as great as the length of the q
2
third side. D = ( u x − v x )2 + u y − v y + ( u z − v z )2
144
Distance from a point to a line–Distribution function
z In vector form, the distance D from the point
Q( x0 , y0 , z0 ) to the plane that passes through the
point P( x p , y p , z p ) and whose normal vector is ⃗n,
~v k ~u
k~u − is:
−→
PQ · ⃗n
D=
~v ∥⃗n∥
y That is, the distance D from the point to the plane
−→
is equal to the projection of the vector PQ upon
x the vector ⃗n. D
Q
Distance from a point to a line The distance D ⃗n
from the point P x p , y p to the line: A x + B y +
D
C = 0, is the length of the segment perpendicular
to the given line from P. Its numerical value is:
P
A xp + B yp + C
D= √
A2 + B2
Distinguishable permutation The number of per-
y mutations of n objects, of which n1 are of the first
kind, n2 are of the second kind, etc., nk are of the
Ax k −th kind, and n1 + n2 + · · · + nk = n, is:
+B
y+ n n!
C= =
0 n1 , n2 , · · · , n k n1 ! · n2 ! · · · n k !
D
x Distribution A probability distribution is a func-
tion that returns the value of the probability of
P (xp , yp ) the different possible values that a random vari-
able can assume.
More formally, if X is a discrete random variable,
To compute the distance between two parallel the function given by f ( x ) = P( X = x ) for each
lines that are in the plane, consider a point on x in the range of X, is the probability distribution
either of the two and calculate the distance from of X.
this point to the other line. If the equation of the The probability distribution indicates how the
line is written in its normal form, values of a random variable appear in data mea-
sured in a sample or population.
x cos( φ) + y sin( φ) − ρ = 0
A probability distribution function of a discrete
the distance D from P( x1 , y1 ) to the line is: random variable satisfies:
D = | x1 cos( φ) + y1 sin( φ) − ρ| i. 0 ≤ f ( x ) ≤ 1 for all x in its domain.
ii. ∑ f ( x ) = 1, where the sum cover all the ele-
If P and the origin are on the same side with re-
ments of its domain.
spect to the line, x1 cos( φ) + y1 sin( φ) − ρ > 0,
and x1 cos( φ) + y1 sin( φ) − ρ < 0 otherwise.
Distribution function If X is a random variable,
Distance from a point to a plane The distance D the distribution function of X denoted as F ( X ),
from the plane a x + b y + c z = d to the point is:
Q( x0 , y0 , z0 ), is the length of the segment perpen- F ( X ) = P( X ≤ x )
dicular to the given plane from Q. Its numerical
for −∞ < x < ∞.
value is:
The distribution function satisfies:
| a x0 + b y0 + c z0 − d |
D= √ • lim F ( x ) = 0.
a2 + b2 + c2 x →−∞
145
Distributive property–Divergence
• lim F ( x ) = 1. Divergence The divergence of a field is a scalar
x →∞
quantity that quantifies the volumetric flux den-
• If x1 and x2 are two values of X, such that
sity of a vector field at each point where its com-
x1 < x2 , then, F ( x1 ) < F ( x2 ).
ponents and its partial derivatives are defined.
If F ( X ) is a continuous function for −∞ < x ≤ ∞, The divergence of the vector field
then it is said that X is a continuous random vari-
able. In this case, ⃗F ( x, y, z) = M ı̂ + N ȷ̂ + P k̂
d ( F ( x ))
f (x) = in rectangular coordinates is defined by:
D dx
is the probability density function of the continu- ∂M ∂N ∂P
ous random variable X. div ⃗F = ∇ · ⃗F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Read also «Cumulative distribution» and «Probabil-
ity density function».
The divergence of ⃗F in cylindrical coordinates is:
Distributive property (Arithmetic) Property of
real numbers that involves addition and multipli- 1 ∂ 1 ∂Fθ ∂Fz
∇ · ⃗F = (r Fr ) + +
cation as follows: r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z
a · (b + c) = a b + a c
where Fr , Fθ y Fz are the components of ⃗F in the
Geometrically, the distributive property is inter- direction of r, θ, and z, respectively.
preted as the calculation of the area of a rectangle The divergence of ⃗F in spherical coordinates is:
with base b + c, and height a.
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂
b+c ∇ · ⃗F = 2 (ρ Fρ ) + (sin(ϕ) Fϕ ) +
ρ ∂ρ ρ sin ϕ ∂ϕ
1 ∂Fθ
+
ρ sin ϕ ∂θ
a ab ac
where Fρ , Fθ and Fϕ are the components of ⃗F in
the direction of ρ, θ, and ϕ, respectively.
If ⃗F is a velocity field of a fluid, the divergence
c measures the rate of change of density of that
b
fluid. Since ∇ · ⃗F represents the amount of fluid
(Set theory) In set theory, the distributive laws going out of a differential of volume (of infinites-
are: imal edges dx, dy, dz), per unit time, this quantity
is called divergence because it measures the ten-
A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) dency of the fluid to get away of the point where
A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) ∇ · ⃗F is being evaluated.
If div(⃗F ) > 0, it is said that ⃗F has a source at the
(Linear algebra) If A is a matrix of dimension
point where the divergence is being evaluated.
p × q and B and C other matrices of dimension
q × r, then, If div(⃗F ) < 0, it is said that ⃗F has a sink at the
point where the divergence is being evaluated.
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C If div(⃗F ) = 0, it is said that ⃗F is incompressible
If A y B are matrices of dimension p × q and C is at the point where the divergence is being evalu-
another matrix of dimension q × r, then, ated.
Read also «Rotational».
( A + B) · C = A · C + B · C The divergence has the following properties.
(Vector analysis) For any vectors ⃗u, ⃗v and w
⃗ of
dimension n, ⃗ = div ⃗F + div G
• div ⃗F + G ⃗ .
⃗u × (⃗v + w⃗ ) = ⃗u × ⃗v + ⃗u × w
⃗
• div c ⃗F = c div ⃗F , where c ∈ R.
(⃗u + ⃗v) × w
⃗ = ⃗u × w ⃗ + ⃗v × w
⃗
• div f ⃗F = f div ⃗F + ⃗F · ∇ f .
146
Divergence theorem–Divisibility rules
⃗ =G
• div ⃗F × G ⃗ · rot ⃗F − ⃗F · rot G
⃗ The divided difference of order one of y =
f ( x ), with respect to xi and xi+1 is denoted by
• div ∇ × ⃗F = div rot ⃗F = 0. f [ xi , xi+1 ], and is defined as:
• div (∇ f ) = ∇2 f . f ( x i +1 ) − f ( x i )
f [ x i , x i +1 ] =
⃗ are vector fields and f and g are x i +1 − x i
where ⃗F and G
scalar functions, ⃗F × G ⃗ is the cross product of ⃗F Iteratively, the divided difference of order k of
⃗ rot(⃗F ) is the rotational of ⃗F, ∇ f is the gra-
and G, y = f ( x ) with respect to xi , xi+1 , · · · , xi+k−1 , is
dient of f and ∇2 f is the Laplacian of f .
Read also «Gradient», «Rotational», and «Laplacian
denoted by f [ xi , xi+1 , · · · , xi+k−1 ], and is defined
as:
D
operator».
f [ x i , x i +1 , · · · , x i + k −1 ]
Divergence theorem If V is a volume bounded by
f [ x i , x i +1 , · · · , x i + k ] − f [ x i , x i +1 , · · · , x i + k −1 ]
the surface S and ⃗F is a vector function with con- =
xi +k − xi
tinuous partial derivatives, then,
y x⃗
∇ · ⃗F dV = F · n̂ dS
Dividend In a division, the dividend is the num-
V S
ber that is being divided.
where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to S point- For example, in 10 ÷ 5 = 2, the dividend is the
ing outwards (of the solid). number 10, the divisor is the number 5, and the
In words, this theorem can be interpreted as stat- quotient is the number 2.
ing that the density of a region of space delimited
Divisibility We say that the integer number b , 0
by a specific area S can change due to the inflow
(evenly) divides integer number a, and it is writ-
or outflow in said region, assuming that there is
ten as b| a, if there is an integer number k such
no creation, no destruction of matter there.
that: a = b · k.
The divergence theorem is also known as Gauss’s
In other words, if a is a multiple of b, then we say
theorem, and as Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem.
that the number b is divisible by a.
Divergent series A series is said to be divergent if If a, b, c, d are integer numbers, then,
it is not convergent.
• If a|b, and b|c, then, a|c.
For example,
• If a|b, and b| a, then, a = b, or, a = −b
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + +··· = ∞ • If a|b, and a|c, then, a|(b + c).
1 2 3 4 5
• If a|b, and a|(b + c), then, a|c.
is divergent because this series is not convergent.
Considering the succession a1 , a1 , · · · , an , and its • If p is a prime number and p|bc, then p| a or,
corresponding partial sums Sn , p|b.
• If a|b, and a|c, then, a|(m b + n c) for any
n
m, n ∈ Z.
S = n ∑
a i
i =1 • If a|bc, and ( a, b) = 1, then a|c.
if the limit of the partial sums S1 , S2 , · · · , Sn , does • If a|1, then, a = 1, or, a = −1.
not exist when n tends to infinity, then we say that • If a|b, then, | a| ≤ |b|.
the series
∞ • If a|b, and c|d, then, a c|b d.
S= ∑ ai
i =1 where ( a, b) is the greatest common divisor of a
is divergent. and b.
Read also «Divisibility criteria».
Divided difference The divided difference of or-
der zero of the function y = f ( x ), with respect to Divisibility rules A set of rules that helps us de-
xi , is denoted by f [ xi ], and is defined as: termine if one number is evenly divided by an-
other number without doing the division directly.
f [ xi ] = f ( xi )
147
Division–Division theorem
n Rule (Algebra) Let P( x ) and G ( x ) be two polynomi-
als such that G ( x ) is not constant. Then there are
2 The last digit is an even number. unique polynomials Q( x ) and R( x ) such that the
3 The sum of the digits is a multiple of 3. degree of R( x ) is smaller than the degree of Q( x ),
4 The number formed by its two last dig- and
its is a multiple of 4. P( x ) = Q( x ) · G ( x ) + R( x )
5 Ends in 0, or 5.
6 Is divisible by 2 and by 3. If the degree of P( x ) is smaller than tha degree of
8 The number formed by its 3 last digits G ( x ) the polynomial Q( x ) = 0, and P( x ) = R( x ).
D 9
is a multiple of 8.
The sum of the digits is a multiple of 9.
Furthermore, the degree of P( x ) equals the sum
of the degrees of Q( x ) and G ( x ).
10 Ends in zero. If R( x ) = 0, it is said that P( x ) is divisible by
G ( x ).
Read also «Zero», «Divisibility», «Divisor», and Read also «Remainder theorem».
«Multiple». Division by zero In elementary arithmetic, if in
the division a/b the dividend b is equal to zero, it
Division Mathematical operation that is denoted
is said that the division is indefinite.
using the symbol ÷ or by /, and that consists
The reason why it cannot be defined is due to
of distributing a fixed quantity a in b , 0 equals
the way the division is defined: if a/b = r, then
parts.
a = b · r. If b = 0, then b · r = 0, regardless of
For example, to indicate the division of numbers
the value of a. If a , 0, the equality a = b · r
a and b, we use a ÷ b or a/b.
is senseless. On the other hand, if a = 0, then
Read also «Obelus».
no matter the value assigned to r, the equality
It is also customary to write the division of two
a = b · r always holds. A unique value for r can-
numbers as a fraction:
not be defined, and the result of the division must
a be unique.
r=
b
Division of fractions The result of dividing a/b
where r is the result of division and is called the over c/d is:
quotient, a is the dividend, b , 0 is the divisor. a c a·d
÷ =
In elementary academic levels it is customary to b d b·c
represent the elements of the division as shown if b · c , 0.
below: For example,
Quotient 3 7 3×8 24
÷ = =
Divisor Dividend 5 8 5×7 35
..
. Notice that dividing by a fraction is equivalent to
Remainder multiplying by its reciprocal.
. Division of monomials Monomial division is de-
The symbol . . indicates that there may be some fined for a nonzero divisor. The division between
lines of numbers in the procedure. The last num- monomials is done by applying the laws of expo-
ber written, being less than the divisor, is the re- nents. In particular, the law: x m ÷ x n = x m−n ,
mainder of the division. which in words says that when dividing two
Read also «To divide». equal bases their exponents are subtracted.
For example,
Division algorithm (Arithmetic) Given the integer
numbers a, b, with b , 0, there are unique in- x7
teger numbers q, r, with 0 ≤ r < b, such that: = x 7−4 = x 3
x4
a = bq + r.
Read also «Rules of exponents».
For example, considering a = 17, b = 3,
Division theorem Given two integer numbers a
17 = (3)(5) + 2 and b (with b , 0), there exist two unique inte-
gers q and r that satisfy:
In this case, the quotient is q = 5, and the remain-
der is r = 2. a = bq+r
148
Divisor–Domain
where a is the dividend, b is the divisor, q is the
quotient and r is the remainder of the division
(0 ≤ r < |b|).
For example, if a = 27, b = 4, then q = 6, and
r = 3, because:
27 = (4)(6) + 3
If b = 0, the division is undefined.
The division theorem is also known as division
with remainder and as the Euclid’s lemma of the di-
D
vision.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
Divisor (Arithmetic) Given the integer numbers area A are:
a, b, c satisfying a = b · c, we say that the num-
bers b and c are divisors of the number a. 1 √
For example, 2 and 5 are divisors of the number V= 15 + 7 5 a3
4r
10, because 10 = (2)(5). √
(Algebra) Given the polynomials P( x ), Q( x ) and A = 3 5 5 + 2 5 a2
R( x ), if
P( x ) = Q( x ) · R( x )
The dodecahedron is a Platonic solid.
then we say that the polynomials Q( x ) and R( x ) Read also «Regular polyhedron».
are divisors of the polynomial P( x ).
For example, since
Domain The domain D of a function y = f ( x ) is
2 3
( x + 1) x + 1 = x + x + x + 12 the set whose elements are all the values of the in-
dependent variable x for which the function can
assign a corresponding value to the dependent
The polynomials x + 1, and x2 + 1, are divisors of variable y.
the polynomial x3 + x2 + x + 1. An element of the domain is usually denoted by
Read also «Division algorithm». the letter x. Then, x ∈ D f is read: x is in the do-
main of the function f .
Divisor function Function defined for positive in-
tegers denoted by d(n) = σ0 (n) that returns the
number of positive divisors of its argument.
For example, d(1) = 1, d(2) = 2, d(3) = 2, X Y
f
d(4) = 3, d(5) = 2, and d(6) = 4.
Dodecagon Polygon that has 12 sides. x y
Domain Range
For example, the domain of the function y = x2 is
the set of real numbers, because we can calculate
the square of any real number.
On the√ other hand, the domain of the function
y = x is the set of all non-negative real num-
bers, since we can only calculate the square root
of non-negative numbers.
Dodecahedron A regular solid that has 12 faces in Geometrically, if the graph of the function is pro-
the shape of a regular pentagon. It also has 20 jected y = f ( x ) on the x axis, you get a represen-
vertices and 30 edges. tation of the domain of y = f ( x ).
149
Doppler spiral–Dot product
y z
~v − ~u
y = f (x)
~u
θ
~v
x
D y
Read also «Function» and «Range».
x
Doppler spiral Spiral whose equation in rectangu-
lar coordinates are: the length of ⃗v − ⃗u can be computed using:
x (t) = a (t cos(t) + k t) (⃗v − ⃗u) · (⃗v − ⃗u) = ∥⃗v∥2 + ∥⃗u∥2 − 2 ⃗v · ⃗u
y(t) = a t sin(t)
By the law of cosines,
for t ≥ 0.
∥⃗v − ⃗u∥2 = ∥⃗v∥2 + ∥⃗u∥2 − 2 ∥⃗v∥⃗u∥ cos θ
y where θ is the angle formed by the vectors ⃗u and
⃗v. Therefore,
⃗u · ⃗v = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ cos θ
x ~v
~u
θ
y
Evidence of this result is that:
ı̂ · ı̂ = ȷ̂ · ȷ̂ = k̂ · k̂ = 1
If k = 0 the Archimedean spiral is obtained.
Read also «Archimedean spiral». The dot product has the following properties:
Dot product The dot product of the vectors ⃗u = a) ⃗u · ⃗v = ⃗v · ⃗u
⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩, and ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩ is:
b) (k ⃗u) · ⃗v = k (⃗u · ⃗v)
⃗u · ⃗v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 c) (⃗u + ⃗v) · w
⃗ = ⃗u · w
⃗ + ⃗v · w
⃗
If ⃗u and ⃗v are two non-zero vectors, and θ is the
Note that:
angle between them,
⃗u · ⃗u = u21 + u22 + u23 = ∥⃗u∥2 • ⃗u · ⃗v > 0 if the angle θ is acute.
Considering the triangle whose sides are on the • ⃗u · ⃗v < 0 if the angle θ is obtuse.
vectors ⃗u, ⃗v, and ⃗v − ⃗u, • ⃗u · ⃗v = 0 if the angle θ is a right angle.
150
Dottie number–Double integral
That is, if ⃗u and ⃗v are two nonzero vectors, then of area whose sides measure ∆x and ∆y. It is said
the vectors are perpendicular if ⃗u · ⃗v = 0. Indeed, that the function z = f ( x, y) is integrable if the
previous limit exists.
ı̂ · ȷ̂ = ȷ̂ · k̂ = k̂ · ı̂ = 0 Basically, dV = f ( x, y) · dA represents the volume
of a rectangular prism of height f ( x, y) and base
with area dA. The sum of all the differentials
Dottie number Unique real solution to the equa- of volume dV thus constructed in the region R,
tion: gives as a result the volume under the graph of
cos( x ) = x the function z = f ( x, y).
where x is in radians. In other words, the Dot-
D
tie number is the unique fixed point of the cosine z = f (x, y)
function.
y
x
=
y
dV
x c
− π2 −1 O 1 π a
2 d
y = cos(x) b y
Its approximate value is: xd ≈ 0.73908513321516. x R
Read also «Fixed point» and «Fixed-point method».
So, if f ( x, y) ≥ 0 for every point in R, the double
Double The double of a number is the result of integral can be interpreted as the volume under
multiplying it by 2. the graph of the function z = f ( x, y) above the
For example, since (5)(2) = 10, the double of 5 is region of integration R.
10. For example, to compute the volume of the solid
bounded by the planes z = 0, x = 0, y = 0,
Double factorial Synonym of semifactorial. x + y = 1 and the graph of the function z =
Read also «Semifactorial». 1 − x 2 − y2 ,
Double inequality Mathematical expression that
z
includes two inequalities.
For example, a double inequality is:
0 ≤ x < 10 1
that indicates zero must be less than or equal to the
z = 1 − x2 − y 2
value of x and at the same time, the value of x must
be strictly less than 10.
Read also «Interval».
Double integral The double integral of the func-
tion z = f ( x, y) on the region R of the xy plane, y
is: x+y =1 1
x m n x
1
f ( x, y) · dA = lim
m,n→∞
∑∑f xi , y j · ∆A
R i =1 j =1
the region of the xy plane consisting of the right
where dA = dx · dy represents the differential of triangle with vertices at (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1) is
area, and ∆A represents the rectangular element considered, and the limits of the double integral
151
Double root–Duerer solid
in rectangular coordinates are set up to compute Double vector product The double vector product
its numerical value as shown below. of the vectors ⃗u, ⃗v and w ⃗ , denoted by ⃗u × (⃗v × w⃗ ),
is:
Z1 1Z−y ⃗u × (⃗v × w⃗ ) = (⃗u · w
⃗ ) ⃗v − (⃗u · ⃗v) w⃗
V= 1 − x2 − y2 · dx · dy
0 0
The vector ⃗u × (⃗v × w ⃗ ) is in the plane generated
by the vectors ⃗
v and ⃗.
w
Z1 1− y
x3 2 The other case, (⃗u × ⃗v) × w ⃗ , is defined as:
= x− −xy · dy
3 0
D 0
Z1
1
(⃗u × ⃗v) × w⃗ = (⃗u · w
⃗ ) ⃗v − (⃗v · w⃗ ) ⃗u
= − (1 − y)3 + (1 − y) (1 − y2 ) · dy This vector is in the plane generated by the vec-
3 tors ⃗u and ⃗v.
0
1 Observe that:
2 y 2 y3 y4 1
= − + =
3 3 3 0 3 ⃗u × (⃗v × w
⃗ ) , (⃗u × ⃗v) × w ⃗
Read also «Riemann double sum». and also
Double root When in factoring a polynomial ⃗ ) = − (⃗v × w
⃗u × (⃗v × w ⃗ ) × ⃗u
Pn ( x ), a factor appears squared, but not cubed,
the polynomial has a double root.
For example,
Double exponential function A function of the
x 3 − 3 x + 2 = ( x − 1)2 ( x + 2) form:
x
y = ab
has a double root in x = 1.
In other words, a root r of a polynomial is a dou- where both, a and b are positive integers different
ble root if it can be divided by ( x − r ) twice but from 1.
not three times.
Dozen A group of twelve things.
Graphically, a double root x = xr is identified be-
For example a dozen roses is a group of twelve
cause at that value of x, the function y = Pn ( x )
roses.
becomes zero, but does not change sign. If it is
positive shortly before xr , the function remains Dual polyhedron Polyhedron associated with a
positive soon after; and if it was negative shortly second polyhedron where the vertices of the first
before xr , it remains negative shortly after xr . correspond to the faces of the second and the
edges between vertices of the first correspond to
y y = f (x) the edges between pairs of faces of the second.
x
xr
In the previous figure, the point x = xr where the Duerer solid Polyhedron with 8 faces, of which 6
x −axis is tangent to the graph of the function, is are pentagons and 2 are equilateral triangles. It
a double root of the shown function. also has 12 vertices and 18 edges.
152
Duffing equation–dx
and 5 ones (that is: 11 × 12 + 5 = 137, in the po-
sitional decimal number system).
Read also «Numbering system».
Dupin cyclide Surface that is obtained by applying
an inversion to a sphere with respect to a torus, a
cylinder or a cone.
D
If the edge of the equilateral triangle-shaped face
has side length a, then its volume V and area A
are:
The parametric equations of this surface are:
q √
5
V= 38 + 17 5 a3 d (c − a cos(u) cos(v)) + b2 cos(u)
3 x (u, v) =
1 √ a − c cos(u) cos(v)
A= 3 k · a2 b sin(u)( a − d cos(v))
2 y(u, v) =
a − c cos(u) cos(v)
where
r b sin(v)(c cos(u) − d)
√ √ z(u, v) =
a − c cos(u) cos(v)
k = 675 + 301 5+ 30 1165 + 521 5
where a and b are the lengths of the semi-axis of
The Duerer solid is also known as truncated trian- the ellipse
gular trapezohedron and is obtained from the trun- x2 y2
+ =1
cation of a rhombohedron. a2 b2
Read also «Rombohedron». in the plane z = 0 and c is its excentricity, while
Duffing equation the nonlinear second order dif- c and d are the lengths of the semi-axis of the hy-
ferential equation perbola
x2 z2
+ =1
ẍ + δ ẋ + α x + β x3 = γ cos(ω t) c2 b2
in the plane y = 0. Here, the foci of the ellipse
used to model damped and driven oscilators, are the vertices of the hyperbola and the vertices
where the parameters δ (damping), α (stiffness), of the ellipse are the foci of the hyperbola.
β (nonlinear restorting force), δ (amplitude of the Read also «Inversion».
external force), and ω (angular frequency) are real
constants. The solution of this differential equa- Duplicate Twice a number or quantity.
tion, x = x (t) represents displacement at time t, For example, by duplicating 10 we get 20.
ẋ is the velocity, and ẍ is acceleration (the dots
dx In calculus, dx is the differential of x, and repre-
denote differentiation, according to Isaac Newton
sents an infinitely small quantity.
notation).
Generally, when to the variable x is given a finite
If δ = 0 and β = 0, then the equation models
increment, denoted by ∆x, and this is made to
simple harmonic motion.
tend to zero, we obtain dx.
Duodecimal system Base 12 numbering system.
To write numbers in this numbering system, the x x + dx x
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are used, and the 0 1
literals A and B to represent the digits with value
10 and 11, respectively.
For example, the number 1112 means a dozen and x
a unit (that is, 13 in the positional decimal num- dx
ber system), while A512 represents eleven dozens
153
dy–Dyne
A finite increment of the variable x is denoted by y y = f (x)
∆x, while an infinitely small increment with dx.
P α dy
f (x)
dy In calculus, if y = f ( x ), dy is called the differ- dx
ential of y, and is defined as the product of the
derivative of the function f and the differential of
D x. That is,
dy = f ′ ( x ) · dx α
x
Q x
The differential of a function indicates how the
function behaves in the neighborhood of a point. Some authors define the differential as:
Leibniz defined the derivative of a function as the
quotient of the infinitesimal increments dy and dy = f ′ ( x ) · ∆x
dx. So that the differential of y is the change that
the function undergoes caused by an infinitesimal although this is not in accordance with the histor-
increment dx in the independent variable x. ical development of calculus.
Read also «Derivatives», «Differential», «Infinitesi-
mal», and «Characteristic triangle».
dy
= f ′ (x) ⇒ dy = f ′ ( x ) · dx
Dyad A couple of ordered values.
dx
In the plane, the coordinates of each point form a
dyad.
Considering the derivative as the quotient of in- For example, (3, 4) is a dyad.
finitesimals dy/dx, according to Leibniz, this is The dyad is also known as two-ple, couple and or-
equivalent to: dered pair.
Read also «Coordinate», «Vector» and «Tuple».
dy = f ( x + dx ) − f ( x ) = f ′ ( x ) · dx Dyne Unit of force equivalent to 10−5 newtons.
154
E
e Symbol used to denote the irrational number
whose approximate value is e ≈ 2.718281828459
that is used as the base for the natural logarithm.
The number e is one of the most important con-
stants in mathematics and is defined as
b
1/n
1 C(h, k)
e = lim 1+
n→∞ n
The number e is present in the considered most
beautiful equation in mathematics:
a
iπ
e +1 = 0
Read also «Euler’s identity».
The letter e coincides with the initial letter of the Eccentric circumference is also known as auxiliary
last name of the mathematician who contributed circumference.
to the comprehension of this number: Euler. Read also «Equation of the ellipse».
ê The vector ê (read it as e hat) is a unit vector. Eccentricity The eccentricity ϵ of a conic is defined
Frequently the symbols êi , ê j , êk , are used to de- with the parameters a, b and c that determine the
note the unit vectors in the direction of the x, y, z, shape of the conic, and is:
axes, respectively. That is, êi = ı̂, ê j = ȷ̂, êk = k̂. c
ϵ=
A unit vector in the direction of the vector ⃗v is de- a
noted as ê⃗v . The eccentricity varies according to each conic:
Read also «Unit vector».
• Parabola: ϵ = 1
e-prime number A natural number is an e-prime • Ellipse: ϵ < 1
number if it appears in the decimal expansion of • Hyperbola: ϵ > 1
the number e.
For example, 2, 271, 2718281, are e−prime num- The eccentricity of the circumference is unde-
bers. fined.
Ecliptic Plane in which the Earth’s orbit is in its
Eccentric circumference In an ellipse, an eccentric
movement around the Sun.
circumference is a circumference centered at the
center of the ellipse and whose diameter is either Edge Line segment where two faces of a geometric
the major or minor axis of the ellipse. body intersect.
Effective interest rate–Eigenvalue
Egyptian fraction Representation of an irreducible
fraction in several fractions with a numerator
equal to 1, and their denominators different from
Edge each other.
For example,
7 1 1
= +
10 2 5
Egyptian fractions were used for distribution
In plane geometry the word edge is a synonym for problems.
side of a polygon. For example, in the previous case, if it is required
(Graph theory) Line segment that joins two ver- to divide 7 liters of water among 10 people, each
E tices of a graph. The vertices joined by the same
edge are said to be adjacent vertices.
person is first given half a liter of water, and then
each person is given a fifth of another liter of wa-
Read also «Graph». ter.
To express a given fraction p/q as an Egyp-
Effective interest rate The effective annual interest
tian fraction, consider the reciprocal q/p and do
rate is the interest rate on a loan or financial pro-
the division. If the integer part of the quotient
duct written from the nominal interest rate and
is r, the reciprocal of its consecutive 1/(r + 1)
is expressed as an equivalent interest rate if com-
is the first term of the Egyptian fraction. The
pound interest is to be paid annually by arrears.
process is repeated with the remaining fraction:
It is used to compare interest rates between loans
( p/q) − (1/(r + 1)) until a last term is obtained
with different compounding periods (weekly,
that is a proper fraction with numerator 1.
monthly, semi-annually, or annually).
For example, to represent the proper fraction
The effective annual interest rate r is calculated as
7/22 as an Egyptian fraction, compute 22/7 =
if it were compounded annually, from the nomi-
3 + (1/7). The consecutive of 3 is 4, so:
nal interest rate i and the number of periods n
that is compounded: 7 1 3
= +
n 22 4 44
i
r= 1+ −1 Now consider the reciprocal of 3/44. By dividing
n
44/3 = 14 + (2/3). The consecutive of 14 is 15,
If the interest is compounded instantly, the num- therefore:
7 1 1 1
ber of times it is compounded tends to infinity, = + +
the effective annual interest rate is: 22 4 15 660
Since that all fractions to the right of the equal
r = ei − 1 sign have the number 1 as their numerator, we
have obtained the representation of 7/22 as an
Egyptian fraction.
It is worth mentioning that every positive rational
Efraniesimum Number denoted by e and defined number can be expressed as an Egyptian fraction.
as 1 divided by one efranium. Read also «Fibonacci’s theorem» and «Unit frac-
tion».
1 1
e= = 1 000 000 = 10−1 000 000
E 10 Eigenvalue Factor by which an eigenvector (other
| ·{z
= 0.000 · · 000}1 than zero) is scaled after a linear transformation.
999 999 zeros If A is a matrix of dimension n × n, the number λ
is an eigenvalue of A if there is a nonzero vector
Read also «Efranium». ⃗v, satisfying:
A ⃗v = λ ⃗v
Efranium Number denoted by E defined as the
number written as a 1 followed by 1 million zeros. The vector ⃗v is the eigenvector corresponding to
the eigenvalue λ.
E = 101 000 000 = 1000
| ·{z
· · 000} The eigenvalues of the matrix A of dimension
one million zeros
n × n, may be computed by means of the equa-
tion:
Read also «Googol». p(λ) = det( A − λ I ) = 0
156
Eigenvector–Eisenstein’s criterion
The equation above is called characteristic equation Then,
of A, and p(λ) is the characteristic polynomial of A.
2−λ 1
For example, if det( A − λ I ) =
1 2−λ
1 0 = (2 − λ )2 − 1 = 0
A=
0 −1
Solving the equation (2 − λ)2 − 1 = 0 for λ it is
Then, obtained: λ1 = 3, and λ2 = 1. These are the
eigenvalues of A.
1−λ 0 To compute the eigenvectors, consider:
det( A − λ I ) =
0 −1 − λ ( A − λ I )⃗v = ⃗0
= (1 − λ)(−1 − λ) = 0
That is:
E
The characteristic polynomial of A is: 1 − λ2 = 0, 2−λ 1 v1 0
and its roots are: λ1 = −1, and λ2 = 1. These are =
1 2−λ v2 0
the eigenvalues of A.
Read also «Eigenvector». Considering the eigenvalue λ1 = 3, it is obtained:
− v1 + v2 = 0
Eigenvector A nonzero vector (⃗v , ⃗0) that does
not change its direction under a particular linear (The other equation is equivalent to the previous
transformation. I.e., if such linear transformation one). From this, v1 = v2 . So, one eigenvector of
is applied, the eigenvector changes, at most, its A is:
magnitude. 1
⃗v1 =
The eigenvalue ⃗v of the matrix A, satisfies: 1
For the other eigenvalue λ2 = 1,
A ⃗v = λ ⃗v
v1 + v2 = 0
where A represents the said linear transforma- therefore v1 = −v2 . So that the other eigenvector
tion, λ is the scale factor (known as eigenvalue) of A is:
corresponding to the eigenvector ⃗v. 1
⃗v2 =
If the eigenvalue λ corresponding to a eigenvec- −1
tor ⃗v is negative, then the vector A ⃗v points in the The eigenvector is also known as proper vector.
opposite direction of ⃗v. Read also «Matrix» and «Linear transformation».
To calculate the eigenvectors corresponding to
matrix A of size n × n, compute first the roots Eighth When we divide a whole into eight equal
λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn of its characteristic polynomial. parts, each part is one eighth of the whole.
p(λ) = det( A − λ I ) = 0
and then solve the homogeneous system of linear
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
equations:
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
( A − λi I )⃗v = ⃗0
for each λi , where i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
The eigenvectors ⃗vi , ⃗v j corresponding to the dif-
ferent eigenvalues λi , and λ j satisfy: One eighth is denoted as the fraction 1/8.
⃗vi · ⃗v j = 0 Eisenstein’s criterion Given the polynomial
a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + · · · + a 1 x + a 0
That is, the eigenvectors corresponding to differ-
ent eigenvalues are perpendicular. if some prime number p satisfies the following
For example, if three conditions:
• p divides ai , for i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1,
2 1
A= • p does not divide an ,
1 2
157
Element–Elevation angle
• p2 does not divide a0 , ii. Multiply all the elements of a row by a con-
stant.
then the given polynomial is irreducible over the
For example,
rationals.
For example, x2 + 3 x + 6, satisfy that the prime
a b c a b c
number p = 3 divides a0 = 6 and a1 = 3 , p = 3 d e f ⇒ kd ke k f
does not divide a2 = 1, and p2 = 9 does not di- g h i g h i
vide a0 = 6, therefore this is an irreducible poly-
nomial. where k is a scalar.
Read also «Irreducible polynomial».
iii. Replace a row with the sum of that row plus
Element (Set theory) One of the members of a set. a multiple of another row.
E If x is an element of the set A, this is indicated
using the notation: x ∈ A, and it is read: x is an
For example,
element of the set A, or x belongs to the set A. If x is a b c
d e f ⇒
not an element of the set A, then we write: x < A.
For example, 2 ∈ N (the number 2 √ is an element g h i
of natural numbers), but −1 < Z (the
of the set √ a b c
quantity −1 is not an element of the set of inte- ka+d kb+e kc+ f
ger numbers). g h i
Elementary In mathematics it is said that a result where k is a scalar.
or a theorem is elementary if its justification re-
quires basic knowledge (concepts, methods) of This last operation is commonly called to pivot or
the specific branch of mathematics to which that use a pivot.
result or theorem belongs.
The counterpart would be a profound result, that Elementary polar region Region of the plane de-
requires advanced concepts and techniques to be limited by two concentric circumferences (whose
justified. center is the origin) and two different rays (pass-
ing through the origin).
Elementary function A function of one variable
that is defined as a finite combination of sums, y
products, and compositions of polynomial, ratio-
nal, trigonometric, hyperbolic, exponential, loga- r2
θ2
rithmic functions, and their inverses.
For example, the function r1
q
sinh( x ) θ1
y = ln 1 + 5 + sin2 ( x ) + 5
x +1
is an elementary function.
Elementary matrix Matrix that differs from the
identity matrix by an elementary row operation. ∆θ
θ1
Elementary operation (Linear algebra) An ele- x
mentary row (or column) operation is one of the ∆r
enlisted below that is performed on the rows (or
columns) of a given matrix. Elevation The distance from the ground to the po-
The three elementary operations on the rows of sition of an object.
the matrices are the following.
Elevation angle Angle formed by the horizontal
i. Interchange two rows.
and the line that joins an observer with an ob-
For example:
ject located above the observation level.
a b c d e f In the following figure, the angle α corresponds
d e f ⇒ a b c to the elevation angle for the person observing a
g h i g h i ball with respect to the location of the eye.
158
Eleventh–Ellipse
Ellipse The ellipse is the locus of a point that
o moves in the plane so that the sum of the dis-
tances from any of its points to two fixed points
called foci is a constant greater than the distance
between the foci.
α
y
B
Eleventh (1) An eleventh is one of the parts of a P( x, y)
LR
whole that has been divided into eleven equal- b
sized parts.
V′ F′ O F V
x E
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 a B′
11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
The elements of the ellipse shown in the previous
figure are as follows.
• Major axis: is the segment with endpoints at
This fraction is denoted as 1/11. the points V and V ′ .
Read also «Fraction». • Minor axis: is the segment with endpoints at
(2) Ordinal number corresponding to place num- the points B and B′ .
ber eleven.
For example, in a marathon, the runner who ar- • Vertices: are the points V and V ′ .
rives in the place number eleven, has the eleventh • Foci: are the points F and F ′ .
place. • Latus rectum: It is the segment perpendicular
Read also «Ordinal number». to the major axis that passes through a focus
and its ends are on the ellipse.
Eliminate In the process of simplifying an alge-
braic expression, we say that we have eliminated A chord of the ellipse is a segment whose ends are
a term or factor when we have applied any of the on the ellipse. A diameter of the ellipse is a chord
following properties of numbers: of the ellipse that passes through the center of the
ellipse.
a + (− a) = 0 Some important distances on the ellipse are:
1
a· =1 • a is the distance from the center of the ellipse
a
to any of its vertices.
For example, when we simplify the fraction: • b is the distance from the center of the ellipse
to one end of the minor axis.
6 2×3 2
=
= • c is the distance from any of the foci to the
21 ×7
3 7
center of the ellipse.
we say that we have eliminated the 3, because we
The values of a, b and c satisfy:
have applied the second property listed above.
Elimination method Method for solving systems a2 = b2 + c2
of linear equations that consists of adding mul-
The equation of the horizontal ellipse centered at
tiples of one equation to another to reduce the
the point (h, k ), with length of the major axis 2 a
number of variables and equations in the system.
and of the minor axis 2 b, is:
This method is also known as the method of elim-
ination of variables. ( x − h )2 ( y − k )2
Read also «Gaussian elimination». + =1
a2 b2
159
Ellipsoid
The exact value of the length P of the ellipse (its minor axis and from its corresponding Bi draw a
perimeter) is given by the definite integral: line parallel to the major axis. The points where
these lines intersect are on the ellipse.
Z q
π/2
P = 4a 1 − e2 sin(θ ) · dθ
0
A3
where e = c/a. However, this definite integral
cannot be expressed in terms of elementary func- B3
tions. A2
The perimeter P of the ellipse can be approxi- B2 b
E mated by means of the formula:
q C
B1 A1
P ≈ π 3 ( a + b) − (3 a + b)( a + 3 b)
Another (less accurate) approximation of its
perimeter is:
P ≈ π ( a + b)
The area A of the ellipse is:
a
A = π ab
The diameters that were drawn to the circum-
Note that if a = b you obtain the area of the circle. ference of radius a do not need to be equally
Read also «Equation of the ellipse». spaced. It is also independent of the number of
The ellipse has the property that the angle that drawn diameters. The more you have, the more
forms a tangent to the ellipse at the point P with points you will get on the ellipse.
any of the segments from P to any focus are equal. Read also «Eccentric circumference».
Ellipsoid Three-dimensional surface whose equa-
y tion of the ellipsoid in Cartesian coordinates is:
b x2 y2 z2
P + + =1
a2 b2 c2
where a, b, c are the lengths of the semi-axis of
the ellipses obtained with the cross sections of the
x planes z = 0 (a and b), and y = 0 (b and c).
−a F 0 F a
z
a b
−b
c
To draw an ellipse using the ruler and compass y
from the length of its major axis 2 a and its minor x
axis 2 b, first draw two perpendicular lines that
intersect at C. This point will be the center of the
ellipse. The vertices of the ellipsoid are located at
With center at C draw two circumferences, one A( a, 0, 0), A′ (− a, 0, 0), B(0, b, 0), B′ (0, −b, 0),
with radius a and the other one with radius b. C (0, 0, c) and C ′ (0, 0, −c).
Then draw diameters to circumference of the ra- The line segments AA′ , BB′ , and CC ′ are the axes
dius a cutting it at points A1 , A2 , etc. These seg- of the ellipsoid, and the point where the axes in-
ments will also cut to the circumference of radius tersect is the center of the ellipsoid.
b at B1 , B2 , etc., respectively. The semi-axes have one end at the origin and
From each point Ai draw a line parallel to the the other at the point A( a, 0, 0), or B(0, b, 0), or
160
Elliptic curve–Elliptical cylinder
C (0, 0, c), respectively. z
The parametric equations of the ellipsoid are:
x = a sin( φ) cos(θ )
y = b sin( φ) sin(θ )
z = c cos( φ)
y
If two of the values of a, b and c of the ellipsoid
x
are equal, then the ellipsoid is a solid of revolu-
tion.
Elliptical cone Quadratic surface whose equation
• If a = b = c, the ellipsoid is a sphere.
is:
x2 y2 z2
E
2
+ 2 = 2
• If a = b > c, it is an oblate spheroid. a b c
• If a = b < c, it is a prolate spheroid. z
The volume V of the ellipsoid is:
4
V= πabc
3 y
All cross sections perpendicular to the axes of the x
ellipsoid are ellipses.
Read also «Solid of revolution».
If the elliptical cone intersects the plane z = k, the
Elliptic curve Plane curve that can be expressed ellipse
algebraically as: x2 y2
+ =1
(ca/k)2 (cb/k)2
y2 = a3 x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0
is obtained.
where the polynomial to the right of the equality Read also «Quadratic surface».
has no repeated roots. Elliptical cylinder Cylinder whose bases are el-
lipses.
y 2 = P3 (x) The volume V of the elliptical cylinder is:
y
V = πabh
where a, b are the respective lengths of the semi-
axes of the (elliptical) base and h is its height.
Observe that if a = b it is obtained a circular cylin-
x der.
a
b
h
Elliptic paraboloid Quadratic surface whose equa-
tion is:
x2 y2
z= 2 + 2
a b
with a , b.
161
Elongated dodecahedron–Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola
Elongated dodecahedron Polyhedron with 12 The elongated pentagonal bipyramid is a Johnson
faces, of which 8 have the shape of rhombuses solid.
and 4 regular hexagons. It also has 18 vertices
and 28 edges. Elongated pentagonal cupola Polyhedron with 22
faces, of which one is a decagon, one is a pen-
tagon, 15 are quadrilaterals and 5 are triangles. It
also has 25 vertices and 45 edges.
If the length of its regular hexagonal faces is a, its
area A and its volume V are:
√ √ The elongated pentagonal cupola is obtained by
A = 2 3 3 + 5 a2
attaching a right decagonal prism to the base of a
V = 6 a3 pentagonal cupola.
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
This solid can be used to fill the space using iden-
its area A are:
tical copies of it, so that parts of those copies do
not overlap each other and without leaving gaps. 1 √ q √ 3
The elongated dodecahedron is also known as V= 5 + 4 5 + 15 5 + 2 5 a
6
rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron and as extended
1 √
rhombic dodecahedron. A= 60 + 10 k a2
4
Elongated pentagonal bipyramid Polyhedron that √ p √
has 15 faces of which 10 are equilateral triangles where k = 80 + 31 5 + 2175 + 930 5.
and the other 5 are squares. It also has 12 vertices The elongated pentagonal cupola is a Johnson
and 25 edges. solid.
Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola Polyhedron
with 32 faces, of which 10 are equilateral trian-
gles, 20 are squares, and 2 are pentagons. It also
has 30 vertices and 60 edges.
The elongated pentagonal bipyramid is obtained
by adding a regular pentagonal pyramid to each
of the faces of a regular right pentagonal prism.
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
and its area A are:
r !
1 √ √ The pentagonal gyrobicupola is obtained by
V= 5+ 5+3 5 5+2 5 a3
12 adding pentagonal cupolas at the bases of a
5 √ decagonal prism, where a pentagonal cupola is
A= 2 + 3 a2 rotated 36◦ with respect to the other.
2
162
Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda–Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √ q √ 3
V= 10 + 8 5 + 15 5 + 2 5 a
6
s !
5 √ q √
A = 20 + 10 + 5 + 75 + 30 5 a2
2
The elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola is a John-
son solid.
Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda Polyhedron
with 42 faces, of which 20 are equilateral trian- The elongated pentagonal gyrocupularotunda is
E
gles, 10 are squares, and 12 are pentagons. It also obtained by adding a decagonal prism between
has 40 vertices and 80 edges. the bases of a pentagonal gyrocupularotunda.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
5 √ q √
V= 11 + 5 5 + 6 5 + 2 5 a3
12
1 √
A= 60 + 10 k a2
4
where
√ q √
k = 190 + 49 5 + 21 75 + 30 5
The elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda is
a Johnson solid.
Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola Polyhedron
that has 32 faces of which 10 are equilateral trian-
gles, 20 are squares, and 2 are regular pentagons.
It also has 30 vertices and 60 edges.
The elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda is ob-
tained by adding pentagonal rotundas at the
bases of a decagonal prism where a rotunda is
rotated 36◦ with respect to the other.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √ q √
V= 45 + 17 5 + 15 5 + 2 5 a3
6
√
A = 10 + 30 k a2
where
q The elongated pentagonal orthobicupola is ob-
√ √ tained by joining two pentagonal cupolas to the
k = 10 + 3 5+ 75 + 30 5
bases of a right decagonal prism.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
The elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda is a
area A are:
Johnson solid.
1 √ q √ 3
Elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda Poly- V= 10 + 8 5 + 15 5 + 2 5 a
6
hedron with 37 faces, of which 15 are equilateral s
triangles, 15 are squares, and 7 are pentagons. It 5 √ q √ 2
A = 20 + 10 + 5 + 75 + 30 5 a
also has 35 vertices and 70 edges. 2
163
Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda–Elongated pentagonal pyramid
The elongated pentagonal orthobicupola is a where:
Johnson solid. √ q √
k = 190 + 49 5 + 21 75 + 30 5
Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda Polyhe-
dron that has 42 faces of which 20 are equilat-
eral triangles, 10 are squares, and 12 are regular
pentagons. It also has 40 vertices and 80 edges.
The elongated pentagonal orthocupularotunda is
a Johnson solid.
Elongated pentagonal pyramid Polyhedron with
11 faces, of which one is a regular pentagon, 5
are squares, and 5 are equilateral triangles. It also
has 11 vertices and 20 edges.
This solid is obtained by adding a pentagonal
pyramid to the base of a regular pentagonal
The elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda is ob- prism.
tained by joining two aligned pentagonal rotun-
das to the bases of a decagonal prism.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √ q √
V= 45 + 17 5 + 15 5 + 2 5 a3
6
√
A = 10 + 30 k a2
where:
√ q √
k = 10 + 3 5+ 75 + 30 5
The elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda is a If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area
Johnson solid. A, and its height H are:
r !
Elongated pentagonal orthocupolarotunda Poly- 1 √ √
hedron that has 37 faces of which 15 are equilate- V= 5+ 5+6 5 5+2 5 a3
24
ral triangles, 15 are squares, and 7 are pentagons.
It also has 35 vertices and 70 edges. 1 √
A= 20 + 10 k a2
The elongated pentagonal orthocupularotunda is 4
s
obtained by joining a pentagonal cupola aligned √
5 − 5
to a pentagonal rotunda to the bases of a decago- H = 1 + a
10
nal prism.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are: where:
q
5 √ q √ √ √
V= 11 + 5 5 + 6 5 + 2 5 a3 k = 10 + 5+ 75 + 30 5.
12
1 √ The elongated pentagonal pyramid is a Johnson
A= 60 + 10 k a2 solid.
4
164
Elongated pentagonal rotunda–Elongated square gyrobicupola
Elongated pentagonal rotunda Polyhedron with The elongated square bipyramid is obtained by
27 faces, of which one is a regular decagon, 6 adding a square pyramid on two opposite faces
are regular pentagons, 10 are squares, and 10 are of a cube.
equilateral triangles. It also has 30 vertices and 55 If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
edges. and its area A are:
1 √
V= 3 + 2 a3
3
√
A = 2 2 + 3 a2
The elongated square bipyramid is a Johnson
solid.
E
Elongated square cupola Polyhedron with 18
faces, of which one is an octagon, 13 are quadri-
lateral and 4 are triangles. It also has 20 vertices
The elongated pentagonal rotunda can be ob- and 36 edges.
tained by adding a pentagonal prism to the base
of a pentagonal rotunda.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √ q √
V= 45 + 17 5 + 30 5 + 2 5 a3
12
1 √
A= 20 + 5 k a2
2
where
r
√ √
k = 145 + 58 5+2 30 65 + 29 5 .
The elongated pentagonal rotunda is a Johnson
solid.
Elongated square bipyramid Polyhedron that has The elongated square cupola is obtained by at-
12 faces of which 8 are equilateral triangles and taching a right octagonal prism to the base of a
the other 4 are squares. It also has 10 vertices and square cupola.
20 edges. If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
its area A are:
√ !
82
V = 3+ a3
3
√ √
A = 15 + 2 2 + 3 a2
The elongated square cupola is a Johnson solid.
Elongated square gyrobicupola Polyhedron with
26 faces, of which 8 are equilateral triangles and
18 are squares. It also has 24 vertices and 48
edges.
165
Elongated square orthobicupola–Elongated triangular bipyramid
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√ !
10 2
V = 4+ a3
3
√
A = 2 9 + 3 a2
The elongated square orthobicupola is an
Archimedean solid known as the rhombicubocta-
hedron.
E Elongated square pyramid Polyhedron with 9
faces, of which 5 are quadrilaterals and 4 are tri-
The elongated square gyrobicupola is obtained by angles. It also has 9 vertices and 16 edges.
joining two square cupolas to the bases of a right
octagonal prism, rotating 45◦ one cupola with re-
spect to the other.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area
A, and its circunradius R, are:
√ !
10 2
V = 4+ a3
3
√
A = 2 9 + 3 a2
s
5 1
R= + √ ·a
4 2
The elongated square gyrobicupola is also known
as pseudo-rhombicuboctahedron. The elongated square pyramid is obtained by
The elongated square gyrobicupola is a Johnson adding a square pyramid to one of the faces of
solid. a cube.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area
Elongated square orthobicupola Polyhedron that A, and its height H are:
has 26 faces of which 8 are equilateral triangles
and the other 18 are squares. It also has 24 ver- √ !
2
tices and 48 edges. V = 1+ a3
6
√
A = 5 + 3 a2
√ !
2
H = 1+ a
2
The elongated square pyramid is a Johnson solid.
Elongated triangular bipyramid Polyhedron that
has 9 faces of which 6 are equilateral triangles and
the other 3 are squares. It also has 8 vertices and
15 edges.
The elongated triangular bipyramid is obtained
The elongated square orthobicupola is obtained by adding a tetrahedron to each of the triangular
by joining two (aligned) square cupolas to the oc- bases of a right triangular prism.
tagonal bases of a right octagonal prism. If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V,
166
Elongated triangular cupola–Elongated triangular orthobicupola
its area A, and its height h are: its area A are:
1 √ √
1 √ √ V= 5 2 + 9 3 a3
V= 2 2 + 3 3 a3 6
12 √ !
5 3
3 √ A= 9+ a2
A= 2 + 3 a2 2
2
√ !
3+2 6 The elongated triangular cupola is a Johnson
h= a solid.
3
Elongated triangular gyrobicupola Polyhedron
with 20 faces, of which 8 are equilateral trian-
gles and 12 are squares. It also has 18 vertices
and 36 edges. E
The elongated triangular bipyramid is a Johnson
The triangular gyrobicupola is obtained by
solid.
adding a cupola to each of the bases of a hexag-
onal right prism, rotating a triangular cupola 60◦
Elongated triangular cupola Polyhedron with 14
with respect to the other.
faces, of which one is a regular hexagon, 9 are
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
squares and 4 are equilateral triangles. It also has
area A are:
15 vertices and 27 edges. √ √ !
5 2 3 3
V= + a3
3 2
√
A = 2 6 + 3 a2
The elongated triangular gyrobicupola is a John-
son solid.
Elongated triangular orthobicupola Polyhedron
that has 20 faces of which 8 are equilateral trian-
gles and the other 12 are squares. It also has 18
vertices and 36 edges.
The elongated triangular orthobicupola is ob-
tained by joining two aligned triangular cupolas
to the bases of a right hexagonal prism.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√ √ !
The elongated triangular cupola is obtained by at- 5 2 3 3
V= + a3
taching a right hexagonal prism to the base of a 3 2
triangular cupola. √ 2
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and A = 2 6 + 3 a
167
Elongated triangular pyramid–Enneagon
E, and n is the total frequency.
The probability value thus obtained is an approx-
imate value of its theoretical value.
Empty product It is the result of multiplying zero
factors and is defined by convention equal to 1.
If for a given sequence a1 , a2 , · · · ,
PK = ∏ kai
i =1
Then, P0 = 1.
E Notice that the empty product is defined equal
to the multiplicative identity. In a similar way
as adding a total of zero addends, the result is
The elongated triangular orthobicupola is a John- zero (the neutral element of the sum), the result
son solid. of multiplying zero factors results in the neutral
element of the multiplication (that is, 1). Read
Elongated triangular pyramid Polyhedron with 7 also «Factorial» and «Empty sum».
faces, of which 3 are squares and 4 are triangles.
It also has 7 vertices and 12 edges. Empty set Set containing zero elements and de-
noted by the symbol ∅.
The empty set is a closed set.
If the empty set is considered as a set of vectors, it
is linearly independent, since it serves as the basis
for the vector space formed by the vector ⃗0.
The empty set is also known as null set.
Empty sum Sum where the number of terms is
zero, and by convention is defined equal to zero.
If, given a sequence a1 , a2 , · · · ,
k
Sk = ∑ ai
i =1
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area
then, S0 = 0.
A, and its height H are:
In words, the result of adding zero addends is
1 √ √ zero.
V= 2 + 3 3 a3 Note that the empty sum is defined equal to the
12 √ additive identity.
A = 3 + 3 a2
√ ! Enneagon Polygon of 9 sides.
6
H = 1+ a
3
The elongated triangular pyramid is a Johnson
solid.
Empirical probability Probability of an event cal-
culated from the occurrence of an event a finite
number of times (usually very large).
f
P( E) =
n
Here P( E) is the probability of occurrence of The nonagon is also known as nonagon.
event E, f is the frequency of occurrence of event Read also «Polygon».
168
Entire function–Epitrochoid
Entire function A complex function is an entire Epicycle Circle of radius r that rotates without slip-
function (also known as integral function) if it is ping, tangently touching a circumference of ra-
a holomorphic function whose domain is the en- dius R.
tire complex plane. Read also «Epicycloid».
An entire function is infinitely differentiable
(derivatives of all orders can be computed) and
can be represented by a Taylor series. Epicycloid Plane curve corresponding to the trace
Read also «Holomorphic function» and «Taylor se- of a chosen point on the circumference of radius
ries». r, called an epicycle, which rolls without sliding
around a fixed circumference of radius R.
Envelope The envelope of a plane curve or of a
The parametric equations of this curve are:
family E of plane curves is a plane curve that is
tangent to each member of the family E, so that
E
the set of all the points of tangency form the en- R+r
velope. x (t) = ( R + r ) cos(t) − r cos ·t
r
For example, if a circle of radius r with center at
R+r
(−r, 0) is drawn, said circle passes through the y(t) = ( R + r ) sin(t) − r sin ·t
r
origin. Let’s call this circle the generating circle.
If circles passing through the origin with center
on the generating circle are drawn, the envelope for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π.
of said pencil of circles is a cardioid. The point where the epicycloid touches the cir-
cumference of radius R is called the cusp.
y The number k = R/r is the number of cusps that
the curve has.
If k is a whole number, then the curve is closed.
If k = 1 the epicycloid is a cardioid. If k = 2 a
nephroid is obtained.
x
y
In the figure below the envelope of the graph
x
of the function y = (1/2) sin( x ) sin(12 x ) is the
graph of the functions y = ±(1/2) sin( x ).
x
Read also «Cardioid», «Cycloid», and «Nephroid».
1
y= 2 sin(x) sin(12 x)
y= ± 12 sin(x) Epitrochoid An epitrochoid is a curve drawn by a
point P on a circle of radius r that rotates on the
outside of a fixed circle of radius R, where P is at
Read also «Cardioid» and «Pencil». a distance d from the center of the spinning circle.
169
Epsilon–Equation of the circumference
y same number of columns), and also if aij = bij for
all i and for all j (their corresponding elements at
row i and column j are equal for all rows and all
columns).
Equality Relation defined for two quantities that
indicates that both represent the same value.
x The equality relationship is expressed with the
symbol =.
The properties of equality are the following:
E • a = a (reflexive)
• If a = b, then b = a (symmetric)
• If a = b and b = c then a = c (transitive)
The parametric equations of this curve are:
Other useful properties of equality are below.
R+r
x (t) = ( R + r ) cos(t) − d cos ·t
r
• If a = b, then a + k = b + k.
R+r
y(t) = ( R + r ) sin(t) − d sin ·t • If a = b, then a − k = b − k.
r
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π. • If a = b, then a · k = b · k.
a b
Epsilon Fifth letter of the Greek alphabet (ϵ) that is • If a = b, then = (k , 0).
used in mathematics to denote small quantities. k k
Read also «Limit». • If a = b, then ak = bk .
In mathematical analysis, the literal ϵ is used to
denote a neighborhood of a point. • If x + a = b, then x = b − a.
(Statistics) The letter ϵ It is used in statistics to • If a x = b, then x = b/a (for a , 0).
denote measurement errors.
• If x/a = b, then x = a b.
Equal (Algebra) We say that two quantities or two
algebraic expressions are equal if they represent Read also «Equivalence relation».
the same value. To indicate this, the symbol =
is used between both amounts. For example,
Equality Axiom If two sets are equal, then they
5 = 2 + 3.
both have exactly the same elements.
(2.) Two polynomials are equal if they are poly-
Read also «Extensionality axiom».
nomials of the same degree, and the coefficients
of like terms in both polynomials are equal for all
Equation It is an equality between two algebraic
terms.
expressions.
(Geometry) Two geometric figures are equal if
For example,
one can be superimposed on the other in such a
way that both coincide at all points. x n + yn = zn
In this sense, equal is synonym of congruent.
Read also «Congruence». is an equation.
(Set theory) Two sets are equal if they have the Each of the expressions to the left and to the right
same elements. of the equal sign are called members of the equa-
(Linear algebra) Two vectors ⃗u = ⟨u1 , u2 , . . . , un ⟩ tion.
and ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ⟩ are equal if and only if
ui = vi for i = 1, 2, . . . , n (i.e., if their correspond- Equation of the circumference The equation of
ing components are equal). the circumference that has its center at the point
(2.) Two matrices A = [ aij ] of size m × n and C (h, k) and radius r is:
B = [bij ] of size p × q are equal if m = p, n = q
(i.e., they have the same number of rows and the ( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 = r 2
170
Equation of the ellipse–Equation of the hyperbola
y y
P( x, y)
r
C(h, k)
k
k C (h, k)
b
O h
x
h
x
E
The equation of the vertical ellipse with center at
In words, the circumference is the set of points in C (h, k), with major axis of length 2 a and minor
the plane that are at the same distance r from a axis of length 2 b, is:
fixed point C (h, k ) which is the center of the cir-
cumference. ( x − h )2 ( y − k )2
The distance r from the center of the circumfer- + =1
b2 a2
ence to any of its points is called the radius (r)
of the circumference. The equation of the circim- Its vertices V and V ′ are located at:
ference that passes through the points ( x1 , y1 ),
( x2 , y2 ), and ( x3 , y3 ) can be written as: V (h, k + a) V ′ (h, k − a)
and its foci F1 and F2 at:
x 2 + y2 x y 1
x12 + y21 x1 y1 1 F1 (h, k + c) F2 (h, k − c)
=0
x22 + y22 x2 y2 1
Note that when a = b, the equation of the ellipse
x32 + y23 x3 y3 1
reduces to the equation of the circumference.
The eccentricity of the ellipse is:
√
c a2 − b2
Equation of the ellipse The equation of the hori- ϵ= = { a > b}
a a
zontal ellipse centered at C (h, k ), with major axis
of length 2 a and minor axis of length 2 b, is: In this case, the eccentricity quantifies how far an
ellipse is from being a circle.
The distance from any of the foci of the ellipse to
( x − h )2 ( y − k )2 its center is c and the relation among a, b and c is:
+ =1
a2 b2
a2 = b2 + c2
The ellipse is the set of points of the plane that
satisfy that the sum of their distances to two fixed The parametric equations of the horizontal ellipse
points of the plane called foci is a constant 2 a are:
greater than the distance between its foci 2 c.
Its vertices V and V ′ are located at: x (t) = a cos(t)
y(t) = b sin(t)
V (h + a, k) and V ′ (h − a, k) Read also «Ellipse».
and the foci F1 and F2 are located at: Equation of the hyperbola The hyperbola is the
set of points of the plane that satisfy that the dif-
ference of their distances to two fixed points of
F1 (h + c, k) and F2 (h − c, k) the plane called foci is a constant 2 a smaller than
the distance between its foci (2 c).
where a2 = b2 + c2 . The equation of the horizontal hyperbola with
171
Equation of the line
center at C (h, k), with transverse axis of length The distance from the center of the hyperbola to
2 a and conjugate axis of length 2 b, is: any of the foci is c, and the relation among a, b
and c is:
( x − h )2 ( y − k )2 c2 = a2 + b2
− =1
a2 b2
The eccentricity of the hyperbola is:
Its vertices V and V′ are located at: √
c a2 + b2
ϵ= =
V (h + a, k) and V ′ (h − a, k) a a
and its foci F, F ′ at: The parametric equations of the hyperbola are:
E F (h − c, k) and F ′ (h + c, k) x (t) = ± a cosh(t)
y(t) = b sinh(t)
where c2 = a2 + b2 .
for −∞ < t < ∞.
y Equation of the line The equation of the straight
line in its general form is:
Ax+By+C = 0
The slope of this line is: m = − A/B, and its in-
tersection with the y axis is: b = −C/B.
The equation of the line in its slope-y ordinate
form is:
Transverse axis
x y = mx+b
F ′ (0, −c) F (0, c)
Conjugate axis
y
y=
x
b
a
−
y=
b
a
b
x
y=
mx
+b
The diagonals that pass through the center of the x
hyperbola are called asymptotes of hyperbola and
their equations are:
The equation of the line in its point-slope form is:
b b
y = ( x − h) + k y = − ( x − h) + k y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
a a
The equation of the vertical hyperbola with cen- y
ter at C (h, k), with transverse axis of length 2 a
)
and conjugate axis of length 2 b, is:
= m (x − x 1
y − y1
( x − h )2 ( y − k )2 (x1 , y1 )
− + =1
a2 b2
Its vertices V and V ′ are located at: x
V (h, k + a) and V ′ (h, k − a)
The equation of the line passing through the
and its foci F, F′ at: points A( a, 0) and B(0, b) in its symmetric form
is:
x y
F (h, k − c) and F ′ (h, k + c) a
+ =1
b
172
Equation of the line
y may be computed using:
x A1 A2 + B1 B2
y cos θ = q q
b a + = ± A21 + B12 A22 + B22
b 1
A2 B1 − A1 B2
x sin θ = q q
a ± A21 + B12 A22 + B22
A2 B1 − A1 B2
The equation of the line passing through the tan θ =
A1 A2 + B1 B2
points A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y2 ), is:
y − y1 =
y2 − y1
x2 − x1
( x − x1 )
The lines are perpendicular if
E
A1 A2 + B1 B2 = 0
y The lines are parallel if
y2 − y1
y − y1 = x2 − x1 A1 B
x − x1 (x2 , y2 ) = 1
A2 B2
(x1 , y1 )
If the equations are written in the form:
x
y = m1 x + b1
y = m2 x + b2
The equation of the line in its normal form is:
the angle θ between the lines is computed using:
Ax+By+C
√ =0
A2 + B2 m1 − m2
tan θ =
1 + m1 m2
Or similarly,
The lines are parallel if m1 = m2 , and they are
x cos( φ) + y sin( φ) − ρ = 0
perpendicular if m1 · m2 = −1.
where ρ is the distance from the line to the origin The equation of the line that passes through the
and φ is the angle that the perpendicular to the points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) can also be written as
line makes with the x axis.
x y 1
y x1 y1 1 =0
x2 y2 1
(Linear algebra) The parametric equations of the
x line in the space that passes through the points
co
s(
φ) P( x1 , y1 , z1 ), and Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ), are:
+
y
sin
(φ x = x1 + t ( x2 − x1 )
)−
ρ= y = y1 + t ( y2 − y1 )
ρ
0
z = z1 + t ( z2 − z1 )
φ
x If ⃗v = ⟨ x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ⟩, the vector equa-
tion of the line in space is:
⃗r = ⃗p + t ⃗v
The angle θ formed by the lines:
where ⃗r = ⟨ x, y, z⟩ is the position vector, and
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 ⃗p = ⟨ x1 , y1 , z1 ⟩ is the vector from the origin to
A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0 the point P( x1 , y1 , z1 ), where the line passes.
173
Equation of the parabola–Equation of the plane
z y
x 2 = −4 | ρ | y
x
~v
P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) Q(x2 , y2 , z2 )
~r(t)
E The symmetric equations of the line through the
point P( x1 , y1 , z1 ) whose direction is given by the y
vector ⃗v = ⟨ a, b, c⟩ are:
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
a b c
x
y2 = +4 | ρ | x
Equation of the parabola The parabola is the set
of points on the plane that satisfy that its distance
from a fixed point on the plane called the focus is
equal to that of a fixed line on the plane called the
directrix, which does not pass through the focus. y
The equation of the vertical parabola with vertex
at V (h, k) and the distance ρ from vertex to its
focus, is:
( x − h )2 = 4 ρ ( y − k )
x
y2 = −4 | ρ | x
The horizontal parabola with vertex at V (h, k)
and the distance ρ from vertex to its focus, is:
( y − k )2 = 4 ρ ( x − h )
The vertical parabola can be concave up or con-
cave down, and the horizontal one can be concave
to the right or concave to the left, depending on Equation of the plane The equation of the plane
the sign of the parameter ρ. perpendicular to the vector ⃗n = ⟨ a, b, c⟩ passing
through the point P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) is:
y a ( x − x0 ) + b ( y − y0 ) + c ( z − z0 ) = 0
The coefficients a, b, c are proportional to the di-
rection cosines of the vector ⃗n which is perpen-
dicular to the plane.
Read also «Direction cosine».
In vector form, if Q( x, y, z) is any other point on
the plane, then the equation of the plane is:
x
x 2 = +4 | ρ | y −→
PQ · ⃗n = 0
174
Equation of the plane
z The equation of the plane passing through the
points P( x1 , y1 , z1 ), and Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ), parallel to
the vector ⃗n = ⟨ a, b, c⟩, is:
~n x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 =0
P a b c
P−−→
Q
y The equation of the plane that passes through the
point P( x1 , y1 , z1 ), parallel to the vectors ⃗n1 =
x Q ⟨ a1 , b1 , c1 ⟩, and ⃗n2 = ⟨ a2 , b2 , c2 ⟩, is:
x − x1
a1
y − y1
b1
z − z1
c1 =0 E
For example, the equation of the plane perpen- a2 b2 c2
dicular to the vector ⃗n = ⟨1, 2, 3⟩ passing through Read also «Determinant», «Dot product» and
the point P(1, 1, −1), is: «Plane».
−→ The equation of any plane that does not pass
PQ · ⃗n = 0 through the origin has the form:
⟨ x − 1, y − 1, z + 1⟩ · ⟨1, 2, 3⟩ = 0
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
( x − 1) + 2 ( y − 1) + 3 ( z + 1) = 0
x+2y+3z = 0 where d1 , 0. By dividing both sides of the equal-
ity over d1 , an equivalent expression for the plane
The equation of the plane in its vector form is: is obtained, namely:
⃗x = s ⃗u + t ⃗v ax+by+cz+1 = 0
Note that a, b and c are the components of the
where s, t ∈ R, and ⃗u and ⃗v are two non-colinear vector ⃗n = ⟨ a, b, c⟩, normal to the plane.
vectors that generate the plane. Observe that a If ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is a point in the plane then, its coor-
normal vector ⃗n (perpendicular) to the plane can dinates must satisfy the equation.
be computed with the cross product of ⃗u and ⃗v: The condition for the plane to pass through the
given point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is obtained considering its
⃗n = ⃗u × ⃗v
fixed coordinates and the variable coefficients a,
z b and c. So the equation of the plane that passes
through the point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is:
a x1 + b y1 + c z1 + 1 = 0
~n For example, the equation of the family of planes
that pass through the point (1, 2, 3), is:
~v ~u a+2b+3c+1 = 0
y where ⃗n = ⟨ a, b, c⟩ is a vector normal to the plane.
Two planes are parallel if they have their normal
x
vectors parallel.
If two planes are not parallel, then they intersect
in a straight line.
The direction of the straight line ℓ which is the
Read also «Cross product». intersection of the planes
The equation of the plane that passes through the a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
points P( x1 , y1 , z1 ), Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ), and R( x3 , y3 , z3 ),
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
is:
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 coincides with the direction of the vector
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1 ⃗v = ⃗n1 × ⃗n2
175
Equation of the tangent plane–Equiangular point
where n1 = ⟨ a1 , b1 , c1 ⟩, and n2 = ⟨ a2 , b2 , c2 ⟩. Equation theory Branch of mathematics that stud-
The coordinates of the point ( x, y, z) that satisfy ies polynomial equations. That is, equations of
the equation of the line of intersection of the two the form:
planes, satisfy:
b1 c1 a1 c1 a1 b1 a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + a n x n = 0
x : y : z= : :
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
The theory of equations mainly studies the solu-
Equation of the tangent plane The equation of the tion methods for this type of equations.
tangent plane to the graph of the function of
two variables z = f ( x, y), at P( x0 , y0 , z0 ), where
E z0 = f ( x0 , y0 ), is:
Equatorial face In a prism or antiprism, an equa-
torial face is one of the faces of the polyhedron
∆z = f x ( x0 , y0 ) · ∆x + f y · ∆y that joins the bases of said polyhedron.
z − z0 = f x ( x0 , y0 ) · ( x − x0 ) + f y ( x0 , y0 ) · ( x − x0 ) For example, in octagonal-based antiprism, the
triangles joining the octagonal faces are the equa-
where f x ( x0 , y0 ) is the value of the partial deriva- torial faces.
tive of f with respect to x evaluated at ( x0 , y0 ),
and f y ( x0 , y0 ) is the value of the partial derivative
of f with respect to y evaluated at ( x0 , y0 ).
For example, considering the function:
2 2
z = f ( x, y) = x2 + y2 e1− x −y
to compute the equation of the plane tangent to
its graph at the point (−1, 1), evaluate f x (−1, 1)
and f y (−1, 1),
2 2
2
f x (−1, 1) = 2xe1− x −y 1 − x2 − y2 =
(−1,1) e
2 2
2
f y (−1, 1) = 2ye1− x −y 1 − x2 − y2 =−
(−1,1) e
On the other hand, Equiangular A polygon is an equiangular polygon
2 2 2 if all of its angles are congruent.
z0 = f (−1, 1) = x2 + y2 e1− x −y = The polygon below is an equiangular polygon be-
(−1,1) e
cause each one of its angles measures 120◦ .
So the equation of the plane tangent to the graph
of the given function at (−1, 1) is:
2 2 2
z− = ( x + 1) − ( y − 1)
e e e
Simplifying, you get:
2 2 6
z= x− y+
e e e
2 2
z = x2 + y 2 e1−x −y
1
Note that an equiangular polygon is not necessa-
rily a regular polygon.
−1 0 −1
1 1 y
Equiangular point Point at which the sides of the
x triangle subtend congruent angles.
176
Equidiagonal quadrilateral–Equilateral hyperbola
A The polygon below is an equilateral polygon be-
cause all its sides are the same length.
120◦ 120◦
120◦
C
B
E
Equidiagonal quadrilateral Convex quadrilateral
whose diagonals have the same length.
Note that an equilateral polygon is not necessarily
D C a regular polygon.
Equilateral augmented dodecahedron Polyhe-
dron with 60 triangular faces. It has also 32
vertices and 90 edges.
A B
In every equidiagonal quadrilateral, the quadri-
lateral with vertices at the midpoints of its sides
is a rhombus.
Equidistant Two or more objects are equidistant
from another object P if they are all the same dis-
tance away from P.
For example, on a circle, all its points are equidis-
tant from its center, because they are at the same
distance from it.
R
The equilateral augmented dodecahedron is ob-
N tained by adding a pentagonal pyramid to every
face of the dodecahedron.
The equilateral augmented dodecahedron is a
C deltahedron.
M
Read also «Excavated dodecahedron» and «Isohedral
figure».
S Equilateral hyperbola A hyperbola is an equilate-
T ral hyperbola if its equation is of the form:
In the figure above, the points M, N, R, S and T x 2 − y2 = a2
are equidistant from the point C.
so that its conjugate and transverse axes are con-
Equilateral A polygon is an equilateral polygon if gruent and its asymptotes intersect forming a
all of its sides are congruent. right angle.
177
Equilateral triangle–Equivalence relation
y
a=b
h
b
x
F 0 −a a F
L
−b
The area A of an equilateral triangle with sides of
E length L, is: √
3 2
A= L
4
An equilateral triangle is also equiangular, so it is
Read also «Conjugate axis» and «Transverse axis». a regular triangle.
If r is the radius of its inscribed circle and R is the
radius of its circumscribed circle,
Equilateral triangle A triangle is an equilateral tri- √
angle if all its sides are the same length. 3
r= a
√6
3
R= a
3
where L is the length of the side of the equilateral
triangle.
Equilibrium solution A solution y = y(t) of an
ordinary differential equation y′ = f (t, y), is an
equilibrium solution if f (t, y) = 0 for all t. That
is to say, the equilibrium solution of the given dif-
To draw an equilateral triangle given one side AB, ferential equation is a constant function: y = k.
using compass and ruler, open the compass to
measure distance | AB|. With that radius, leaning
Equimultiple Equimultiples of two or more quan-
first on A and then on B, draw two intersecting
tities are the products obtained by multiplying
arcs. The point of intersection C of these arcs is
these quantities by the same number.
the third vertex of the equilateral triangle.
For example, k a and k b are equimultiples of a
and b.
C
Equivalence There is an equivalence between two
quantities if they have the same value.
That is, two quantities are equivalent if they are
equal.
Equivalence relation The equivalence relation is
a mathematical structure that has the following
properties.
• Reflexive: a ∼ a.
A B
• Symmetric: If a ∼ b, then b ∼ a.
• Transitive: If a ∼ b and b ∼ c, then a ∼ c.
The length h of the height
√ of an equilateral trian-
gle of side L is: h = 3 L/2 and its perimeter is We say that the objects a and b are related if they
P = 3 L. satisfy the three properties listed and we denote
178
Equivalent assertion–Erdös-Moser equation
it by a ∼ b. fractions are equally applicable to algebraic frac-
A binary relation is an equivalence relation if it tions.
satisfies all three properties (reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive). Eratosthenes sieve Algorithm to obtain the list of
all prime numbers less than a natural (finite)
Equivalent assertion One statement is equivalent number n.
to another if the first has the same assumptions The procedure consists of eliminating the multi-
and implications as the second. ples of 2, 3, etc., except for the first multiple (2,
For example, the assertion «p ≡ 0 mod 2», is 3, etc.), until obtaining a list of numbers that have
equivalent to «p is even». not been eliminated and therefore are prime, as
they have exactly two positive divisors.
Equivalent equation Two equations are equivalent
if they have exactly the same solutions.
For example, the equations:
Obviously, the first step is to eliminate the num-
ber 1, since it is not a prime number. E
The algorithm is given below.
2x+1 = 9 and 2x = 8
1. List the numbers from 1 to n and eliminate
have unique solution x = 4, and therefore, they the number 1.
are equivalent. 2. Remove all even numbers from the list, ex-
cept the number 2.
Equivalent fraction Two fractions are said to be
equivalent if they represent the same value. 3. If p is the next number that has not been re-
For example, the fractions: 2/3 and 6/9 are moved from the list, eliminate all multiples
equivalent. of p, except the number p.
√
To calculate a fraction equivalent to a given frac- 4. Repeat step 3 for all p ≤ n.
tion, the property of the multiplicative neutral is
applied: a · 1 = a, but the number 1 is expressed The numbers in the list obtained are the prime
as a fraction with the numerator and denominator numbers less than or equal to n.
equal (but different from zero). The following figure shows the result of applying
the Eratosthenes sieve to obtain the list of prime
2 2 2 3 6 numbers less or equal to 100.
= · (1) = · =
3 3 3 3 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
When the operations of addition and subtraction
with fractions are carried out, this artifice is also 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
applied to calculate equivalent fractions with the 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
same denominator. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
For example, in adding fractions: 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
1 1 1 2 1 3 2 3 5 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
+ = · + · = + =
3 2 3 2 2 3 6 6 6 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
The idea is to express the two fractions with a 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
common denominator so that the sum of the frac- 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
tions is immediate. 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
This same artifice applies to the operations of ad-
dition and subtraction with algebraic fractions.
For example, Note that the number 1 is neither prime nor com-
posite, by convention (because if it were a prime
1 x 1 x+1 x x number, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic
+ = · + ·
x x+1 x x+1 x+1 x would not hold).
x+1 x2
= + Erdös-Moser equation The Erdös-Moser equation
x ( x + 1) x ( x + 1) is:
x2 + x + 1
= 1k + 2k + 3k + 4k + · · · + m k = ( m + 1 ) k
x ( x + 1)
Since the literal x represents a number, it follows where m and k are positive integer numbers.
that the same algorithms that apply to numerical The Erdös-Moser problem is an open problem
179
Error–Estimator
that consists of calculating positive integer solu-
tions m, k to the Erdös-Moser the equation.
The only known solution is: 11 + 21 = 31 .
Error The error (ϵ) of a measurement is equal to
the difference between the true value (x) and the
observed value (x̂):
ϵ = x − x̂
E The calculation error occurs because approxima-
tions of exact values are used in numerical calcu-
lations. If the shortest edge of the Escher solid √ has length
√ For example, 1.4142 can be used instead
of 2, or 3.14159 instead of π. a, then its longest edge measures 2 3 a/3, and
The error ϵ of a numerical calculation is equal to its volume V and its surface area A are:
the difference between the exact value x minus √
32 3 3
the value x̂. V= ·a
The observed value x̂ is also known as measured 9√
value. Some authors call it approximate value. A = 16 2 a2
It is worth mentioning that calculation error is not
a synonym of miscalculation. The Escher solid is obtained from the stellation of
(2) An error due to rounding (also known as the rhombic dodecahedron.
rounding error) is obtained when using the ap- Read also «Rhombic dodecahedron» and «Stellation».
proximate values of the quantities involved in
that calculation. Estimation Approximation to a value by means of
Read also «Rounding error» and «Approximate». a mathematical method.
Synonym of approximate.
Read also «Approximate».
Error function Function denoted by erf and de-
(2) Obtaining a value from information that is in-
fined by:
complete, unstable or with a certain level of un-
certainty (noise). Statistical techniques are used
Zx to calculate the estimate.
2 2
erf( x ) = √ e−t · dt
π Estimation error The estimation error, denoted by
0
ϵ, is:
ϵ = θ̂ − θ
This function is applied in probability.
For example, the probability p that a particular where θ̂ is the estimator of the parameter θ.
measurement falls in the interval [− a, a] if the
measurement is taken from a series of measure- Estimator Rule that indicates how to calculate the
ments whose distribution is normal, with mean value of a parameter of the population based on
µ = 0 and standard deviation σ, is: the data of a sample.
For example, the arithmetic mean is an estimator,
because a rule (the formula) is known for its cal-
a culation from sample data.
p = erf √
σ 2 The estimator of the parameter θ is denoted by θ̂.
If the estimator consists of a single numerical
The error function is also known as the Gauss error value, it is said to be a point estimator. If it consists
function. of an interval, it is said to be an interval estimator,
and two values are required for its establishment.
If θ̂ is the point estimator of θ, then it is said that
Escher’s solid Polyhedron that has 48 triangular θ̂ is a unbiased estimator if E[θ̂ ] = θ. If this is not
faces. It also has 26 vertices and 72 edges. fulfilled, then it is said that θ̂ is a biased estimador.
180
Euclid’s algorithm–Euclidean geometry
The bias of a biased estimator is: B = E[θ̂ ] − θ. commonly synthesized as: Given a line and a point
The mean square error of the estimator θ̂ is de- outside it, there is exactly one straight line parallel to
fined as the expected value of (θ̂ − θ )2 . the given line.
Read also «Estimation error». Read also «Euclid’s Axiom».
Euclid’s algorithm Algorithm to calculate the Euclid’s lemma If a prime p divides the product
greatest common divisor of two numbers a b of two integers a and b, then p must divide at
MCD(m, n) where m > n, as follows: least one of those integers a and b.
For example, 210 = (21)(10). Since p = 210 is
1. Divide m over n. Let r be the remainder. divisible by 3, it follows that at least some of the
2. If r = 0, then MCD(m, n) = n. (End) factors, a = 21, or b = 10 is divisible by 3.
3. If r , 0, then MCD(m, n) = MCD(n, r ).
4. Replace (m, n) by (n, r ) and go to step 1.
Euclid’s postulates List of five postulates that Eu-
clid used when studying plane geometry in his
E
work entitled The Elements.
For example, to compute MCD(27, 12), we have:
① Exactly one line passes through any two
27 = 12 × 2 + 3 points in the plane.
12 = 3 × 4 + 0 ② A straight line can be extended in both ways
infinitely.
Therefore, MCD(27, 12) = 3.
③ Given a radius and a point, it is always pos-
Euclid’s Axiom In the plane it is possible to draw sible to draw a circle with center at the given
only one line ℓ1 parallel to a given line ℓ that point and with the given radius.
passes through a point P that is not in ℓ. ④ All right angles are equal.
⑤ Given a line and a point outside it, there is
` exactly one straight line parallel to the given
line.
`1 Euclid’s theorem There are infinitely many prime
P numbers.
Suppose there is a finite number of prime num-
This way of expressing Euclid’s axiom was given bers, and let p be the largest prime number in the
by Proclus, and it is equivalent to that given in list. Defining the number N equal to 1 plus the
Euclid’s Elements. product of all the prime numbers from 2 to p,
The textual translation of the axiom as it appears N = 1+2·3·5·7··· p
in Euclid’s work is: If a line, when cutting other two
lines, makes the internal angles of the same side whose N should be a composite number. But it can’t be,
sum is less than two right angles, then the other two because when you divide by any of the primes,
lines prolonged indefinitely will meet on the side in you always get a remainder of 1. Therefore, N has
which the sum of the internal angles is less than two exactly two divisors (1 and N), and it is (by def-
right angles. inition) a prime number greater than p, the sup-
Since the lines in the plane intersect at at most one posed largest of all primes.
point, it is understood that they do not intersect So if we assume that the list of prime numbers is
at the other side. finite, we get a contradiction. This contradiction
This axiom is also known as the axiom of parallels shows that the list of prime numbers is infinite.
as well as the postulate of the parallels.
Read also «Euclid’s postulates». Euclidean geometry Geometry whose postulates
are Euclid’s axioms.
Euclid’s fifth postulate Euclid’s fifth postulate ap-
i. It is possible to draw a line through any two
peared in Euclid’s The Elements and that says that
given points.
If a straight line cuts two other lines, these two lines
intersect on the side on which the sum of the interior ii. It is possible to extend a line segment indef-
angles that they form with the first is less than two initely.
right angles. iii. It is possible to draw a circle with a given
In plane geometry books, the fifth postulate is radius at any point.
181
Euclidean plane–Euler line
iv. All right angles are equal to each other. Finally, taking this new system as a reference, a
v. If a straight line cuts two other lines, these copy of it is rotated an intrinsic rotation angle (γ)
two lines intersect on the side on which the about the z′′ −angle to obtain the reference system
sum of the interior angles that they form x ′′′ y′′′ z′′′ .
with the first is less than two right angles.
Euler characteristic The Euler characteristic χ of a
The last postulate is known as the parallel postu- polyhedron is:
late, or as the fifth postulate.
Euclidean plane Surface on which any point is χ =V+F−E
uniquely determined by two coordinates P( x, y)
where V is the number of vertices, E is the num-
E and such that the distance D between any two
points P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) on that surface is ber of edges F is the number of faces of the poly-
calculated using the formula: hedron.
For example, the icosahedron has F = 20 faces,
q
E = 30 edges, and V = 12 vertices, so the Euler
D = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
characteristic of the icosahedron is:
Read also «Distance» and «Analytic geometry».
χ = V + F − E = 12 + 20 − 30 = 2
Euclidean transformation A transformation of the
points of the space that preserves (Euclidean) dis-
tance between points.
Some examples of Euclidean transformations are
rotation, translation and reflection.
Euclidean transformations are also known as
rigid transformations.
Read also «Rotation», «Translation» and «Reflec-
tion».
Euler angles The Euler angles are the angles α
(precession), β (nutation) and γ (intrinsic rota-
tion) that describe the orientation of a rotating
Cartesian coordinate system with respect to a
fixed coordinate system.
The following table shows the values of V, E and
z 0
z F for the platonic solids.
000
z 00
z
Polyhedron V F E V+F−E
β
Tetrahedron 4 4 6 2
y 000 Cube 8 6 12 2
γ Octahedron 6 8 12 2
y 00 0 Dodecahedron 20 12 30 2
α y
x Icosahedron 12 20 30 2
y
x0
The relation V + C − A = 2 is also known as Eu-
x00 x000 ler’s polyhedron formula. Every convex polyhedron
has a Euler characteristic equal to 2.
Rotate a copy of the reference system xyz the pre- Read also «Euler’s theorem».
cession angle (α) about the z−axis to obtain the
reference system x ′ y′ z′ . Based on this new sys- Euler line It is the line that passes through the cir-
tem, rotate a copy of it a nutation angle (β) about cumcenter, the centroid and the orthocenter of a
the y′ −axis to obtain the reference system x ′′ y′′ z′′ . triangle.
182
Euler lucky number–Euler sieve
C y
y = y(x)
f (x + ∆x)
∆y
B0 f 0 (x) · ∆x
C0 O f (x)
∆x
B
A
x x + ∆x
x E
In the previous figure, the points O, C ′ and B′
Solving for f ( x + ∆x ), it is possible to calculate
are the orthocenter, circumcenter, and centroid of
the approximate value of f ( x + ∆x ) using:
the triangle, respectively. The line through these
three points is Euler’s line.
f ( x + ∆x ) ≈ f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) · ∆x
Euler lucky number Positive integer n such that and apply this formula iteratively.
This approximation assumes that the rate of
k2 − k + n change of the function y = f ( x ) remains constant
over the interval [ x, x + ∆x ]. The approximation is
is a prime number for 1 ≤ k < n. in general good as long as (a) the slopes of the tan-
For example, n = 41 is an Euler lucky number gent lines to the graph of the (unknown) solution
since function do not change drastically near x, and (b)
∆x is sufficiently small. If these two assumptions
k2 − k + 41 hold, as ∆x gets smaller and smaller, the approx-
imate value of f ( x + ∆x ) gets better and better.
is a prime number for 1 ≤ k < 41. Read also «Runge–Kutta method».
Euler method Numerical method used to solve ap- Euler product Representation of the function sinc
proximately first-order differential equations. as the infinite product:
Given the equation:
∞
sin(π x ) x2
= ∏ 1− 2
dy πx i =1
i
= f ( x, y)
dx
and the initial condition y( x0 ) = y0 , a step size Euler sieve Algebraic process to express the Rie-
value is chosen h = ∆x, and calculate an approxi- mann zeta function,
mate value of yn+1 using
1 1 1 1
ζ (s) = 1 + s + s + s + s + · · ·
y n +1 ≈ y n + f ( x n , y n ) · h 2 3 4 5
as an infinite product.
Geometrically, this numerical method consists in The process is as follows. Dividing both sides of
considering an interval [ x, x + ∆x ] small enough the equality by 2s we obtain:
so that f ′ ( x ) (the slope of the tangent line to
the graph of y = f ( x ) evaluated at x) and the 1 1 1 1 1 1
slope of the secant line passing through the points ζ (s) = s + s + s + s + s + · · ·
2s 2 4 6 8 10
( x, f ( x )), and ( x + ∆x, f ( x + ∆x )), are approxi-
mately equal: Subtracting the last two equations gives:
f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) 1 1 1 1 1
′
f (x) ≈ 1− ζ (s) = 1 + + s + s + s +···
∆x 2s 3s 5 7 9
183
Euler spiral–Euler’s formula
Notice that all terms with a multiple of 2 in the This curve is also known as clothoid and as Cornu
denominator have been eliminated in the subtrac- spirals.
tion. Read also «Fresnel integral».
Dividing this result by 3s , we obtain:
Euler’s brick Orthohedron with integer lengths of
1 1 1 1 1 1 all its edges and of all its facial diagonals.
s
1 − s ζ (s) = s + s + s + s + · · ·
3 2 3 9 15 21
And by subtracting the two previous equations
f
we obtain:
c b
1 1 1 1 1
E 1− s
3
1 − s ζ (s) = 1 + s + s + s + · · ·
2 5 7 11
e
d
All terms with a multiple of 3 in the denominator
a
have now been removed.
By continuing with this procedure, basically you
are applying the Eratosthenes sieve to the denom-
inators of the terms at the right of equality. If this
By the Pythagorean theorem, if the lengths of the
process continues ad infinitum, the following rep-
edges are a, b, and c, and those of their facial
resentation of the Riemann zeta function is ob-
diagonals are d, e, and f , then these values are
tained:
∞ the solution in integers of the following system of
1
ζ (s) = ∏ −s equations:
i =1 1 − p i
where pi is the i −th prime. This representation of a2 + b2 = d2
the zeta function is due to Euler. a2 + c2 = e2
Read also «Riemann zeta function». b2 + c2 = f 2
Euler spiral Spiral whose curvature changes lin-
A solution of this system of Diophantine equa-
early with arc length.
tions is: a = 44, b = 117, c = 240, d = 125,
Its parametric equations are:
e = 244, and f = 267.
Zt
π x2 Euler’s formula (Analysis) The formula:
x (t) = cos · dx
2
0 eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
Zt
π x2
y(t) = sin · dx is known as Euler’s formula.
2
0
y
y
1 z = eiθ
sin θ
θ
x
cos θ 1
x
Since it also holds
e−iθ = cos θ − i sin θ
184
Euler’s identity–Euler-Cauchy equation
it follows that: Effectively,
eiθ + e−iθ
cos θ = F+V−E = 2 ⇒ 12 + 20 − 30 = 2
2
n·F = 2E ⇒ (5)(12) = 2 (30)
as well as:
eiθ − e−iθ r·V = 2E ⇒ (3)(20) = 2 (30)
sin θ = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2i + = + ⇒ + = +
If in the Euler’s formula it is substituted θ = π, n r 2 E 5 3 2 30
Euler’s identity is obtained.
Read also «Euler characteristic».
ei π + 1 = 0 (2) Euler’s theorem in plane geometry states that
for any triangle △ ABC that is in the plane, if r
Read also «Euler’s identity».
Observation: Euler is pronunced oyla.
is its inradius and R is its circumradius, then the
distance d between the incenter and the circum-
E
Euler’s identity Identity that relates to numbers
√ center of the triangle is given by:
e ≈ 2.718281828, π ≈ 3.141592654, i = −1, 1
and 0, as follows: d2 = R ( R − 2 r )
ei π + 1 = 0 In other words, with respect to the triangle
The Euler identity is also known as the Euler’s △ ABC, the circumradius R, the inradius r and
equation and it is considered the most outstanding the distance d between the circumcenter K and
and the most beautiful formula in mathematics. the incenter I of said triangle, satisfy:
Read also «Euler’s formula». 1 1 1
+ =
Euler’s number Irrational number denoted by the R−d R+d r
literal e that is used as the base of natural loga-
In the figure below, I is the incenter and K is the
rithms and whose value is: e ≈ 2.718281828459.
circumcenter of the triangle △ ABC.
Read also «Number e».
Euler’s theorem (1) The Euler’s theorem, also C
known as Euler’s theorem for polyhedra states that
for a convex polyhedron without holes or re-
cesses, if F denotes the number of its faces, V the
number of its vertices, E is the number of edges, n
the number of sides of the regular polygon , and r K d
the number of edges that converge at the vertices, I
then the following relations hold:
i. F + V − E = 2 A B
ii. n · F = 2 E
iii. r · V = 2 E (3) Euler’s theorem in trigonometry states that:
1 1 1 1
iv. + = + sin(θ ) θ θ θ θ
n r 2 E = cos cos cos cos ···
θ 2 2 2 23 24
For example, the dodecahedron has F = 12 faces,
V = 20 vertices, and E = 30 edges.
Euler-Cauchy equation Linear homogeneous ordi-
nary differential equation in the form:
a n x n y ( n ) + a n −1 x n −1 y ( n −1) + · · · + a 1 x y ′ + a 0 y = 0
The trivial solution y = x m can lead to a simple
solution, whereas the substitution y = eu trans-
form the equation to a linear differential equation
with constant coefficients.
Read also «Linear equation» (Differential equa-
tions).
185
Euler-Masheroni constant–Event
Euler-Masheroni constant The Euler-Mascheroni Evaluate Calculate the numerical value of an ex-
constant, denoted by γ is defined as: pression for one (or more) given value(s) of its
! variable(s).
n
1 For example, when evaluating the function z =
γ = lim − log(n) + ∑
n→∞
k =1
k x2 + y2 at (3, 4), it is obtained:
Z∞
1 1 z|(3,4) = (3)2 + (4)2 = 9 + 16 = 25
= − + · dx
x ⌊x⌋
1
≈ 0.57721566490153286060
Even function A function f is an even function if
where ⌊ x ⌋ is the floor function. f (− x ) = f ( x ) for any x in its domain.
E It is not yet known whether this constant is an
algebraic or a transcendental number. Nor has it
For example, the funciton: y = x2 is an even func-
tion.
been proven whether it is a rational or an irra-
tional number. y
Eulerian number Number of permutations of the 5
numbers from 1 to n in which exactly m elements 4 y = x2
are greater than the previous elements. The Eule-
rian number is denoted by E(n, k ), and is: 3
k +1 2
n+1
E(n, k ) = ∑ (−1)k− j ( k − j + 1) n
j 1
j =0
x
where n, k ∈ N. −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
For example,
E(n, 1) = 2n − n − 1 Every even function is symmetric about the y axis.
1
E(n, 2) = 3n − 2n (n + 1) + n ( n + 1)
2 Even number Number that is divisible by two.
E(n, 3) = 4n − 3n (n + 1) + 2n−1 n (n + 1) That is, an even number has the number two as
1 a factor at least once in its decomposition into
− ( n − 1) n ( n + 1) prime factors. In other words, when you divide
6
an even number by two, it leaves a remainder of
The Eulerian numbers satisfy the following recur-
zero.
rence relation:
For example, the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, · · ·
E(n, k) = (n − k + 1) E(n − 1, k − 1) + k E(n − 1, k) are even numbers.
Read also «Divisibility rules».
Eulerian numbers represent the number of per-
mutations of n objects that have exactly k ascents. Event In a random experiment, an event is a set of
Here, ascent is understood as follows: if the ob- possible outcomes recorded in order to study the
jects are numbered, an ascent indicates an increas- statistical behavior of its occurrence.
ing number of two consecutive objects if read For example, if we look at the results of shooting
from left to right. For example, 123 has two as- a ball into a basket to see the proportion of points
cents, while 312 has one ascent, and 321 has zero a basket-ball player scores, each shot is an event.
ascents. In other words, an event is a subset of the sample
To clarify the idea of ascent: if 123 is considered space.
as the number one hundred twenty-three, if the Given a sample space S, for each event A a sub-
digit on the right is greater than the one on the set of S is assigned, and to this, a number P( A),
left, the number there is said to have a ascent. which represents the probability of the occurrence
Some authors denote the Eulerian number E(n, k) of event A, so that:
as i. P( A) ≥ 0 is the sum of the probabilities of
n
E(n, k ) = all points in the sample space that lie in A.
k
ii. P(S) = 1.
186
Evidential probability–Excavated dodecahedron
iii. If A1 , A2 , · · · , An is a mutually exclusive se- y
quence of events, then:
b
n
P ( A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ A n ) = ∑ P ( Ai )
i =1
x
−a a
If A is an event, then
P( A) = 1 − P( A′ )
E
where A′ is the complement of A.
Read also «Parametric equations».
Read also «Probability», «Mutually exclusive
events», and «Sample space». Exact differential Given the differential
M ( x, y) dx + N ( x, y) dy
Evidential probability Probability that is calcu- If there exists a function z = f ( x, y) such that
lated on the basis of subjective plausibility or the dz = M ( x, y) dx + N ( x, y) dy
degree to which the available evidence supports
a claim. In this case, the evidential probability is then the expression M( x, y) dx + N ( x, y) dy is an
the degree to which something is believed to hap- exact differential.
pen. For example,
Generally, a group of experts in the area in which −2 x e − x
2 − y2
dx − 2 y e− x
2 − y2
dy
the event of interest is studied is asked to estimate
the evidential probability of the given event. is an exact differential, because it is equal to the
2 2
total differential of the function: z = e− x −y .
Read also «Total differential».
Evolute The evolute of a curve C is the locus
Exact differential equations A differential equa-
formed by all the centers of curvature of C.
tion of the form:
Given a curve ⃗r (t) = ⟨ x (t), y(t)⟩ in the plane, such
that its curvature is not zero for t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 , the dy
M ( x, y) + N ( x, y) =0
parametric equations X (t), Y (t) of the evolute of dx
the curve ⃗r (t) are: is an exact differential equation if
∂M ∂N
=
y′ (t) · [ x ′ (t)]2 + [y′ (t)]2 ∂y ∂x
X (t) = x (t) − ′
x (t) · y′′ (t) − x ′′ (t) · y′ (t) This means that there exists a function ψ( x, y) = c
x ′ (t) · [ x ′ (t)]2 + [y′ (t)]2 that is the implicit solution of the given differen-
Y (t) = y(t) + ′ tial equation.
x (t) · y′′ (t) − x ′′ (t) · y′ (t)
For example, the equation:
dy
For example, the evolution of the ellipse whose sin(y) e x sin(y) + x cos(y) e x sin(y) · =0
parametric equations are: dx
is an exact differential equation, because
h i h i
x (t) = a cos(t) y(t) = b sin(t) ∂ sin(y) e x sin(y) ∂ x cos(y) e x sin(y)
=
∂y ∂x
has by parametric equations:
= cos(y) e x sin(y) [1 + x sin(y)]
a2 − b2
X (t) = cos3 (t) Excavated dodecahedron Polyhedron with 60
a
b2 − a2 faces in the shape of an equilateral triangle. It
Y (t) = sin3 (t) also has 32 vertices and 90 edges.
b
187
Excessive number–Expected value
Existential quantifier In logic, an existential quan-
tifier is a constant denoted by ∃, read as exists, or
as, there is at least one, or as for some, which is used
as a logical connective.
For example,
∃ x ∈ N : x+1 = 2
is read: there exist a natural number x such that
x + 1 = 2.
Expansion (Algebra) An expansion refers to the
E carrying out of the operations indicated in an al-
gebraic expression.
For example, the expansion of ( a + b)3 is:
If the faces are regular polygons with edge length
a, its volume V and its area A are: ( a + b)3 = a3 + 3 a2 b + 3 ab2 + b3
5 √
V= 1 + 5 a3
4 √ Expected value (Statistics) The expected value
A = 15 3 a2 E[ X ] of a random variable X with equiprobable
results {c1 , c2 , · · · , cn } is equal to the arithmetic
The excavated dodecahedron is obtained from a mean of the terms ci :
regular dodecahedron, excavating a regular pen-
1 n
n i∑
tagonal pyramid on each of its faces, so that a E[ X ] = ci
non-convex polyhedron is obtained. =1
The excavated dodecahedron is also known as
Hugel’s Polyhedron. The expected value E[ X ] of a discrete random
Read also «Deltahedron» and «Isohedral figure». variable X with probability distribution f ( x ) at
X = x, is:
Excessive number A natural number such that the E[ X ] = ∑ x · f ( x )
x
sum of its proper divisors is greater than it.
For example, the number 24 is an excessive num- If a continuous random variable X has a distri-
ber, because its proper divisors (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12) bution whose probability density function at x is
add up to 36, which is greater than 24. f ( x ), the expected value of X is:
Excessive numbers are also known as abundant Z∞
numbers. E[ X ] = x f ( x ) · dx
−∞
Exclusive disjunction Logical connector denoted
by ↮ whose truth value is true when both propo- If a and b are constants, then
sitions have different truth values and whose E[ a] = a
truth value is false in any other case.
E[ a X ] = a E[ X ]
The truth table for this logical connector is shown
below. E[ a X + b] = a E[ X ] + b
The expected value is also known as mathematical
p q p ↮ q expectation or first moment of the random variable.
Some authors denote the expected value with the
T T F
symbol µ X .
T F T
If c ∈ R is a constant, then,
F T T
F F F E[c f ( X )] = c E[ f ( X )]
Furthermore, if f 1 ( X ), f 2 ( X ), · · · , f n ( X ), are n
where T means true, and F means false. functions of the random variable X, then,
The exclusive disjunction is known as exclusive
disjunction and is symbolized as XOR, as EOR and E [ f 1 ( X ) + f 2 ( X ) + · · · f n ( X )]
as EXOR. = E [ f 1 ( X )] + E [ f 2 ( X )] + · · · E [ f n ( X )]
188
Experiment–Exponential equation
(2) If X and Y are discrete random variables and Often it is used 2ˆ5 to denote 25 . The symbol ˆ is
f ( x, y) is the value of their joint probability dis- called caret and is read: raised to the.
tribution in ( x, y), the expected value of g( X, Y ) For example, 2ˆ5 is read: two raised to the fifth.
is: Read also «Rules of the exponents».
E [ g( X, Y )] = ∑ ∑ g( x, y) · f ( x, y)
x y Exponential decay Process that is modeled with an
Similarly, if X and Y are continuous random vari- equation of the type:
ables and f ( x, y) is the value of their joint prob-
y = y0 e−rt
ability density at ( x, y), the expected value of
g( X, Y ) is:
where y0 and r are positive constants, e is the Eu-
Z∞ Z∞ ler number and t represents time.
E [ g( X, Y )] = g( x, y) · f ( x, y) · dx · dy E
−∞ −∞ y
If X and Y are two independent random vari-
ables, then
E[ XY ] = E[ X ] · E[Y ]
y0
If X1 , X2 , X3 , · · · , Xn are random variables, and
n y = y0 e−rt
t
Y= ∑ a i Xi 1
i =1
with a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an constants, then,
For example, radioactivity exhibits exponential
n decay.
E [Y ] = ∑ a i E ( Xi ) Read also «Number e».
i =1
Exponential distribution A random variable X
Experiment In statistics, an experiment is the pro- has an exponential distribution with parameter θ,
cess of applying a treatment to a sample to carry if and only if, its probability distribution is:
out observations or measurements. The experi- (
ments are carried out in order to obtain infor- 1 e− x/θ for x > 0
mation that allows statistical analysis to estimate f (x) = θ
0 otherwise.
some characteristic of the sample (or the popula-
tion) from which that information was extracted. where θ > 0.
The mean of the exponential distribution is: µ =
Experimental design Statistical technique used to θ, and its variance is: σ2 = θ 2 .
describe and explain the variations of data and in-
Exponential equation An exponential equation is
formation under theoretical (or hypothetical) con-
an equation of the form:
ditions that attempt to explain mentioned varia-
tions from a change in the conditions of the hy-
r akx = c
pothetical scenario.
Exponent In an expression of the form bn , the ex- The solution to this exponential equation is:
ponent (n) is the number that indicates how many
c
times the base (b) will be multiplied by itself. akx =
r
Exponent k x ln( a) = ln (c/r )
ln (c/r )
x=
k ln( a)
Base 25 = 32 Power Geometrically, the solution represents the coordi-
25 = 2| × 2 ×{z
2 × 2 × 2 = 32 nate x = x0 of the point of intersection of the
} graph of the function y = r akx with the horizon-
5 factores
tal line y = c.
189
Exponential function–Exponentiation
y Exponential generating function The exponential
y = r ak x
generating function of a sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ,
. . ., is:
∞
xk
y=c E[ a k , x ] = ∑ a k
k =0
k!
Exponential growth Process that is modeled with
a function of the form:
y = y0 ert
E where y0 and r are positive constants, e is the Eu-
ler’s number, and t represents time.
x y
x0
y = y0 ert
Exponential function A function of the form:
y = b ( a)rx
where b , 0, a > 0, a , 1, and r , 0.
If b > 0 and a > 1 the function is always increas-
ing. If b > 0 and 0 < a < 1, the function is always y0
decreasing. For example, the graph of the expo-
nential function y = 2x is shown below.
x
1
y
8 Within certain limits, the growth of a population
y = 2x shows exponential growth.
7 Read also «Exponential function» and «Euler’s num-
ber».
6
Exponential integral Function denoted as Ei, and
5 defined by:
Zx
4 et
Ei( x ) = · dt
t
3 −∞
where x is any real number. For positive values
2 of x, the value of the integral is taken according
to the Cauchy principal value. The function Ei( x )
1 satisfy:
x li(e x ) = Ei ( x )
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 for all x > 0, where li( x ) is the logarithmic inte-
gral function.
The y−intercept of the function y = b a x is at Read also «Logarithmic integral function».
(0, b).
The derivative of the function y = b a x is: Exponentiation An operation consisting of the re-
peated multiplication of a factor called base a fi-
dy
= b a x ln( a) nite number n of times (n is the exponent).
dx Given a ∈ R, and n ∈ N, the exponentiation of a
The antiderivative of the function y = b a x , is: to the n−th power consists of calculating the re-
Z sult of multiplying the number a by itself n times.
b ax
b a x · dx = +C
ln( a) an = |a · a ·{z
a · · · }a
n factors
190
Extensionality axiom–Extrapolation
The notation an is read : a raised to the n−th power, AB ∥ CD F
or more synthetically, a to the n. For example, two
to the fifth power is: α
β
C D
25 = (2)(2)(2)(2)(2) = 32
Read also «Power», «Base», and «Rules of the expo-
nents».
A B
Extensionality axiom Given any set A and any set γ
δ
B, if for any set X, X is an element of A, if and
only if, X is a member of B, then A = B.
E
In other words, a given set is uniquely deter-
mined by its elements.
E
Extrapolation Estimation of a dependent variable
Exterior angle theorem The measure of the exte- for values (of the dependent variable) that are lo-
rior angle of a triangle that lies in the plane is cated outside the range of observations.
greater than any of the measures of the interior
angles not adjacent to the first one. y
In the following figure, θ > α, as well as θ > β.
C
β
x
α θ a b
A B
For example, if the pressure values of a gas are
known for temperatures between 0°C and 100°C,
This result is due to Euclid, who included it in
and it is required to know the pressure of that gas
proposition 16 of book 1 of his work entitled The
at 110°C, then an extrapolation method is used,
Elements.
because 110°C is outside of the range of data for
External angle In a polygon, an external angle is temperature observations.
the one formed by one of its sides and the pro- If the known data are close enough to the point
longation of a side adjacent to the first one. where you want to estimate the unknown value,
linear extrapolation can be used. To this end,
it calculates the equation of the line that passes
through the last two known data and evaluates it
at the point where it is desired to know the value
sought.
For example, if the last two known data are
( x p , y p ) and ( xq , yq ), and it is required to estimate
the value of y = ŷ0 at x0 , then,
θ
yq − y p
ŷ0 = ( x0 − x q ) + y q
xq − x p
When related to the polygon, an external angle is
y
also known as exterior angle.
External angles When a pair of parallel lines are ŷ0
yq
cut by a secant, 8 angles are formed. The four an-
gles that lie outside of the region bouned by the yp
parallel lines are the external angles.
x
In the figure below the angles α, β, γ, and δ are xp xq x0
external angles.
191
Extreme
When the data is not very close to the last nomial regression, among others.
known data, polynomial interpolation can be
used, which consists of calculating a polynomial Extreme The extremes of a function refer to the
function that fits the data and using the obtained maxima or minima of the function.
function to estimate the values of the variable at A local extreme is either a local minimum or a lo-
the requested point. cal maximum.
Other techniques designed for extrapolation are An absolute extreme is either an absolute mini-
moving averages, exponential smoothing, local poly- mum or an absolute maximum.
Read also «Maximum» and «Minimum».
192
F
Face In a polyhedron, a face is each of the poly- Factor decomposition (Arithmetic) When a natu-
gons that delimit it. ral number is expressed as the product of prime
In the cube, each one of the squares that delimits numbers, it is said that it has been decomposed
it, is a face of the polyhedron. into its prime factors.
For example, the prime factorization of the num-
ber 30 is:
30 = 2 × 3 × 5
Notice that each of the numbers that appear to
Face
the right of the equal sign are prime.
(Algebra) When an algebraic expression is ex-
pressed as the product of other expressions, it is
said that is has been factored.
For example,
x2 − y2 = ( x + y)( x − y)
Face diagonal In a polyhedron, a face diagonal is a
line segment whose ends are at two vertices that Read also «Factorization».
belong to the same face of the polyhedron.
Factor theorem Given the polynomial equation:
z
P( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an x n = 0,
c if x = k is one of its roots, then the polynomial
P( x ) is divisible by x − k.
From the division algorithm,
P( x ) = Q( x ) · ( x − k) + r
y Evaluating P( x ) at x = k it is obtained: r = P(k).
x a b
Then,
P( x ) = Q( x ) · ( x − k) + P(k)
Factor Number or algebraic expression that is be-
But P(k) = 0 since x = k is a root of P( x ). Thus,
ing multiplied with other numbers or algebraic
expressions. P( x ) = Q( x ) · ( x − k)
For example, in the expression:
What was to be proved.
2 x y2 For example, one of the roots of the equation:
there are three factors: y2 , x, and 2. 6 + 5 x + x2 = 0
Factorial–Falling factorial
is x = 3. Then, 6 + 5 x + x2 is divisible by x − 3. • Non-perfect square trinomial.
Indeed,
x2 + ( a + b) x + ab = ( x + a)( x + b)
2
6 + 5 x + x = ( x − 3)( x − 2)
• Difference of n−th powers.
Which indicates that the other root of the equa-
tion is x = 2. x n − y n = ( x − y ) x n −1 + x n −2 y + x n −3 y 2 + · · ·
Read also «Polynomial remainder theorem».
· · · + x y n −2 + y n −1
Factorial The factorial of the natural number n ≥
1, denoted by n!, is defined as the product of all • Sum of n−th powers (for n odd).
natural numbers from 1 to n:
n! = (1)(2)(3) · · · (n) x n + y n = ( x + y ) x n −1 − x n −2 y + x n −3 y 2 − · · ·
F For example, the factorial of 4 is · · · − x y n −2 + y n −1
4! = (1)(2)(3)(4) = 24 These cases are very useful for simplifying alge-
braic expressions. For example, by the difference
Observe that the factorial fulfills: of n−th powers formula,
(k + 1)! = (k + 1) · k! 1 − x n = (1 − x ) 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + x n −1
For this property to continue to be true for k = 0, it follows that
necessarily 0! must be equal to 1. So by conven-
tion, it is defined: 0! = 1. 1 − xn
= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + x n −1
1−x
Factorial moment The k−th factorial moment of
the random variable X is: for x , 1.
Read also «Irreducible polynomial» and «Notable
µ[k] = E [ X ( X − 1)( X − 2) · · · ( X − k + 1)] products».
where k > 0 is an integer number. Falling factorial The falling factorial of order n ≥
1 of the natural number x > 0, denoted by ( x )n
Factorization The process of decomposing a num- is defined as the product of n consecutive natural
ber or an algebraic expression as a product of fac- numbers, from x − n + 1 to x:
tors.
For example, ( x )n = x ( x − 1)( x − 2) · · · ( x − n + 1)
x!
2 =
x + 5 x + 6 = ( x + 2)( x + 3) ( x − n)!
Listed below are the factoring cases that are most Observe that if n = 0, then:
frequently encountered in elementary algebra. x! x!
( x )0 = = =1
• Factorization of a common factor. ( x − 0) ! x!
So by convention it is defined: ( x )0 = 1.
a x + a y = a ( x + y)
Some authors represent the falling factorial of or-
der n of the number x by x n .
• Difference of squares.
Observe that:
( x )n x
x2 − y2 = ( x + y)( x − y) =
n! n
• Perfect square trinomial. Moreover, ( x )n = P( x, n).
2 2 2 The falling factorial is also known as descending
x + 2 xy + y = ( x + y)
factorial, falling sequential product, and as lower fac-
• Perfect cubic polynomial. torial.
Read also «Permutation», «Binomial coefficient» and
x3 + 3 x2 y + 3 xy2 + y3 = ( x + y)3 «Combination».
194
Family of curves–Fermat point
Family of curves Set of curves that have the same inequalities that represent the given linear pro-
construction pattern or that are obtained by vary- gramming problem.
ing a parameter of its equation. The geometric representation of all feasible solu-
For example, in the figure below there are four tions is the feasible region.
members of the function family: Read also «Feasible region».
x
y= Fermat curve Plane algebraic curve whose equa-
a2 + x 2
tion is:
varying the parameter a for 0.2, 0.5, 0.8 and 1.1,
respectively. x n + yn = 1
y x for n > 2.
y= 1.12 +x2
2
y= x
0.82 +x2 y F
x
y= 0.52 +x2
x x3 + y 3 = 1
1 y= 0.22 +x2 1
x
1 2 3
x
−1 1
−1
Feasible region (Algebra) Region of space formed
by all the points that are solutions to a system of
inequalities.
Read also «Superellipse».
y
2
+
10 x − y > −2 Fermat hyperbola The graph of a function of the
x
=
9 type y = x n , where n is a negative integer, is a
y
8 x + y < 12 +4 Fermat hyperbola.
= x/3 Read also «Fermat’s conic».
7 y
6 −x + 3 y < 12
5 Fermat number Number of the form:
4
x − y > −2
y
=
3 n
Fn = 22 + 1
x + y < 12
−
x
2
−x + 3 y < 12
+
12
1 x > 0; y > 0 where n is a non-negative integer.
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 For example,
4
(Optimization) The set of all points in space that F4 = 22 + 1 = 216 + 1 = 65 537
satisfy simultaneously all the constraints of an op-
timization problem. is a Fermat number.
Read also «Feasible solution».
Feasible solution In a linear programming prob- Fermat point The point at which the sum of the
lem, a solution is a feasible solution if it satis- distances from the vertices of a triangle is a mini-
fies all the inequalities that form the system of mum.
195
Fermat prime–Fermat’s parabola
C y
y = x−4
y = x−3
1
y = x−2
F y = x−1
x
1
A B
Fermat’s last theorem There are no nonzero inte-
In the figure, the point F is the Fermat point, gers x, y, z that satisfy:
F which makes the value of D a minimum,
x n + yn = zn
D = | AF | + | BF | + |CF |
for n > 2.
Fermat’s point is also known as Torricelli’s point. This claim was proved by Sir Andrew Wiles, for
this reason this result is also known as Fermat-
Wiles theorem, or Fermat’s conjecture.
Fermat prime A Fermat number that is prime is a It is basically a generalization of the Pythagorean
Fermat prime. theorem. However, there are integers x, y, z that
That is, a prime number p is a Fermat prime if it satisfy the equation given above for n = 2.
is of the form: Read also «Pythagorean triple».
n
p = 22 + 1
Fermat’s little theorem If p is a prime number,
For example, the prime numbers 3, 5, 17, 257 and
then for all positive k ∈ Z coprime to p,
65 537 are Fermat primes.
Read also «Fermat number». k p−1 ≡ 1 mod p
Fermat quotient Let p be a prime number and a
That is,
an integer coprime to p, then
k p ≡ k mod p
a p −1 −1 For example, if k = 2 and p = 5, then
q p ( a) =
p
25 = 32 ≡ 2 mod 5
is the Fermat quotient.
Read also «Fermat’s little theorem». Indeed, 32 = (5)(6) + 2.
Fermat’s conic The graph of a function of the type Fermat’s parabola Graph of a function of the type
y = x n is a Fermat’s conic. For n > 1, the curve is y = x n , where n ≥ 2 is a natural number.
called Fermat’s parabola. A cubic Fermat parabola is shown in the graph
below.
y
y
2 y = x3
y = x5
1
y = x4
y = x3
1
y = x2 x
−1 0 1 2
x
1 −1
For n < 0 the curve is known as Fermat’s hyper- −2
bola.
196
Fermat’s right triangle theorem–Fermat’s theorem
Fermat’s right triangle theorem No right triangle y
in the plane whose side lengths are rational num-
bers can have an area equal to the square of a
rational number.
Equivalently, there are no two right triangles with
integer sides in which the two legs of one triangle
are the leg and hypotenuse of the other triangle,
respectively.
c
d
F
b
d
a
Its parametric equations in rectangular coordi-
nates are:
√
algebraically, if a2 , b2 , and c2 form an arithmetic x (t) = a t cos(t)
√
progression such that d2 is the difference of said y(t) = a t sin(t)
arithmetic progression, then the numbers a, b, c,
and d do not satisfy the system of Diophantine for t ≥ 0.
equations
Fermat’s theorem (Number theory) An odd prime
number p can be expressed as:
a2 + d2 = b2
b2 + d2 = c2 p = x 2 + y2
This implies that with x, y ∈ Z, if and only if p ≡ 1 mod 4.
(Calculus) If the function y = f ( x ) has a local ex-
treme at x = c, and y = f ( x ) is differentiable at c,
a2 c2 = b2 − d2 b2 + d2 = b4 − d4 then, f ′ (c) = 0.
With this equation Pierre de Fermat justified that y y = f (x)
there are no integer non-zero solutions of the
equation:
x 4 + y4 = z4
x
c c′
Fermat’s spiral Spiral
√ whose equation in polar co-
ordinates is: r = a θ, for θ ≥ 0.
197
Fermat-Catalan’s conjecture–Fifth
Fermat-Catalan’s conjecture The equation Fibonacci spiral Spiral that is obtained from the
terms of the Fibonacci sequence and that serves
am + bn = ck as an approximation to the golden spiral.
has a finite number of solutions ( a, b, c, m, n, k)
with different triples of values ( am , bn , ck ) where
a, b, c ∈ Z, being a, b, c primes relative to each 3
5
other that satisfy 1 2
1
1 1 1
+ + <1
m n k 13
8
Fibonacci number Number that appears in the Fi-
bonacci sequence.
F For example, the numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34
are Fibonacci numbers.
Read also «Fibonacci sequence».
Fibonacci’s theorem Any positive rational number
Fibonacci polynomials Sequence of polynomials
can be written as the sum of a finite number of
defined by the recurrence relation:
unit fractions.
0 if n = 0 For example,
Fn ( x ) = 1 if n = 1
41 1 1 1
x Fn−1 ( x ) + Fn−2 ( x ) if n ≥ 2 = + +
42 2 3 7
The first Fibonacci polynomials are:
Read also «Unit fraction», «Egyptian fraction», and
Fn ( x ) pn ( x ) «Rational number».
0 0 Field A field is a set F with at least two elements,
1 1 for which two binary operations are defined, ad-
2 x dition (+) and multiplication (·), such that for any
3 x2 + 1 a, b, c ∈ F the following properties are satisfied:
4 x3 + 2 x
5 x + 3 x2 + 1
4
a) Closure: a + b ∈ F , and also, a · b ∈ F .
6 x5 + 4 x3 + 3 x
b) Commutative: a + b = b + a, and also, a · b =
b · a.
Fibonacci sequence Sequence in which each term
is obtained as the sum of the two previous terms c) Associative: ( a + b) + c = a + (b + c), and
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, · · · . also, ( a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
The successive terms of the Fibonacci sequence
d) Identity elements: there exist elements 0 and
are calculated using the recurrence relation:
1 such that a + 0 = a, and also, a · 1 = a, for
Fn+1 = Fn + Fn−1 all a ∈ F .
beginning with F1 = 1, and F2 = 1. e) Inverse elements: there exist elements − a
The direct formula to calculate the terms of the (inverse aditive) and a−1 (inverse multiplica-
sequence is: tive), such that a + (− a) = 0 for all a ∈ F ,
and also, for all a , 0, a · a−1 = 1.
" √ #n " √ #n !
1 1+ 5 1− 5 f) Distributive property:
Fn = √ −
5 2 2
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.
As the value of n grows, the ratio of two conse-
cutive terms of the Fibonacci sequence gets closer
and closer to the golden number. Fifth When we divide a whole into five equal parts,
Read also «Golden number». each one of them is one fifth of the whole.
198
Figurate number–First derivative test
Finite It is said that a quantity is finite if it is nei-
ther infinitely large nor infinitely small and it may
be represented by a concrete number.
1 1 1 1 1
The expression finite indicates that something
5 5 5 5 5 has an end or limits so that its dimensions or
the number of its elements can be determined
through measurements, counting or the like.
Finite difference expression of the form:
As a fraction, one fifth is denoted as 1/5.
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
Figurate number Natural number that can be rep- where h is a finite constant.
resented as the number of points in a geometric The concept of finite difference is used to define
pattern in the shape of a regular polygon. the derivative of a function based on the notion
For example, triangular numbers,
of limit. In numerical methods the finite differ-
ence is used to calculate approximate values of
F
n+1 n ( n + 1) the derivative of an unknown function.
=
2 2 Read also «Derivative» and «Euler method».
which are represented as equally spaced points Finite mathematics Branch of discrete mathemat-
on a triangle ics that studies mathematical structures defined
for sets with a finite cardinality (i.e., with finite
number of elements).
Finite set A set of finite cardinality.
Read also «Cardinality».
First Ordinal number that corresponds to 1.
First derivative test Let y = f ( x ) be a function
such that f ′ ( x0 ) = 0. That is, x0 is a critical point
or tetrahedral numbers, of the function. Then,
• If the sign of f ′ ( x ), changes from positive to
n+2 n (n + 1)(n + 2)
= negative at x = x0 , then f has a local maxi-
3 6
mum at x = x0 .
which are represented as equally spaced points • If the sign of f ′ ( x ), changes from negative to
on a tetrahedron. positive at x = x0 , then f has a local mini-
The figurate number is also known as polygonal mum at x = x0 .
numbers if the pattern is in the plane or polyhedral • If f ′ ( x ), does not chage its sign about x = x0 ,
numbers if the pattern is in the three-dimensional then f has neither minimum nor maximum
space. at x = x0 .
Figure Geometric form (draw, graph, etc.) used to For example, considering the function:
represent an abstract mathematical concept. x
y= 2
If the figure is drawn in the plane, it is said that it x +1
is a plane figure.
y
If the figure has a volume, it is said that it is a
three-dimensional figure, or that the figure is in 0.5 x
three dimensions. y=
x2 + 1
Generally, mathematical concepts are represented
algebraically using an algebraic expression, geo-
metrically through a figure (graph, diagram, etc.) x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
or numerically, when evaluated using concrete
numbers or through tables of values.
The representation that is used for each occasion −0.5
depends on the end that is pursued.
199
Fish curve–Fixed point
The first derivative of this function is: x3 . The next exponent is 2. The two different
ways to get a multiple of x2 is to multiply 1 by
dy 1 − x2 x2 , as well as x by 3 x, so adding these results we
= 2
dx ( x 2 + 1) get x2 + 3 x2 = 4 x2 , and this is the second term
of the result. The next exponent is 1. The differ-
Equating to zero it is obtained that the critical ent ways to get x in the product is multiplying x
points of the function are at x = −1, and at by −2 and also 1 by 3 x, so the third term of the
x = 1. evaluating the derivative at x = −2 (for result is −2 x + 3 x = x. Finally, the last exponent
x < −1), it is obtained f ′ (−2) = −3/25 < 0, (zero) is obtained by multiplying the constants of
while when evaluating it at x = −1/2, it is obtai- both polynomials: (1)(−2) = −2. So,
ned f ′ (−1/2) = 12/25 > 0, so the function has a
minimum at x = −1. ( x + 1) x 2 + 3 x − 2 = x 3 + 4 x 2 + x − 2
Knowing that f ′ (1/2) = 12/25 > 0, and evalua-
ting the derivative at x = 2, it is obtained f ′ (2) = This method was used by Isaac Newton to deduce
F −3/25 < 0, thus, the function has a maximum at
x = 1.
Newton’s binomial formula:
n
n
Read also «Critical point» and «Second derivartive ( x + y)n = ∑ x n−k yk
k =0
k
test».
If we consider the different ways of obtaining the
Fish curve Fish shaped curve whose parametric exponent k in y, since there are n factors, there are
equations are: (nk) different ways, and the exponent of x will be
n − k (because there are a total of n factors). Con-
a sin2 (t) sidering all the sums of these terms from k = 0
x (t) = a cos(t) − √
2 (to obtain the minimum possible exponent for y)
y(t) = a sin(t) cos(t) and up to k = n (to obtain the maximum possible
exponent for y), the formula for Newton’s bino-
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π. mial is obtained.
Read also «Combinations» and «Newton’s bino-
y mial».
Fixed point A value x = c is a fixed point of the
a/2
function y = f ( x ) if f (c) = c.
y y = x2
x
−a a 4
3
x
=
Fixed exponent method Method to calculate the 2
y
product of polynomials considering a fixed expo-
nent and obtaining all the possible products that 1
result in monomials whose degree is equal to said
fixed exponent and add them before proceeding x
to the next one, until exhausting all the possible -2 -1 0 1 2
exponents for the terms of the product.
For example, to multiply: Geometrically the fixed point x = c is located
at the intersection of the graph of the function
( x + 1) x 2 + 3 x − 2 y = f ( x ) and the line y = x.
For example, the fixed points of the function
the term with the largest exponent obtained from y = x2 , are x = 0, and x = 1, because they are
the multiplication (3) is considered first. The only the points where the graph of the function y = x2
way to get exponent 3 in multiplication is by mul- intersect the line y = x. Indeed, f (0) = 0, as well
tiplying x by x2 , so the first term of the result is as f (1) = 1, in the function y = x2 .
200
Fixed-point iteration–Focal radius
Algebraically, the fixed point x = c is function in- Read also «fixed point».
variant: evaluating x = c in the function yields
the same transformed value c. Floor function Function that, for every real num-
It is worth mentioning that not all functions have ber x, returns the greatest integer that is smaller
fixed points. For example, the function y = ln( x ). or equal to x.
y = ⌊x⌋
Fixed-point iteration Numerical method used to
solve equations of the form f ( x ) = x. For example, ⌊2.5⌋ = 2.
The method starts with the initial value x = x0 ,
and iteratively computes xn+1 = f ( xn ) for n = y
1, 2, . . ., until the solution is close enough to the
y = bxc
fixed point x = xfix of the function y = f ( x ). 3
In this iterative numerical method it is supposed
that it is previously known that a fixed point of
the function does exist, as well as that f ( xi ) is de-
2 F
fined for i = 1, 2, . . .
1
y
x
x
=
y
1 2 3 4
1 Fluent Isaac Newton considered a curve as gener-
ated by the motion (flow) of a point. The changes
of the variables x and y along the graph of what
we currently call the function y = f ( x ) he called
y = e−x it fluxion, what we currently call derivative of the
x
− 12 O 1 1 3 function.
2 2
For this reason Newton denoted the derivative of
y with the point notation: ẏ in his method of flux-
Read also «Fixed point». ions. Newton called the infinitesimal calculus as
Fixed-point theorem If f ( x ) is a continuous func- the science of fluents and fluxions.
tion on [ a, b] and furthermore, the values of f ( x ) Read also «Derivative», «Differential», and «Leibniz
are in the interval [ a, b] for all x ∈ [ a, b], the func- notation».
tion f has at least one fixed point.
Furthermore, if f is differentiable in [ a, b], and Flux integral Double integral of the form:
there is a value 0 < k < 1 such that | f ′ ( x )| < k
for all x ∈ [ a, b], then there is a unique fixed point ⃗F · n̂ dS
x
of f at [ a, b]. S
y where ⃗F ( x, y, z) = M ı̂ + N ȷ̂ + P k̂, is a vector field
whose components are defined over all points of
x
=
the surface S, which corresponds to the graph of
y
the function z = f ( x, y), and n̂ is a unit vector and
b normal to the differential of surface area dS.
y = f (x)
Observe that ⃗F · n̂ is the component of ⃗F in the
direction perpendicular to the differential of sur-
face area dS, because n̂ is a unit vector.
a Read also «Surface integral».
Focal radius A directed segment that has its start-
x ing point at the focus of a conic and its endpoint
a p b
at some point on the conic.
201
Focus–Forward diference
y y
us P( x, y)
al radi
Foc
x
F′ O F
x
Focus In a conic, the focus is a fixed point that is
taken as a reference to make measurements.
F The plural of focus is foci.
Read also «Conic», «Parabola», «Ellipse» and «Hy- The folium of Descartes is also known as the leaf
perbola». of Descartes.
Foot Unit of distance used in the English system
FOIL method Mnemonic used as an algorithm to equivalent to 12 inches. One foot is equal to 30.48
compute the product of two binomials. The word centimeters, or 0.3048 meters.
FOIL is an acronym for Forecast A forecast is an estimate of the behavior
of a statistical variable in future events.
• First terms of the binomials, Statistical data, economic theory, and problem
conditions are used to get a forecast.
• Outer terms, There are different methods for forecasting.
• Inner terms, and Formal In mathematics, a proof is formal if it is
based mainly on a language and a deductive sys-
• Last terms.
tem (set of axioms and rules of inference).
The formal proof consists of justifying or deduc-
For example, in the product ing an expression or a rule from one or more ex-
pressions, axioms and previously justified results.
b x + a y + |{z}
( x + a) (y + b) = x y + |{z} ab
|{z} |{z}
F O I L
Formula Equality used to calculate a value from
other known values. A formula expresses the re-
first multiply x y (first terms of each binomial), lationship between the quantities involved in it.
then multiply x b (outer terms), then multiply a y In the formula the quantities are denoted by lit-
(inner terms), and lastly multiply a b (last terms erals (a, b, c, · · · ) and the operations are denoted
of the binomials). using conventional mathematical notation.
Observe that the factors are always written in al- For example, the general formula for the roots of
phabetical order. a quadratic equation: a x2 + b x + c = 0, is:
√
Folium of Descartes Curve whose algebraic ex- −b ± b2 − 4 ac
x=
pression is: x3 + y3 − 3 a xy = 0. The parametric 2a
equations of this curve are: And the formula to get the number of diagonals
D que se that can be drawn to a regular polygon
3 ap 3 ap2 with n sides is:
x (t) = y(t) =
1 + p3 1 + p3 n ( n − 3)
D=
2
In polar coordinates, its equation is:
Forward diference Finite difference of the form:
3 a sin(θ ) cos(θ )
r=
sin3 (θ ) + cos3 (θ ) ∆h [ f ] ( x ) = f ( x + h) − f ( x )
202
Four-step rule–Fourier series
y y y = f (x)
y = f (x)
f (x + ∆x)
f (x + h)
f (x + h) − f (x)
∆y f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f (x) f (x)
h ∆x
x x + ∆x
x
xx+h
x
Note that ∆y/∆x is the slope of the secant
line passing through the points ( x, f ( x )) and
Read also «Backward difference» and «Central differ- ( x + ∆x, f ( x + ∆x )).
ence».
Step 4: Calculate the limit of the quotient ∆y/∆x
Four-step rule The four-step rule allows us to cal-
when ∆x tends to zero, to get the instantaneous
rate of change f ′ ( x ) of the function at the point
F
culate the derivative of the function y = f ( x ). x.
dy ∆y
Step 1: Give an increment ∆x to the independent f ′ (x) = = lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
variable x to get y + ∆y.
f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
= lim
y + ∆y = f ( x + ∆x ) ∆x →0 ∆x
y y = f (x)
y y = f (x)
f (x + ∆x)
f (x)
f (x)
x
x
x x + ∆x
x
Note that dy/dx is the slope of the tangent line
Step 2: Subtract the function y = f ( x ) off of to the graph of the function y = f ( x ) with point
f ( x + ∆x ), to get ∆y. of tangency at ( x, f ( x )).
When the derivative of a function is calculated by
∆y = f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) applying the 4-step rule, it is said that the deriva-
tive has been calculated by definition.
y y = f (x) Read also «Derivative».
Fourier series A series of the form:
∞
f (x + ∆x) 1
f (x) = a0 + ∑ [ an cos(n ω0 x ) + bn sin(n ω0 x )]
∆y 2 n =0
f (x)
∆x where ω0 = 2 π/T, is the fundamental angular fre-
x x + ∆x
x quency, T is the period of the periodic function
f ( x ), a0 , a1 , · · · , b1 , b2 , · · · are real numbers.
The frequency component ωn = n ω0 is the n−th
Step 3: Divide ∆y by ∆x to get the average rate harmonic of the Fourier series, the first harmonic
of change. is the fundamental component.
The Fourier series can also be expressed in the
∆y f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) form:
=
∆x ∆x ∞
f ( x ) = C0 + ∑ Cn cos (n ω0 x − θn )
n =1
203
Fourier transform–Fraction
Here, Cn are the harmonic amplitudes and θn are
the phase angles.
If the function f ( x ) is an even periodic function
with period T, then its Fourier series consists of a
constant and terms that include the cosine func-
tion only:
∞
1
f (x) = a0 + ∑ an cos(n ω0 x )
2 n =1
where ω0 = 2 π/T, and
T/2
Z
2
an = f ( x ) cos(n ω0 x ) · dx
F T
− T/2
The fractal is obtained by applying the operation
shown to each line segment an infinite number of
If the function f ( x ) is an odd periodic function times.
with period T, then its Fourier series consists of
terms that include the sine function only. Fraction A fraction a/b represents a part of a
∞ whole if a < b. The notation indicates that the in-
f ( x ) = ∑ bn sin(n ω0 x ) teger is divided into b equal parts and a of them
n =1 are taken. For example, 2/5 indicates that the
whole is divided into 5 equal parts and 2 of them
where ω0 = 2 π/T, and
are taken.
T/2
Z
2
bn = f ( x ) sin(n ω0 x ) · dx
T 2
− T/2
5
Fourier transform Integral transformation of a
function f of a real variable (usually time), de-
fined as:
Z∞
fˆ(ω ) = F { f (t)} = f (t) e−iωt · dt
−∞
where i is the imaginary unit and when the inde-
pendent variable t represents time (measured in
seconds), ω represents a frequency (measured in
hertz). If a < b, then the fraction is called proper fraction.
In some textbooks, j is used instead of i for the If a > b then the fraction is called improper frac-
imaginary unit, particularly in areas related to tion.
electronic engineering. The fraction is also a representation of the divi-
Foot-pound-second system System of units that sion of a over b denoted by
has as basic units the foot (length), the pound
(mass) and the second (time). a
b
Fractal Irregular curve that has the property that
when a part of it is chosen, it is always possible where a is the dividend, called the numerator in
to find an identical part on the same curve, either the fraction, b , 0 is the divisor, called the de-
by magnifying it or by reducing it in scale. nominator in the fraction, and the quotient is a
The following figure shows (in an iterative man- real number.
ner) a small part of a fractal that is known as the Two fractions a/b, and c/d are equal if a d = b c.
Koch snowflake. The elementary operations with fractions are ad-
204
Frecuency–Frenet-Serret formulas
dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. the variable θ is the free variable, while in
a c ad+bc 1+a
+ = lim 1 + x
b d bd x →∞ e
a c ad−bc
− = a is the free variable, and in
b d bd
a c ac
· = 5
5
b d bd
a c ad
∑ i x i y k −i
÷ = i =1
b d bc
the free variables are x and y.
Fractions are also called common fraction or simple Variables that are not free are called bound vari-
fraction. ables.
Frecuency (Analysis) Number of times a periodic Free vector Vector whose initial point can be at any
function repeats a sequence of values for a given point in space.
F
interval.
(Statistics) Number of times a value appears in a Frenet’s trihedron Mobile reference system whose
given interval in a data table. With the absolute origin is located on a parameterized curve of the
frequencies of the different intervals of the data, form:
the frequency table is elaborated. ⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
Read also «Absolute frequency».
provided that it is possible to calculate the follow-
Free variable (1.) In the solution of a system ing three unit vectors: tangent ⃗T, normal N, ⃗ and
of linear equations that has more unknowns binormal B,⃗
than equations, the value of the basic variables
x1 , x2 , · · · , xk , depends on the value of other vari- ′
⃗T = ⃗r (t)
ables xk+1 , · · · , xn , called free variables. ∥⃗r ′ (t)∥
For example, in the system of equations: ′ ′′ ′
⃗ = [⃗r (t) ×⃗r (t)] ×⃗r (t)
N
x1 − 3 x3 = 2 ∥ [⃗r ′ (t) ×⃗r ′′ (t)] ×⃗r ′ (t)∥
′ ′′
x2 − 2 x3 = 5 ⃗B = ⃗r (t) ×⃗r (t)
∥⃗r ′ (t) ×⃗r ′′ (t)∥
the solution is:
These are unit vectors and perpendicular to each
x1 = 2 + 3 x3 other, since they satisfy,
x2 = 5 + 2 x3
⃗T = N⃗ × ⃗B ⃗ = ⃗B × ⃗T
N ⃗B = ⃗T × N
⃗
The free variable is x3 , since the value of the basic
variables (x1 and x2 ) depends on its value. z
Free variables appear in the solution of systems
of linear equations that have an infinite number Tˆ
B̂
of solutions.
(2.) In programming, a free variable in a function ~r(t) N̂
is a non-local variable that is used to compute the
value of that function. 1
(3.) In an algebraic expression, a variable x is a
free variable if it appears in that expression, but
−1 −1
is not involved in the evaluation of that expres- y
1 1
sion (in one of the ways: for all x, or for some x,
or in x). x
For example, in
Z∞ Frenet-Serret formulas Set of relations involving
−r 2 the derivatives of the following unit vectors: tan-
e θ · r · dr
0
gent ⃗T, normal N,⃗ and binormal ⃗B, to a given
205
Frequency distribution–Frequency probability
curve ⃗r. Class Range Frequency
d⃗T A 0 – 10 175
=κN ⃗ B 10 – 20 300
ds
C 20 – 30 450
⃗
dN
= τ ⃗B − κ ⃗T D 30 – 40 400
ds E 40 – 50 350
d⃗B ⃗ F 50 – 60 100
= −τ N
ds
The corresponding frequency histogram is:
where κ is the curvature of the curve ⃗r, τ is its
torsion and s is its arc length.
Frequency
F z
500
Tˆ
B̂
~r(t)
400
1 N̂
300
−1 y
−1 1 200
x 1
100
Read also «Curvature», «Torsion» and «Frenet’s Tri-
hedron». 0
A B C D E F Class
Frequency distribution Data grouping technique
(of values of a random variable) so that each piece Read also «Histogram».
of data belongs to a category, class or interval.
The frequency distribution can be represented in Frequency polygon A graph of a frequency distri-
table form and is usually accompanied by a fre- bution made by joining the midpoints of the up-
quency histogram. per base of each rectangle into a histogram.
To create a frequency distribution apply the fol-
lowing algorithm. f
3
1. Determine the range of the values (maxi-
mum value and minimum value).
2. Determine the number of class intervals over 2
which the data will be distributed.
3. Make the table with the headings: class in- 1
terval and frequency.
4. Count the number of values in the data that 0 Classes
correspond to each class. A B C D E
5. Create a graph like the one shown below,
drawing for each class interval a bar with a Frequency probability Probability that is calcu-
height equal to its corresponding frequency. lated based on the relative proportion of favorable
results to all possible cases in a very large number
For example, suppose that the fractions of the of experiments.
population in the different age ranges of a town The difference between the frequency probability
are distributed as shown in the following table. and the empirical probability is that in empirical
206
Fresnel integral–Function
probability empirical observation is carried out, Read also «Triple integral».
so in the formula: (2) If f ( x, y) is continuous in the rectangular re-
gion
f
P( E) =
n R = {( x, y)| a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d}
P( E) is the probability of occurrence of the event then,
E, f is the frequency of occurrence of the event
E, and n is the total frequency, which represents x Zd Zb
f ( x, y) · dA = f ( x, y) · dx · dy
the number of times the observation (experiment)
R c a
was carried out, while in frequency probability
these data can be theoretical (the observation is (3) If x
not necessarily carried out). | f ( x, y)| · dA < ∞
Read also «Empirical probability». R
Fresnel integral Each of the following transcen-
dental functions, defined by:
then
Z
Z
Z
Z
F
f ( x, y) · dy · dx = f ( x, y) · dx · dy
Zx Zx Q P P Q
S( x ) = sin t2 · dt C(x) = cos t2 · dt
0 0 That is, if the double integral computed using the
absolute value of the function in the integrand is a
is known as the Fresnel integral. finite value, then it is possible to switch the order
of integration in the corresponding iterated inte-
Frustum of a pyramid The portion of a pyramid
gral and both integrals yield the same numerical
obtained by cutting a pyramid with a plane that
answer.
is parallel to its base.
Read also «Double integral».
Full angle Angle that measures 360◦ (or, 2 π rad).
The full angle is also known as complete angle,
round angle and as perigon.
Function Relation between two sets, called the do-
The intersection of the pyramid with the plane main and the range (or codomain), in such a way
that cuts it is called upper base of the frustum and that each element of the domain corresponds to
the base of the pyramid is called lower base of the at most one element of the range.
frustum. The set X formed by all the values given to the
The height of the frustum of a pyramid is the dis- function, for which it returns a value, is its do-
tance between its bases. main, denoted by D f . The set Y formed by all the
The slant height of a frustum is the portion of the values that the function returns is its codomain. √
slant height of the pyramid that lies between the For example the domain f the function y = x,
bases of the frustum. is the set X = { x | x ≥ 0}, since we can only calcu-
late square root of non-negative numbers.
Fubini’s theorem (1) If f ( x, y, z) is continuous in Its codomain is: Y = {y|y ≥ 0}, since the result of
the rectangular box calculating the square root of a number is always
a non-negative number.
Q = {( x, y, z)| a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d, r ≤ z ≤ s}
In this case, y is said to be the dependent variable,
the triple integral of f in Q can be written as an because its values depend on the value given to
iterated integral: the variable x, and x is said to be the indepen-
dent variable of the function. We say that y is a
y Zs Zd Zb function of x, and algebraically this is denoted as:
y = f ( x ). Informally, we can say that a function is
f ( x, y, z) · dV = f ( x, y, z) · dx · dy · dz
Q r c a the relationship that exists between two variable
207
Function of several variables
quantities, in such a way that each value of one and it is read: x maps to y by the function f .
variable (x) corresponds to at most one value of Perhaps the most common is the algebraic repre-
the second variable (y) . sentation, in which the relationship between the
The basic operations between functions are: addi- variables is expressed through a formula √ of the
tion ( f ( x ) + g( x )), difference ( f ( x ) − g( x )), prod- form y = f ( x ) (as for example, y = 1 − x).
uct ( f ( x ) · g( x )), quotient ( f ( x )/g( x ) for g( x ) , 0) In the geometric representation, the graph of the
and composition ( f ( g( x ))). function is shown on a Cartesian plane.
Read also «Functional relation».
Depending on its use, different ways of represent-
ing a function may be useful. A function can be y
y = f (x)
represented in tabular form by placing the values
of x and y in a table. For example, the follow-
ing table represents various values of the function
y = x2 .
F x
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 0 1 4 9 16 25
This type of representation is useful when you Depending on the use to which the function is to
have a relatively small amount of data, where the be put, one of its representations may be more
value of one variable y depends on the value of convenient than the others.
another variable x. A function is similar to a machine that transforms
Another way to represent the relationship be- the numbers that we give it, so that it returns, at
tween the domain and codomain of a function most, one number each time we give it a value.
(and between the variables x, and y) is through
a diagram.
Function
X Y
Domain Codomain
f
X f Y
x y x f (x)
Values given
Domain Codomain to the function
Values returned
by the function
Some authors explain the idea of function as a
machine that transforms numbers. One gives a The concept of function is one of the most impor-
value to the variable x and the function assigns a tant in mathematics.
single value to the variable y.
x Function of several variables A function of sev-
eral variables is a rule that assigns to a n−tuple
( x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn ) a value according to a corre-
spondence rule established as:
f y
w = f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , x n )
In certain branches of mathematics, a function is It is worth mentioning that functions of more than
usually represented as a transformation or as a two variables cannot be graphed.
mapping using the following notation: The following graph corresponds to the function
of two variables:
f
x y 2
z = f ( x, y) = x2 + 3 y2 · e− x −y
2
208
Functional dependence–Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
z skian determinant
1 y1 y2 ··· yn
y1′ y2′ ··· y′n
W [ y1 , · · · , y n ] = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
( n −1) ( n −1) ( n −1)
−1 y1 y2 ··· yn
−1 0 y
1 1
x is not zero.
Read also «Wronskian determinant».
Functional dependence We say that the variable y Fundamental theorem for line integrals If ⃗F is a
has a functional dependence of the variable x if it conservative vector field, and ϕ is its potential
is possible to write the relation between them in function, then,
the form y = f ( x ). In this case, y is the dependent
variable (it depends on x) and x is the indepen-
Z
⃗F ( x, y, z) · d⃗r = ϕ( B) − ϕ( A)
F
dent variable.
C
For example,
√
y = 1+x That is, the value of the line integral along C :
⃗r (t), is obtained evaluating ϕ at the final B and
indicates a functional dependence.
initial A points, and subtracting these values.
If the expression that relates the variables { x, y}
is of the form F ( x, y) = c, where c is a constant, Since ϕ is the potential function if ⃗F, it holds:
instead of the form y = f ( x ), then we say that y ∇ϕ = ⃗F.
is an implicit function of x. In words, this theorem states that the value of a
Read also «Function», «Implicit function», «Depen- line integral in a conservative vector field is inde-
dent variable» and «Independent variable». pendent of the path: it only depends on the end
point and the start point.
Functional relation Correspondence rule between Evidently, if ⃗F is a conservative field and C is a
two quantities that depend on each other. simple closed path, then the value of the line in-
For example, if the price of an apple juice is $7.00, tegral is zero, because the starting point and the
the amount to pay y is functionally related to the ending point are the same point:
quantity of juices bought (x) as follows: y = 7 x. Z
⃗F ( x, y, z) · d⃗r = ϕ( A) − ϕ( A) = 0
Fundamental principle of counting If one event C
can occur in m different ways, and a second event
can occur in n different ways, the number of dif-
ferent ways both events can occur is m · n. Fundamental theorem of algebra Every noncon-
For example, if you have to choose a car of one stant (one-variable) polynomial equation with
color among the colors red, white, gray, of a par- complex coefficients has at least one complex
ticular model among four different models, and root.
with a quality between electric or internal com- This implies that every polynomial equation (of
bustion engine, you have a single variable) of degree n has exactly n roots
(counting multiplicities).
(3) (4) (2) = 24
Fundamental theorem of arithmetic All natural
different options to choose the car. number n > 1 can be uniquely expressed as a
product of prime numbers, except for the order.
Fundamental set of solutions Given a n−order For example,
homogeneous linear differential equation,
504 = 23 · 32 · 7
′ ′′ (n)
a0 ( t ) y + a1 ( t ) y + a2 ( t ) y + · · · + y =0
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic is also
a set of n solutions y1 (t), y2 (t), · · · , yn (t), is a fun- known as the unique factorization theorem.
damental set of solutions, if and only if, the Wron-
209
Future value
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus First part: If Another form to justify it without the use of in-
y = f ( x ) is a continuous function of a real vari- finitesimals is below. Let y = F ( x ) be an an-
able, defined in [ a, b] and y = F ( x ) is tiderivative of the function y = f ( x ). And define
Zx Zt
F(x) = f (t) · dt G (t) = f ( x ) · dx
a a
then F is continuous in [ a, b] and differentiable in By definition of antiderivative, F ′ ( x ) = G ′ ( x ), and
( a, b). since any two antiderivatives of the same function
Second part: If y = f ( x ) is a continuous function of differ by a constant, G ( x ) = F ( x ) + C. NOw, ob-
a real variable, defined in [ a, b] and y = F ( x ) is an serve that
antiderivative of f in [ a, b], so that F ′ ( x ) = f ( x ),
Zb
if f is integrable in [ a, b], then,
F Zb
G (b) =
a
f ( x ) · dx = F (b) + C and also
Za
f ( x ) dx = F (b) − F ( a)
G ( a) = f ( x ) · dx = F ( a) + C = 0
a
a
Leibniz justified this result as follows: consider-
Consequently C = − F ( a). Substituting this into
ing the definite integral as the sum of an infinite
G (b), it is obtained:
number of differentials of the form:
Zb
f ( x ) · dx = F ′ ( x ) · dx
G (b) = F (b) + C = f ( x ) · dx = F (b) − F ( a)
a
where F is an antiderivative of f , by the second
Leibniz’s postulate, F ′ ( x ) = F ( x + dx ) − F ( x ). what was to be demonstrated.
Thus, Both parts of the Fundamental Theorem of Calcu-
lus are often summarized with the Newton–Leibniz
Zb Zb formula: if the function y = f ( x ) is continuous in
f ( x ) · dx = F ′ ( x ) · dx the interval [ a, b], and y = F ( x ) is any antideriva-
a a tive of f , then,
= F ( a + dx ) − F ( a) +
+ F ( a + 2 dx ) − F ( a + dx ) + Zb
f ( x ) dx = F (b) − F ( a)
+ F ( a + 3 dx ) − F ( a + 2 dx ) +
a
+ F ( a + 4 dx ) − F ( a + 3 dx ) +
.. where F ′ ( x ) = f ( x ).
. The fundamental theorem of calculus is also
+ F (b − 2 dx ) − F (b − 3 dx ) + known as the Barrow’s inversion-theorem, since
+ F (b − dx ) − F (b − 2 dx ) + Isaac Barrow was the first to notice that differen-
tiation and integration are inverse operations one
+ F (b) − F (b − dx )
of the other.
Read also «Antiderivative», «Derivative», «Definite
Since this is a telescoping sum, except − F ( a) and
integral», and «Telescopic sum».
F (b), all the terms of the sum kill off each other,
because each one appears twice, once with a posi- Future value The future value of an amount of
tive sign and once with a negative sign. There- money is the value it will have on a specific date.
fore, For its calculation, an interest rate i and a present
Zb value VP are assumed.
f ( x ) · dx = F (b) − F ( a)
a VF = VP (1 + i )n
where y = F ( x ) is an antiderivative of the func- where n is the number of periods considered, in
tion y = f ( x ). each of which the interest rate is applied.
210
G
Gabriel’s horn Surface of revolution obtained Gallon Unit of volume used in the English system,
when the graph of the function y = 1/x is rotated equivalent to 3,785 liters in the US and 4,546 liters
around the x axis from x = 1 to infinity. in England.
y Gamma distribution A random variable X has a
gamma distribution, if and only if, its probability
density is:
z 1
f (x) = x α−1 e− x/β
βα Γ(α)
for x > 0, and f ( x ) = 0, for x ≤ 0, where α > 0,
1 β > 0, and
y=
x Z∞
Γ(α) = x α−1 e− x · dx
x 0
Gabriel’s horn has a volume of π cubic units and The mean µ and the variance σ2 of the gamma
an infinitely large surface area. distribution are:
Za µ=αβ
dx
V = lim =π σ 2 = α β2
a→∞ x2
1
r Read also «Gamma function».
Za
1 1
S = 2 π lim 1 + 4 · dx > 2 π ln( a) Gamma function The Gamma function is defined
a→∞ x x
1 as:
Z∞
Gabriel’s horn is also known as the Torricelli’s Γ(z) = x z−1 e− x · dx
trumpet. 0
Galileo’s paradox If you make a list of all the pos- for Re(z) > 0, where z is a complex number.
itive integers, at first glance it appears that there If the gamma function so defined is evaluated at
are more numbers that are not perfect squares. z = n, being n ∈ N, then,
But for each integer p there is its corresponding
Γ ( n ) = ( n − 1) !
square p2 , so a one-to-one correspondence can be
made between the positive integers and their cor- The gamma function is a generalization of the
responding squares. This means that the number factorial of a natural number, because its graph
of perfect squares is equal to the number of posi- is a smooth curve passing through the points
tive integers. ( x, ( x − 1)!) being x any positive integer.
Gauss circle problem–Gaussian integral
Gauss circle problem Problem that consists of de- y
termining how many points with integer coordi-
nates (m, n) are in the circle of radius r ≥ 0.
Basically, it is required to calculate the number
(x1 , y1 )
of points with integer coordinates (m, n) in the
Cartesian plane such that:
m2 + n2 ≤ r 2
x
(xi+1 , yi+1 )
(xi , yi )
G
x Gauss’s constant Numerical value equivalent to
the reciprocal
√ of the arithmetic-geometric mean of
1 and 2, and approximately equal to 0.834627.
Read also «Arithmetic-geometric mean».
Gauss’s theorem Synonym of divergence theorem.
Read also «Divergence theorem».
Gauss–Wantzel theorem A regular polygon of n
sides is constructible (with compass and ruler), if
and only if, n is the product of a power of 2 and
Gauss equation The Gaussian equation is used any quantity of different Fermat primes (none, in-
to compute the coordinates of the regular hep- clusive).
tadecagon, the regular polygon with 17 sides, Read also «Fermat prime» and «Constructible poly-
through the complex numbers: gon».
Gaussian elimination Method for solving systems
z17 − 1 = 0 of linear equations, also known as the elimination
method or the addition and subtraction method.
Gauss showed that if the odd factors of the num- Read also «Method of gaussian elimination».
ber of sides n of the polygon are Fermat primes,
then the polygon is constructible. Since Gaussian integer number Complex number
whose real and complex parts are integers.
2
For example, the number z = 2 + 3 i, is a Gaus-
17 = 22 + 1 sian integer number.
Read also «Complex number».
17 is a Fermat prime number, it is possible to con- Gaussian integral The improper integral:
struct the regular heptadecagon using only com-
pass and ruler. Z∞ √
2
e− x · dx = π
−∞
Gauss formula Formula to compute the area A
of a polygon from the coordinates of its vertices is the Gaussian integral.
( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), · · · , ( x n , y n ). To justify this result, define:
Z∞
n −1 n −1 2
1 e− x · dx
A=
2 ∑ x i y i +1 + x n y 1 − ∑ x i +1 y i − x 1 y n I=
i =1 i =1 −∞
212
Gaussian sum–General power
so that: 2 The previous formula is called the Gaussian sum
Z∞ formula. The justification for this formula is illus-
2
I2 = e− x · dx trative: since addition is commutative,
−∞ S = 1 + 2 + 3 +··· + n
Since the result of the improper integral does not S = n + n−1 + n−2 +··· + 1
depend on the variable used, we can write: 2 S = ( n + 1) + ( n + 1) + ( n + 1) + · · · + ( n + 1)
Since we are adding n times n + 1, we have:
Z∞
− y2 n ( n + 1)
I= e · dy
2 S = n ( n + 1) ⇒ S=
−∞ 2
Therefore:
Z∞ Z∞
2 2
I2 = e− x · dx e−y · dy
−∞ −∞
G
n+1
Since the variables x, y are independent one of the
other, when integrating with respect to y, the vari-
able x remains constant, so:
Z∞ Z∞
2 2
2
I = e− x · dx e−y · dy
−∞ −∞
Z∞ Z∞ n
− x 2 − y2
= e · dx · dy
−∞ −∞ Read also «Series».
General form The equation of a mathematical ob-
Converting this double integral to polar coordi- ject in its general form considers all possible cases
nates, we obtain: of that mathematical object.
For example, the equation of a line in its general
Z2πZ∞
2 form is:
I2 = e−r · r · dr · dθ
Ax+By+C = 0
0 0
since in this equation all possible lines are repre-
Z2πZ∞
1 −r 2 sented in the plane (horizontal for A = 0, vertical
=− e [−2 r · dr ] · dθ for B = 0, oblique if A , 0 and B , 0, passing
2
0 0 through the origin if C = 0, or not passing by the
a
Z2π origin if C , 0).
1 −r 2
=− dθ lim e And the equation of a conic in its ordinary form
2 a→∞
0 0 refers to the equation of the form:
2π 1 a A x2 + B y2 + C xy + D x + E y + F = 0
=− lim 2
2 a → ∞ er 0
If the axes of the conic are parallel to the coor-
1 1 dinate axes C = 0, and the term C xy, does not
= −π lim a2 − 02 = π
a→∞ e e appear in the general form.
whence the result follows.
This result is applied in the theory of distribu- General power The general power of the complex
tions, probability, Fourier transform, among other number a is defined as:
h iz
areas. az = elog(a) = ez log(a)
Gaussian sum Sum of the first n natural numbers. where z is a complex number and log is the loga-
n ( n + 1) rithmic function of a complex variable.
S = 1+2+3+···+n = If n = az , then, z = log(n).
2
213
General solution–Generating set
General solution The general solution of a linear The generalization must be irrefutably justified to
differential equation is one that contains arbitrary be valid.
constants to be determined. Read also «Mathematical induction method» and
For example, the general solution of the differen- «Gaussian sum».
tial equation y′′ + y′ + y = 0, is:
√ ! √ ! Generalized mean The generalizad mean M p with
3 3
y(t) = c1 e−t/2 cos t + c2 e−t/2 sin t exponent p , 0 of n positive real numbers x1 , x2 ,
2 2
x3 , · · · , xn , is:
where c1 and c2 are constants that can be deter- !1/p
mined from initial conditions: y(t0 ) = y0 , and n
1
∑
p
y′ (t0 ) = y0′ . Mp = xi
n i =1
General term Algebraic expression that indicates
the form that each of the terms of a more com- If the positive weights wi are known for each of
plex expression has. the values x1 , · · · , xn , then the weighted general-
G For example, in a polynomial of the variable x,
the general term is: ai xi . This expression indi-
ized mean with exponent p of those values is:
cates that there is a coefficient ai that multiplies !1/p
n
to the i −th power of the number x.
∑ wi ·
p
Mp = xi
In a Taylor series, the general term is of the form i =1
f (i ) ( a )
( x − a )i where
i!
n
where f (i) ( a) is the i −th derivative evaluated at ∑ wi = 1
i =1
x = a, and i! is the factorial of i, while in a Fourier
series, the general term is of the form:
If p = 1 you get the arithmetic mean, for p = n
Cn cos (n ω0 t − θn ) you get the geometric mean, if p = −1 you get the
harmonic mean, if p = 2 you obtain the quadratic
Read also «Polynomial», «Taylor series», and mean, etc.
«Fourier series».
Generalize Derivation of an assertion from a par- Generating function The ordinary generating
ticular case to more (or all) applicable cases. function of a sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , is:
For example, to add 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 100, observe
that ∞
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 100
A( x ) = ∑ a k x k = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + · · ·
k =0
S = 100 + 99 + 98 + · · · + 1
2 S = 101 + 101 + 101 + · · · + 101
And since the number 101 appears 100 times,
Generating set (Linear algebra) A set of n vectors
100 (101) {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn } is a generating set of the vector
2 S = 100 (101) ⇒ S= space V if any vector ⃗v ∈ V may be written as:
2
Therefore, ⃗v = c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cn⃗vn
(100)(101)
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 100 = where c1 , c2 , · · · , cn are constants.
2
It should be mentioned that the set of vectors is
When generalizing, it is recognized that it is the not required to be linearly independent to be a
Gaussian sum: generating set.
n ( n + 1) If the set of vectors is linearly independent, the
1+2+3+···+n = generating set is a base of the vector space V .
2
214
Generatrix–Geometric median
z Geometric mean The geometric mean m g of two
non-negative numbers p, q is the square root of
its product:
√
mg = p · q
so that p, m g , q are in geometric sequence.
Its geometric representation is as follows: draw a
~v
semi-circle of diameter p + q, m g is the length of
y the segment perpendicular to the diameter, which
has its foot at the point p units from one end of
x
the diameter and which cuts the semicircle.
~u
The generating set is also known as generator set.
mg
Generatrix A point, line, or surface whose motion G
generates a curve, surface, or solid, respectively.
Read also «Ruled surface» and «Skew polygon».
q p
Geographic north North direction indicated on a
geographical map that indicates the direction to
the north pole of the earth. The geometric mean of n data { x1 , x2 , · · · , xn } is
defined as the n−th root of the product of all the
Geometric distribution A geometric distribution data:
is a discrete probability distribution of a variable √
m g = n x1 · x2 · · · · · x n
X that satisfies the following conditions:
where it is assumed that the computation of the
i. Trials are repeated until a success is
indicated root is possible.
achieved.
ii. The trials are independent of each other. Geometric mean theorem Given a right triangle
iii. The probability of success is the same for all whose height perpendicular to its hypotenuse
trials. measures h, and it divides the hypotenuse of the
triangle into two segments of lengths p and q,
iv. The value x of the random variable X equals
then,
the number of trials in which the first success
occurs. h q √
= ⇒ h = pq
p h
If a random variable X has a geometric distribu-
tion, its probability distribution is:
P ( X = k ) = (1 − p ) k −1 p
for k = 1, 2, 3, · · · , where 0 ≤ p ≤ 1. h
The random variable X represents the number of
Bernoulli trials required to obtain a success, after
k independent trials, each with an equal probabil-
ity of success p. q p
Some characteristics of the geometric distribution
are:
Read also «Right triangle altitude theorem».
• Mean: µ = 1/p.
1− p Geometric median The geometric median of a dis-
• Variance: crete sample of points Pi in space is the point M
p2
that minimizes the sum of the distances from M
• Mode: 1 to each point Pi of the given sample.
215
Geometric progression–Glissette
z The first term in the list is denoted by a1 and the
constant ratio by r.
P6 P4
P5 a1 , a2 = a1 · r, a3 = a1 · r 2 , · · ·
P3 For example, if we define a1 = 2 and r = 3,
P1
P9 M the terms of the geometric sequence are: a1 = 2,
P2
P8 a2 = 6, a3 = 18, a4 = 54, etc.
P 10 We can calculate the n−th term an of the sequence
x using the formula:
P 12 y
P 11 P 7
a n = a 1 · r n −1
And the sum of the first n terms Sn with:
a 1 (1 − r n +1 )
Geometric progression Numerical sequence de- Sn =
1−r
G fined by a first term a1 , and a constant ratio r,
whose elements satisfy: If n is considered to be infinitely large and |r | < 1,
then
a1
a i +1 = a i · r Sn =
1−r
The n−th term an of the progression can be cal- The geometric sequence is also known as geomet-
culated using the formula: ric progression.
Read also «Geometric progression».
a n = a 1 · r n −1
Geometric solid Objects (real or ideal) that occupy
And the sum Sn of the first n terms with: a volume and that have three dimensions: height,
length and width.
a 1 (1 − r n +1 )
Sn =
1−r
For example, let a1 = 2 and r = 3, the terms of
the geometric progression are: a1 = 2, a2 = 6,
a3 = 18, a4 = 54, etc.
Given a1 , an and n, then
r
an
r = n −1
a1
n/(n−1) n/(n−1)
an − a1
Sn = 1/(n−1) 1/(n−1) Read also «Solid».
an − a1
Geometry Branch of mathematics that deals with
Given an , r and n, then the study of the properties of points, lines, angles,
surfaces, and solids.
an
a1 = Read also «Analytic geometry» and «Plane geome-
r −1
n
try».
a n (r n − 1)
Sn =
( r − 1 ) r n −1 Giga- Prefix used to denote 109 . For example,
a gigaliter is equal to one billion liters, that is,
The geometric progression is also known as geo- 1 GL = 109 L.
metric sequence.
Glissette In geometry, a glissette is a curve defined
Geometric sequence List of numbers that have the either as the locus of a point or as the envelope of
property that any two consecutive numbers have a line or curve. It is associated with a curve that
a constant ratio. Namely, ai+1 /ai = r for any two moves in contact with or along two other fixed
consecutive terms of the sequence, where r , 1. curves.
216
Goldbach’s conjecture–Golden orthohedron
For example, if a fixed-length segment, whose Indeed,
endpoints lie on the coordinate axis, slides back √
and forth, the glissette is the curve traced by any 1 1+ 5 2
φ− = − √
point on this segment, and in this case it forms an φ 2 1+ 5
ellipse. √ 2
1+ 5 −4 √
2+2 5
= √ = √ =1
y 2 1+ 5 2 1+ 5
A rectangle is said to be in the golden ratio when
b
multiplying the length of the shortest side by ϕ
results in the length of the longest one.
x D N C
−a a
−b G
Goldbach’s conjecture Any even integer greater
than 2 can be written as the sum of two prime
numbers. A M B
Golden number Mathematical constant denoted
by φ, and equal to the irrational number: If we divide: AB over BC we get the same re-
sult as dividing BC over BM :
√
1+ 5 √
φ= ≈ 1.61803398874989 AB BC
1+ 5
2 ϕ= = =
BC BM 2
Geometrically, the number φ is the proportion in
which a segment of length a + b is divided into The dimensions of the rectangles ABCD and
two parts so that: MBCN are in the golden ratio.
The number ϕ appears frequently in nature.
a+b a Painters, sculptors and architects use it to im-
= =φ
a b prove the aesthetic aspect of their works.
The golden number is also known as golden ratio,
0 a a+b golden proportion, medial section, extreme and mean
ratio and divine proportion.
Substituting a = x, and b = 1, it is obtained: Golden orthohedron Orthohedron whose edges
measure 1, ϕ, 1 + ϕ, respectively, where ϕ is the
x2 = x + 1 ⇒ x2 − x − 1 = 0 golden number, or they are in that proportion.
The number φ is the positive solution of the pre- z
vious quadratic equation. Indeed,
√ !2 √
2 1+ 5 1+2 5+5
φ = =
2 4
√ √
φ
5+3 5+1
= = + 1 = φ + 1.
2 2
x y
1+φ 1
Also, since:
1
φ2 = φ + 1 ⇒ φ2 − 1 = φ ⇒ φ− = 1. Read also: «Golden number».
φ
217
Golden proportion–Golden Spiral
Golden proportion Mathematical constant de- z
6
noted by φ, and equal to the irrational number:
√ 5
1+ 5 2
φ= ≈ 1.61803398874989
2 1
Geometrically, the number φ is the ratio into 11
which a segment of length is divided a + b in two 10
parts so that:
12
y
a+b a
= =φ x
9
a b
3
0 a a+b 7
G 8
Substituting a = x, and b = 1, it is obtained:
x2 = x + 1 ⇒ x2 − x − 1 = 0 Read also «Golden ratio».
The number φ is the positive solution of the pre- Golden rhombus Rhombus whose diagonals are
vious quadratic equation. in the proportion: 1 : φ, where φ is the golden
Read also «Golden proportion» and «Golden rectan- number.
gle».
√
1+ 5
Golden rectangle A golden rectangle is a rectangle φ= ≈ 1.61803398874989
2
whose sides are in the proportion 1 : φ, where φ
is the golden ratio: Read also «Golden number».
√ One way to construct a golden rhombus is to con-
1+ 5 sider the vertices of the golden rhombus to be the
φ= ≈ 1.61803398874989 midpoints of a golden rectangle.
2
1 1
ϕ ϕ
The golden rectangle has been used in painting
Read also «Golde rectangle».
and sculpture in order to give aesthetic propor-
tions to artistic works.
In geometry, for example, to calculate the coor- Golden Spiral Spiral whose equation in polar co-
√
dinates of the vertices of an icosahedron, three ordinates is: r = φ2θ/π , where φ = (1 + 5)/2 is
congruent golden rectangles are constructed, mu- the golden number.
tually perpendicular, with the center at the same
point. The vertices of these golden rectangles are
the vertices of an icosahedron.
218
Golden triangle–Googol
y C
36◦
D
x
36◦
A B
Read also «Golden number».
Its parametric equations in rectangular coordi-
nates are: Golden trigonal trapezohedron Polyhedron
formed by 6 faces in the form of a golden rhom-
x (t) = φ2 t/π cos(t) bus, all of its faces being congruent to each other. G
2 t/π It has 8 vertices and 12 edges.
y(t) = φ sin(t)
for t ≥ 0.
Read also «Golden number».
Golden triangle Isosceles triangle in which the ra-
tio of the longest side to the shortest one is φ,
where φ is the golden number.
√
b 1+ 5
=φ= ≈ 1.61803398874989
a 2
The interior angles of the golden triangle measure
72◦ at the base and 36◦ the one formed by the two
sides of equal length.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
q √
1
V= 10 + 2 5 a3
5
12 √ 2
b A= 5a
5
The golden trigonal trapezohedron is an isohe-
dral figure that is also known as golden acute rhom-
72◦ bohedron.
a Multiple copies of the golden trigonal trapezohe-
dron can be used to construct a Bilinski dodeca-
hedron.
Read also «Bilinski dodecahedron», «Isohedral fig-
Observe that if △ ABC is a golden triangle and the ure», and «golden rhombus».
angle bisector of ∠BAC of 72◦ is drawn and the
point where said bisector intersects the side BC Googol Natural number that is written with a 1
of the triangle is obtained, Then △ ABD is also a followed by one hundred zeros. That is, one
golden triangle. Googol is equal to 10100 .
219
Googolplex–Gram-Schmidt process
Googolplex Natural number that is written with a Given the funciton w = f ( x, y, z), if
1 followed by a googol of zeros. That is, a googol-
100 u = f ( x, y, z) − c
plex is equal to 1010 .
Gradian Unit of measure for an angle equivalent where c is a constant, then ∇ f is perpendicular to
to 1/400 part of a complete turn around the cir- the level curves f ( x, y, z) = c.
cle. The gradient of f is also denoted by grad( f ).
That is, a gradian is built on a circumference by The gradient has the following properties.
dividing it into 400 equal parts. The central an- • ∇ ( f + g) = ∇ f + ∇ g.
gle subtended by one of those parts measures one
• ∇ (c f ) = c ∇ f , for any c ∈ R.
gradian.
The gradian is denoted using g . For example, 1g • ∇ ( f g) = f ∇ g + g ∇ f .
is read: one gradian. f g ∇ f − f ∇g
• ∇ = , for all ⃗x where
In calculators it is abbreviated with grad, or with g g2
g, depending on the model of the calculator. g(⃗x ) , 0.
The gradian is also known as gon and as grad.
G A right angle measures 100g . For this reason, the
gradian is also known as centesimal degree.
If w = f ( x, y, z), and
dx dy dz
Read also «Sexagesimal degree» and «Radian». û = , ,
ds ds ds
Gradient The gradient of the function of several
is a unit vector, then:
variables w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), denoted by ∇ f ,
is the vector whose components are the partial df
derivatives of f with respect to each of its vari- = ⃗u · ∇ f = ∥û∥ ∥∇ f ∥ cos(θ )
ds
ables:
∂f ∂f ∂f where θ is the angle between ⃗u and ∇ f . That is,
∇f = , ,··· , the derivative of a function in the direction of a
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
unit vector û is equal to the component in the di-
where the partial derivatives are assumed to exist rection of û of the gradient of the function.
at the point where the gradient is evaluated.
Since, in general, the partial derivatives of the
∇f
function depend on the variables on which the
function depends, the gradient is considered a
vector field. That is, the gradient assigns a vector
to each point in the domain of the function where
its partial derivatives are defined.
For example, given the function of two variables
1 θ û
− x2
z = f ( x, y) = e sin(y)
û · ∇f
its gradient is:
2 2
∇ f = ⟨−2 x e− x sin(y), e− x cos(y)⟩
Also note that if z = f ( x, y), then,
∂f ∂f ∂f
z = f (x, y) ∇ f · ⟨1, 0⟩ = , · ⟨1, 0⟩ =
∂x ∂y ∂x
1
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f (x0 , y0 ) ∇ f · ⟨0, 1⟩ = , · ⟨0, 1⟩ =
∂x ∂y ∂y
−1 0 −1
Read also «Divergence», «Directional derivative»
1 1 y
«Dot product», and «Rotational».
x Gram-Schmidt process Procedure used to con-
struct an orthonormal basis for a vector space of
The gradient of w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) always dimension n, for which a basis is known.
points in the direction of fastest growth for w. Let {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn } a base for the vector space H
220
Grandi’s series
of dimension n. perpendicular to the previous two. The lengths
Step 1. Let of the first two components (in the direction of
⃗v1 û1 and û2 ) can be computed with the dot prod-
û1 =
∥⃗v1 ∥ uct of each of these vectors with the vector ⃗v3 .
Step 2. Let Subtracting these components from ⃗v3 gives the
component of ⃗v3 that is perpendicular to both û1
⃗ 2 = ⃗v2 − (⃗v2 · ⃗u1 ) ⃗u1
w and û2 :
Step 3. Let ⃗ 3 = ⃗v3 − (⃗v3 · û1 ) û1 − (⃗v3 · û2 ) û2
w
⃗2
w
û2 = This vector is perpendicular to the vectors û1 and
∥⃗
w2 ∥ û2 . Indeed,
Step 4. Let
⃗ 3 · û1 = ⃗v3 · û1 − (⃗v3 · û1 ) û1 · û1 − (⃗v3 · ⃗u2 ) ⃗u2 · û1
w
⃗ k+1 = ⃗vk+1 − (⃗vk+1 · ⃗u1 ) ⃗u1 − (⃗vk+1 · ⃗u2 ) ⃗u2
w = ⃗v3 · û1 − ⃗v3 · ⃗u1 = 0
− · · · − (⃗vk+1 · ⃗uk ) ⃗uk
since û1 is a unit vector, û1 · û1 = 1, but also û1 is
Step 5. Let
⃗ k +1
w
perpendicular to û2 , thus ⃗u2 · û1 = 0. Similarly, G
ûk+1 = ⃗ 3 · û2 = ⃗v3 · û2 − (⃗v3 · û1 ) û1 · û2 − (⃗v3 · ⃗u2 ) ⃗u2 · û2
w
∥⃗
w k +1 ∥
= ⃗v3 · û2 − ⃗v3 · ⃗u2 = 0
Apply steps 4 and 5 until k + 1 = n.
Then, the set of vectors since û2 is a unit vector, and also ⃗u1 · û2 = 0 be-
cause these two vectors are perpendicular to each
{û1 , û2 , · · · , ûn } other.
A unit vector in the direction of w⃗ 3 is:
is an orthonormal set of vectors.
In step 1 a unit vector in the direction of ⃗v1 is gen- 1
û3 = ⃗3
w
erated. ∥⃗
w3 ∥
In step 2, the vector ⃗v2 is considered as the sum
Continue with this pattern until the vectors in the
of two mutually perpendicular components. One
initially given base have been depleted.
of those components points in the direction of ⃗v1 .
Observe that everytime you subtract the compo-
The length of this component is given by the dot
nent of the vector ⃗vk in the direction of the vec-
product ⃗v2 · û1 , because
tor ûi , you are making sure w ⃗ k will be perpen-
⃗v2 · v̂1 = ∥⃗v2 ∥ ∥û1 ∥ cos(θ ) dicular to ûi . That is the reason why it is neces-
sary to include the terms of the form − (⃗vk · ûi ) ûi
where θ is the angle between û1 and ⃗v2 . Since for i = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1, when computing the vector
û1 is a unit vector, the product ∥⃗v2 ∥ cos(θ ) is the ⃗ k . In this way the computed vector ûk will be
w
length of the projection of ⃗v2 in the direction of perpendicular to all the vectors previously gener-
û1 . By subtracting from the vector ⃗v2 its compo- ated.
nent in the direction of û1 , we obtain w ⃗ 2 , which
is the component of ⃗v2 perpendicular to ⃗v1 . This Grandi’s series The infinite series
can be verified using the dot product of w ⃗ 2 and ∞
û1 : ∑ (−1)i = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · ·
i =0
⃗ 2 · û1 = ⃗v2 · û1 − (⃗v2 · û1 ) û1 · û1
w is a divergent series that is known as the Grandi’s
= ⃗v2 · û1 − ⃗v2 · û1 = 0 series.
It is worth mentioning that the value of the Cesáro
since û1 is a unit vector, ⃗u1 · û1 = ∥û1 ∥2 = 1. sum of Grandi’s series is 1/2, because:
In step 3 a unit vector in the direction of w ⃗ 2 is
generated. S=1−1+1−1+···
The same is done with the other vectors. For ex- S − 1 = −1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − · · ·
ample, the vector ⃗v3 is considered to be made up 2S−1 = 0
of 3 mutually perpendicular components, the first
one pointing in the direction of û1 , the second one Which indicates that S = 1/2.
pointing in the direction of û2 , and the third one Read also «Cesáro sum»
221
Graph–Great circle
Graph The graph of an equation or a function is 4 3
the set of all points in the plane or in space that
satisfy its algebraic expression.
It is worth mentioning that it is possible to graph
functions of one variable (y = f ( x )) or of two 5 1 2
variables (z = f ( x, y)). It is not possible to graph
functions of more than two variables.
The graph represents the relationship between the
variables of the equation or the behavior of a de-
pendent variable with respect to another (or seve- The vertex that serves as both ends for the same
ral other) independent variable(s)√of a function. edge is said to have a loop. The loop is the edge
For example, the graph of y = x shows how, that connects its ends at the same vertex. In the
as the value of the independent variable x grows, previous figure vertex 3 has a loop.
the value of the dependent variable y also grows, A graph can be a directed graph, when the edges
at a slower rate. have a direction defined (from one vertex to an-
other), while an undirected graph has no direc-
G y
tion defined on the edges.
The degree of a vertex is equal to the number of
√
y= x edges reaching that node plus twice the number
2 of loops in it.
For example, in the graph above, the degree of
vertex 1 is 3, the degree of node 5 is 2, and the
1 degree of node 3 is 3.
Read also «Adjacency matrix».
0 x
1 2 3 4
Graph theory Branch of mathematics that studies
graphs.
The word plot is often used as synonym of graph. A graph consists of a network of nodes (or ver-
(Discrete mathematics) Set of vertices and edges tices) and edges (links) that connect these nodes.
related to each other, so that each edge has two
vertices (not necessarily different) at its ends.
C B
C B
D G A
D G A
E F
E F
A graph is a simple graph if each edge joins a pair
of different vertices and there are no edges with
both ends at the same vertex. Great circle Circle obtained by cutting a sphere
If there is an edge with endpoints at the same ver- with a plane that passes through the center of it
tex, then the graph is a non-simple graph. and divides it into two hemispheres.
222
Great ellipse–Greater than
x y
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√
In other words, the great circle is a cross section
V = 95 + 50 5 a3
s !
G
of the sphere that contains its diameter. √ q √
The great circle is also known as orthodrome. A = 30 1 + 2 4 + 5 + 15 + 6 5 a2
Read also «Sphere» and «Hemisphere».
Read also «Truncated icosidodecahedron».
Great rhombicuboctahedron Polyhedron with 26
Great ellipse Ellipse that is obtained as the inter-
faces, of which 6 are octagons, 8 are hexagons,
section of an ellipsoid with a plane that passes
and 12 are squares. It also has 48 vertices and 72
through the center of said ellipsoid.
edges.
y
x
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√
V = 22 + 14 2 a3
√ √
A = 12 2 + 2 + 3 a2
Read also «Ellipsoid» and «Great circle». The great rhombicuboctahedron is also known as
truncated cuboctahedron, rhombitruncated cuboctahe-
dron, omnitruncated cube and as cantitruncated cube.
The great rhombicuboctahedron is an
Great rhombicosidodecahedron Polyhedron with Archimedean solid.
62 faces, of which 12 are decagons, 20 are
hexagons, and 30 are squares. It also has 120 ver- Greater than It is said that a is greater than b if
tices and 180 edges. the difference a − b is positive and it is denoted
223
Greatest common divisor–Grid method for multiplication
as a > b. Greek alphabet The Greek alphabet is used in
For example, 10 > 6, because 10 − 6 = 4, and mathematics and physics to represent certain
also, 4 is a positive number. quantities, particularly in geometry (angle mea-
Geometrically, if a is to the right of b on the num- surements, among others).
ber line, then a > b. The Greek alphabet is included in the appendix
to this glossary (on page 591).
x
0 a Green’s theorem Let C be a piece-wise closed and
b
smooth curve, oriented counterclockwise that de-
limits the region D of the xy plane. Then,
Read also «Inequality». x
∂N ∂M
M dx + N dy = − dx dy
Greatest common divisor (Arithmetic) The great- D
∂x ∂y
C
est common divisor of several numbers a, b, c, · · · ,
is the greatest integer number by which is divisi- where M and N are the components of the vector
ble each one of the numbers a, b, c, · · · . field
G The greatest common divisor of the numbers a
and b is denoted by: GCD( a, b).
⃗F ( x, y) = M ı̂ + N ȷ̂
For example, GCD(4, 12, 20) is 4.
To compute GCD(4, 12, 20) simplify by taking F~ (x, y) = M ı̂ + N ̂
out half, a third, etc., until they cannot be simpli-
fied any further. Multiply the factors by which the
C
numbers 4, 12 and 20 are divided simultaneously.
4 12 20 2 −→ half
2 6 10 2 −→ half D
1 3 5 3 −→ third
1 1 5 5 −→ fifth
1 1 1 −→ end
Then, GCD(4, 12, 20) is:
2×2 = 4
In words, Green’s theorem states that the value of
Note that we don’t multiply by 3 or 5 because
the line integral, along C, is equal to the double
they don’t divide all three numbers 4, 12, and 20
integral in the region D, as indicated by the equa-
simultaneously.
tion given in the theorem.
(Algebra) The greatest common divisor of two
polynomials is another polynomial of the highest Note that the components of the vector field ⃗F lie
degree possible, which is a divisor of both poly- in the xy plane, so the component in the direction
nomials. of the z axis is zero.
For example, the greatest common divisor of the Green’s theorem is a special case of Stokes’s the-
polynomials orem (for a field ⃗F whose components lie in the
plane z = 0).
x4 + x3 − x2 + x − 2 y Read also «Stokes’ theorem».
x4 + 4 x3 + 4 x2 + 4 x + 3 Grid method for multiplication Method to com-
pute the result of the multiplication of two num-
is x2 + 1, because bers of several digits.
The method consists in separating the numbers
x4 + x3 − x2 + x − 2 = x2 + 1 ( x − 1)( x + 2) in units, tens, hundreds, etc. and accommodating
those in a grid.
x4 + 4 x3 + 4 x2 + 4 x + 3 = x2 + 1 ( x + 1)( x + 3) For example, to compute 327 × 45, write in the
cells of the first row the numbers 300, 20, and 7,
and in the cells of the left column of the grid write
224
Grimm’s conjecture–Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
40 and 5. Then, multiply the numbers in the cells one quantity.
of the first row by the numbers in the cells of the The symbols of grouping are: parentheses ( ),
first column, and write the products in the corre- square brackets [ ], and curly brackets { }.
sponding row and column, as shown below. Read also «Operator precedence».
Gudermannian function Function denoted by gd,
300 20 7 and defined for all x as:
40 12 000 800 280
Zx
5 1 500 100 35 gd( x ) = sech(t) · dt
0
The product equals the sum of 12 000, 800, 280,
1500, 100 and 35, which is 14 715. Its inverse function is:
Read also «Distributive property». Zx
−1
gd (x) = sec(t) · dt = ln |sec( x ) + tan( x )|
Grimm’s conjecture If the k integer consecutive
0
numbers n + 1, n + 2, n + 3, · · · , n + k are all com-
posite numbers, then there are k distinct prime
numbers pi such that pi divides n + i for 1 ≤ i ≤
for −π/2 < x < π/2.
The derivative of the Gudermannian function is:
G
k.
d [gd( x )]
For example, 24, 25, 26, 27 are composite conse- = sech( x )
cutive integer numbers. In this case, 2|24, 5|25, dx
13|26, 3|27 and 7|28. The derivative of the inverse function of the Gud-
This is an open problem. ermannian function is:
h i
Group Non-emty set G endowed with a binary d gd−1 ( x )
operation ◦, whose elements satisfy: = sec( x )
dx
• Given g1 , g2 ∈ G , g1 ◦ g2 is a unique element Gudermannian function can be equivalently de-
G. fined as:
• For all g1 , g2 , g3 ∈ G , it is satisfied: ( g1 ◦ g2 ) ◦
g3 = g1 ◦ ( g2 ◦ g3 ) . gd( x ) = arcsin (tanh( x ))
• There exist one element e ∈ G , such that
= arctan (sinh( x ))
g ◦ e = g for all g ∈ G . = arccsc (coth( x ))
• For all g ∈ G there exist another element Some identities that the Gudermann function
h ∈ G , such that g ◦ h = e. satisfies are the following.
The element e is known as the identity element. • sin [gd( x )] = tanh( x ).
In a group the identity element is unique. If • cos [gd( x )] = sech( x ).
g ◦ h = e, then h is the inverse of g, denoted by
g −1 . • tan [gd( x )] = sinh( x ).
If f , g ∈ G , then: • csc [gd( x )] = coth( x ).
• sec [gd( x )] = cosh( x ).
( g ◦ f ) −1 = f −1 ◦ g −1
−1 • cot [gd( x )] = csch( x ).
f −1 =f
Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Furthermore, if f , g1 , g2 ∈ G , then, Polyhedron with 42 faces, of which 2 are regu-
lar decagons, 10 are regular pentagons, 20 are
• f ◦ g1 = f ◦ g2 implies g1 = g2 . squares, and 10 are equilateral triangles. It also
• g1 ◦ f = g2 ◦ f implies g1 = g2 . has 50 vertices and 90 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
Grouping symbols Mathematical signs or symbols area A are:
used to indicate that several operations are to be V ≈ 36.9672 a3
performed first (order of operations) and/or that 5 √
several mathematical terms are to be treated as A= 8 + 2 k a2
2
225
Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron–Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola
where The gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron is a Johnson
r solid.
√ √
k = 44 + 19 5 + 3 85 + 38 5
Gyrobifastigium Polyhedron with 8 faces, of
which 4 are quadrilaterals and 4 are triangles. It
This geometric solid is obtained by removing two also has 8 vertices and 14 edges.
non-opposite pentagonal cupolas from a rhom-
bicosidodecahedron and rotating a pentagonal
cupola 36◦ .
If the length of its edges is a, its area A and its
volume V are:
The gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahe- √
A = 4 + 3 a2
dron is a Johnson solid.
√
3 3
Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron Polyhedron V= a
with 62 faces, of which 12 are pentagons, 30 are 2
squares, and 20 are equilateral triangles. It also The gyrobifastigium is a Johnson solid.
has 60 vertices and 120 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola Polyhedron
area A are: that has 42 faces of which 30 are equilateral tri-
q angles, 10 are squares and 2 are pentagons. It
√ √
A = 30 + 5 3 + 3 25 + 10 5 a2 also has 30 vertices and 70 edges.
1 √
V= 60 + 29 5 a3
3
This geometric solid is obtained by rotating a pen-
tagonal cupola 36◦ of a rhombicosidodecahedron.
The gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola is ob-
tained by adding a decagonal antiprism between
the bases of two pentagonal cupolas.
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
and its area A are:
V ≈ 11.3974 a3
A = k a2
226
Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda–Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid
where The gyroelongated pentagonal cupola is obtained
s by attaching a decagonal antiprism to the base of
5 √ q √ a pentagonal cupola.
k = 10 + 70 + 5+3 75 + 30 5
2 If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
its area A are:
The gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola is a John-
son solid.
V ≈ 9.07333 a3 !
√
Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda Polyhedron k
that has 52 faces of which 40 are equilateral trian- A= 5+ a2
4
gles and the other 12 are regular pentagons. It
also has 40 vertices and 90 edges. √ p √
where k = 2600 + 310 5 + 50 2175 + 930 5.
The gyroelongated pentagonal cupola is a John-
son solid.
Gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda Poly-
hedron with 47 faces, of which seven are regular
G
pentagons, 5 are squares and 35 are equilateral
triangles. It also has 35 vertices and 80 edges.
The gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda is ob-
tained by adding a pentagonal rotunda on each
of the faces of a decagonal antiprism.
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
and its area A are:
3
V ≈ 20.5848
s a
√ q √ 2
A = 15 35 + 6 5 + 4 75 + 30 5 a The gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda is
obtained by joining a pentagonal cupola and a
pentagonal rotunda to each of the bases of a
The gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda is a
decagonal antiprism.
Johnson solid.
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
Gyroelongated pentagonal cupola Polyhedron its area A are:
with 32 faces, of which one is a regular decagon,
one is a regular pentagon, 5 are squares and 25 V ≈ 15.9911 a3
are equilateral triangles. It also has 25 vertices r !
7 5
and 45 edges. A= 5+ k a2
2 2
√ p √
where k = 10 + 5 + 75 + 30 5.
The gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda is
a Johnson solid.
Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid Polyhedron
with 16 faces, of which one is a pentagon and 15
are triangles. It also has 11 vertices and 25 edges.
227
Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda–Gyroelongated square bipyramid
where
r
√ √
k = 265 + 58 5+6 30 65 + 29 5
The gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda is a John-
son solid.
Gyroelongated square bicupola Polyhedron that
has 34 faces of which 24 are equilateral triangles
and 10 are squares. It also has 24 vertices and 56
edges.
The gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid is ob-
tained by adding a pentagonal pyramid to one of
the pentagonal bases of a pentagonal antiprism.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area
A, and its circunradius R are:
G V=
1 √
25 + 9 5 a3
24s
1 5 √ q √ 2
A= 70 + 5 + 3 75 + 30 5 a
2 2
s √
5+ 5
R= a
8
The gyroelongated square bicupola is obtained by
The gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid is a John- adding an octagonal antiprism between the bases
son solid. of two square cupolas.
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda Polyhedron and its area A are:
with 37 faces, of which one is a regular decagon,
6 are regular pentagons, and 30 are equilateral V ≈ 8.15357
a3
√
triangles. It also has 30 vertices and 65 edges. A = 10 + 6 3 a2
The gyroelongated square bicupola is a Johnson
solid.
Gyroelongated square bipyramid Polyhedron
that has 16 faces in the shape of equilateral trian-
gles. It also has 10 vertices and 24 edges.
The gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda can be ob-
tained by adding a pentagonal antiprism to the
base of a pentagonal rotunda.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
V ≈ 13.6671 a3 The gyroelongated square bipyramid is obtained
1 √ by adding a square pyramid to each of the square
A= 5 k a2 faces of a square-based antiprism.
2
228
Gyroelongated square cupola–Gyroelongated triangular cupola
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
and its area A are: area A are:
q √ 3
1 √ √
V= 2+ 4+3 2 a 1
q √
3 V= 2 + 2 4 + 3 2 a3
√ 2 6
A=4 3a √
A = 1 + 3 3 a2
The gyroelongated square bipyramid is a Johnson
solid.
The gyroelongated square pyramid is a Johnson
Gyroelongated square cupola Polyhedron with 26
solid.
faces, of which one is an octagon, 5 are quadrila-
terals and 20 are triangles. It also has 20 vertices
and 44 edges.
Gyroelongated triangular bicupola Polyhedron
that has 26 faces of which 20 are equilateral trian-
gles and 6 are squares. It also has 18 vertices and
42 edges.
G
The gyroelongated square cupola is obtained by
attaching an octagonal antiprism to the base of a
square cupola.
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
its area A are:
V ≈ 6.21077
a3
√ √
A = 7 + 2 2 + 5 3 a2
The gyroelongated square cupola is a Johnson
solid. The gyroelongated triangular bicupola is ob-
tained by adding a hexagonal antiprism between
Gyroelongated square pyramid Polyhedron with the bases of two triangular bicupolas.
13 faces, of which one is a square and 12 are tri- If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
angles. It also has 9 vertices and 20 edges. and its area A are:
r q
1 √ √
V= 68 + 18 3 + 60 1+ 3 a3
3 √
A = 6 + 5 3 a2
The gyroelongated triangular bicupola is a John-
son solid.
Gyroelongated triangular cupola Polyhedron
The gyroelongated square pyramid is obtained by with 20 faces, of which one is a hexagon, 3 are
adding a square pyramid to the base of a square- quadrilateral and 16 are triangles. It also has 15
based antiprism. vertices and 33 edges.
229
Gyroelongated triangular cupola
by attaching a hexagonal antiprism to the base of
a triangular cupola.
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
its area A are:
r q
1 61 √ √
V= + 18 3 + 30 1 + 3 a3
3 2
√ !
11 3
A= 3+ a2
2
The gyroelongated triangular cupola is a Johnson
The gyroelongated triangular cupola is obtained solid.
230
H
Half When we divide a whole into two equal parts, For example, the number 19 is a happy number,
each of them is a half, or one half of the whole. because
12 + 92 = 82
82 + 22 = 68
62 + 82 = 100
1 1
12 + 02 + 02 = 1
2 2
If a prime number p happens to be a happy num-
ber (for example, the happy number 19 is a prime
number), then p is said to be a happy prime num-
ber.
As a fraction, a half is denoted as If a natural number is not a happy number, it
is said to be a sad number (or also, an unhappy
1
or, 1/2 number).
2
Hardy–Ramanujan number An integer is a Hardy
and it is equivalent to 0.5 as a number with deci- Ramanujan number if it is the smallest number
mals. that can be decomposed as n distinct sums of pos-
Half-line A part of a line that has a start point and itive perfect cubes.
no end point. For example,
−→
The figure below shows the half-line AB: Ta(1) = 2 = 13 + 13
Ta(2) = 1 729 = 123 + 13
−→
AB Ta(3) = 87 539 319 = 1673 + 4363
are Hardy-Ramanujan numbers.
B The Hardy-Ramanujan numbers are also known
as taxicab numbers.
Harmonic mean The harmonic mean mh of a sam-
A ple of n data { x1 , x2 , · · · , xn }, is:
1 1 1
+ +···+
The half-line is also known as a ray. 1 x x2 xn
= 1 ⇒
mh n
Happy number A natural number is a happy num- n
ber if, when iteratively replaced by the sum of the mh =
1 1 1
squares of its digits, eventually yields 1. + +···+
x1 x2 xn
Harmonic number–Hebesphenomegacorona
The arithmetic mean x of a set of values is always Harmonic series A series of the form:
greater than the harmonic mean mh of the same
∞
set. 1
∑i
Harmonic number The n−th harmonic number, i =1
denoted as Hn is the one obtained from the partial
sum of the first n terms of the harmonic series: The general case of the harmonic series is:
n
1
Hn = ∑ ∞
1
i =1
i ∑ mi+k
i =1
Considering that:
1 − xn where m and k are constants.
= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + · · · + x n −1 That is, the terms of the general case of a har-
1−x
monic series form a harmonic sequence.
Euler proposed to calculate the definite integral Read also «Euler-Mascheroni constant» and «Har-
of this expression from x = 0 to x = 1, to obtain monic number».
the n−th harmonic number:
Z1 1 Heaviside step function The Heaviside step func-
1 − xn x2 x3 x4 xn
H 0
1−x
· dx = x +
2
+
3
+
4
+···+
n 0
tion is a unit step function defined by:
n 1 for x > 0
1 1 1 1 1
=1+ + + +···+ = ∑ u( x ) =
0 for x < 0
2 3 4 n i =1
i
The only harmonic number that is an integer is
the number H1 = 1. y
1 for x > 0
Read also «Harmonic sequence», «Harmonic series» u(x) =
0 for x < 0
and «Euler-Mascheroni constant». 1
Harmonic ratio If A, B, C nd D are points that are
on a line (in that order), the harmonic ratio r be- x
tween ( A, B) and (C, D ) is: O
CA/CB
r=
DA/DB Observe that this function is undefined for x = 0.
`
A B C D Hebesphenomegacorona Polyhedron that has 21
faces of which 18 are equilateral triangles and
Harmonic sequence A sequence whose elements three are squares. It also has 14 vertices and 33
are the reciprocals of an arithmetic sequence. edges.
That is to say, if a, b, c, · · · is an arithmetic se-
quence, then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c, · · · form a harmonic
sequence.
Equivalently, any three consecutive terms a, b, c of
a harmonic sequence satisfy:
a a−b
=
c b−c
The general term an of a harmonic sequence has
the form:
1
an =
m a0 + k
where m and k are constants that determine the
sequence.
232
Hectare–Helicoid
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its In any triangle that lies in a plane the three
area A are: heights intersect at a point called orthocenter.
Read also «Orthocenter».
V ≈ 2.91291041454 a3 In a trapezoid or parallelogram, the height is the
√ !
9 3 line segment perpendicular to the base that goes
A= 3+ a2 from the base to its other parallel side.
2
The hebesphenomegacorona is a Johnson solid.
Hectare Unit of area equivalent to a square of one h
hundred meters on each side.
The symbol used for the hectare is ha and it is
equal to 10 000 square meters.
Read also «Cylinder», «Cone», «Truncated cone»,
«Parallelogram», «Perpendicular», and «Pyramid».
(Algebra) The height h of the polynomial
100 m 1 ha a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + a n x n
is: H
h = n + | a0 | + | a1 | + | a2 | + · · · | a n |
where | ai | represents the absolute value of ai .
100 m
Helicoid Surface that satisfies that for each of its
points there passes a helix that is contained in
Hecto- Prefix indicating one hundred. It is abbre- said surface. Its parametric equations are:
viated with the letter h (lowercase).
For example, one hectometer is equal to one hun- x (u, v) = u cos(v)
dred meters and is denoted as 1 hm. y(u, v) = u sin(v)
z(u, v) = c v
Height (Geometry) In a triangle, the height is the
segment that passes through one of its vertices for 0 ≤ u ≤ 2, and 0 ≤ v ≤ 4 π.
and is perpendicular to the opposite side.
The length of the height is denoted by the literal
h.
h
The helicoid is a ruled surface that satisfy the def-
inition of conoid.
Read also «Ruled surface» and «Conoid».
233
Helix–Heptagon
Helix Curve in space that rotates around an axis
and whose parametric equations are:
x (t) = r cos(ω t)
y(t) = ϵ cos(ω t)
z(t) = k t
r
with r, ϵ, k different from zero.
If r = ϵ, the helix is a circular helix.
The volume of the hemisphere of radius r is:
z 2
V= π r3
3
The surface area S of the hemisphere, not includ-
ing its base is:
S = 2 π r2
H The surface area S of the hemisphere including its
base is:
S = 3 π r2
−r The centroid of the hemisphere is at a height z̄:
−r
r y 3
r z̄ = r
8
x
If r = a, and ϵ = b, with a , b, it is obtained an Hepta- Prefix meaning seven.
elliptical helix. For example, a heptagon is a seven-sided polygon
and a heptahedron is a polyhedron that has seven
faces.
Heptadecagon Polygon of seventeen sides
z
−a
−b
y
b
a
x Karl F. Gauss gave an algorithm for the construc-
tion of the regular heptadecagon using compass
and ruler only, and considered the solution of this
problem as his most outstanding contribution to
Hemisphere Portion of the sphere that is obtained the development of mathematics.
by cutting it with a plane that passes through its
center and is equal to half of the sphere. Heptagon Polygon with 7 sides and 7 angles.
234
Heptagonal trapezohedron–Heron’s formula
To construct the heptagram, we begin by locat-
ing the vertices of a regular heptagon. Number
the vertices clockwise from 1 to 7. Finally, draw
a polygonal line with vertices at 1, 4, 7, 3, 6, 2, 5,
and 1.
Read also «Pentagram» and «Hexagram».
Heptahedron Polyhedron of 7 faces.
For example, the diminished cube is a heptahe-
dron.
The heptagon shown in the figure above has 7
equal sides and 7 equal angles, and it is a regular
heptagon.
Heptagonal trapezohedron Trapezohedron with
14 faces. It also has 16 vertices and 28 edges.
H
The hexagonal pyramid is another example of a
heptahedron.
The heptagonal trapezohedron is also known as
heptagonal deltohedron and as heptagonal antibipyra- Hermitian matrix The Hermitian matrix, denoted
by A H is a complex square matrix that is equal to
mid.
its own conjugate transpose.
Heptagram Figure in the shape of a seven-pointed That is, if aij = a ji , the matrix is a hermitian ma-
star. trix.
[ aij ] = [ a ji ] ⇒ A = A H = AT
The Hermitian matrix is an extension of a sym-
metric real matrix.
The Hermitian matrix is also known as «self-
adjoint matrix».
Heron’s formula Formula for calculating the area
of a triangle from the lengths of its three sides.
q
A = s (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
where A is the area of the triangle, s is the semi-
perimeter of the triangle, and a, b, c are the lengths
of its sides.
235
Heronian mean–Hessian matrix
where s is its semiperimeter. If s is prime, then
the other factors cannot have s as a factor, because
they are less than s, and therefore the product of
the four factors inside the square root cannot be a
c
b
perfect square.
By the law of cosines, the cosine of each of the
interior angles of a Heronian triangle is a rational
number.
a
For example, the right triangle whose sides mea-
sure a = 3, b = 4, and c = 5 is a Heronian trian-
Heronian mean The Heronian mean H of the two gle.
non-negative numbers a and b is:
√
a+ a·b+b
H=
3
Geometrically, the Heronian mean represents the 5
volume of a frustum of a pyramid or of a trun- 3
H cated cone of unit height and with areas of their
bases equal to a and b, respectively (in both cases).
Observe that
4
2 a+b 1 √
H= · + · a·b
3 2 3
That is to say, the Heronian mean H of the Hessian matrix The Hessian matrix is a square ma-
two non-negative numbers a and b equals the trix, of dimension n × n, whose elements are the
weighted mean of its arithmetic mean (with a second partial derivatives of a scalar function of
weight of 2/3) and its geometric mean (with a n variables: z = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ).
weight of 1/3). 2
Also, observe that the Heronian mean H of any ∂ f ∂2 f ∂2 f
∂x2 ∂x ∂x ···
non-negative number a with itself is said number 1 1 2 ∂x1 ∂xn
a. ∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
Read also «Frustum of a pyramid» and «Truncated · · ·
H( f ) =
∂x 2
2
∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x n
cone». .. .. .. ..
. . . .
Heronian triangle Triangle for which the lengths
∂2 f 2
∂ f 2
∂ f
of its sides and its area are whole numbers. · · ·
∂xn2 ∂xn ∂x2 ∂xn ∂xn
More synthetically, it can be represented as
" #
∂2 f
H( f ) =
a
b
∂xi ∂x j
The Hessian matrix characterizes the local curva-
ture of the function (at the point where the partial
c
derivatives are evaluated).
If f is defined at the point where the second
If the lengths a, b, c of the sides of the triangle are derivatives are evaluated, and the second deriva-
integers, for the area of the triangle to be an inte- tives are continuous at that point, then the or-
ger it is necessary that the perimeter be even and der of the partial derivatives does not matter (the
its semiperimeter must not be a prime number, same result is always obtained for each second
because by the formula from Heron: mixed partial derivative, regardless of the order
q in which it is derived first), so in this case the
A = s (s − a)(s − b)(s − c) Hessian matrix is a symmetric matrix.
236
Heun’s method–Hexagon
Heun’s method Numerical method used to ap- Use the compass to measure a distance r equal to
proximately solve the differential equation: the side of the hexagon you want to build.
Draw a circle of radius r with center at point C.
dy Leaning the base of the compass at any point on
= f (t, y)
dt the circumference, and with radius r, draw arcs
that cut the circumference, leaning the compass
subject to the initial condition y(t0 ) = y0 .
at each new intersection of the drawn arc with
The method consists in calculating a first approx-
the circumference.
imate value ỹi+1 of yi+1 , and based on this value
The intersections obtained are the vertices of the
and the initial value yi , obtain the value yi+1 .
regular hexagon.
The first approximate value ỹi+1 is obtained using
Euler’s method, considering a step size h = ∆t =
(t f − t0 )/n:
ỹi+1 = yi + f (ti , yi ) · h
and based on this value and the initial value yi ,
the value of the approximation is calculated yi+1 : V3 V2
y i +1 = y i +
f (ti , yi ) + f (ti+1 , ỹi+1 )
2
·h H
where ti+1 = ti + h. V4 V1
Geometrically, Heun’s method calculates the C
slope of the tangent line to the graph of the func-
tion at the two ends of the sub-interval [ti , ti+1 ],
and uses the average of these slopes (m) to esti-
mate the change suffered by the variable y in the V5 V6
given sub-interval.
The Heun’s method is also known as the Improved
Euler’s method.
Hexa- Prefix meaning six.
For example, a hexagon has six sides.
Hexadecile Hexadeciles are values that divide the If it is required to construct a regular hexagon cir-
data of a distribution in increasing order into 18 cumscribed to a given circle with center at C, start
parts, of approximately the same number of data. by drawing a diameter of the circle. With the ra-
Read also «fractile» and «Decile». dius r of the circumference, draw arcs that cut the
circumference (as in the previous case, where a
Hexagon Polygon with 6 sides and 6 angles.
regular inscribed hexagon was drawn).
The hexagon shown in the figure below is a regu-
Then draw rays that start from the center of the
lar hexagon (it has 6 equal sides and 6 equal an-
circumference, forming six angles of 60◦ each one.
gles.)
Draw the bisector of one of those central angles
(∠QCR). Let P be the point where the bisector in-
tersects the circumference.
Now draw a line perpendicular to the bisector
that passes through P, and with this perpendic-
ular cut the sides of the central angle ∠QCR at the
points V1 and V2 . The segment V1 V2 is the side of
the regular hexagon.
With the compass measure the distance from V1
to V2 and draw a circle with center at C. The in-
tersections of the rays that were drawn before and
To build with a regular hexagon with compass the circle are the vertices of the regular hexagon
and ruler, first select the center C of the hexagon. circumscribed to the given circle.
237
Hexagonal trapezohedron–Hexakis icosahedron
V3 V2
R
P
Q
V4 V1
C
V5 V6
To construct the hexagram, one begins by locat-
The regular hexagon with side a is formed by 6
ing the vertices of a regular hexagon. The vertices
equilateral triangles with side a.
are numbered clockwise from 1 to 6. Finally, the
The perimeter P and the area A of a regular
two equilateral triangles are constructed, the first
hexagon with side a are:
with vertices at the odd vertices of the hexagon
H P = 6 a√
and the other at the even vertices.
Read also «Pentagram» and «Hexagon».
3 3 2
A= a Hexahedron Geometric solid formed by six
2
quadrilateral faces.
Read also «Equilateral» and «Equiangular». The cube is a hexahedron.
Hexagonal trapezohedron Twelve sided trapezo-
hedron. It also has 14 vertices and 24 edges.
Other examples of hexahedrons are the paralle-
lepiped, rectangular prism and the square-based
truncated pyramid.
Hexakis icosahedron Polyhedron that has 120
triangle-shaped faces (all congruent to each
other). It also has 62 vertices and 180 edges.
The hexagonal trapezohedron is also known as
hexagonal deltohedron and as hexagonal antibipyra-
mid.
Hexagram Figure composed of two equilateral tri-
angles so as to form a six-pointed star.
238
Hexakis octahedron–Hippopede
If its shortest
edge isa, then the other
edges mea-
√ √
sure 7/5 + 1/ 5 a, and 3 3 + 5 a/10,
and its volume V and its area A are:
q √
1
V= 88590 + 39612 5 a3
5s
22626 9738 2
A= + √ a
5 5
The hexakis icosahedron is also known as dis-
dyakis triacontahedron, kisrhombic triacontahedron,
and as decakis dodecahedron.
The disdyakis triacontahedron is a Catalan solid Hierarchy of operations Synonym of priority of
and the dual polyhedron of the truncated icosi- oerations.
dodecahedron Read also «Priority of operations».
Hexakis octahedron Polyhedron that has 48 Highly composite number A positive integer n
triangle-shaped faces (all congruent to each that has more divisors than any other positive in-
other). It also has 26 vertices and 72 edges. teger less than n.
Some highly composite numbers are 1, 2, 4, 6, 12,
H
24, 36, 48, 60, 120, 180, 240 y 360.
Hilbert-Waring theorem Every natural number
can be expressed as the sum of at most four per-
fect squares, or as the sum of nine perfect cubes.
For example, 10 = 32 + 12 .
Hinge theorem Proposition 24 of Book 1 of Eu-
clid’s Elements, which states that if two sides of
one triangle are congruent, respectively, to two
sides of a second triangle, and the included angle
of the first triangle is greater than the included
angle of the second, then the third side of the first
triangle is longer than the third side of the second
triangle.
If its shortest
edge is a, then the
other edges mea-
√ √
sure 3 2 + 3 2 a/14 and 10 + 2 a/7, and
its volume V and its area A are:
q √
1
V= 6582 + 4539 2 a3
7 q `2
6 √
A= 783 + 436 2 a2
7
β `1
The hexakis octahedron is also known as hexoc-
α
tahedron, octakis cube, octakis hexahedron, and dis-
dyakis dodecahedron.
O
This polyhedron is a Catalan solid and is the dual
polyhedron of the truncated cuboctahedron.
This theorem is also known as the open mouth the-
Hexpropello cube Polyhedron with 30 faces of orem or as SAS inequality theorem.
which 6 are squares and 24 are regular hexagons.
The hexpropello cube also has 56 vertices and 84 Hippopede Plane curve that is the intersection of a
edges. torus with a plane parallel to the axis of the torus
239
Histogram–Hollow cylinder
and tangent to its interior circle. Frequency
The algebraic representation of this curve is:
2500
2
x 2 + y2 = c x 2 + d y2 2000
1500
where d > 0.
1000
y 500
(x2 + y 2 )2 = x2 + 0.2 y 2
1
2
0 Class
A B C D E F G H I J
x
−1 − 12 1 1
2
Histogram of relative frequencies Histogram that
− 12
H is constructed in a similar way to the frequency
histogram, but in this case the vertical scale mea-
sures the relative frequency of each class (as op-
posed to the absolute frequency measured by the
For d < 0 a lemniscate is obtained. vertical axis in the histogram).
Read also «Histogram».
Hollow cylinder A hollow cylinder is a solid
whose bases are circular rings and its curved wall
Histogram Graphical representation of the data is perpendicular to its bases.
distribution of a sample or population. The volume V of the hollow cylinder is:
To draw a histogram it is customary to first gene-
2 2
rate a table with the data. V = π h R − r
For example, suppose that the fractions of the
where R is the outer radius, r is the inner radius
population in the following age ranges of a town
and h is its height.
are distributed as indicated in the following table.
The surface area S of the hollow cylinder, consid-
ering its bases, is:
S = 2 π ( R + r ) h + 2 π R2 − r 2
Range Frequency Fraction
0 – 10 250 0.033 R
10 – 20 1 200 0.160
r
20 – 30 2 500 0.333
30 – 40 1 225 0.163
40 – 50 850 0.113
50 – 60 750 0.100
60 – 70 425 0.057 h
70 – 80 250 0.033
80 – 90 37 0.005
90 – 100 13 0.002
The area Abase of the base of the hollow cylinder
The histogram is drawn from these data genera- corresponds to that of the ring of radii R and r,
ting a bar for each interval with a height propor- and it is:
tional to its frequency value in the table. Abase = π R2 − r2
240
Holomorphic function–Homothety
The hollow cylinder is also known as cylindrical
shell.
Holomorphic function Complex function that is
complex–differentiable in a neighbourhood of ev-
ery point in its domain.
A holomorphic function whose domain is the
whole complex plane is an entire function. A holo- Homologous points In a pair of symmetric fig-
morphic function is also known as a analytic func- ures about an axis, each pair of corresponding
tion. points between the two figures is called homolo-
Read also «Entire function». gous points.
For example, the following figure shows the tri-
Homogeneus equation A linear equation with all angles △ ABC and △ A′ B′ C ′
the terms that include at least one variable on one
side of equality and on the other side only a con-
stant term equal to zero, is a homogeneous equa- B B′
tion.
For example,
2x+3y+5z = 0 A A′
H
is a linear homogeneous equation.
Read also «Homogeneous system of equations».
(Differential equations) A differential equation
is homogeneous if the term that does not con-
C C′
tain the solution function (y) and its derivatives
is zero.
For example, The pair of points A and A′ , B and B′ , C and C ′
are homologous points.
y′′ − 5 y′ + 6 y = 0 Note that the homologous points are the same
distance from the line (axis) of symmetry.
is a second order homogeneous linear differential
Homothety Transformation of the points of the
equation.
plane as indicated below. Given a fixed point O of
Homogeneous system of equations The system of the plane, called the center of the homothety, each
linear equations: point P of the plane is transformed into another
point P′ that is on the line that passes through O
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 and P, so that ∥OP′ ∥ = λ ∥OP∥.
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 The constant number λ is the ratio of the homo-
··· ··· ··· ··· thety (or of dilatation). If λ > 1 then P′ is farther
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm from O than of P. If 0 < λ < 1 then P′ is closer to
O than of P. If λ < 0 then P′ is on the line passing
is homogeneous if b1 = b2 = · · · = bm = 0. through O and P, at the opposite side of P.
Every homogeneous system of linear equations
has at least one solution, x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = 0.
P0
This solution is known as the trivial solution.
The system of linear equations has a solution
other than the trivial solution if it has at least one
free variable.
P
Read also «Free variable».
M0 N0
Homologous In two similar figures, the homolo-
gous parts (sides, angles, diagonals, etc.) are M N
those that are located in correspondence with
each other that is drawn to scale. O
241
Horner’s method–Hyperbola
The homothety is also known as dilatation. at the point C (h, k), length of the transverse axis
Read also «Scale factor». 2 a and length of the conjugate axis 2 b, is:
Horner’s method Algorithm to evaluate a polyno- ( x − h )2 ( y − k )2
− =1
mial of degree n using, at most, n additions and n a2 b2
multiplications, through the following equality:
y
a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + · · · a n x n =
P( x, y)
a0 + x ( a1 + x ( a2 + · · · + x ( an−1 + an x )))
To this end, recursively define:
bn = a n 2a
x
bn − 1 = a n − 1 + bn · x 0 F′ a a F
bn − 2 = a n − 2 + bn − 1 · x 0
..
.
b1 = a1 + b2 x0
H b0 = a0 + b1 x0
where b0 is the result of evaluating the given poly- The equation of the vertical hyperbola with center
nomial at x = x0 . at the point C (h, k), length of the transverse axis
This is equivalent to applying synthetic division 2 a and length of the conjugate axis 2 b, is:
of the given polynomial by x − x0 .
( x − h )2 ( y − k )2
Read also «Synthetic division». − + =1
b2 a2
Huge prime number A prime number that has at The distance from the center of the hyperbola to
least ten thousand digits when written in the dec- any of the foci is c, and the relationship between
imal number system. a, b and c is:
For example, the number 244 497 − 1 is a huge c2 = a2 + b2
prime number.
The hyperbola has the property that the angle be-
Hundred (1.) Group of a hundred things. tween a tangent to the hyperbola at point P and
For example, a hundred roses is one hundred any of the segments from P to any focus are equal.
roses.
(2.) In a number, it is the name given to the third y
position from the decimal point, from right to left.
For example, in the number 1976, the digit 9 is in
the hundreds place.
Hundredth (1.) A hundredth is equivalent to one b P
of the parts of a whole that has been divided into
one hundred parts of the same size.
(2.) In a number with decimals, the second place x
F 0 −a a F
to the right of the decimal point is the hundredths
place.
For example, in the number 3.1416, the digit 4 is −b
in the hundredths place.
Hyperbola Set of points in the plane that satisfy
that the difference of their distances from two
fixed points in the plane called foci is a constant
2 a less than the distance between the foci. The
equation of the horizontal hyperbola with center Read also «Equation of the hyperbola».
242
Hyperbolic cosine–Hyperbolic function
Hyperbolic cosine The hyperbolic cosine function z
of the real number x denoted as: cosh x, is:
e x + e− x
cosh x =
2
y
4
y
3
x
2
y = cosh(x)
1
Hyperbolic function The hyperbolic functions are
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
x
hyperbolic sine (sinh), hyperbolic cosine (cosh), H
hyperbolic tangent (tanh), hyperbolic cotangent
The derivative of the hyperbolic cosine function (coth), hyperbolic secant (sech), and hyperbolic
is: cosecant (csch), and they are defined as follows.
d[cosh(v)] dv
= sinh(v) ·
dx dx
And the antiderivative of the hyperbolic cosine e x − e− x
sinh x =
function is: 2
Z e x + e− x
cosh x =
cosh(v) · dv = sinh(v) + C 2
e − e− x
x sinh x
The Taylor series of the hyperbolic cosine function tanh x = x =
e + e− x cosh x
is: e x + e− x 1
2 4 6 ∞ 2i
coth x = x − x
= { x , 0}
x x x x e −e tanh x
cosh( x ) = 1 + + + +··· = ∑ 2 1
2! 4! 6! i =0
(2 i ) ! sech x = x =
e + e− x cosh x
The Laplace transform of the hyperbolic cosine 2 1
function is: csch x = x = { x , 0}
e − e− x sinh x
s
L {cosh( a x )} = 2
s − a2
To represent the hyperbolic functions geometri-
Read also «Hyperbolic function». cally, consider part of a unit circle, part of the
Hyperbolic cosine integral Function denoted as graph of the equilateral hyperbola x2 − y2 = 1,
Chi, and defined by: and a tangent line to the circle at the point R.
Based on this, if the area of the region OPA in-
Zx dicated represents x/2, then:
cosh(t) − 1
Chi( x ) = γ + ln( x ) + · dt
t
0
for |Arg( x )| < π, where γ ≈ 0.57721566 · · · is the • sinh( x ) = MP
Euler-Mascheroni constant.
Hyperbolic cylinder Quadratic surface whose • cosh( x ) = OM
equation is:
x2 y2
− =1 • tanh( x ) = AT
a2 b2
243
Hyperbolic growth
y From this, it can be justified that:
sin(i x ) = i sinh( x ) sinh(i x ) = i sin( x )
P
cos(i x ) = cosh( x ) cosh(i x ) = cos( x )
tan(i x ) = i tanh( x ) tanh(i x ) = i tan( x )
cot(i x ) = −i coth( x ) coth(i x ) = −i cot( x )
N sec(i x ) = sech( x ) sech(i x ) = sec( x )
R csc(i x ) = −i csch( x ) csch(i x ) = −i csc( x )
T The derivatives of hyperbolic functions are listed
below.
d (sinh(v)) dv
• = cosh(v) ·
dx dx
x
O S A M d (cosh(v)) dv
• = sinh(v) ·
dx dx
d (tanh(v)) dv
= sech2 (v) ·
H The point T is where the vertical line x = 1 meets
the segment MN that is tangent to the unit circle
•
dx
d (coth(v))
dx
dv
at R. • = −csch2 (v) ·
dx dx
Some identities that satisfy these functions are
given below. d (sech(v)) dv
• = −sech(v) tanh(v) ·
dx dx
• cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1. d (csch(v)) dv
• = −csch(v) coth(v) ·
2 2
dx dx
• sech x + tanh x = 1.
The antiderivatives of the hyperbolic functions
• csch2 x − coth2 x = −1. are listed below.
Z
• sinh( x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sin y.
• sinh( a v) · dv = a−1 cosh( a v) + C
• cosh( x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sin y. Z
• cosh( av ) · dx = a−1 sinh( a v) + C
• sinh(2 x ) = 2 sinh x cosh y.
Z
• cosh(2 x ) = cosh2 ( x ) + sinh2 ( x ). • tanh( a v) · dx = a−1 ln |cosh( a v)| + C
x cosh( x ) − 1 Z
• sinh2 = . • coth( a v) · dx = a−1 ln |sinh( a v)| + C
2 2
x Z
cosh( x ) + 1 sech( a v) · dx = a−1 arctan [sinh( a v)] + C
• cosh2 = . •
2 2 Z a v
• csc( a v) · dx = a−1 ln tanh +C
Furthermore, 2
• cosh( x ) + sinh( x ) = e x Hyperbolic growth The variable y presents hyper-
bolic growth with respect to the variable x if
• cosh( x ) − sinh( x ) = e− x
k
Considering Euler’s formula, the following rela- y=
x−r
tionships between circular and hyperbolic func-
tions can be deduced: where k and r are finite real numbers (k , 0).
When a quantity grows indefinitely because of
eix + e−ix a finite increment, the quantity is said to have
cos( x ) = grown hyperbolically.
2
eix − e−ix For example, the function y = 1/( x − 1) grows
sin( x ) = indefinitely at x = 1.
2
244
Hyperbolic paraboloid–Hyperbolic spiral
y 1 y
y=
x−1
2
y = sinh(x)
1
1
x
0 x −2 −1 1 2 3
0 1
−1
−2
−3
H
Hyperbolic paraboloid Quadratic surface whose
equation is: The derivative of the hyperbolic sine function is:
x2 y2 d[sinh(v)] dv
z= − = cosh(v) ·
a2 b2 dx dx
And its antiderivative is:
Z
sinh(v) · dv = cosh(v) + C
z
Its Taylor series is:
1
x3 x5 x7
sinh( x ) = x + + + +···
3! 5! 7!
And its corresponding Laplace transform is:
−1 0 −1 y
1 1 a
x L {sinh( a x )} = 2
s − a2
Read also «Hyperbolic function».
Hyperbolic sine integral Function denoted as Shi,
The parametric equations of this hyperbolic and defined by:
paraboloid are: Zx
sinh(t)
Shi( x ) = · dt
x (s, t) = a s t
0
y(s, t) = b t This function satisfies: Si(i x ) = i Shi( x ), where
z(s, t) = c s2 − t2 Si( x ) is the sine integral function.
Hyperbolic spiral Plane curve whose equation in
polar coordinates is: r = a/θ.
y
Hyperbolic sine The hyperbolic sine function of
the number x is denoted by: sinh( x ), and is de-
fined as:
e x − e− x
sinh( x ) = x
2
245
Hyperbolic substitution–Hyperboloid
Its parametric equations in rectangular coordi- z
nates are:
cos(t)
x (t) = a
t
sin(t)
y(t) = a
t
for t , 0.
x y
Hyperbolic substitution Antiderivation technique
that consists of a change of variable using a hy-
perbolic function that simplifies the integrand.
The substitutions indicated in the following table
are usually suggested.
The figure above shows a hyperboloid of one
If the integrand includes: Define: sheet, whose equation is:
√
2 2
√a + u u = a sinh(ϕ)
H u2 − a2 u = a cosh(ϕ) x2
a2
+
y2
b2
−
z2
c2
=1
Hyperbolic tangent The hyperbolic tangent func- And in the following figure a hyperboloid of two
tion of the number x is denoted by tanh( x ), and leaves is shown, whose equation is:
is defined as:
x2 y2 z2
e x − e− x 2
+ 2 − 2 = −1
tanh( x ) = x a b c
e + e− x
z
y
y = tanh(x)
1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
y
The derivative of the hyperbolic tangent function x
is:
d (tanh(v)) dv
= sech2 (v) ·
dx dx
The antiderivative of the hyperbolic tangent func-
tion is: If a , b, but b = c the ellipsoid is an ellipsoid of
Z
1 revolution.
tanh( a v) · dv = ln |cosh( a v)| + C The equation of the ellipsoid with center at the
a
point (h, k, j) is:
The Taylor series of the hyperbolic tangent func-
tion is: ( x − h )2 ( y − k )2 ( z − j )2
+ − =1
x3 2 x5 17 x7 a2 a2 c2
tanh( x ) = x + + + +···
3 15 315 The parametric equations of the hyperboloid are:
Read also «Hyperbolic function». p
x (s, t) = a s2 + d cos(t)
Hyperboloid Quadratic surface that is generated p
when a hyperbola is rotated about one of its prin- y(s, t) = a s2 + d sin(t)
cipal axes. z(s, t) = c s
246
Hypergeometric distribution–Hypotenuse
If d > 0 a hyperboloid of one sheet is obtained,
If d < 0 a hyperboloid of two sheets is obtained,
and if d = 0 an elliptical cone is obtained.
Hypergeometric distribution A random variable
X has a hypergeometric distribution, if and only
R
if, its probability distribution is:
k N−k
x n−x
h( x; n, N, k) =
N
n
k=5
for x = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n, x ≤ k, and n − x ≤ N − k.
The hypergeometric distribution describes the The parametric equations of this curve are:
probability that by carrying out n extractions
(without replacement) of an object with a certain
characteristic, x successes will be obtained from a
x (t) = ( R − r ) cos(t) + r cos
R−r
r
·t H
finite population of size N that contains exactly k R−r
y(t) = ( R − r ) sin(t) − r sin ·t
objects with that characteristic. Here the results r
of each trial are assumed to be success or fail.
The point where the hypocycloid touches the cir-
Some characteristics of the hypergeometric distri-
cle of radius R is called the cusp.
bution are:
The number k = R/r is the number of cusps that
the curve has.
If k is an integer, then the curve is closed. When
• Mean: µ = n k/N it comes to a closed curve, the area A enclosed by
the hypocycloid is:
• Variance:
A = (k − 1)(k − 2) π r2
n k ( N − k)( N − n) and its length is:
σ2 =
N 2 ( N − 1)
L = 8 ( k − 1) r
The hypocycloid with 3 cusps is known as deltoid
Read also «Binomial coefficient». and the 4-cusped as astroid.
Read also «Astroid» and «Deltoid».
Hyperreal number The set of the hyperreal num- Hypotenuse In a right triangle, the hypotenuse is
bers, denoted by ∗ R is the set whose elements the opposite side to the right angle.
are all the real numbers, all the infinitely small
quantities (also known as infinitesimals), and all
the infinitely large quantities (also known as in-
Opposite leg
e
finites). us
t en
Hyperreal numbers are also known as extended po
Hy
real numbers.
Read also «Infinitesimal», «Leibniz’s postulates»,
and «Transfer principle». α
Adjacent leg
Hypocycloid Planar curve generated by tracing a The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a
fixed point on a small circle of radius r rolling right triangle.
inside a larger circle of radius R. Read also «Right triangle».
247
Hypothesis–Hypothesis testing
Hypothesis Assumption made to solve a problem. statistical test to obtain a conclusion (the null hy-
The assumption may be made in stating a propo- pothesis is accepted or rejected).
sition or in the course of a demonstration or solu- The elements of a hypothesis test are:
tion of a problem.
• null hypothesis (H0 )
Hypothesis testing Statistical inference method • alternative hypothesis (Ha )
that consists of proposing a null hypothesis and • test statistic.
an alternative hypothesis about the distribution of • rejection region.
the data. From the specification of a level of sig-
nificance, the corresponding value of the statisti- Read also «Null hypothesis», «Type I error»,
cal test is determined by applying an appropriate «p−value».
248
I
ı̂ Unit vector pointing in the direction of the x axis The powers of i are repeated every 4 terms of the
of a rectangular coordinate system. sequence of powers, so that, for all natural n, the
following is true:
ı̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩
Any vector in three-dimensional space can be • i4n+1 = i • i4n+3 = −i
written as a linear combination of the orthonor- • i4n+2 = −1 • i4n = 1
mal vectors ı̂, ȷ̂, k̂.
ı̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩ furthermore, i0 = 1, as well as
ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩
1 1
k̂ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩ • = i −1 = − i • = i −3 = i
i i3
The vector ı̂ can be obtained with ı̂ = ȷ̂ × k̂ (the
cross product of the vectors ȷ̂ and k̂.) Read also «Complex number».
Read also «Unit vector».
Icosagon 20 sided polygon.
i Symbol used to denote the imaginary unit.
The imaginary unit is the number that has the
property that when multiplied by itself it gives
−1. That is, i2 = −1.
A pure imaginary number is a complex number
whose real part is zero.
1 i
Icosahedron Regular solid whose faces are twenty
0 R equilateral triangles.
0 1 2 3
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
Because of the way the number i is defined,
5 √
• i2 = −1. • i4 = 1. V= 3 + 5 a3
12√
• i3 = −i. • i5 = −i, etc. A = 5 3 a2
Icosidodecahedron–Identity element
Note that, sinceA2 = A, then,
A3 = A2 A = A A = A2 = A
And ingeneral, An = A.
On the other hand, if A is an idempotent matrix,
then I − A is also an idempotent matrix, because:
( I − A)( I − A) = I − A − A + A2
= I−2A+ A = I− A
where I is the identity matrix (of the same dimen-
sion as A).
Identity Equality that is fulfilled for any values of
Icosidodecahedron Polyhedron formed by 32
the variables it contains.
faces, of which 20 are equilateral triangles and 12
For example,
are regular pentagons. It also has 30 vertices and
60 edges. ( x + y)2 = x2 + y2 + 2 xy
1 = sin2 ( x ) + cos2 ( x )
sin( x )
tan( x ) =
cos( x )
I (Algebra) The number 1 is the identity element
for multiplication.
The number zero (0) is the identity element for
addition.
(Linear algebra) The identity matrix of dimension
n, denoted by In , is a square matrix that has ze-
ros in all its entries, except in the main diagonal,
whose elements are all the number 1.
1 0 ··· 0
0 1 ··· 0
In = . . .
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area .. .. . . ...
A, and its circunradius R are: 0 0 ··· 1
√ !
45 + 17 5 The following matrix is an identity matrix of di-
V= a3 mension n = 3.
6
s
√ 2
q 1 0 0
√
A = 30 10 + 3 5 + 75 + 30 5 a I3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
1 √
R= 1+ 5
2 Identity element The identity element for the ad-
The icosidodecahedron is an Archimedean solid. dition is the number 0.
This is the unique real number that satisfies:
Idempotent matrix A square matrix A of size n × n a+0 = 0+a = a
is an idempotent matrix if A A = A2 = A.
The identity element for the multiplication is the
That is, if multiplying matrix A by itself results in
number 1.
the same matrix A, then A is an idempotent ma-
The number 1 is the unique real number that for
trix.
all a ∈ R, satisfies:
For example,
a·1 = 1·a = a
1 0 0
I3 = 0 0 0 The identity element is also known as neutral ele-
0 0 1 ment.
250
Identity matrix–Imaginary unit
Identity matrix The identity matrix of dimension Imaginary number Number that is a multiple of
n, denoted by In , is a square matrix that has ze- the imaginary unit.
ros in all its entries, except in the main diagonal, For example, the number 2 i is an imaginary num-
whose elements are all the number 1. ber.
The imaginary unit, denoted by the literal i, is the
1 0 ··· 0
0 1 ··· 0 number that has the property that when multi-
plied by itself it gives −1. That is, i2 = −1.
In = . . .
.. .. . . ...
Complex numbers are called pure imaginary
0 0 ··· 1 numbers when their real part is zero.
For example, the identity matrix of dimension I
n = 3, is:
1 0 0 2
I3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
1 i
If and only if In logic, P if and only if Q is a dou-
ble implication denoted by P ⇔ Q where P is
0 R
0 1 2 3
necessary and sufficient for Q.
For example, x + 2 = 4, if and only if x = 2, be-
Because of the way the number i is defined,
cause if x = 2, then it follows that x + 2 = 4, and
also, if x + 2 = 4, it follows that x = 2. • i2 = −1. I
Read also «Only if ».
• i3
= −i.
Image Given a function f , the image of x under • i4
= 1.
the given function, is f ( x ) (the result of evaluat- 5
• i = −i, etc.
ing the function at x.)
The powers of i are repeated every 4 terms of the
y power sequence, so that, for all natural n, the fol-
lowing is true:
y = f (x) • i4n+1 = i
• i4n+2 = −1
f (x)
• i4n+3 = −i
• i4n = 1
x
x Furthermore, i0 = 1, as well as,
• 1
i = i−1 = −i.
For example, the image of 3 under the function
y = x2 is 9, because: • 1
i3
= i−3 = i.
y = (3)2 = 9 Read also «Complex number».
By the definition of function, a value x of the do- Imaginary unit The number i that has the proper-
main corresponds, at most, to one value of the ty that: i2 = −1, is called an imaginary unit.
range. That is, for each value x that is in the do- The imaginary unit is usually defined as
main of the function, there corresponds a single √
image f ( x ). i = −1
Imaginary curve Equation that has no solutions in In electronics, for convenience, the literal j is used
the set of real numbers. instead of the literal i to denote the imaginary
For example, unit, since the literal i is used in this discipline
to denote the intensity of electric current.
x2 + y2 + 10 = 0 The number i, satisfies:
• i1 = i
251
Imperfect number–Implicit function
• i 2 = −1 But cos2 (y) + sin2 (y) = 1, therefore:
• i3 = −i q
• i4 = 1 cos(y) = 1 − sin2 (y)
The powers of the number i are periodic, repeat- And since x = sin(y), it follows:
ing every 4 powers, so that ik = i4n+k for all
k ∈ N. dy 1
= √
dx 1 − x2
Imperfect number Number that is not perfect.
That is, a number is imperfect if the sum of its The implicit differentiation method can be gen-
proper divisors is different from the number. eralized for equations with more than two vari-
For example, 8 is an imperfect number, because ables.
the sum of its proper divisors: 1 + 2 + 4 =7, does For example, considering F ( x, y, z) = 0, if we as-
not equal 8. sume that z depends on x and y, and also, the
Read also «Perfect number». variables x, y are independent of each other, then,
to calculate ∂z/∂x, apply the same idea as in the
Implication Given two affirmations A and B, it is previous example:
said that A implies B, ad is denoted by:
∂F dx ∂F dy ∂F ∂z
A ⇒ B · + · + · =0
∂x dx ∂y dx ∂z ∂x
if for A true, necessarily B must also be true. The
I notation A ⇒ B is read: A implies B.
For example considering that p and q are integer
Since x and y are independent of each other,
dy/dx = 0. And since z = f ( x, y), in general,
numbers, let A =«the product of p times q is zero», ∂z/∂x , 0. Therefore,
and B =«either, p is zero, either q is zero, or maybe ∂F ∂F ∂z ∂z Fx
both are zero», In this case A implies B. This is + · =0 ⇒ =−
∂x ∂z ∂x ∂x Fz
denoted by A ⇒ B.
where Fx = ∂F/∂x, and Fz = ∂F/∂z.
Implicit differentiation Derivation method for The implicit differentiation technique is due to
equations of the form F ( x, y) = 0, which consists Leibniz.
of deriving each of the terms of the equation by
applying the corresponding derivation rules to fi- Implicit equation An equation of the form
nally solve the equation obtained for dy/dx. R( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 0.
For example, considering the equation of the unit For example,
circle with center at the origin,
x n + yn − ( x + y − k n)n = 0
2 2
x +y = 1
Implicit equations of loci are frequently used in
The implicit derivative is obtained by deriving procedures for solving problems in mathematics.
each term with respect to x and applying in each For example, in the method of Lagrange multipli-
case, the chain rule: ers.
dx dy Read also «Method of Lagrange multipliers».
2x· +2y· =0
dx dx Implicit function When an equation is written in
Solving the equation it is obtained dy/dx. the form F ( x, y) = c, where c is a constant, it is
said that y is an implicit function if x.
dy 2x x For example in the equation: x2 + y2 = 1, y is an
=− =−
dx 2y y implicit function if x.
Notice that once a value is assigned to the vari-
The implicit derivation method can also be used
able x, the value of y cannot be any value for the
to justify some derivation formulas.
equality to hold. It may even be the case that the
For example, to justify the formula for the deriva-
assigned value of x causes y not to exist (in the
tive of the function y = arcsin( x ), observe that
set of real numbers).
x = sin(y). Implicit differentiation gives:
Once the value of x is assigned, the value of y is
dy dy 1 restricted to a certain number of values, so that
1 = cos(y) · ⇒ = F ( x, y) = 0.
dx dx cos(y)
252
Implicit function theorem–Improved Euler’s method
This implicit function definition can be general- performed, since F is assumed to be a function
ized to functions of several variables. of a real variable. So the limit is defined as b
If the equation is of the form: y = f ( x ), it is said approaches infinity to calculate the value of the
that y is an (explicit) function of x. integral.
Case 2: The value of its integrand approaches in-
Implicit function theorem Given the system of finity for a finite number of values between the
equations limits of integration and the limits of integration
are finite.
F1 ( x, y, z, u, v, w) = 0
For example, if f is a function that approaches
F2 ( x, y, z, u, v, w) = 0 infinity at x = c, where a < c < b, the definite
F3 ( x, y, z, u, v, w) = 0 integral:
Zb
if the Jacobian determinant J f ( x, y) , 0, then u, f ( x ) · dx
v and w can be expressed in terms of x, y and z. a
Also, the partial derivatives of u, v and w with
It is calculated by means of the limit:
respect to x, y and z can be found by implicit dif-
ferentiation. Zd Zb
Read also «Jacobian determinant». lim f ( x ) · dx + lim f ( x ) · dx
d→c− e→c+
a e
Implicit solution The implicit solution of a given
differential equation is an equation F (y, t) = 0, This rule also applies if the function is discontin-
which involves the solution y(t), and the inde-
pendent variable t, from which it is not always
uous on the open interval ( a, b).
Strictly speaking, the notation:
I
possible to obtain an explicit expression for the
Z∞
solution y = y(t).
f ( x ) · dx
Improper divisor A divisor d of a number k is an 0
improper divisor if d is not a proper divisor of k.
is incorrect, because ∞ is not a number, so the an-
Therefore, the unique (positive) improper divisor
tiderivative of f cannot be evaluated at the upper
of the number d is d.
limit of integration. For this reason this mathe-
Read also «Proper divisor».
matical object is called improper integral. It is not
Improper fraction When the numerator of a frac- an integral, but a limit: to which the value of the
tion is greater than its denominator, we say that definite integral tends when (at least) one of its
the fraction is an improper fraction. limits tends to infinity (case 1), or when its inte-
In other words, if the quotient r of the fraction is grand is not continuous at ( a, b).
greater than 1, then the fraction is an improper On the other hand, it is important to recognize the
fraction. discontinuities of the integrand when calculating
For example, 9/4 is an improper fraction because a supposed definite integral, because there is the
9 > 4. possibility that it is an improper integral (when
the integrand is not continuous in ( a, b), or else,
Improper integral An improper integral is the is not defined at one or both limits of integration).
limit of a definite integral in which one of the fol- For example,
lowing two cases occurs.
Case 1: At least one of its limits of integration Z1
ln( x ) π2
tends to infinity and the integrand is bounded. =−
1+x 12
For example, 0
As well as,
Z∞ Zb
Z1
f ( x ) · dx = lim f ( x ) · dx ln( x ) π2
b→∞ =
a a x−1 6
0
If F is the antiderivative of f , by the fundamen-
tal theorem of calculus, the integral is calculated Improved Euler’s method Synonym for improved
by evaluating F (b) − F ( a). But, since ∞ is not a Euler’s method.
specific number, the evaluation F (∞) cannot be Read also «Heun’s method».
253
Impulse function–Inclination of a truncated cone
Impulse function Synonym for Dirac delta func-
b
+
tion. y
x
Read also «Dirac delta function».
m
=
y
Incenter It is the point where the three bisectors of
a triangle intersect.
Incenter
α
x
The inclination α of the line: y = m x + b, is:
α = arctan(m).
The incenter is the center of the inscribed circle of
Inclination of a truncated cone The inclination i
the triangle.
of a truncated cone of major radius R, minor ra-
dius r and height h, is:
I C
i=
R−r
h
S
T
h
P
r
R
r
A R B
The coordinates of the incenter P( Px , Py ), of
the triangle whose vertices are at A( x A , y A ),
B( x B , y B ), and C ( xC , yC ), with sides of lengths
a = ∥ BC ∥, b = ∥ AC ∥, and c = ∥ AB∥, are:
The angle φ which forms the generatrix of the
a x A + b x B + c xC
Px = cone and its central axis is:
a+b+c
a y A + b y B + c yC R−r
Py = φ = arctan(i ) = arctan
a+b+c h
Read also «Inscribed circumference».
h
Inch Unit of distance used in the English system,
equivalent to 2.54 cm, or one twelfth of a foot.
That is, 12 inches equals 1 foot. R
r
The inch is denoted by the symbol ′′ . For exam- ϕ
ple, 5 inchess is written as: 5′′ .
One meter equals 39.37 inches.
Inclination The inclination of a straight line in the
plane is the measure of the angle (measured coun-
terclockwise) that said straight line forms with
the positive direction of the x axis. Read also «Conicity».
254
Inclusion-exclusion principle–Increment
Inclusion-exclusion principle The inclusion- f (x)
exclusion principle is used to calculate the car- y = x2
dinality of the union of finite sets. For the case of 2
two sets,
n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n( B) − n( A ∩ B)
1
g
in
For the case of three sets,
s
ea
cr
In
n( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n( A) + n( B) + n(C ) +
x
−n( A ∩ B) − n( A ∩ C ) + 0 0.5 1 1.5
−n( B ∩ C ) + n( A ∩ B ∩ C )
Looking at the graph of the function y = f ( x ),
The general rule for more than three sets is as fol- we know y = f ( x ) is increasing if when going to-
lows: wards the positive direction of the x axis (that is,
to the right in the xy plane) the graph of the func-
• Sum the cardinalities of all sets. tion tends to the positive side of the y axis (that
is, upwards).
• Subtract the cardinalities of all possible in- If f ′ ( x0 ) > 0, then the graph of the function is
tersections of two sets.
• Add the cardinalities of all possible intersec-
increasing at x = x0 . For example, the function
y = x2 is increasing for all x > 0, because y′ = 2 x, I
is positive for all x > 0.
tions of three sets. Read also «Decreasing» and «Derivative».
• Subtract the cardinalities of all possible in- Increasing function A function f is an increasing
tersections of four sets. function in a given interval [ a, b] if for any values
• Continue adding or subtracting (alternately) u, v in the interval, such that u ≤ v, it is true that:
until you exhaust all the possible intersec- f ( u ) ≤ f ( v ).
tions that you have in the given sets. Geometrically, a function is increasing at a point
if at that point on its graph, if moving to the right
on the graph, it also goes up.
Incommensurable We say that two numbers a, b For example, the function y = x2 is increasing in
are incommensurable if they are not commensu- the interval [0, 1].
rable.
Read also «Commensurable». f (x)
y = x2
2
Inconsistent (Linear algebra) A system of linear
equations is inconsistent when it has no solution.
For example, the system of linear equations
x + y = 10 1
g
2x + 2y = 0
in
as
re
c
is inconsistent, since if a set of values ( x, y) satis-
In
fies the first equation, it cannot satisfy the second,
x
and vice versa. 0 0.5 1 1.5
Increasing A function f is increasing in a given in- If the function y = f ( x ) is increasing at x = x0 ,
terval [ a, b] if for any values u, v in that interval, then f ′ ( x0 ) > 0.
such that u < v, it is satisfied: f (u) < f (v).
For example, the function y = x2 is increasing in Increment The increment given to the variable x
the interval [0, 1]. from an initial value xi to its final value x f , is de-
255
Indefinite integral
noted by ∆x, and it’s: The indefinite integral of y = f ( x ) is denoted by
the expression:
∆x = x f − xi Z
f ( x ) · dx = F ( x ) + C
If y = f ( x ) is a function of one variable, the in-
crement of the variable y caused by an increment and it is read: the indefinite integral of the function
to the variable x of magnitude ∆x, is calculated f ( x ) with respect to x is equal to the function F ( x )
using the formula: plus a constant.
The function f ( x ) is called the integrand, dx indi-
∆y = f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) cates that the function is going to be integrated
with respect to the variable x, and F ( x ) + C is the
y indefinite integral of f .
y = y(x) Some authors call the indefinite integral as an-
tiderivative, or primitive of the function y = f ( x ).
The process of calculating the indefinite integral
f (x + ∆x) consists of calculating a function whose deriva-
tive is known. That is, computing the indefinite
∆y
integral is the reverse process of computing the
f (x) derivative of a function.
∆x
For example, the indefinite integral of y = 2 x, is:
I Z
2 x · dx = x2 + C
x
x
x + ∆x because the derivative of y = x2 is the funtion
y = 2 x.
To determine the value of the constant of integra-
If z = f ( x, y) is a function of two variables, the in-
tion, the coordinates of a point through which the
crement of the variable z caused by an increment
antiderivative passes are required. If it is known
of the variable x of magnitude ∆x, and an incre-
that the antiderivative passes through the point
ment of the variable y of size ∆y, is calculated
B(0, 1), to determine the value of C and obtain
using the formula:
the particular function that satisfies the condition
y(0) = 1, substitute into the antiderivative x = 0
∆z = f ( x + ∆x, y + ∆y) − f ( x, y)
and also, y = 1, to obtain: 1 = 02 + C. That is,
C = 1. So the function that satisfies its derivative
In numerical analysis, the increment of y in the
is y′ = 2 x and passes through the point (0, 1) is:
function is approximately calculated by applying
y = x2 + 1.
Euler’s method.
There are integration techniques for calculating
Read also «Euler’s method» and «Linear approxima-
the antiderivative (or indefinite integral) of a
tion».
given function.
It is not always easy to compute the function F
Indefinite integral Synonym of antiderivative.
such that F ′ ( x ) = f ( x ), where y = f ( x ) is a
An indefinite integral of the function y = f ( x ) is
known function. Mastering algebra, analytic ge-
a family of functions y = F ( x ) + C (here C is a
ometry, the properties of functions, trigonometric
constant) whose derivative is equal to y = f ( x ).
identities, etc., is very useful to calculate indefi-
nite integrals.
y For example, to calculate:
Z
du
(1 + un )(n+1)/n
y = F (x) + C
observe that:
(n+1)/n
(1 + un )(n+1)/n = un u−n + 1
x (n+1)/n
= u n +1 · u − n + 1
256
Independent events–Independent variable
So the integrand can be written as: the event A, and the third one tells us that the
Z Z probability that the events A and B occur together
du du is equal to the product of the probabilities each
=
(1 + un )(n+1)/n un+1 · [u−n + 1](n+1)/n event occurs separately.
Z If at least one of the three conditions (equations)
u−n−1 · du
= is not fulfilled, we say that the events are depen-
[u−n + 1](n+1)/n dent.
Let v = u−n + 1, so that dv = −n u−n−1 · du. Ap- Independent variable In a functional relationship
plying this change of variable and completing the represented algebraically as y = f ( x ), the inde-
differential, we have: pendent variable is that variable x, to which val-
ues are assigned to calculate the corresponding
Z Z
du 1 −n u−n−1 · du value of the dependent variable (y).
= −
(1 + u n ) ( n + 1 ) /n n [ u − n + 1] ( n + 1 ) /n For example, in the function: y = x2 , the indepen-
Z dent variable is x, since it is the variable to which
1 dv
=− a value is assigned to calculate the corresponding
n v(n+1)/n value of the variable y, which is the dependent
Z
1 −(n+1)/n variable.
=− v · dv
n Read also «Function», «Functional Relation», and
1 v−1/n 1 «Dependent variable».
=− · + Ĉ = 1/n + Ĉ
n (− /n)
1 v (Statistics) If X and Y are two random variables
Writing v in terms of u, we get:
whose respective distribution functions are Fx ( x )
and Fy (y), with joint distribution function F ( x, y),
I
Z then X and Y are independent if
du 1
= +C F ( x, y) = Fx ( x ) · Fy (y)
(1 + un )(n+1)/n [u−n + 1]1/n
u for all ( x, y) in the range of both variables.
= +C
(1 + u )n 1/n If X and Y are not independient, then they are
said to be dependent.
Therefore, If X and Y are two discrete random variables with
Z joint probability distribution function p( x, y) and
du u their corresponding marginal probability func-
= +C
(1 + un )(n+1)/n (1 + un )1/n tions p x ( x ) and py (y), then X and Y are indepen-
dent, if and only if,
It is worth mentioning that there are functions for
which there is no antiderivative. For example, f ( x, y) = f x ( x ) · f y (y)
there is no elementary function that is antideriva- for all possible pairs ( x, y).
2
tive of the function y = e− x . If X and Y are two continuous random variables
Read also «Antiderivative», «Definite integral», and with joint density function f ( x, y) and their cor-
«Fundamental Theorem of Calculus». responding marginal density functions f x ( x ) and
f y (y), then X y Y are independent, if and only if,
Independent events Two events are independent
when the outcome of one does not affect the out- p( x, y) = p x ( x ) · py (y)
come of the other. for all possible pairs ( x, y).
When two events A and B are independent, all of If X and Y are two independent random variables
the following three conditions are true: with joint density f ( x, y), and g( X ) and h(Y ) are
functions of X and Y, respectively,
P( A| B) = P( A)
P( B| A) = P( B) E [ g( X ) · h(Y )] = E [ g( X )] · E [h(Y )]
P( A ∩ B) = P( A) · P( B) provided that each expected value exists.
If X and Y are two independent random vari-
In words, the first equation tells us that the prob- ables, then their covariance is zero:
ability of event A does not depend on event B;
Cov[ X, Y ] = 0
The second equation indicates that the probabil-
ity that the event B occurs does not depend on
257
Indeterminate–Inequality
Indeterminate A quantity or algebraic expression Inductive reasoning Process for reaching a conclu-
is indeterminate if it can take more than one sion of the general case from observations of par-
value. ticular cases.
For example, 00 , ∞0 , ∞ − ∞, 0/0, ∞/∞, 0 × ∞, Read also «Mathematical induction».
1∞ .
For example, in the division 0/0, the solution is Inequality An inequality is a mathematical rela-
not unique, because (k)(0) = 0 for any k ∈ R. tionship that compares (greater than or less than)
Read also «Undefined». the magnitude of two quantities (being numbers
(Linear algebra) A system of equations is indeter- or algebraic expressions) when it is required to
minate if it has more than one solution. indicate that a quantity is greater than or equal to
For example, the system of equations: another quantity.
For example, 5 > 2 is an inequality.
x+y+z=3 Inequalities use the following notation.
2x +y−z=2
Inequality Meaning
has infinitely many solutions, and therefore it is
an indeterminate system of equations. > greater than
< smaller than
Indeterminate form In calculus, if a function y = ≥ greater or equal to
f ( x ) evaluated at a value x0 of its independent ≤ smaller or equal to
variable (x) and one of the following expressions
is obtained:
I 0 ∞
We say a is greater than b, denoted by a > b, if
the difference a − b is positive. On the other hand,
0·∞ 1∞ 00 ∞0 ∞ − ∞ a < b (a is smaller than b) if the difference a − b
0 ∞
is negative. Evidentemently, if a − b = 0, then,
it is said that it is an indeterminate form. If the a = b.
value of the function at x = x0 does exists, it can For example, 5 > 2 (5 is greater than 2) because
be computed using the limit 5 − 2 = 3 is a positive number.
Each of the expressions to the right and to the left
y( x0 ) = lim f ( x )
x → x0 of the inequality sign are called members of the in-
equality.
For example, if y = f ( x ) = sin( x )/x, then f (0) Some of the properties of inequalities are listed
represents an indeterminate form, since at x = 0 below.
it is obtained 0/0.
Read also «L’Hôpital rule». • If a > b, and b > c, then, a > c.
• If a > b, then a + m > b + m.
Indirect proof Proof by proving that the opposite
leads to a contradiction. It is also known as Re- • If a > b, and m > 0, then a m > b m.
ductio ad absurdum. • If a > b, and m < 0, then a m < b m.
For example, to show that there is no integer be- • If a > b > 0, and p > 0 then, a p > c p .
tween zero and one, assume that there is indeed
• If a > 1, and p > q > 0, then a p > aq .
at least one integer in (0, 1). By the well-ordering
principle, if the set formed by all the integers in • If a > b, then a/c > b/c for c > 0.
the interval (0, 1) exists an element m that is the • If a > b, then c/a < c/b for c > 0.
minimum of all the elements. Therefore, it fol- • If a > b, then ( a + x )/(b + x ) < a/b, for
lows that a > 0 and b > 0.
0<m<1 √ a+b
• If a > 0, b > 0, then, a · b ≤ .
Multiplying by m both sides of the inequality, it is 2
obtained: Equality holds only if a = b.
0 < m2 < m • If | x | < a, then, − a < x < a with a > 0.
Since integer numbers are closed under multipli- • If | x | > a, then, x < − a, or, x > a with a > 0.
√
cation, m2 ∈ Z. But m2 < m, so the assumption • If x2 < a (with a > 0), then, | x | < a.
that m was the minimum cannot be true. This √
• If x2 > a (with a > 0), then, | x | > a.
contradiction proves that there is no integer in the a
interval (0, 1). • If > 0 (with b , 0), then, a · b > 0.
b
258
Inequation–Infinitesimal
a
• If < 0 (with b , 0), then, a · b < 0. The infinite series is usually represented in the
b form:
∞
Inequation Inequality that includes literals. ∑ ai
Read also «Inequality». i =m
Let am = b1 , am+1 = b2 , etc., so that:
Inference The process of reaching a conclusion
∞ ∞
from premises. An inference can be deductive or
inductive.
∑ a i = ∑ bi
i =m i =1
Inferential statistics Branch of statistics that is If the sequence of partial sums
used to estimate descriptive values of the popula- n
tion from the information we have about a sample sn = ∑ bi
using some parameters known as statistics (mean, i =1
standard deviation, etc.) If convergent for n = 1, 2, · · · , then the infinite se-
ries is also said to be convergent. In this case, if
Infimum The largest quantity that is less than or
the limit of partial sums
equal to the quantities in a set.
The opposite of infimum is supremum. n
lim sn = lim
n→∞ n→∞
∑ bi = S
Infinite Expression that indicates that something i =1
has no end. It is denoted by the symbol ∞. It exists and S is finite, then S is said to be the sum
can also indicate that it has no borders or that it
grows without limit.
of the infinite series.
If the partial sum sn approaches infinity or neg- I
For example, ative infinity as n increases, the infinite series is
1 said to diverge.
lim = ∞
x →0 x If the sequence sn is oscillatory and does not have
indicates that as x gets closer and closer to zero, a defined limit, the infinite series is said to be os-
the quotient 1/x grows without limit. Obviously, cillatorily divergent.
when x = 0, the quotient is undefined. Generally, in mathematics when it is said series,
Read also «Undefined». an infinite series is understood, unless explicitly
stated otherwise.
Infinite expression Algebraic expression includ- Read also «Converge», «Absolute convergence»,
ing at least one operator taking infinitely many «Cauchy root test», «Root test», «Maclaurin-Cauchy
arguments. test», and «Ratio test».
For example,
∞ Infinitesimal An infinitesimal is an infinitely small
1
∑ i quantity.
i =1 2 Leibniz considered an infinitesimal by dividing
the interval [0, 1] into N equal parts, where N is
Infinite product Product of an infinite number of an infinitely large quantity. That is, Leibniz con-
factors. Pi notation is commonly used to indicate sidered an infinitesimal to be the reciprocal of an
it. infinitely large quantity.
For example, If the value of n is finite, each of the subintervals
has a finite length 1/n. But if you divide the inter-
∞
val [1, 0] into an infinitely large number of parts,
π 2i 2i
=∏ · each interval has an infinitely small length 1/N.
2 i =1
2i −1 2i +1
That is, 1/N is an infinitesimal.
Read also «Product of a sequence». In calculus, an infinitesimal amount of the vari-
able x is denoted by dx (this notation is due to
Infinite series An infinite series is an expression of Leibniz.)
the form: Infinitesimal quantities have the following alge-
braic properties.
a m + a m +1 + a m +2 + a m +3 + · · · + a n + · · ·
i. When an infinitesimal dx is added to a real
where m is a positive integer, and the terms ai are number m, the real number is obtained: m +
constant real (or complex) numbers. dx = m
259
Inflection point–Inner product space
ii. The sum of any finite number of infinitesi- y
mals is infinitesimal. 1
iii. The product of a finite constant k ∈ R by an
infinitesimal, it is an infinitesimal. x
iv. The product of any number of infinitesimals
is an infinitesimal.
-1 y = sin x
v. The ratio of two (non-zero) infinitesimals of
the same order is a finite quantity. If y = sin( x ), then y′′ = − sin( x ), so all the points
where sin( x ) = 0 are the inflection points of the
vi. If two or more infinitesimals of different or- graph of the sine function.
der are added, the infinitesimal of lower or-
der is obtained. Initial value problem An initial value problem
consists of a differential equation together with
vii. The reciprocal of an infinitesimal is an in- a set of initial values that the solution must sat-
finitely large quantity. isfy.
For example,
viii. dx n is an infinitesimal if n > 0.
y′′ + y′ + y = 0
ix. dx n is an infinitely large quantity if n < 0.
I n
x. dx is 1 if n = 0.
and the initial conditions y(0) = 1, y′ (0) = 1.
In general, for a linear differential equation of or-
der n (homogeneous), n initial conditions are re-
quired to be able to calculate all the arbitrary con-
A second order infinitesimal is the result of multi-
stants that appear in the solution of the given dif-
plying two first order infinitesimals; an infinites-
ferential equation.
imal of third order is obtained by multiplying an
infinitesimal of second order by another infinites- Injective function A function is an injective func-
imal of first order, and so on. tion if different elements of its domain corre-
Since infinitesimals have properties that real num- spond to different elements of the range.
bers do not, they are not considered to be ele- That is, for any a, b in the domain of y = f ( x ), if
ments of R. Rather, they are elements of a set a , b, then, f ( a) , f (b).
called hyperreal numbers, (denoted by ∗ R) which Injective functions are also known as one to one
is obtained as an extension of the set of real num- functions.
bers, also including infinitely large and infinitesi- For example, y = x3 is an injective function.
mal quantities. Read also «Bijective function».
Inner product space A complex vector space V is
Inflection point In the graph of a curve, the point a space with inner product if for each pair of vec-
of inflection corresponds to the point where the tors ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ V there is a unique complex vector
concavity of the graph changes. (⃗u, ⃗v), called the inner product of ⃗u and ⃗v, such
The inflection point can be calculated with the ⃗ are in V , then:
that if ⃗u, ⃗v and w
second derivative of the function, because pre-
cisely where the second derivative becomes zero i. (⃗v, ⃗v) ≥ 0.
the graph of the function changes concavity. That ii. (⃗v, ⃗v) = 0, if and only if, ⃗v = ⃗0.
is, given the function y = f ( x ), the point x = x0 iii. (⃗u, ⃗v + w
⃗ ) = (⃗u, ⃗v) + (⃗u, w
⃗ ).
is an inflection point of the graph of the function,
iv. (⃗u + ⃗v, w
⃗ ) = (⃗u, w
⃗ ) + (⃗v, w
⃗ ).
if
v. (⃗u, ⃗v) = (⃗v, ⃗u).
d2 y ′′
= f ( x0 ) = 0 vi. ( a ⃗u, ⃗v) = a (⃗u, ⃗v).
dx2 x0
vii. (⃗u, a ⃗v) = ā (⃗u, ⃗v).
In the graph of the sine function, the inflection where x̄ denotes the complex conjugate of x.
points are on the x axis, that is, when sin x = 0, Any finite orthogonal set of nonzero vectors in an
the graph changes concavity. inner product space is linearly independent.
260
Inradius–Inscribed circumference
Inradius (1) Radius of the circle inscribed in a reg- The inscribed angle measures half of the central
ular polygon or in a triangle. angle that subtends the same arc.
α 2α
P
A
Read also «Central angle».
The coordinates ( xi , yi ) of the incenter of the tri-
angle with vertices at ( x a , y a ), ( xb , yb ), and ( xc , yc )
Inscribed circumference A circle is inscribed to a
are:
polygon when its circumference is tangent to all
a x a + b xb + c xc the sides of the polygon.
xi =
a+b+c I
a y a + b yb + c yc
yi =
a+b+c
qhere a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides oppo-
site to the vertices located at ( x a , y a ), ( xb , yy ), and
( xc , yc ), respectively.
The length of the radius r of the incircle of a tri-
angle with sides of lengths a, b and c is:
r
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
r=
s
where s is the semiperimeter of the triangle.
(2) The inradius is the radius of the sphere in-
scribed in a polyhedron. In this case, the in- The radius of the inscribed circle is called inradius
scribed sphere is the one that is tangent to all the and its center incenter.
faces of the polyhedron. The inradius r of the inscribed circle to a regular
Read also «Inscribed circumference». polygon of n sides of length L, is:
Inscribed angle Angle that has its vertex on a cir- 1 180◦
cumference and whose sides are two chords of r= L · cot
2 n
the circumference.
When the polygon is a triangle whose sides mea-
sure a, b and c, the radius r of the inscribed circle
is:
r
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
r=
α s
where s is the semiperimeter of the triangle:
a+b+c
s=
2
261
Inscribed polygon–Inspection method
a
P
A c B
In this case, the circumference is said to be cir-
cumscribed to the polygon.
To draw an inscribed circle to a given triangle
The area A of a quadrilateral inscribed in a cir-
△ ABC draw two bisectors of the interior angles
cumference, whose sides measure a, b, c, d, is:
of the triangle. The point where the bisectors in-
q
tersect is the incenter I.
A = (s − a)(s − b)(s − c)(s − d)
B where s is the semiperimeter of the quadrilateral.
In general, a polygon is said to be inscribed in a
I I
curve if all vertices of the polygon lie on the curve.
Inscribed sphere A sphere is said to be inscribed
C
to a convex polyhedron if all the faces of said
polyhedron are tangent to the sphere.
A
Then draw a perpendicular to one of the sides
that passes through I. Finally, draw the circle
with center at I and passing through the foot of
the perpendicular previously drawn.
A
Inspection method Method that consists of iden-
tifying which values, instances or examples are
Read also «Angle bisector» and «Perpendicular». used to solve some question.
Given a triangle in the plane, if its heights mea- For example, by inspection you can see that x =
sure h a , hb and hc , respectively and its inradius r, −1 is a root of the equation:
then:
1 1 1 1 x3 + x2 + x + 1 = 0
= + +
r ha hb hc
Similarly, by inspection it can be seen that a solu-
Read also «Angle bisector» and «Incenter».
tion of the differential equation:
Inscribed polygon A polygon is said to be in- y′′ + y = 0
scribed when all its sides are chords of the same
circumference. is y = cos( x ), as well as y = sin( x ).
262
Integer number–Integral curve
Integer number The set of the integer numbers, Integral In calculus, an integral is the result of
denoted by Z, is: adding an infinite number of differentials. The
definite integral is the concept that encapsulates
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } the process of such addition.
An integer number is an element of Z. Zb
Notice that all natural numbers are also integer f ( x ) · dx
numbers. However, not all integer numbers are a
natural numbers.
The integer numbers are also known as whole In the integration process, the whole is divided
numbers. into an infinitely large number of parts so that in
Read also «Natural number». each part the quality of the whole that is to be
quantified can be calculated (arc length, volume,
Integer part function Function defined as: mass, moment of inertia, etc.) and this quality is
calculated for each part. Finally, all the parts are
⌈x⌉ x<0
y = [x] = added to obtain the quality of the whole.
⌊x⌋ x≥0
The word integral comes from the fact that in the
where ⌈ x ⌉ is the ceiling function, and ⌊ x ⌋ is the end the entire whole is recovered, without miss-
floor function. ing any of the parts intoR which it was divided.
The integral symbol represents an elongated S,
y to indicate that the sum of all the parts into which
the whole was divided is being computed. The
expression f ( x ) · dx is the differential, which rep-
I
resents the quality of each part that was obtained
y = [x] as the difference between two infinitely close val-
ues of the quality that is being calculated.
The word integral is often used as a synonym for
antiderivative, although it is more correct to use
it solely as a synonym for definite integral.
Read also «Definite integral», «Antiderivative»,
x «Differential», «Fundamental theorem of calculus»,
and «Ten-step rule».
Integral calculus Study of the inverse process of
derivation of functions (known as antiderivation
or indefinite integration) and of the applications
of the definite integral and the improper integral
in the calculation of lengths of curves, areas of re-
The integer part function is also known as integral gions of the plane bounded by curves, volumes of
part function. solids of revolution or solids bounded by surfaces
Read also «Ceiling function» and «Floor function». whose algebraic expressions are known, etc., and
their applications in physics and other sciences.
Integrable It is said that a function y = f ( x ) is Read also «Definite integral», «Antiderivative»,
integrable in the interval [ a, b], if the number A «Fundamental theorem of calculus».
given by
Integral curve (Differential equations) Given a
Zb
differential equation, its general solution includes
A= f ( x ) · dx one or more constants. When the values of these
a constants are specified, an integral curve is ob-
does exist and it is unique. tained, corresponding to certain initial conditions
Note that a function can be integrable even if the of the problem modeled by the given differential
value of A is not finite. equation.
The idea of an integrable function also applies to Read also «Differential equation» and «Initial condi-
functions of several variables (for multiple inte- tions».
grals). An integral curve is defined in a similar way for a
263
Integral equation–Integration by parts
system of differential equations or a vector field. is convergent if and only if
(Analysis) Function that cannot be defined from Z∞
algebraic or transcendental functions and that is
f ( x ) · dx
defined from a definite integral.
N
Zx is finite. Conversely, if the integral diverges, then
y= f (t) · dt the series is also divergent.
a Read also «Maclaurin-Cauchy criterion».
Examples of this type of functions are the error Integrating factor If when multiplying a differen-
function, tial equation by the function µ(t), the resulting
differential equation is an immediately integrable
Zx differential equation, then µ(t) is an integral fac-
2 2
erf( x ) = √ e−t · dt tor of the differential equation.
π
0 For example, in the inhomogeneous first-order
linear differential equation,
the Bessel function,
y′ + p(t) y = g(t)
Z π
1
Jn ( x ) = cos (n τ − x sin τ ) · dτ an integrating factor is the function:
π 0 Z
and Fresnel integrals, µ(t) = exp p(t) · dt
I Zx because by multiplying all its terms by µ(t), the
S( x ) = sin t2 · dt left side of the differential equation becomes the
0 derivative of the product of µ(t) by y, with which
Zx you can easily solve the differential equation to
C(x) = cos t2 · dt obtain its solution:
0 µ(t) · y′ + µ(t) · p(t) y = µ(t) · g(t)
d [µ(t) · y]
These, among others, are frequently used in prob- = µ(t) · g(t)
lem solving in various engineering contexts. dt Z
µ(t) · y = µ(t) · g(t) · dt + C
Integral equation Equation in which some un-
known function appears under the integration And the solution of the differential equation is:
symbol. Z
For example, 1
y(t) = µ(t) · g(t) · dt + C
µ(t)
Zt
f (t) = K (t, s) x (s) · ds Integration The integration of a given function
a f ( x ) consists in finding a differentiable function
y = F ( x ) that satisfy F ′ ( x ) = f ( x ) for all x in the
where K is a function of two (known) variables,
domain of f .
called the kernel of the function, the limit a is a
The term antiderivation is synonym of integration.
constant, and t is the independent variable of the
Read also «Antiderivative» and «Definite integral».
function f .
Integral test Criterion for determining the conver- Integration by parts Integration technique that is
gence of an infinite series, also known as the used (mostly) to calculate the antiderivative of the
Maclaurin-Cauchy criterion. product of two functions, through the formula:
If the function y = f ( x ) is monotonically increas- Z Z
ing on the interval ( N, ∞] (for a finite integer N), u · dv = u · v − v · dv
then the infinite series
which is obtained by antiderivating the derivative
∞
of the product of two functions.
∑ f (i ) The strategy consists of choosing u and dv so that
i= N
264
Integration domain–Interesting number paradox
the antiderivative to the right of the equality is Intercept theorem If several parallels are cut by
simpler than the initial one. two secants, the segments determined in one se-
For example, to calculate: cant are proportional to those determined in the
Z other secant.
x · e x · dx For example, the following figure shows several
parallel (vertical) lines cut by two secants.
define u = x, such that du = dx. And also,
dv = e x · dx, so that v = e x . Substituting in the
integration by parts formula, we get: B D F H
b c S
Z Z a
x x x x x
x · e · dx = x · e − e · dx = x · e − e + C R
Read also «Antiderivative».
a′ b′ c′
P Q
Integration domain Interval [ a, b] where the defi-
nite integral A C E G
Zb AB ∥ CD CD ∥ EF EF ∥ GH
f ( x ) · dx = F (b) − F ( a)
a
is computed. Then
a b c
y
y = f (x)
a′
= ′ = ′
b c I
f (b) This theorem can be stated equivalently as fol-
lows: If a line is drawn parallel to any of its sides in
a triangle, a triangle is obtained that is similar to the
f ( a) given triangle.
A This theorem is also known as Thales’ theorem, ba-
x sic proportionality theorem, and side splitter theorem.
a b
Read also «Definite integral» and «Limits of integra- Interest Rent that is charged for the use of other
tion». people’s money. Interest paid is denoted by the
literal I.
Integro-differential equation Equation involving
derivatives and antiderivatives of an unknown
Interesting number paradox The paradox is ob-
function.
tained in a demonstration by contradiction, for
For example, the mathematical model of the RLC
which purpose an interesting number is defined
circuit, written in terms of the electric current in-
as any natural number that has a property that
tensity I (t),
characterizes it and for that fact can be consid-
Z
dI 1 ered interesting.
L +RI+ I (t) · dt = V (t)
dt C If a natural number does not have any property
is an integro-differential equation, where the that characterizes it, then it is said to be a boring
function I (t) is unknown, R, L, C are the constant number.
values of resistance, inductance and capacitance, The proof consists of giving several examples of
and V (t) is the voltage function of a series circuit. interesting numbers in increasing order. For ex-
ample, the number 1 is the smallest positive num-
R ber that is a natural number. The number 2 is the
unique prime number that is even. The number 3
is the smallest number that satifies that the sum
V (t) I L of all natural numbers less than it is equal to said
number. And so on.
If A is the set whose elements are all the bor-
ing numbers, then, by the well-ordering princi-
C ple, there exists an element x that is the smallest
265
Interior point–International System of Units
of all. That fact makes it an interesting number, ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2
so it cannot be a boring number.
This is the paradox: this number x should be a α ℓ1
β
boring number, but because it is the smallest of
γ
all the elements of A, it becomes an interesting δ
number. The conclusion, then, is that all natural
numbers are interesting numbers. ϵ
ζ ℓ2
η
θ
Interior point A point ( a, b) is an internal point of
a region R of the plane if there exists an open disk
centered on ( a, b) completely contained in R.
(2.) In a polygon, an internal angle is the angle
that lies inside the polygon formed by two adja-
cent (or consecutive) sides of the polygon.
R
P
I
i
The measure of the internal angle of a regular
polygon is denoted by the literal i.
Intermediate value theorem If the function y = The internal angle is also known as interior angle.
f ( x ) is continuous in the interval [ a, b], and also, Read also «Regular polygon».
A = f ( a), and B = f (b) are different values, then
there is at least one value of x in the interval [ a, b]
International System of Units Set of measure-
for which f ( x ) = C, where C ∈ [ A, B].
ment units to be used in all scientific and tech-
nological studies and reports (abbreviated as the
S.I. system)
y The base units of the S.I. system are:
A = f (a)
Magnitude Unit Symbol
C = f (c)
y = f (x) Distance meter m
B = f (b) Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
x
a c b Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
Internal angle (1.) When a pair of parallel lines From these units, others are obtained which are
are cut by a secant, 8 angles are formed. The four called derived units. For example, m2 for area, or
angles that lie between the parallel lines are the m3 for volume, m/s for speed, etc.
internal angles. The S.I. system use the prefixes shown in the ta-
In the figure the angles: γ, δ, ϵ and ζ are internal ble below to indicate multiples and submultiples
angles. of units.
266
Interpolation–Intersection
Prefix Symbol Multiple If the values are close enough, and the graph of
the function is continuous and smooth, (that is, if
exa E 1018 it doesn’t change direction abruptly), the estimate
peta P 1015 for yc will generally be quite good. The closer the
tera T 1012 values of x p and xq are, the better the estimate
giga G 109 will be.
mega M 106 There are more general methods for doing
kilo k 103 quadratic, cubic, etc. interpolations.
hecto h 102
deca da 10 Interquartile range Dispersion measure defined
by the difference between the 75th and 25th per-
The prefixes of the submultiples and their mean- centiles of a distribution.
ings are indicated in the following table. Read also «Percentile» and «Frequency distribu-
tion».
Prefix Symbol Submultiple
deci d 10−1 Intersecant plane In spherical trigonometry, the
intersecant plane is the auxiliary plane that cuts
centi c 10−2
a sphere whose trace is used to consider spheri-
mili m 10−3
cal curves.
micro µ 10−6
nano n 10−9
pico
femto
p
f
10−12
10−15
z I
atto a 10−18
The prefixes of the multiples and submultiples
are used with any of the units of the physical
quantities.
For example, a kilogram is equal to one thousand
grams and a nanometer is equal to one billionth
of a meter.
Interpolation An interpolation in mathematics is
the estimation of a datum or a set of data from a
given data set, so that the estimated values are in x y
the known data range.
The simplest interpolation is linear interpola-
tion, which consists of calculating the equation
of the line that passes through two known points
P( x p , y p ), Q( xq , yq ) (with x p < xq ) and using the
obtained equation calculate the value of y corre-
sponding to a value xc (where x p < xc < xq ).
y Intersection (Geometry) Set of points that share
two bodies or geometric figures. For example,
two non-parallel lines intersect at a single point.
yq
Two non-parallel planes intersect in a straight
yc line.
yp Read also «Trace».
x The graph of the function y = f ( x ) can intersect
xp xc xq
the coordinate axes. To compute the x-intercepts,
substitute y = 0 (because on the x-axis the value
The formula to interpolate a value yc , given its of y is zero), and solve the resulting equation.
abscissa xc is: To calculate the intercepts with the y axis substi-
yq − y p tute x = 0 in the function (because on the y axis
yc = ( xc − x p ) + y p
xq − x p the value of x is zero.)
267
Interval–Inverse element
y y = f (x) The interval is open if the values a and b are not
included and it is denoted as: ( a, b).
If both a and b are included in the interval, it is
closed and it is denoted by: [ a, b].
If only a (but not b) is included, the interval is
semi-closed and it is denoted by: [ a, b), and if b
x is included but a is not, it is a half-open interval,
x1 x2
and it is represented as: ( a, b].
Geometrically, the open interval is denoted by un-
filled circles at its ends.
f (0) The following figure shows a closed interval, that
is, it includes both end points.
[2, 4]
(Set theory) The intersection of two sets A and B, x
denoted as A ∩ B, is the set that contains all the −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
elements that belong to both sets simultaneously.
When an endpoint is included in the interval, the
A B circle that represents it, is filled.
Interval notation Notation used to indicate inter-
vals using inequalities or vice versa.
I
Inequality Interval notation
a ≤x≤b [ a, b]
A∩B
a <x≤b ( a, b]
a ≤x<b [ a, b)
For example, considering the sets: a <x<b ( a, b)
x≤a (−∞, a]
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9}
x≥a [ a, ∞)
B = {2, 3, 5, 7} x<a (−∞, a)
x>a ( a, ∞)
their intersection is: A ∩ B = {2, 3, 5}.
The intersection of sets satisfies the commutative Read also «Interval» and «Inequality».
property:
A ∩ B = B ∩ A, Inverse In algebra, inverse the terms or elements
means swapping their order.
as well as the associative property: For example, to inverse the elements of a fraction,
write the numerator as the numerator and the de-
A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∩ C
nominator as the numerator.
In arithmetic, it is often said: «the inverse of this
number», when it should say: «the reciprocal of this
Interval Subset of real numbers with endpoints at number».
a and b. That is, an interval is the set that satisfies: Read also «Reciprocal».
{ x | a < x < b} Inverse element For the addition, the inverse el-
ement of a is − a, because a + (− a) = 0, for all
where a < b. a ∈ R.
Geometrically, the interval can be represented on The inverse element of the addition is also known
a number line. as the inverse aditive.
For example, the figure below shows the interval For the multiplication, the inverse element of a ,
(2, 4) with end points at 2 and 4. 0 is 1/a, because a · (1/a) = 1, for all a , 0, a ∈ R.
The inverse element of the multiplication is also
(2, 4) known as the inverse multiplicative.
x The inverse element of the number 0 for the mul-
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 tiplication is undefined.
268
Inverse function–Inverse matrix
Inverse function Let f be a function with domain arcsine (arsinh), hyperbolic arccosine (arcosh),
X f and range Y f . If there exist a function g with hyperbolic arctangent (artanh), hyperbolic arc-
domain Xg and range Yg such that: cosecant (arcsch), hyperbolic arcsecant (arsech),
and hyperbolic arccotangent (arcoth), and their
i. f ( g( x )) = x for all x ∈ Xg definitions are listed below.
ii. g( f ( x )) = x for all x ∈ X f √
• arsinh( x ) = ln x + x2 + 1 for −∞ < x∞.
then we say that the functions f and g are inverses √
one of the other. • arcosh( x ) = ln x + x2 − 1 for 1 ≤ x < ∞.
f −1 denotes the inverse function of f . √ 1 1+ x
For example, if f ( x ) = x3 , then, f −1 ( x ) = 3 x. • artanh( x ) = 2 · ln for −1 < x < 1.
1− x
Geometrically, the graphs of the functions f ( x ) r
1
and its inverse f −1 ( x ) are the reflection of each • arcsch( x ) = ln 1
x + + 1 for −∞ ≤
other about the line y = x. x2
x < ∞ and x , 0.
r
y 1 1
• arsech( x ) = ln x + − 1 for 0 < x ≤ 1.
3 x2
= x3
1+ x
• arcoth( x ) = 1
2 · ln 1− x for −∞ < x < −1 or
f (x)
2
1 < x < ∞.
1
f −1 ( x ) =
√
3 x
Some identities that these functions satisfy are
listed below.
I
x • 2 arcosh( x ) = arcosh 2 x2 − 1 for x ≥ 1.
−2 −1 1 2 3
• 4 arcosh( x ) = arcosh 8 x4 − 8 x2 + 1 for
−1 x ≥ 1.
• 2 arsinh( x ) = arcosh 2 x2 + 1 for x ≥ 0.
x
−2 • 4 arsinh( x ) = arcosh 8 x4 + 8 x2 + 1 for
=
y
x ≥ 0.
Read also «Hyperbolic function».
Inverse function theorem If y = f ( x ) is a con- Inverse Laplace transform The inverse Laplace
tinuous function with continuous derivative at transform of the given function F (s) is a function
P( x0 , f ( x0 )), with f ′ ( x0 ) , 0, then f has an in- f (t) that satisfies:
verse function defined in the vecinity of x = x0 ,
its inverse is continuous differentiable at y0 = L { f (t)} = F (s)
f ( x0 ), and the derivative of its inverse is equal
That is, the inverse Laplace transform of F (s) is a
to the reciprocal of f ′ ( x0 ).
function f (t) whose Laplace transform is F (s).
′ 1
f −1 ( y 0 ) = ′ Inverse matrix The inverse of the matrix M of di-
f ( x0 ) mension n × n, is denoted by M−1 , is another ma-
trix of the same dimension as M that satisfies:
The generalization of this theorem for functions
of several variables states that if F is a con- M M−1 = M−1 M = In
tinuous function with continuous derivative at
( x0 , y0 , · · · , v0 ), then there is an inverse func- where In is the identity matrix of dimension n × n.
tion of F in the neighborhood of the point For example, if
F ( x0 , y0 , · · · , v0 ).
In this case, the Jacobian determinant of F at 3 5
M=
x0 , y0 , · · · , v0 is different from zero. 1 2
Read also «Jacobian determinant». its inverse is:
Inverse hyperbolic function The inverse functions 2 −5
of the hyperbolic functions. They are hyperbolic M −1 =
−1 3
269
Inverse matrix theorem–Inverse operation
because M M−1 = I, as well as M−1 M = I. • A ⃗x = ⃗b has at least one solution for each ⃗b
The inverse of the matrix , of dimension n.
• A is a one-to-one linear transformation.
1 1 1
A = 1 −1 1 • The columns of A generate the space of di-
1 1 −1 mension n.
is: • A has n pivots.
0 1/2 1/2
• A is row equivalent to the identity matrix.
A −1 = 1/2 −1/2 0
1/2 0 −1/2 Read also «Adjoint matrix», «Linear independence»,
because «Linear transformation», «Generating set», «Pivot»,
and «Identity matrix».
1 1 1 0 1/2 1/2 1 0 0
1 −1 1 1/2 −1/2 0 = 0 1 0 Inverse matrix theorem Let A be a square matrix
1 1 −1 1/2 0 −1/2 0 0 1 of dimension n × n. Then, if any of the following
statements is true, the others are also true.
and also,
• det( A) , 0.
0 1/2 1/21 1 1 1 0 0
1/2 −1/2 • A is invertible.
0 1 −1 1 = 0 1 0
1/2 0 −1/2 1 1 −1 0 0 1 • A is row equivalent to the identity matrix of
I A square matrix has an inverse if and only if its
dimension n × n.
• A is equivalent by columns to the identity
determinant is nonzero.
matrix of dimension n × n.
If a matrix M has an inverse, then it is said to be
invertible and M−1 is unique. • range( A) = n.
If A and B are invertible matrices such that the • A ⃗x = ⃗0 has a unique solution: the trivial
following operations are defined, then
solution ⃗x = ⃗0.
( AB)−1 = B−1 A−1 • ker( A) = {⃗0}.
In words, the product of two invertible matrices, • A ⃗x = ⃗b, has exactly one solution for each ⃗b.
A and B, is invertible, and the inverse matrix of • The columns of A are linearly independent.
A B is the product of the inverses of A and B re-
• The columns of A generate the space of di-
versing the order of the factors.
mension n.
If the matrix A has an inverse, then
• The columns of A are a basis of the space of
1
det A−1 = dimension n.
det( A)
• There is a matrix B such that AB = BA = I.
Furthermore, • The transpose of A is an invertible matrix.
1 • The number 0 is not a proper value of A.
A −1 = adj( A)
det( A) • A can be expressed as a finite product of
where adj( A) is the adjoint matrix of A. elementary matrices.
Read also «Adjoint matrix».
If A is an invertible square matrix of dimension Inverse operation Given an operation, its inverse
n × n, then: is that operation that returns the mathematical
object on which the operation was initially per-
• det( A) , 0. formed.
• The columns of A form a set of linearly in- For example, the inverse operation of squaring is
dependent vectors. √ operation find square root, because for x ≥ 0,
the
−1 T x2 = x. That is, if you square the number x ≥ 0
• A T is invertible, and also A T = A −1 .
it is obtained x2 . To obtain x back again (the value
• ⃗
A ⃗x = 0 has the trivial solution as its only on which the squaring operation was performed)
solution. its inverse operation is applied (square root).
270
Inverse proportionality function–Inverse relation
Inverse proportionality function A function of the C
form
k
y=
x
b
a
where k , 0 is a real constant called constant of h
inverse proportionality.
The domain and range of this function are the set
of all real numbers except zero.
Read also «Inverse proportion». A c B
Inverse Pythagorean theorem If △ ABC is a right For example, (20, 15, 12), (60, 80, 48), (156, 65, 60)
triangle lying in the plane with legs AC = b and (136, 255, 120) are inverse Pythagorean triples.
BC = a, hypotenuse AB = c, and height perpen- If a, b, h form an inverse Pythagorean triple,
dicular to the hypotenuse of length h, then: 2 2
1 1 1 h h
1 1 1 2
+ 2
= 2
⇒ + =1
2
= 2+ 2 a b h a b
h a b
If x = h/a and y = h/b, then,
C
x 2 + y2 = 1 ⇒ y2 = 1 − x2 = (1 + x )(1 − x )
So you can write:
b y 1+x u I
a
h = =t=
1−x y v
Assuming that u, v are coprime positive integers,
with different parity. From the above,
A c B
tx+y=t
The area of the triangle △ ABC is: x − t y = −1
1 1 Solving this system of linear equations we get:
ab= c·h ⇒
2 2
t2 − 1 2t
a2 b2 = c2 · h2 ⇒ x= y=
1 + t2 1 + t2
1 c2
= Substituting x, y, t in terms of a, b, h, u, and v, and
h2 a2 b2
then solving for the values of a, b, and h formu-
But by the Pythagorean theorem, las are obtained to generate inverse Pythagorean
triples.
c2 = a2 + b2
a = 2 uv u2 + v2
Therefore,
1 c2 b = u2 + v2 u2 − v2
= ⇒
h2 a2 b2
h = 2 uv u2 − v2
1 a2 + b2
= 2 2 ⇒
h2 a b where u and v are coprime positive integers, and
1 b2 a2 u > v.
= 2 2+ 2 2 ⇒ Read also «Inverse Pythagorean theorem».
h2 a b a b
1 1 1 Inverse relation Given a binary relation R between
= 2+ 2
h2 a b the elements of two sets X and Y, its inverse re-
What was to be proved. lation, denoted by R−1 , is a relationship between
the elements of Y and X, such that if x R y (x ∈ X
Inverse Pythagorean triple It is a triple of num- and y ∈ Y), then y R−1 x.
bers ( a, b, h) that satisfy: For example, if R is the relationship between peo-
1 1 1 ple of the type pupil of, then R−1 is the relation
+ = teacher of.
a2 b2 h2
271
Inverse trigonometric functions–Inversion
Inverse trigonometric functions The inverse said to contain an inversion.
trigonometric functions are: The number of inversions in any permutation is
equal to the minimum number of consecutive ele-
• arcsine (arcsin) ment exchanges necessary to accommodate them
• arccosine (arccos) in the natural order.
• arctangent (arctan) For example, in the sequence { a4 , a2 , a5 , a1 , a3 }
there are three inversions ( a4 , a2 ), ( a5 , a1 ) and
Read also «Arccosine», «Arcsine», «Arctangent», ( a5 , a3 ).
and «Inverse function». (Geometry) Transformation of points in the plane
that maps circles to circles and lines to lines, as in-
Inverse z transform The inverse z transform is
I dicated below.
1 Gicen the point P in the plane, its inversion with
x [n] = Z −1 { X (z)} = X (z) zn−1 · dz
2πi respect to the circle C, with center at O and radius
C −→
r is the point P′ lying on the ray OP that satisfies
where C is a closed counterclockwise path that OP · OP′ = r2 .
contains the origin in the region of convergence, To calculate using straightedge and compass the
and encloses all poles of X (z). position of P′ , which is the result of inverting the
point P that is external to the circumference C, (1)
Inversely proportional Two quantities are in in-
draw the segment OP, where O is the center of
verse proportion when one of the quantities in-
C, (2) get the middle point M of the segment OP,
creases a certain number of times, the other de-
I creases the same number of times.
So, if a is inversely proportional to b, denoted as
(3) draw the circle C ′ with center at M passing
through P, (4) Name the points of intersection of
the two circles (C and C ′ ) by N and N ′ . (5) draw
a ∼ 1/b, then when b grows a certain number of
times, a decreases in the same ratio. So, if b dou- the segment NN ′ , (6) the point P′ is the intersec-
bles, a decreases to a half, and if b triples, then a tion of the segments OP and NN ′ .
decreases to a third.
For example, when several people are going to
paint a wall, as the number of people increases,
the time required to paint the wall decreases, so
that if you double the number of people, the time
it takes to paint the wall is expected to be halved,
and if the number of painters is multiplied by 3, N P
the time it takes to complete the task is expected
to be divided by 3. Here it is assumed that work- M
ers do not get in the way of each other, every P′
member of the team work at the same pace all the
time, and individual performance is not affected O
N′
when working as a team.
When two variable quantities are in inverse pro-
portion, their product equals a constant. That
constant is known as the inverse proportionality
constant or as the inverse constant of variation.
For example, if a and b are in inverse propor-
tion, then there is a constant value k for which:
a · b = k.
Read also «Directly proportional» and «Constant of If the point P′ is inside the circle C, to find its in-
−→
proportionality». version P with respect to C, (1) drae the ray OP′
where O is the center of C, (2) draw the line ℓ per-
Inversion (Arithmetic) Gicen a sequence of n ele- −→
ments { a1 , a2 , · · · , an }, it is said that there is an pendicular to OP′ passing through P′ , (3) draw
inversion if there are two indices r and s such that ON, where N is one of the intresections of C with
r > s and ar > as . ℓ. (4) draw the line ℓ p perpendicular to ℓ passing
Any permutation in which one term of the se- through N (5) the point P is the intersection of ℓ p
−→
quence precedes another with a minor suffix is and OP′ .
272
Involute–Irrational number
Involutory matrix Matrix whose inverse is itself.
N′ P For example,
1 0 0
A = 0 0 1
0 1 0
P′
O is an involutory matrix because A−1 = A.
Note that, since A A = A2 = I, where I is the
N identity matrix, then every involutory matrix of
order n × n is the square root of the identity ma-
trix of order n.
Irrational function A function with an algebraic
Involute An involute of a curve is the locus of a expression as argument
√ of a radical.
point on a piece of taut string when the string is For example, y = x − 1 is an irrational function.
unwrapped or wound around the curve.
y
√
y= x−1
2
1 I
x
1 2 3 4 5
Read also «Irrational term».
Irrational number The set of irrational numbers,
denoted by Q′ is formed by all the numbers that
cannot be expressed as the quotient of two inte-
The equations of an involute corresponding to a
gers, being the denominator different from zero.
circumference of radius r are:
′ p
x (t) = r (cos(t) + (t − a) sin(t)) Q = x x , , p, q ∈ Z; q , 0
q
y(t) = r (sin(t) − (t − a) cos(t))
An irrational number is any element of the set of
where a allows to change the position from where rational numbers.
the involute starts. No rational number is an irrational number and
no irrational number is a rational number.
Involution An involution is a function whose in- Some well-known irrational numbers are π ≈
verse is itself, so that 3.141592654 · · · and e ≈ 2.7182818 · · · .
For example,
√ to prove (by contradiction) that the
f ( f ( x )) = x number 2 is an irrational number, suppose that
√
2 = p/q, where p and q are integer numbers
for all x in the domain of f . (with q , 0) that do not share common factors.
For example, the function y = 1/x, is an involu- Thus,
tion, because for all x of its domain,
√ p p2
1 2= ⇒ 2 = 2 ⇒ 2 q2 = p2
f ( f ( x )) = = x q q
1
x Therefore p must be an even number (a multiple
of 2). If p = 2 k, then,
Involution is also known as auto-inverse function.
2 q2 = (2 k )2 ⇒ 2 q2 = 4 k 2 ⇒ q2 = 2 k 2
273
Irrational term–Isocline field
This means that q is also a multiple of 2. But ini- Read also «Regular polygon».
tially the assumption was made that p and q had
no common factors and we found that both p and Irregular polyhedron Polyhedron that is not regu-
q must be even. lar. That is, an irregular polyhedron is one whose
This contradiction indicates√ that the initial hy- faces are not all the same.
pothesis (that the number√ 2 is a rational num-
ber) is false. Therefore, 2 is an irrational num-
ber.
Irrational term A term that has a rational exponent
in one of its variable factors.
For example, the term 3 x1/2 , is an irrational term.
Irreducible fraction (Arithmetic) A fraction
whose numerator and denominator have no com-
mon factors.
In other words, if the numerator and denomina- Irrotational vector field A vector field is an irrota-
tor of the fraction are coprimes, then the fraction tional field if the rotational of ⃗F is the zero vector.
is irreducible.
For example, 2/7 is an irreducible fraction. rot ⃗F = ∇ × ⃗F = ⃗0
I (Algebra) An algebraic fraction that cannot be
simplified, because its numerator and denomina-
tor do not have common factors. If ∇ × ⃗u = ⃗0, where ⃗F is the speed of a fluid, then
For example, there is no rotation in the fluid.
x+1 Read also «Rotational».
x2 + 1
is an algebraic irreducible fraction. Isocline Two isocline lines are those that have the
same slope.
Irreducible polynomial Polynomial that cannot be Read also «Isocline field».
decomposed as the product of two polynomials
(with real coefficients) of degree greater than or
equal to 1. Isocline field Given the first-order differential
For example, the polynomial x2 + 1, is irreducible, equation y′ = f ( x, y), if it is considered a con-
but the polynomial x2 − 1, is not, because stant value k for y′ , it is obtained the isoclune curve
f ( x, y) = k where the slope of the tangent line to
2 the graph of the solution of the given differential
x − 1 = ( x + 1)( x − 1)
equation is constant.
If a polynomial is not an irreducible polynomial, If small segments with slope equal to their cor-
it is said to be a reducible polynomial. responding value of k are drawn along several
An irreducible polynomial divides a product of isocline curves, the isocline field of the differential
polynomials, if and only if, it divides at least one equation y′ = f ( x, y) is obtained.
of the factors. For example, considering the differential equa-
If Pm ( x ) and Qn ( x ) are two coprime polynomials tion:
and Pm ( x ) divides the product Qn ( x ) · Rk ( x ), then
Pm ( x ) divides Rk ( x ). y′ = 1 − 2 x y
Irregular polygon Polygon that is not regular. By substituting y′ = k, the isocline curve
That is, an irregular polygon is a polygon that is
not equilateral, or that is not equiangular, or both. 1−k
k = 1 − 2 xy ⇒ y=
2x
is obtained. Assigning different values for k, the
curves on which the slope of the tangent line to
the graph of the solution of the given differential
equation is constant, are obtained.
274
Isohedral figure–Isoperimetric theorem
i. If ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn generate V , then, T (⃗v1 ),
y 0 T (⃗v2 ), · · · , T (⃗vn ) generate W .
y = 1 − 2xy
ii. If ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn are linearly independent in
k = −15 V , then T (⃗v1 ), T (⃗v2 ), · · · , T (⃗vn ) are linearly
k = 15
k = −10 independent in W .
k = 10
iii. If{⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn } is a base of V , then, { T (⃗v1 ),
k = −5
k=5 1 T (⃗v2 ), · · · , T (⃗vn )} is a base of W .
k =x 0 iv. If V has a finite dimension, then W has also
k=0 −1 1
k=5 finite dimension, and dim(V ) = dim(W ).
k = −5
−1 k = 10 Read also «Linear transformation».
k = −10
k = 15 Isoperimetric inequality If L is the length of a
k = −15
closed curve that lies in the plane, and A is the
area delimited by this curve, then,
Read also «Directional field».
L2 ≥ 4 π A
Isohedral figure Polyhedron whose faces are all
the same. The equality is satisfied only by a circle.
Read also «Isoperimetric theorem».
Isoperimetric theorem Of all the polygons with n
I
sides that lie in a plane with a fixed perimeter P,
the one with a maximum value of its area A is the
regular polygon.
The cube, tetrahedron, octahedron, dodecahe-
dron, icosahedron, deltoidal icositetrahedron,
equilateral triangular dipyramid, trapezohedron,
are examples of isohedral figures. If the perimeter
Read also «Regular polyhedron» and «Catalan is constant,
solids». the regular
polygon has the
Isometry A linear transformation T that outputs maximum area.
vectors from a vector space V of dimension n into
another vector space W of the same dimension, is
an isometry, if for all ⃗v ∈ V and for all w
⃗ ∈ W , it
is satisfied:
T (⃗v) · T (⃗
w) = ⃗v · w
⃗ It is also true that of all the polygons of n sides
with a fixed area A, the one with the minimum
In other words, an isometry is a linear transfor-
perimeter is the regular polygon.
mation that preserves the dot product of vectors
Given that the area A of the regular polygon with
of finite dimension n.
n sides of length L and apothem a is:
Isomorphic Two vector spaces V and W are iso-
morphic (denoted by V W ) if there exist an 1 1
A= nLa = Pa
isomorphism T from V to W . 2 2
Read also «Isomorphism».
and with a fixed perimeter, the length of the
Isomorphism If T is a linear transformation one to apothem increases with the number of sides, the
one and onto, which sends the vectors of the vec- more sides a regular polygon has, the greater its
tor space V to the vector space W , then, T is an area. Therefore, for a fixed perimeter, the circum-
isomprphism. ference is the figure that encloses the largest area.
If T is an isomorphism from V to W , then, Read also «Isoperimetric inequality».
275
Isosceless–Iteration
Isosceless An isosceles triangle has two of its sides Read also «Trapezoid».
of the same measure.
Isosceles triangle A triangle is isosceles if two of
its sides have the same length.
(2) An isosceles trapezoid has its two non-parallel
sides have the same measure.
Iterated integral Multiple integral that is always
calculated in the same order in which the differ-
entials of each variable appear, and considering
as a variable the one with respect which it is be-
ing done the integration and the other variables
that appear in the integral are treated as if they
I were constants.
For example, the triple integral
Isosceles trapezoid Trapezoid that has its non-
parallel sides of the same length.
Z1 Z1 Z1
( x + y + z) · dx · dy · dz
0 0 0
Z1 Z1 2 1
x
= + xy + xz · dy · dz
2 0
0 0
The angles at each base of the isosceles trapezoid Z1 Z1
1
are congruent. = + y + z · dy · dz
2
0 0
D C Z1 1
y y2
= + + yz · dz
2 2 0
0
Z1 1
z2 3
= (1 + z) · dz = z + =
2 0 2
θ θ 0
A B it is first integrated with respect to the variable
x, considering y and z as if they were constants,
The diagonals of the isosceles trapezoid are con- then it is integrated with respect to the variable y,
gruent. considering z constant, and finally it is integrated
with respect to z.
D C The iterated integrals are always computed in the
same order as they appear in the product of the
differentials (from left to right).
Iteration Performing a cycle of an algorithm that
consists of repetitive operations, so that it gets
closer to the solution after each cycle. √
A B For example, to approximate the value of 2,
276
Iterative method–Iverson bracket
consider x2 − 2 = 0. To begin with, the initial Iterative method Method of solving a problem
value x = 1 is used. Then, through successive approximations to the sought
solution. These methods are generally used
( x + a )2 = 2 ⇒ 1 + 2 a + a2 = 2 through computer programming because they re-
Since 0 < a < 1, is follows that a2 < a. Omit- quire many successive calculations, a task that the
ting this term to consider the linear equation, we computer can easily perform.
obtain: In general, iterative methods are considered nu-
1 merical methods that are based on an initial value
2a = 1 ⇒ a=
2 and from this generate a succession of values that
Therefore x + a = 3/2. This is the result of the are approximations (in general, better and better)
first iteration. to the solution of a problem, where the successive
To start another iteration, now let x = 3/2, and values are calculated based on previously calcu-
the procedure is repeated: lated values.
Read also «Newton’s method», «Secant method»,
9
( x + a )2 = 2 ⇒ + 3 a + a2 = 2 «Regula falsi», and «Runge-Kutta method».
4
Again, the term a2 is omitted to get: Iverson bracket Mathematical notation used to
convert the truth value of a logical proposition P
9 1
+3a = 2 ⇒ a=− to a binary numerical value, as follows:
4 12
Substituting x = 3/2, y a = −1/12, it is obtained 1 if P is true
x + a = 17/12. This is the approximate value of
√
[x] =
0 otherwise. I
2 which is obtained with the second iteration.
If a better approximation is required, the proce- This function is considered a generalization of the
dure can be repeated (more iterations are done). Kronecker Delta.
Read also «Kronecker delta».
277
I
278
J
ȷ̂ Unit vector pointing in the direction of the y axis. The Jacobian J evaluated at ⃗y, is the matrix:
∂y ∂y1
ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ 1
···
∂x1 ∂xn
. . ..
Any vector ⃗v = ⟨v x , vy , vz ⟩ in three-dimensional
J ( x1 , x2 , · · · , x n ) = .. . .
.
space in rectangular coordinates can be written ∂y ∂ym
m
as a linear combination of the orthonormal vec- ···
∂x1 ∂xn
tors ı̂, ȷ̂, k̂ as:
Read also «Jacobian determinant».
⃗v = v x ı̂ + vy ȷ̂ + vz k̂ Jacobian determinant The Jacobian determinant
of the vector function F = ⟨ f 1 ( x1 , x2 ), f 2 ( x1 , x2 )⟩,
where
denoted by J F , is:
ı̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩ ∂ f1 ∂ f1
ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ JF = ∂x1 ∂x2
∂ f2 ∂ f2
k̂ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩
∂x1 ∂x2
Read also «Unit vector». If J f ( x, y) , 0 in P( x0 , y0 ), then f is continuous,
differentiable and invertible at ( x0 , y0 ).
Jacobi identity The Jacobi identity is the following In general, if F is a function that
relation between the vectors ⃗u, ⃗v and w
⃗ , as takes n−dimensional vectors and returns
m−dimensional vectors,
⃗u × (⃗v × w w × ⃗u) = ⃗0
⃗ × (⃗u × ⃗v) + ⃗v × (⃗
⃗)+w
F = ⟨ F1 (⃗x ), F2 (⃗x ), · · · , Fm (⃗x ))⟩
the Jacobian determinant of F is:
Jacobian The Jacobian determinant, denoted as J f ∂F1 ∂F1
of a scalar function z = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) is the ···
∂x1 ∂xn
gradient of the function: .. .. ..
JF = . . .
J f ( x, y) = ⟨ f x1 , f x2 , · · · , f xn ⟩ ∂Fm ∂Fm
···
∂x1 ∂xn
Given the vector:
The Jacobian in this case can also be denoted as
y1 ( x1 , x2 , · · · , x n ) JF ( x1 , · · · , xn ), or
y2 ( x1 , x2 , · · · , x n )
∂( F1 , · · · , Fm )
⃗y = .. , or ∇ F ( x1 , · · · , x n )
. ∂ ( x1 , · · · , x n )
y m ( x1 , x2 , · · · , x n )
Jacobian matrix–Johnson solid
Jacobian matrix The Jacobian matrix J of a func-
tion from Rn to Rm ,
⃗F = ⟨ f 1 ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), · · · , f m ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn )⟩
is defined as:
∂ f1 ∂ f1 ∂ f1
···
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
∂ f2 ∂ f2 ∂ f2
···
J⃗F =
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
∂ fm ∂ fm ∂ fm
··· If the length of its shortest√edge is a, then the
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
longest edge measure (1 + 5) a/2, and its vol-
and it is a generalization of the derivative of a ume V and its surface area A, are:
function of one variable for a function as a linear v !
u r
transformation. u3 √ √ 2
A= t 23 + 3 5 + 4 6 5 + 5 a
A more synthetic way to represent the Jacobian 2
matrix is: " #
∂ fi 1 √
J = Jij = V= 9 + 5 5 a3
∂x j 12
The Jacobian matrix of the scalar function f of
J several variables is equal to the gradient of f . Be- Joel’s cubohedron
cause of this, another frequently used notation for formed by 24 faces in
Non-convex
the shape of
polyhedron
isosceles trian-
gles. It also has 14 vertices and 36 edges.
the Jacobian matrix is: ∇⃗F.
The Jacobian matrix is also represented as:
∂( f 1 , f 2 , · · · , f m )
D⃗F or
∂ ( x1 , x2 , · · · , x n )
Read also «Gradient».
Notice that the Jacobian matrix of a one-variable
scalar function is the ordinary derivative of that
function.
The inverse matrix of the Jacobian matrix of an
invertible function is the Jacobian matrix of the
inverse of the function. To build Joel’s cubohedron, we start from a cube
The Jacobian matrix is also known as the Jacobian. and extract a pyramid with a square base from
Read also «Jacobian determinant». each face of the cube. If the pyramids drawn
from each face are the same height and are right
Jerk Physical quantity denoted by ⃗j, which is de- pyramids, then all of the triangular faces in Joel’s
fined as the first derivative of the acceleration (⃗a), ˙
cubohedron are congruent isosceles triangles.
¨
or the second derivative of the ... velocity (⃗v), or the Joel’s cubohedron is an excavated cube.
third derivative of position ( ⃗x ). Read also «Augmented cube» and «Excavated dodec-
... ahedron».
⃗j = ⃗a˙ = ⃗v¨ = ⃗x
Johnson solid Convex polyhedron whose faces
The jerk is also known as jolt. are regular polygons, but different from the
Read also «Acceleration». Archimedean solids or the Platonic solids, or a
prism or antiprism.
Jessens’ orthogonal icosahedron Polyhedron The Johnson solids are listed below.
formed by 20 faces in the shape of an isosceles
triangle, some of which form right dihedral an- 1. Square pyramid
gles. It also has 12 vertices and 30 edges. 2. Pentagonal pyramid
280
Johnson solid
3. Triangular cupola 44. Gyroelongated triangular bicupola
4. Square cupola 45. Gyroelongated square bicupola
5. Pentagonal cupola 46. Gyroelongated pentagonal bicupola
6. Pentagonal rotunda 47. Gyroelongated pentagonal cupolarotunda
7. Elongated triangular pyramid 48. Gyroelongated pentagonal birotunda
49. Augmented triangular prism
8. Elongated square pyramid
50. Biaugmented triangular prism
9. Elongated pentagonal pyramid
51. Triaugmented triangular prism
10. Gyroelongated square pyramid
52. Augmented pentagonal prism
11. Gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid
53. Biaugmented pentagonal prism
12. Triangular bipyramid 54. Augmented hexagonal prism
13. Pentagonal bipyramid 55. Parabiaugmented hexagonal prism
14. Elongated triangular bipyramid 56. Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism
15. Elongated square bipyramid 57. Triaugmented hexagonal prism
16. Elongated pentagonal bipyramid 58. Augmented dodecahedron
17. Gyroelongated square bipyramid 59. Parabiaugmented dodecahedron
18. Elongated triangular cupola 60. Metabiaugmented dodecahedron
19. Elongated square cupola 61. Triaugmented dodecahedron
62. Metabidiminished icosahedron
20. Elongated pentagonal cupola
21. Elongated pentagonal rotunda
63. Tridiminished icosahedron J
64. Augmented tridiminished icosahedron
22. Gyroelongated triangular cupola
65. Augmented truncated tetrahedron
23. Gyroelongated square cupola
66. Augmented truncated cube
24. Gyroelongated pentagonal cupola 67. Biaugmented truncated cube
25. Gyroelongated pentagonal rotunda 68. Augmented truncated dodecahedron
26. Gyrobifastigium 69. Parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron
27. Triangular orthobicupola 70. Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron
28. Square orthobicupola 71. Triaugmented truncated dodecahedron
29. Square gyrobicupola 72. Gyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
30. Pentagonal orthobicupola 73. Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
31. Pentagonal gyrobicupola 74. Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
75. Trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron
32. Pentagonal orthocupolarotunda
76. Diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
33. Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda
77. Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodeca-
34. Pentagonal orthobirotunda hedron
35. Elongated triangular orthobicupola 78. Metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodeca-
36. Elongated triangular gyrobicupola hedron
37. Elongated square gyrobicupola 79. Bigyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahe-
dron
38. Elongated pentagonal orthobicupola
80. Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
39. Elongated pentagonal gyrobicupola
81. Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
40. Elongated pentagonal orthocupolarotunda
82. Gyrate bidiminished rhombicosidodecahe-
41. Elongated pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda dron
42. Elongated pentagonal orthobirotunda 83. Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
43. Elongated pentagonal gyrobirotunda 84. Snub disphenoid
281
Joined truncated cube–Joint distribution
85. Snub square antiprism Joint denial Logical connective denoted by ↓, such
86. Sphenocorona that p ↓ q is true only if both propositions p and
q are false.
87. Augmented sphenocorona The truth table for this logical connective is
88. Sphenomegacorona shown below.
89. Hebesphenomegacorona
p q p ↓ q
90. Disphenocingulum
91. Bilunabirotunda T T F
T F F
92. Triangular hebesphenorotunda F T F
Read also each of the definitions corresponding to F F T
each of these solids to know some of their char-
acteristics (number of faces, vertices and edges, where T means true, F means false and ↓ is the
their volume, their area, etc.) Peirce’s arrow.
In English the word nor is equivalent to the joint
Joined truncated cube Polyhedron with 36 faces, denial.
of which 24 are deltoids and 12 are rhombuses. It Joint negation is also known as logical nor, am-
also has 38 vertices and 72 edges. pheck, Peirce’s arrow and Quine’s dagger.
Joint distribution The joint probability distribu-
tion of the discrete random variables X and Y,
is the function:
J F ( x, y) = P( X = x, Y = y)
for each pair ( x, y) in the range of X and Y.
The function P( X = x, Y = y) is also known as
joint probability function, and it satisfies:
• P( x, y) ≥ 0 for each pair ( x, y) in the range
of X and Y.
• ∑ P( x, y) = 1, where the sum cover all posi-
x,y
ble pairs ( x, y) in the range of X and Y.
Joint cumulative distribution The joint cumula- If X and Y are continuous random variables, the
tive distribution of the discrete random variables joint distribution is:
X and Y is given by:
Zy Zx
F ( x, y) = P( X ≤ x, Y ≤ y) = ∑∑ f (s, t) F ( x, y) = P( X ≤ x, Y ≤ y) = f (s, t) · ds · dt
s≤ x t≤y −∞ −∞
for −∞ < x < ∞, and −∞ < y < ∞, where f (s, t) for −∞ < x < ∞, −∞ < y < ∞, where f (s, t) is
is the value of the joint probability distribution of the joint probability density function of X and Y
X and Y, at (s, t). at (s, t).
If X and Y are continuous random variables, their The function P( X ≤ x, Y ≤ y) is also known as
joint cumulative distribution is joint probability density function, and it satisfies:
Zx Zy • F (−∞, −∞) = F (−∞, y) = F ( x, −∞) = 0.
F ( x, y) = P( X ≤ x, Y ≤ y) = f (s, t) · ds · dt • F (∞, ∞) = 1.
−∞ −∞ • If x1 ≥ x, and y1 ≥ y, then
for −∞ < x < ∞, and −∞ < y < ∞, where f (s, t) F (y1 , y1 ) − F ( x1 , y) − F ( x, y1 ) + F ( x, y) ≥ 0
is the value of the joint probability density of X
and Y at (s, t). The third property indicates that P( x < X <
The joint cumulative distribution is also known as x1 , y < Y < y1 ) ≥ 0.
joint distribution function. Furthermore,
282
Joint distribution function–Jump discontinuity
• f ( x, y) ≥ 0 for all ( x, y). x = x0 if there are one-sided limits (from the left
Z∞ Z∞ and from the right) but even though both limits
• f ( x, y) · dx dy = 1. exist and they are finite, they are different.
−∞ −∞
lim f ( x ) = p
x → x0−
Joint distribution function Synonym of cumula-
tive joint distribution. lim f ( x ) = q
x → x0+
Read also «Cumulative joint distribution».
with p , q.
Joint probability density function A function
Geometrically, the graph of the function at point
f ( x, y) defined over the xy plane is a joint proba-
x0 is undefined; just before x = x0 the values
bility density function, if and only if,
x of the function are very close to p and just after
x = x0 , its values are very close to q.
P[( X, Y ) ∈ A] = f ( x, y) · dx · dy For example, the unit function for Heaviside ex-
A hibits a jump discontinuity at x = 0.
for any region A of the xy plane.
A joint probability density function f ( x, y) of con- 1 for x > 0
u( x ) =
tinuous random variables X and Y, satisfy: 0 for x < 0
i. f ( x, y) ≥ 0 for −∞ < x < ∞, −∞ < y < ∞;
y
Z∞ Z∞ 1 for x > 0
u(x) =
ii. f ( x, y) · dx · dy = 1 0 for x < 0
1
−∞ −∞
J
Jordan curve Simple and closed flat curve. That x
is, a Jordan curve is a closed curve that lies in a O
plane that does not intersect itself.
(2.) A function y = f ( x ) has an infinite jump
discontinuity at the point x = x0 if there are one-
sided limits (from the left and from the right) but
one of them is finite and the other is infinite:
lim f ( x ) = p
x → x0−
Jourdain’s paradox Consider a card that in one
lim f ( x ) = ±∞
side says The sentence in the other side of this card x → x0+
is true, while the reverse says: The sentence in the
other side of this card is false. or,
If the truth value of either of these sentences is to
be assigned a paradox is obtained that is known lim f ( x ) = ±∞
x → x0−
as the Jordain’s paradox.
lim f ( x ) = p
x → x0+
Jump discontinuity (1.) A function y = f ( x )
presents a finite jump discontinuity at the point
283
J
284
K
k̂ Unit vector pointing in the direction of the z axis. arrangement of the spheres of the same size is:
Any vector ⃗v = ⟨v x , vy , vz ⟩ in three-dimensional π
space in rectangular coordinates can be written √ ≈ 0.74048048969306104117
3 2
as a linear combination of the orthonormal vec-
tors ı̂, ȷ̂, k̂ as:
Kepler’s rule Method to calculate the approximate
⃗v = v x ı̂ + vy ȷ̂ + vz k̂ value of the definite integral:
Zb
where
f ( x ) · dx
ı̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩ a
ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ which consists of dividing the interval [ a, b] into
k̂ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩ n subintervals of the same size ∆x = (b − a)/n,
and to compute for each subinterval [ xi , xi+1 ], ap-
Read also «Unit vector». plying the midpoint rule:
x i + x i +1
Kepler’s conjecture No arrangement of spheres of Mi = f · ∆x
equal size (of radius r) that try to fill the space 2
has an average density greater than the arrange- and the trapezoidal rule:
ment of the spheres in edge cubes 2 r, as well as
f ( x i ) + f ( x i +1 )
accommodation in a hexagonal packing. Ti = · ∆x
2
and the approximate value of the following defi-
nite integral is obtained by adding:
Zb n −1
2 Mi + Ti
f ( x ) · dx ≈ ∑ 3
a i =0
considering all the subintervals in [ a, b], so that
x0 = a, and xn = b.
Kepler’s rule is also known as the barrel rule, be-
cause Kepler used it to calculate the volume of
wine barrels.
If y = f ( x ) is a polynomial function of degree
less than or equal to 3, the result of this numer-
ical method for computing the integral is exact.
The highest value of the average density of the
Kepler’s triangle–Kronecker delta
Kepler’s triangle Right triangle whose sides are in intersection is the third vertex of Kepler’s trian-
√
the geometric progression 1 : φ : φ, where ϕ is gle.
the golden number, so that the area of each square
drawn on each of its corresponding sides is in the
proportion 1 : φ : φ2 .
√
5
2
√ φ
φ
1
2
1
For two positive real numbers p, and q, the arith-
To draw a Kepler triangle, first draw a unit square metic mean, geometric mean, and harmonic mean
and divide it into two equal parts by means of a are the lengths of a right triangle if and only if
horizontal line. that triangle is a Kepler triangle.
Read also «Golden number».
Kernel The kernel of a linear transformation T that
sends vectors of the vector space V to the vector
space W , is denoted as ker( T ), and defined by:
1
2
ker( T ) = {⃗v ∈ V : T (⃗v) = ⃗0}
K 1
In words, the kernel of the linear transformation
T is the set of all vectors that are in V such that
Leaning the compass at the midpoint of the ver-
after applying the transformation T they are sent
tical side of the square, and opening it until it
to the vector ⃗0 which is in vector space W .
passes through the opposite vertex, draw an arc
The kernel of T is a subspace of V .
that cuts the extension of the vertical side of the
square to draw a golden rectangle. Kilo Prefix indicating thousand. It is abbreviated
with the (lowercase) letter k.
For example, kilogram indicates one thousand
grams and is denoted as kg.
√
5
2 Kilometer Unit of distance equal to one thousand
meters and denoted as km.
Kronecker delta Function defined by:
1
2
1 if i = j
δij =
0 if i , j
1
where i, j are natural numbers.
Opening the compass to obtain the length of the For example, the identity matrix In of dimension
longest side of the golden rectangle, lean it on n may be defined as In = [δij ] for 1 ≤ i ≤ n,
one end of this side and draw an arc that cuts the 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
other side of the golden rectangle. That point of Read also «Identity matrix».
286
L
Lagrange interpolating polynomial Synonym of For example, for the case of vectors of dimension
Lagrange polynomial. n = 3, we have:
Read also «Lagrange polynomial». 2
∥⃗u × ⃗v∥2 = ∑ ui v j − u j vi
Lagrange multiplier The number λ in the equa- 1≤ i < j ≤3
tion: = ( u1 v2 − u2 v1 )2 + ( u2 v3 − u3 v2 )2 +
∇ f ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) = λ ∇ g ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + ( u3 v1 − u1 v3 )2
is a Lagrange multiplier.
Read also «Method of Lagrange multipliers». Lagrange’s theorem of the 4 squares Every posi-
Lagrange polynomial Polynomials used for inter- tive integer can be expressed as the sum of four
polation from a set of n data ( x0 , y0 ), ( x1 , y1 ), perfect squares.
( x2 , y2 ), · · · , ( xn , yn ), where all the xi are differ- For example,
ent. 100 = 82 + 42 + 42 + 22
The Lagrange polynomial is:
x − xm
ℓ j (x) = ∏ x j − xm
Laguerre polynomials The Laguerre polynomials
0≤ m ≤ n are the polynomial solutions of the second-order
linear differential equation:
for j , m, and 0 ≤ j ≤ n.
From the Lagrange polynomials, the interpolating x y′′ + (1 − x ) y′ + n y = 0
polynomials in the Lagrange form are defined as
The first Laguerre polynomials are listed below.
a linear combination of Lagrange polynomials.
n n Ln ( x )
L( x ) = ∑ yi · ℓi ( x ) 0 1
i =0
1 − x +1
2
2 x − 4 x + 2 /2
Lagrange’s identity For any towo vectors ⃗u and ⃗v
of dimension n, 3 − x3 − 9 x2 − 18 x + 6 /6
⃗u · ⃗u ⃗u · ⃗v 4 x4 − 16 x3 + 72 x2 − 96 x + 24 /24
∥⃗u × ⃗v∥2 = = ∥⃗u∥2 ∥⃗v∥2 − (⃗u · ⃗v)2
⃗u · ⃗v ⃗v · ⃗v
And in general,
Or equivalently,
(− x )n + n2 (− x )n−1 + · · · + n (n!)( x ) + n!
2 Ln ( x ) =
∑ ui v j − u j vi 2 2
= ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ − (⃗u · ⃗v) 2 n!
1≤ i < j ≤ n
Lambda function–Laplace transform
Lambda function Function denoted as λ( x ), and is at most a constant multiple of x5 when x is close
defined by: enough to zero.
On the other hand, the little-o notation,
∞
1
λ( x ) = ∑ ( 2 n + 1) x
f ( x ) = o ( g( x )) as x→∞
n =0
if for each constant ϵ > 0, there exists a constant
In terms of the Riemann zeta function, the lambda N such that:
function can be represented as:
| f ( x )| ≤ ϵ · g( x ) for all x ≥ N.
x
λ ( x ) = (1 − 2 ) ζ ( x ) This indicates that f ( x ) grows much faster than
g ( x ).
Read also «Riemann zeta function». Note that in the big O notation the inequality must
Lambert series The Lambert series of the sequence hold for at least one value of M, while in the little
a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , is o notation the inequality must hold for every con-
stant ϵ > 0, no matter how small this constant is.
∞ The Landau notation is also known as asymptotic
xk
L( a k , x ) = ∑ ak
1 − xk notation and as Bachmann notation.
k =1
Laplace transform Integral transformation of a
function f of a real variable, defined as:
Lamina A two-dimensional object with infinitely
Z∞
small thickness.
F (s) = L { f (t)} = e−st f (t) · dt
0
where s = σ + i ω is a complex variable.
Lamina The Laplace transform has the following proper-
ties.
Its area dimensions are generally considered, L { a f (t) + b g(t)} = a L { f (t)} + b L { g(t)}
L while the thickness of the lamina is considered
infinitely small (as a differential in calculus.)
That is, the Laplace transform is a linear operator.
L f ′ (t) = s L { f (t)} − f (0)
Landau notation Mathematical notation used to
express the behavior of the limit of a function That is, the Laplace transform of the derivative of
when its argument tends to a particular value or a function f is equal to s times the Laplace trans-
to infinity. form of f minus the value of the function f eval-
There are two ways to express this. The first is the uated at zero.
big O notation: Zt 1
L f (τ ) · dτ = L { f (t)}
f ( x ) = O( g( x )) as x → ∞ s
0
indicates that there exists a positive real number That is, the Laplace transform of the definite inte-
M and a real number x0 such that for all x ≥ x0 , gral of a function from 0 to t is equal to 1/s times
the Laplace transform of f .
| f ( x )| ≤ M · g( x )
L e at f (t) = F (s − a)
For example, That is, the Laplace transform of e at times f (t) is
the transform of f shifted a units, in the space of
x2 x3 x4 the variable s.
ex = 1 + x + + + + O x5
2! 3! 4!
L { f (t) ∗ g(t)} = F (s) G (s)
as x tends to zero.
This indicates that the error made between the That is, the convolution of f and g is equal to the
value of e x and the polynomial product of the Laplace transforms of f and g, sep-
arately.
x2 x3 x4 The Laplace transform of some basic functions are
1+x+ + + included in the following table.
2! 3! 4!
288
Laplacian operator–Latin square
f (t) L { f (t)} Convergence int. Lateral face In a prism, the lateral faces are those
parallelogram-shaped faces that join the bases
1
1 for all s (which are in parallel planes). That is, the lateral
s faces of a prism are its equatorial faces.
n!
tn Re(s) > 0
s n +1
n!
tn e at Re(s) > a
( s − a ) n +1
n!
e at Re(s) > a
(s − a)
a
sin( at) Re(s) > 0
s2 + a2
s
cos( at) Re(s) > 0
s2 + a2
In the table above, the last column indicates the
interval of convergence of the improper integral
Read also «Equatorial face».
given in the definition of the Laplace transform.
In a pyramid, the side faces are the triangular
faces that meet at a vertex.
Laplacian operator The Laplacian operator, de-
noted by ∇ · ∇, or ∇2 , is defined as:
n
∂2 (·)
∇2 (·) = ∑ 2
i =1 ∂xi
The Laplacian of z = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), is:
n
∂2 f
∇2 ( f ) = ∑ ∂x2
i =1 i
This scalar magnitude is proportional to the rate
of change of the difference between the average
In a right circular cylinder, the lateral face is its
curved face that connects its two circular bases. L
value of the function in a surface differential ele-
ment, minus the value of the function in the cen-
ter of said differential element, per unit area.
The Laplacian of the function f measures the
spread of f around the point where the Laplacian
is evaluated. That is, the Laplacian measures the
deviation of the average value of f in the vicinity
of a point P with respect to f ( P).
In polar coordinates the Laplacian is:
Latin square Rectangular arrangement of n × n
∂2 f 1 ∂f 1 ∂2 f symbols so that each symbol appears exactly once
∇2 f = 2 + + 2 2 in each row and in each column.
∂r r ∂r r ∂θ
The following figure shows a rectangular arrange-
In cylindrical coordinates,
ment corresponding to a Latin square.
2 1 ∂ ∂f 1 ∂2 f ∂2 f
∇ f = r + 2 2+
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ ∂z δ α β γ
In spherical coordinates,
γ δ α β
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂f ρ −2 ∂ ∂f
∇ f = 2 ρ + sin(ϕ)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ sin(ϕ) ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
β γ δ α
1 ∂2 f
+ 2 2
ρ sin (ϕ) ∂θ 2
α β γ δ
Read also «Gradient».
289
Latus rectum–Law of cosines
Latus rectum Given a parabola, the latus rectum is Here, the negative powers of z − 2 are equaled to
the line segment that is perpendicular to the axis zero because f (z) has a simple pole at z = 2.
of the parabola, that passes through its focus, and On the other hand, the Laurent series of this very
that has its endpoints on the parabola. same function centered at z = 0 in the annulus
0 < |z − 2| < ∞ is:
y (x − h)2 = 4 p (y − k)
1 1 1 1 ∞ z n
x=h f (z) = =− · z =− · ∑ −1
z−2 2 2 −1 2 n =0 2
Notice that for |z − 2| > 2 the terms of the series
involve negative powers of (z − 2) only, since in
4p this region we have |z/2 − 1| > 1, and so 1/(z/2−1)
F is the only term contributing to the sum. On the
k other hand, for |z − 2| < 2, the series involves
V y =k−p
positive powers of (z − 2), as the term 1/(z/2−1)
x becomes a power series in z − 2.
h
Law of addition In probability, the law of addition
If the equation of the parabola is: is synonymous with the law of the sum of probabili-
ties.
( x − h )2 = 4 p ( y − k ) Read also «Law of the sum of probabilities».
the length of the latus rectum is 4 p. Law of cosines For every triangle in the plane,
Read also «Parabola» and «Equation of the
parabola». C2 = A2 + B2 − 2AB cos(γ)
Laurent series In the set of complex numbers (C)
where A, B and C are the lengths of the sides of
an analytical function w = f (z) at every point of a
L annular region bounded by two concentric circles
K1 and K2 with center at c ∈ C, and radii r1 and
the triangle, and γ is the measure of the angle
formed by the sides whose lengths are A and B.
r2 respectively, it is possibleto express w = f (z)
as a Laurent series centered at c as: α
∞
B
∑ an (z − c)n
C
n=−∞
γ β
wheree an and z are complex numbers.
The coefficients an of the Laurent series can be A
computed using:
I Considering the following figure:
1 f )(z)
an = · dz
2πi
γ
( z − c ) n +1
y
for n ∈ Z. (B cos(γ), B sin(γ))
For example, consider the complex function
1
f (z) =
z−2
C
which has a pole at z = 2. The Laurent series ex-
B
pansion of f (z) centered at z = 2 is a power series
of (z − 2), as shown below:
γ
1 1 1 1 ∞ z−2 n x
f (z) = =− · =− ·∑ A (A, 0)
z−2 2 1 − z−2 2 2 n =0 2
290
Law of cotangents–Law of noncontradiction
length C can be calculated by applying the dis- Law of identity If A is an entity, then A is identical
tance formula between points with coordinates to itself.
( A, 0) and ( B cos(γ), B sin(γ)).
Law of large numbers Probability theorem indi-
q
cating that if the probability of occurrence of an
C = ( B cos(γ) − A)2 + ( B sin(γ) − 0)2
event E is p, if N ( E) is the number of times the
C2 = ( B cos(γ) − A)2 + ( B sin(γ) − 0)2 event E occurs, and n experiments were done,
2 2 2 2
= B cos (γ) − 2 AB cos(γ) + A + B sin (γ) 2 then, as the number of experiments increases (n
tends to infinity), the quotient N ( E)/n tends to p.
= A2 + B2 − 2 AB cos(γ) If X1 , X2 , X3 , · · · is an infinite sequence of inde-
2 2 pendent random variables, all with the expected
because sin (γ) + cos (γ) = 1.
value µ and variance σ2 , then the mean:
If α, β and γ are the respective opposite angles to
the sides whose lengths are A, B and C, then, X + X2 + X3 + · · · + X n
X̄ = 1
n
A2 = B2 + C2 − 2 BC cos(α)
B2 = A2 + C2 − 2 AC cos( β) tends to µ as n grows.
In words, the average of a random variable cal-
The law of cosines is a generalization of the culated from a series of samples gets closer and
Pythagorean theorem, because if γ = 90◦ (π ra- closer to the average value of the population, as
dians), then cos(γ) = 1, and therefore, C2 = more and more samples are considered.
A2 + B2 , the particular case corresponding to the For example, if we take a fair coin and toss it to
Pythagorean theorem. observe the outcome (heads or tails), we expect
half of the outcomes to be heads and half tails.
Law of cotangents In every triangle lying in the Let N ( A) be the number of times heads were ob-
plane, with angles of magnitudes α, β and γ, at tained and n be the number of times the coin was
the respective vertices A, B and C, whose sides flipped. The more n grows, that is, the more times
measure a = ∥ BC ∥, b = ∥ AC ∥, c = ∥ AB∥, and we toss the coin, the value of N ( A)/n will get
semiperimeter s, the law of cotangents says that closer to 0.5, which is the probability that the re-
cot(α/2) cot( β/2) cot(γ/2) 1
sult is heads. L
= = =
s−a s−b s−c r Law of multiplication In probability, the law of
multiplication is synonymous with the law of mul-
where r is: tiplication of probabilities.
r Read also «Law of multiplication of probabilities».
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
r=
s Law of multiplication of probabilities The proba-
bility that the two events A and B occur at the
which is the length of the radius of its inscribed
same time is:
circle.
P( A ∩ B) = P( A) · P( B| A)
A
= P( B) · P( A| B)
α
b If A and B are independent,
r
c
P( A ∩ B) = P( A) · P( B)
γ β
C a B Read also «Conditional probability» and «Indepen-
dent events».
The law of cotangents is also known as theorem of Law of noncontradiction A proposition (A) and
the cotangents. its negation (¬ A) cannot both be true at the same
time and in the same sense.
Law of excluded middle If A is a statement that
asserts something, and B is another statement that ¬( A ∧ ¬ A) is true.
contradicts A, then exactly one of the two is true
and no third option is possible.
291
Law of sines–Law of tangents
Law of sines For every triangle that is in the plane, Furthermore,
sin(α) sin( β) sin(γ) sin(α) sin( β) sin(γ)
= = = = = 2R
A B C A B C
where A is the length of the side opposite to the where R is the radius of the circumcircle of the
angle α, B is the length of the side opposite to the triangle.
angle β and C is the length of the side opposite to
the angle γ. Considering the triangle
α
α B
C
B C γ β
h A
R
γ β
A
From the figure, h = C sin( β), as well as h =
B sin(γ). Equating the two values of h found, we
obtain:
sin(γ) sin( β) Law of sum of probabilities The probability of
h = C sin( β) = B sin(γ) ⇒ =
C B event A or event B occurring is:
L On the other hand, considering the height h2 :
P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B) − P( A ∩ B)
α For the case where the events A and B are mutu-
ally exclusive, we have:
B B P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B)
h2
Read also «Mutually exclusive events».
γ β Law of tangents If A, B, C are the lengths of the
A sides of a triangle and α, β, γ the measures of their
opposite angles, respectively, then,
it follows that h2 = A sin(γ), as well as h2 =
α+β
C sin(α). Equating these values we get: tan
A+B 2
=
sin(α) sin(γ) A−B α−β
h2 = A sin(γ) = C sin(α) ⇒ = tan
A C 2
β+γ
But we already knew that: tan
B+C 2
=
sin(γ) sin( β) B−C β−γ
= tan
C B 2
γ+α
So, by transitivity, tan
C+A 2
=
sin(α) sin( β) sin(γ) C−A γ−α
= = tan
A B C 2
292
Laws of signs–Least common multiple
α Layer method If it is about cylindrical shells,
then the method agrees with the cylindrical shells
B method.
C
Read also «Cylindrical shells method».
γ β If we are dealing with spherical shells, then the
method agrees with the shells method.
A
Read also «Shells method».
In words, in any triangle lying in a plane, the sum Leading coefficient In the polynomial of degree n
of any two sides is to their difference as the tan-
gent of the half-sum of their opposite angles is to a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + · · · + a n x n
the tangent of their half-difference.
the leading coefficient is the number an , 0.
Laws of signs Rules that apply to the product of
For example, in the polynomial
two signed quantities.
The rules of the signs are as follows.
1 + 12 x + 7 x2 − 4 x3 + 5 x6
+·+=+
the leading coefficient is the number 5.
+·−=− Read also «Polynomial».
−·+=−
−·−=+ League Unit of distance used in the Spanish sys-
tem, equivalent to 4 827 meters.
Similarly, the rules for division of signed quanti-
ties are as follows. Leap-year Every four years, a year has 366 days.
This extra day is added to the month of February,
+÷+=+ so in a leap year February has 29 days.
+÷−=− A leap year if it is divisible by 4, except for the
last of each century. It is also considered a leap
−÷+=−
−÷−=+
year if it is divisible by 400.
For example, the year 2000 was a leap year, be- L
cause it is divided by 4 and 400, but the year 1900
In summary, when multiplying or dividing two
was not, because it is divided by 4 but not 400.
quantities with the same signs we obtain a pos-
itive result (+) and when we multiply or divide Least common multiple (Arithmetics) Given sev-
two quantities with different signs we obtain a eral integers, their Least Common Multiple
negative result (−). (LCM) is the smallest positive integer that is a
Laws of the exponents Synonym of rules of the ex- multiple of all of them.
ponents. For example, the LCM of 4, 12, and 20 is 60.
Read also «Rules of the exponents». To calculate the LCM of these numbers, they are
simplified by taking half, third, etc., of each num-
Laws of the radicals The laws of radicals are as ber, until they cannot be simplified any further.
follows. The numbers between which they were divided
√ in the procedure are multiplied and that result is
• a1/m = m a
√ √ √
mn
the LCM.
• m a· n a = am+n
√ √ mn
√ 4 12 20 2 −→ half
• n a÷ m a = am−n
√
m n 2 6 10 2 −→ half
• a = an/m 1 3 5 3 −→ third part
p √ √
• m n a = mn a 1 1 5 5 −→ fifth part
√
m √ √ m 1 1 1 −→ end
• a·b = m a· b
r √
m
a a
• m = √
m The LCM of (4, 12, 20) is: (2)(2)(3)(5) = 60.
b b (Algebra) Given several polynomials, the least
r
m 1 1 common multiple of all of them is the polynomial
• = √
m
= a−1/m of least degree that is a multiple of all of them.
a a
293
Least squares method–Leibniz integral rule
To find the least common multiple of two polyno- y
c
mials, write each polynomial into its prime fac- +
bx
tors (linear or quadratic). Multiply all the fac- 2 +
tors of both polynomials considering each factor ax
raised to the maximum power in the factorization y=
of the polynomials. yi
For example, the least common multiple of the
polynomials
x3 − x2 − 5 x − 3= ( x + 1)2 ( x − 3)
x − 5 x + 3 x + 9 = ( x + 1)( x − 3)2
3 2
x
xi
is obtained by multiplying ( x + 1)2 ( x − 3)2 .
Read also «Simple linear regression».
Least squares method Given a set of n data Legendre polynomials Polynomials P ( x ) that sat-
n
{( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ), · · · , ( xn , yn )}, where yi isfy:
is functionally dependent on xi , according to Z1
y = f ( x ). It is needed to know the parameters
Pn ( x ) · Pm ( x ) · dx = 0
α1 , α2 , · · · , αk , of the function y = f ( x ) so that its
−1
plot best fits the n data points.
The method consists of calculating the discrep- if n , m.
ancy (or deviation), ri = yi − f ( xi ), and create the The first few Legendre polynomials are below.
total error function, which consists of the sum of
the squares of the discrepancies: n Pn ( x )
n 0 1
E= ∑ ri2 1 x
L i =0 2 (1/2) 3 x2 − 1
and calculate the minimum of this function that 3 (1/2) 5 x3 − 3 x
depends on the parameters α1 , α2 , · · · , αk to de- 4 (1/8) 35 x4 − 30 x2 + 3
termine them. Once their values are known, we
have the function y = f ( x ) that best fits the n data 5 (1/8) 63 x5 − 70 x3 + 15 x
points.
The best known example of the application of this
method is linear regression. Leibniz integral rule Rule to differentiate under
the integral symbol. If f ( x, t) is a function such
that f x ( x, t) as well as f are continuous at t as
y well as in x, in a given region R of the plane x, t
including a( x ) ≤ t ≤ b( x ), as well as x0 ≤ x ≤ x1 .
If, furthermore, a( x ) and b( x ) are continuous and
+ b̂
continuous differentiable (with respect to x) at
= m̂ x
y x 0 ≤ x ≤ x 1 , then, considering − ∞ < a ( x ), and
yi b( x ) < ∞,
bZ( x )
d
f ( x, t) · dt
dx
a( x )
x d(b( x )) d( a( x ))
xi = f ( x, (b( x )) · − f ( x, (b( x )) · +
dx dx
bZ( x )
∂ ( f ( x, t))
The curve of best fit can also be a polynomial + · dt
∂x
curve. a( x )
294
Leibniz’s formula–Leibniz’s postulates
Notice that inside the integral it is partially differ- Leibniz was the one who gave the name of in-
entiated with respect to x only. finitesimal calculus to what we now call calculus.
In case the limits of integration are constant, we Read also «Derivative», «Differential», «Antideriva-
obtain: tive», «Definite integral», and «Fundamental theorem
of calculus».
bZ( x ) Zb
d ∂ ( f ( x, t)) Leibniz’s postulates Leibniz’s two postulates are
f ( x, t) · dt = · dt
dx ∂x stated in the work titled «Analyse des infinitements
a( x ) a
petits» (1696) by Guillaume L’Hôpital.
(i) A quantity that is increased or decreased by
Lastly, if you consider a( x ) = a constant, and
an amount that is infinitely small compared to
b( x ) = x,
the initial amount can be considered unchanged
(stays the same).
Zx Zx
d ∂ ( f ( x, t)) Algebraically, m ± dm = m, where dm is infinitely
f ( x, t) · dt = · dt
dx ∂x small compared to m.
a a
(ii) A curved line can be considered as an assem-
Zx
∂ ( f ( x, t)) bly of infinitely many line segments, being each
= f ( x, x ) + · dt
∂x one infinitely small, which determine the curva-
a
ture of the line by the angles between them.
This means that if f ( x, t) satisfies the mentioned In terms of infinitesimal calculus, using modern
above, the order of integration and differentia- notation, if y = f ( x ) is a function for which f ′ ( x )
tion symbols can be interchanged when they are exists for all x ∈ [ a, b], then, in that interval for all
nested. x the function satisfies:
Read also «Fundamental theorem of calculus». f ( x + dx ) = f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) · dx
Leibniz’s formula (Geometry) Formula to com- Geometrically, the assumption made by Leibniz
pute the value of π: is that f ′ ( x ) = dy/dx is a constant quantity from
∞ x to x + dx. Because, if the equality given in the
π
4
=∑
i =0
(−1)n
2n+1
1 1 1 1
= 1− + − + −
1
3 5 7 9 11
+··· postulate is solved for f ′ ( x ), we get: L
f ( x + dx ) − f ( x ) dy
f ′ (x) = =
dx dx
Leibniz’s notation In calculus, the notation that is which is precisely the definition of derivative
in common use for the derivative, the integral, the given by Leibniz (using current notation).
differential, and the antiderivative is Leibniz’s no- In other words, if it is possible to compute the
tation. derivative of a function at a point, then the graph
The derivative of the function y = f ( x ) is denoted of the function behaves at that point as an in-
as: finitely small line segment.
dy
dx y = y(x)
The antiderivative of the function y = f ( x ) with y
respect to the independent variable x, is denoted
y(b)
as: Z
f ( x ) · dx
The (definite) integral of the function y = f ( x ) f (x + dx)
dy
from x = a to x = b, with respect to the variable f (x)
x, is denoted as: dx
y(a)
Zb
f ( x ) · dx
a x
a b
x
x + dx
And a differential of the variable x is denoted as
dx.
295
Leibniz’s rule–Lemniscate of Gerono
Read also «Infinitesimal» and «Derivative». For d > 0 the obtained curve is called hippopede.
Read also «Hippopede».
Leibniz’s rule (Analysis) Formula to calculate the
n−th derivative of the product of two functions:
Lemniscate constant Transcendental number de-
n ( n −1) ′
( f · g )(n) = f (n) g + f g +···+ noted as ϖ that is defined as the ratio of the
1 perimeter of the Bernoulli lemniscate to its di-
n (n−k) (k) ameter, and its value is approximately equal to
+ f g + · · · + f g(n) 2.6220576.
k
Read also «Lemniscate of Bernoulli».
where f (i) represents the i −th derivative of the
function f .
Lemniscate of Bernoulli Curve described by
Leibniz’s test Method to show that an alternating Jakob Bernoulli as the locus of points such that
series with terms that decrease in absolute value the sum of their distances from two fixed points
is convergent. called foci is a constant.
The proof consists in verifying that if | an | de-
creases monotonically and y
lim an = 0
n→∞
then the series:
∞
S= ∑ (−1)n an = a0 − a1 + a2 − a3 + · · ·
i =0
x
converges. −c c a
Lemma Proposition that requires a proof used as
an aid to prove a theorem.
Lemon Surface of revolution that is obtained when
L an arc of circumference of length less than a semi-
circle is rotated about an axis passing through the
end-points of said arc. Its equation in rectangular coordinates is:
z 2
x 2 + y2 = 2 c2 x 2 − y2
√
where 2 c = a 2 is the distance between the foci
of the curve. Or equivalently,
y
x 2
x 2 + y2 = a2 x 2 − y2
Read also «Surface of revolution».
Lemniscate Plane curve whose algebraic represen- The parametric equations of this curve are:
tation is of the form
2 a cos(t)
x 2 + y2 = c x 2 + d y2 x (t) =
1 + sin2 (t)
where d < 0. a cos(t) sin(t)
y(t) =
y 1 + sin2 (t)
1
2 x4 = x2 − 2 y 2 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π.
x Lemniscate of Gerono Plane curve whose equa-
−1 − 12 1
2
1 tion in rectangular coordinates is:
− 12
x 4 − x 2 + y2 = 0
296
Lemniscus–L’Hôpital rule
y
z
z = x2 + y 2
2
z=1
1
x
1
−2
−1
0
1 1 y
2
x 2
When several level curves corresponding to a
Its parametric equations are: given function are plotted on the xy plane, the
contour map of the function is obtained.
The level curves are also known as contour lines.
x (t) = cos(t) Read also «Contour map».
y(t) = cos(t) sin(t)
Levorotation Rotational motion that is carried out
in the opposite direction to the rotation of the
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2 π. hands of the clock.
Read also «Dextrorotation».
Lemniscus Synonym of obelus. L’Hôpital rule Technique used to calculate the
Read also «Obelus». limit of a quotient when both the numerator and
the denominator tend to infinity, or both tend to
Length (Geometry) Distance between the end- zero, but the limit of their quotient actually exist.
points of a line segment. If y = f ( x ), y = g( x ) are two continuous and
differentiable functions on the open interval ( a, b)
containing the point x = x0 , and if
L
y
lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g( x ) = 0
x → x0 x → x0
y1 P
D or, in the other case,
=k
PQ
k lim f ( x ) = ∞ and lim g( x ) = ∞
x → x0 x → x0
Q and also, g′ ( x0 ) , 0, then
y2
f (x) f ′ (x )
lim = ′ 0
x x → x0 g( x ) g ( x0 )
O x1 x2
For the limit of f ( x ) · g( x ) with
lim f ( x ) = ∞ and lim g( x ) = 0
If the endpoints of the line segment are the points x → x0 x → x0
P and Q, then its length is denoted as ∥ PQ∥.
It can be written:
Read also «Distance».
f (x)
lim
x → x0 1
Level curve A level curve of the function z =
g( x )
f ( x, y), is the graph of f ( x, y) = c, where c is a
constant chosen in such a manner that f ( x, y) = c, so that the problem is reduced to the case men-
has at least one solution. tioned in the L’Hôpital rule.
Geometrically, the level curves are the traces of For the limit of f ( x ) − g( x ), with
the graph of the function z = f ( x, y) with the
horizontal planes z = c. lim f ( x ) = ∞ and lim g( x ) = ∞
x → x0 x → x0
297
Like terms–Limit
It can be written: y
2a
f ( x ) · g( x ) f ( x ) · g( x )
f ( x ) − g( x ) = −
g( x ) f (x)
f ( x ) · g( x ) 1 1 a
= · −
1 g( x ) f (x)
1 1
−
g( x ) f (x) 0 x
= 0 a 2a 3a
1
f ( x ) · g( x )
−a
So that the limit of this equivalent expression,
is reduced to the indeterminate case 0/0, and
L’Hôpital’s rule can be applied.
This technique was first applied by Johann The parametric equations of this curve are:
Bernoulli. Because of this, it is also known as
Bernoulli-L’Hôpital rule. x (t) = ( a + 2 a cos(t)) cos(t)
y(t) = ( a + 2 a cos(t)) sin(t)
Read also «Pascal’s limaçon».
Like terms Two monomials are like terms if
their variables and their corresponding exponents Limit (Algebra) In an interval, the limits are the
equal. extreme values of the interval.
For example 2 x3 and −5 x3 are like terms, while For example, in the interval [ a, b], the limits are
x2 and x7 are not.
L If two monomials including several variables are
the values a (lower limit) and b (upper limit).
(Analysis) A function has a limit L at x = c if
like terms, the corresponding exponents for each f ( x ) gets closer to L as x gets closer to the value
variable are equal. For example, 2 x2 y5 and 5 x2 y5 c.
are like terms. To indicate the limit, the following notation is
If two or more like terms are added, the result used:
may be expressed as one term with the same vari-
lim f ( x ) = L
ables with their corresponding exponents, and x →c
the coefficient equal to the sum of the coefficients
If the limit exists, the number L represents the
of the added terms.
3 3 3 value that the function values approaches as x get
For example, 2 x yz + 7 x yz = 9 x yz.
closer and closer to the value c.
All constant monomials are like terms.
Some properties of limits are listed below,
lim k = k
x →c
Limaçon trisectrix Plane curve whose equation in lim [k · f ( x )] = k · lim f ( x ) { k ∈ R}
x →c x →c
polar coordinates is:
lim [ f ( x ) + g( x )] = lim f ( x ) + lim g( x )
x →c x →c x →c
lim [ f ( x ) · g( x )] = lim f ( x ) · lim g( x )
r = a [1 + 2 cos(θ )] x →c x →c x →c
lim f ( x )
f (x) x →c
lim =
x →c g( x ) lim g( x )
x →c
and its equation in rectangular coordinates is:
where it is assumed that each limit exists and (to
h i h i2 avoid division by zero) that lim g( x ) , 0, in the
x →c
a2 x 2 + y2 = x 2 + y2 − 2 a x last case.
298
Limit from the left–Limit from the right
Some frequently used limits in calculus are: y
1
sin( x ) 5 y=
lim =1 x2
x →0 x
tan( x ) 4
lim =1
x →0 x
n
lim x sin =n 3
x →∞ x
n
lim x tan =n 2
x →∞ x
n
lim cos =1
x →∞ x 1
Formal definition: The limit of the function f ( x ),
when x tends to k is L if and only if, for all ϵ > 0, −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x
exists a δ > 0 such that for all real number x in
the domain of the function, if 0 < | x − k| < δ then
| f ( x ) − L| < ϵ. So it can be written:
1
y lim =∞
x →0 x2
In this case, the values of the considered func-
L+ϵ
tion tend to infinity, both before and after x = 0.
L y = f (x) This does not always happen. When this is not
the case, the notation of one-sided limits has to
be used.
L−ϵ
Read also «Limit from the right» and «Limit from the
left».
Limit notation is also used to denote improper in-
L
tegrals.
Read also «Improper integral» and «L’Hôpital rule».
x
a−δ a a+δ
Limit from the left The limit of the function y =
The formal definition of limit evokes the idea that f ( x ) when x tends to the value c from the left, is
functions preserve closeness at the points where denoted by
they are continuous. lim f ( x ) = L
If the limit does not exist, then for values close to x →c−
x = c, the function values do not preserve close- and if it exists, the limit is L, and it means that as
ness. the values of x get closer to the value c (using val-
Limit notation is used to indicate the location of ues of x smaller than c) the values of the function
vertical asymptotes on the graph of a function. get closer and closer to L.
y = f ( x ) using
Limit from the right The limit of the function y =
lim f ( x ) = ∞ f ( x ) when x tends to the value c from the right,
x → x0
is denoted by
This indicates that when the value of x ap-
proaches the point x = x0 , the function grows lim f ( x ) = L
x →c+
indefinitely (goes to infinity). Geometrically, the
graph of y = f ( x ) has a vertical asymptote at and if it does exist, the limit is L, and it means
x = x0 . that as the values of x get closer to the value c
For example, the graph of the function y = 1/x2 , (using values of x greater than c) the values of the
has a vertical asymptote at x = 0. function get closer and closer to L.
299
Limits of integration–Line integral
Limits of integration In the definite integral Line integral Definite integral that is calculated by
evaluating only over the points of the given curve.
Zb If C is a curve in space, ⃗r (t) a parameterization of
f ( x ) · dx = F (b) − F ( a) the position vector of C, with respect to an origin
a in the coordinate system xyz, the line integral is
calculated by dividing the curve C (the path) into
the values x = a and x = b are the limits of inte- infinitesimal elements ds. Each element is mul-
gration. tiplied by the function f evaluated at the point
where the ds is located, and all the resulting prod-
ucts are added. The value obtained is the line in-
y tegral.
The line integral of a scalar function f ( x, y, z)
f (b) along the curve
f (a) y = f (x) C : ⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
A
is given by:
x
a b
Z Zb
f ( x, y, z) · ds = f (⃗r ) · ∥⃗r ′ (t)∥ · dt
These values determine the domain of integration. C a
Read also «Integral» and «Definite integral».
where ds = ∥⃗r ′ (t)∥ · dt, f (⃗r ) indicates that f is
Line Geometric object that has only one dimen- evaluated at the points of the curve ⃗r (t), and ⃗r ′ (t)
sion: length. The line has no thickness or width. is the derivative of ⃗r (t). To evaluate f at ⃗r, the
components x (t), y(t), z(t) of the curve need to be
replaced instead of x, y, z, respectively, in f .
L z
In geometry, the term line refers to any type of
line (curved, polygonal, straight, etc.), although it
ds
t)
is often understood as straight line. Actually, the
~r(
straight line is a very special particular case of a 1
line.
~r(t) −1 −1
Some authors consider the line as the trace of a
moving point. 1 y
1
Line chart A diagram used to graphically describe x
the behavior of a quantity for different values of
an independent variable, such as time. In the case of a vector field ⃗F ( x, y, z), the line in-
This type of diagram is the one that is used very tegral is defined by:
frequently in forecasting.
Z Zb
1 ⃗F ( x, y, z) · d⃗r = ⃗F (⃗r (t)) ·⃗r ′ (t) dt
C a
0.8
0.6 where ⃗F (⃗r (t)) indicates that the field is evaluated
only at the points of the path ⃗r (t), and ⃗r ′ (t) is the
0.4
derivative of ⃗r (t).
0.2
Similarly to the case of a scalar function, to
evaluate ⃗F along ⃗r (t), substitute the components
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 x (t), y(t), z(t) of the curve instead of x, y, z, re-
spectively, in ⃗F.
300
Linear algebra–Linear approximation
In physics, the line integral along the path C, sub- points ( x, f ( x )) and ( x + ∆x, f ( x + ∆x )).
ject to the force field ⃗F is the work done in moving Algebraically,
a body from A = ⃗r (t1 ) to B = ⃗r (t2 ).
f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
f ′ (x) ≈
Z Zt2 ∆x
⃗F · d⃗r = ⃗F ·⃗r ′ (t) dt From this (approximate) equation,
C t1
f ( x + ∆x ) ≈ f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) · ∆x
z
y
y = y(x)
F~
d~r f (x + ∆x)
t)
~r(
1 f (x + ∆x) − f (x) f 0 (x) · ∆x
~r(t) −1 f (x)
−1
∆x
1 1 y
f (x)
x
If ⃗F is the velocity field of a fluid and the path C x
x
x + ∆x
is a closed curve that does not intersect itself, the
line integral is circulation of ⃗F along C.
For example, if y = (1 + x )n , con n > 1, By New-
Linear algebra Branch of mathematics that studies ton’s expansion formula,
vectors, vector spaces, linear transformations, and
n ( n + 1) 2
systems of linear equations. f ( x ) = (1 + x ) n = 1 + n x + x +···
The fundamental problem in linear algebra is to 2
solve systems of linear equations. To this end,
the study of linear transformations and their ef-
Here f ′ ( x ) = n (1 + x )n−1 , thus an approximation L
of y = (1 + x n ) at x = x0 is:
fects on vectors and on vector spaces is carried
out. This involves finding eigenvalues and eigen- f ( x0 + ∆x ) ≈ (1 + x0 )n + n (1 + x0 )n−1 · ∆x
vectors, and analyzing the properties of matrices
and their operations. If x0 = 0, it is obtained: f (∆x ) ≈ 1 + n ∆x.
Read also «Vector», «Matrix», «System of equa- Read also «Euler’s method», «Taylor’s series», «Dif-
tions», «Vector space», «Cramer’s rule», and «Deter- ferential» and «Leibniz’s postulates».
minant». For a function of two variables z = f ( x, y), the
same idea applies. If f ( x, y) and the values of
Linear approximation Given a function y = f ( x ) the partial derivatives f x ( x, y), and f y ( x, y), are
of a continuous and differentiable variable in a known, an approximate value of f ( x + ∆x, y +
given interval [ a, b], the linear approximation of ∆y) is:
the value of the function evaluated in x + ∆x, for
known values of f ( x ) and f ′ ( x ), is: f ( x + ∆x, y + ∆y) ≈ f ( x, y) + f x ( x, y) · ∆x +
+ f y ( x, y) · ∆y
f ( x + ∆x ) ≈ f ( x ) + f ′ ( x ) · ∆x
In this case, f x ( x, y) represents the rate of change
This is equivalent to the Taylor series of the func- of the function z = f ( x, y) in the direction of the
tion up to the linear term. x axis, while f x ( x, y) · ∆x represents the approxi-
The idea behind this approximation is the defi- mate value of the change in the function caused
nition of the slope of a line. If the curve does by the increment ∆x in the variable x. This is
not change direction drastically near the point basically the same idea that has been applied to
( x, f ( x )), then the value of the slope of the tan- the functions of one variable.
gent line to the graph of the function (the value Similarly, the term f y ( x, y) · ∆y represents the
of the derivative evaluated at x), is approximately approximate value of the change caused in the
equal to the slope of the secant line through the function by the increment ∆y in the variable y.
301
Linear combination–Linear equation
If the graph of z = f ( x, y) does not change di- If three nonzero vectors ⃗u, ⃗v, w ⃗ are not coplanar,
rection drastically near the point ( x, y), the ap- then the equation:
proximate value obtained for f ( x + ∆x, y + ∆y) is
getting better and better, as the values of ∆x and c1 ⃗u + c2 ⃗v + c3 w⃗ = ⃗0
∆y get smaller.
Since variables x and y are independent between is satisfied, if and only if, c1 = c2 = c3 = 0.
each other in the function, the change caused in The coefficients c1 , c2 , · · · , cn are known as the
f ( x, y) because of the increment in the x variable, corresponding weights for each vector ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · ,
does not affect the change in f ( x, y) because of ⃗v n .
the increment in the y variable, and vice versa, Read also «Linear dependence».
so both changes in the function added to f ( x, y) Linear dependence If a set of n vectors {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · ,
gives the approximate value of f ( x + ∆x, y + ∆y). ⃗vn } is linearly dependent, then at least one of the
element vectors of the set can be written as a lin-
ear combination of the others.
z = f (x, y) More formally, it is said that a set of n vec-
tors {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn } is linearly dependent if there
are n scalars, c1 , c2 , · · · , cn , not all simultaneously
1 zero, such that:
c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cn⃗vn = ⃗0
−1 0 −1 When there is at least one scalar ci , 0 (for
1 1 y 1 ≤ i ≤ n), the previous equation establishes the
fx (x, y) · ∆x fy (x, y) · ∆y
x linear dependence relationship of the set whose
elements are the vectors ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn .
If the set of vectors is not linearly dependent, the
set of vectors is said to be linearly independent.
A set of n vectors of dimension m is linearly de-
L Read also «Partial derivative», «Total differential»
pendent provided that n > m.
For example, a set of three two-dimensional vec-
and «Equation of the tangent plane».
tors are linearly dependent. This means that at
Linear combination If ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn are n vectors least one of them can be written as a linear combi-
of the given vector space V , then, nation of the other two, or perhaps, if all three are
collinear, two of them are multiples of the third (if
c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cn⃗vn this one is different from the zero vector).
If vector ⃗0 is an element of a set of vectors, the set
is a linear combination of these vectors, where is linearly dependent.
c1 , c2 , · · · , cn are scalars. Read also «Linear independence», and «Linear com-
If two nonzero vectors ⃗u and ⃗v are not colinear, bination».
then the equation: Linear equation It is an equation in which all the
unknowns have exponent equal to one.
c1 ⃗u + c2 ⃗v = ⃗0 For example, the equation:
is satisfied, if and only if, c1 = c2 = 0. 7 x + 1 = 50
is linear, since the only known (x) has exponent
y
equal to 1.
A linear equation can involve several variables,
all with exponent 1 and without multiplying each
~v
c2 ~v
c2
other. For example,
~u +
2x+3y+5z = 1
c1
~v c1 ~u
is a linear equation with 3 variables.
~u x Read also «Equation of the plane».
302
Linear function–Linear programming
If several linear equations have to be solved si- If the set of vectors is not linearly independent,
multaneously, they form a system of linear equa- then it is said to be linearly dependent.
tions. For example, Note that the linear independence property is for
the set, not for the vectors.
x+y+z=6 If a set of vectors of dimension n is linearly inde-
x+y−z=0 pendent, then the cardinality of the set is at most
x−y+z=2 n.
An empty set is considered to be a linearly inde-
is a system of linear equations with three un- pendent set of vectors.
knowns. The columns of matrix A form a linearly indepen-
Read also «System of equations».
dent set, if and only if, the solution of A ⃗x = ⃗0 is
(Differential equations) A differential equation
is linear if it is a linear function of the variables unique and it is the trivial solution: ⃗x = ⃗0.
y, y′ , y′′ , · · · , y(n) . Read also «Linear combination» and «Proof by vacu-
For example, ity».
Linear operator Transformation of the elements of
t2 y′′ − 3 t y′ + 4 y = 0 a vector space V mapping them to another vector
space W so that the operations of vector addition
It is a linear equation, whereas
and scalar multiplication are preserved.
1−t
y′′ − y y′ + cos(y) = p T (⃗x + ⃗y) = T (⃗u) + T (⃗v)
1 + y2
T (k · ⃗x ) = k T (⃗u)
is not.
In this sense, the linear operator is understood as
Linear function A function of the form: synonymous with linear transformation.
If T is a one-to-one transformation, then T is a
y = mx+b linear isomorphism.
If V = W , then T is called endomorphism.
where m is the slope of the line and b is its
y−intercept. Linear programming Study of techniques for opti- L
The graph of a linear function is a straight line. mizing an objective function represented as a lin-
ear equation so that the solution satisfies a set of
y conditions (called problem constraints) that apply
to the variables of the problem.
x +b Optimization allows the planning of the develop-
m
y=
ment of activities in such a way that resources
(in general, limited) are assigned to activities that
x compete with each other (for such resources) in
such a way that they are used in the best possible
way.
Read also «Equation of the line». The general linear programming problem has the
Linear independence A set of n vectors {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , form:
· · · , ⃗vn } is linearly independent if it is not possi- Maximize: z = c1 x1 + c2 x2 + · · · + cn xn
ble to write any of the vectors of the given set as
a linear combination of the other vectors. Subject to the following restrictions:
If the set of vectors is linearly independent, then
none of the element vectors of the set can be writ- a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn ≤ b1
ten as a linear combination of the others. That is, a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn ≤ b2
a set of vectors {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn } is linearly inde- .. ..
pendent if . .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn ≤ bm
c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cn⃗vn = ⃗0
and the non-negativity conditions:
only if c1 , c2 , · · · , cn are all simultaneously equal
to zero. x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, · · · , xn ≥ 0
303
Linear transformation–Lissajous curve
A feasible solution of this problem consists of the y
y = tan(x) y=x
set of values ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) that satisfies all in-
1
equalities simultaneously.
y = sin(x)
A non-feasible solution is a solution that solves
the mathematical problem, but does not satisfy
1
some requirement of the linear programming 2
problem. It could be, for example, that you do not
comply with a physical constraint of the problem.
A feasible solution is an optimal solution if, when
0 x
evaluated in the objective function, the most fa- 0 1 1
vorable value for it is obtained. 2
Linear transformation A transformation is a linear The idea of linearization is to use the Taylor se-
transformation if for any two vectors ⃗u, ⃗v and any ries of the function up to the linear term as an
scalar c, it is satisfied: approximation for said function.
f ′ ( a)
f (⃗u + ⃗v) = f (⃗u) + f (⃗v) f ( x ) ≈ f ( a) + ( x − a)
1!
f (c ⃗u) = c f (⃗u)
Another approximation frequently used in engi-
That is, a linear transformation preserves vector neering (which is not linearization) is the follow-
addition and multiplication by a scalar. ing:
For example, if A is a real matrix of dimension x2
cos( x ) ≈ 1 −
m × n then A is a linear transformation. 2
A linear transformation T is one to one if applied for sufficiently small values of x (in radi-
ans).
T (⃗v1 ) = T (⃗v2 ) implies ⃗v1 = ⃗v2 Read also «Linear approximation», «Euler method»,
and «Taylor series».
L A linear transformation T is one to one, if and
only if, ker( T ) = {⃗0}. If T is a linear transforma-
Liouville number Constant that has a 1 in the po-
sition n! (to the right of the decimal point) and
tion that maps the vectors of the vector space V
zeros in all other positions.
to the vector space W , such that for each w ⃗ ∈W
there is a vector ⃗v ∈ V so that T (V ⃗) = w ⃗ , then, ∞
the linear transformation is said to be onto. That ∑ 10−i! = 0.1100010000000000000000010 · · ·
i =1
is, T is onto if and only if, Range( T ) = W .
If an operation satisfies the properties of a linear The Liouville number is a transcendental number.
transformation, it is said to be a linear operator.
Differentiation and antidifferentiation of func-
tions of one variable are also linear transforma- Liouville theorem If the antiderivative
tions, so differentiation is also said to be a linear Z
operator (as is antidifferentiation). F ( x ) = f ( x ) · dx
It is said that a function y = f ( x ) that satisfies:
is an elementary antiderivative, then there exists
f (x + x ) = f (x ) + f (x ) {aditivity} constants ai and functions ui and v such that
1 2 1 2
f (k x ) = k · f ( x ) {homogeneity} F(x) = v + ∑ ai · ln |ui |
i <n
satisfies the superposition principle.
This theorem is applied in computer algebraic
systems to determine whether the antiderivative
Linearization Approximation of a curve at a point of a given function is elementary or not.
using a tangent line over a small interval.
For example, the graph of the function y = sin( x ) Lissajous curve Family of curves obtained by
can be approximated using sin( x ) ≈ x, as can graphing the position of two particles in sim-
tan( x ) ≈ x for sufficiently small values of x (in ple harmonic motion of different amplitudes, fre-
radians). quencies and/or phases on the Cartesian axes.
304
Liter–Lobachevsky integral formula
The parametric equations of a Lissajous curve (Greek, Hebrew, Latin, etc.)
are: For example, in the formula
b·h
x (t) = a sin (ωx t + δ) A=
2
y(t) = b sin ωy t
the literal A represents the area of a triangle, the
literal b represents the length of its base, and the
literal h represents the length of its base.
Simple harmonic motion in three dimensions can
be described using Lissajous curves.
y
h
Literal equation Equation in which constant coef-
x ficients are written as literals because their value
is unknown or because it is desired to express the
equation in a general form.
For example, the equation a x2 + b x + c = 0, the
coefficients a, b, c are literals.
Lituus An spiral√whose equation in polar coordi-
nates is: r = a/ θ, for θ > 0.
y
L
Liter Unit of volume equivalent to 1 dm3 .
Some multiples and sub-multiples of the liter are
indicated in the following table.
x
Name Symbol Equivalence
Mirialiter ML 10 000 L Its parametric equations in rectangular coordi-
Kiloliter KL 1 000 L nates are:
Hectoliter HL 100 L a cos(t)
Decaliter daL 10 L x (t) = √
Deciliter dL 0.1 L t
Centiliter cL 0.01 L a sin(t)
y(t) = √
Mililiter mL 0.001 L t
for t > 0.
A cubic meter in equivalent to 1 000 liters. Since This curve is also known as Lituus spiral.
1 [L] = 1 [dm3 ], and also 1 [m] = 10 [dm], Lobachevsky integral formula If y = f ( x ) is a pe-
riodic function that satisfy f ( x + π ) = f ( x ) and
(1 m)3 = (10 dm)3 f ( x − π ) = f ( x ) for 0 ≤ x < ∞, then
1 m3 = 1 000 dm3 Z∞ Z∞
sin( x ) sin2 ( x )
3 f ( x ) · dx = f ( x ) · dx
thus, 1 [m ] = 1 000 [L]. x x2
0 0
Literal Letter that represents some mathematical Z
π/2
object (variable, unknown, vector, matrix, etc.) = f ( x ) · dx
Literals can also be letters from other alphabets 0
305
Local extreme value–Local minimum of a function
Hence, if f ( x ) = 1, then Local maximum of a function The local maxi-
mum of a function f on the interval [ a, b] is at
Z∞ Z∞ the point x = x M ∈ [ a, b] for which,
sin( x ) sin2 ( x ) π
· dx = · dx =
x x2 2
0 0
f (x M ) ≥ f (x) ∀ x ∈ [ a, b]
Local extreme value Synonym for relative extreme In words, f ( x M ) is the maximum value of f in the
value. interval [ a, b] if f ( x ) is smaller or equal to f ( x M )
Read also «Relative extreme value». for all x in the given interval.
The following figure shows the graph of a func-
Local extreme A function y = f ( x ) has a local ex- tion with a local maximum at x = q and a local
treme (maximum or minimum) at x0 if, around minimum at x = p.
that point (that is, an interval ( a, b) such that
a < x0 < b) the function satisfies f ( x0 ) ≥ f ( x )
if its a maximum, or f ( x0 ) ≤ f ( x ) if the function
has a minimum at x0 . y
For a function of two variables z = f ( x, y), the
point ( x0 , y0 ) is a local extreme (maximum or f (q)
minimum) of the function, if in a region a < x0 <
b, c < y0 < d, containing the point ( x0 , y0 ), the y = f (x)
function satisfies f ( x0 , y0 ) ≥ f ( x, y) for any point
in that region when the function has a maximum f ( p)
at ( x0 , y0 ), or f ( x0 , y0 ) ≤ f ( x, y) for any point in
that region when the function has a minimum in
( x0 , y0 ). x
a p q b
For example, the function:
L z = f ( x, y) = 2 cos( x + y) e− x
2 − y2
has a local extreme (maximum) at (0, 0). Some authors define the local maximum of a
function considering the interval [ x M − δ, x M + δ]
z with δ > 0. That is, we consider an interval of
size 2 δ, centered at x = x M .
1
Local minimum of a function The local minimum
of a function f on the interval [ a, b] is at the point
x = xm ∈ [ a, b] for which,
−1 −1
0
1 1 y f ( xm ) ≤ f ( x ) ∀ x ∈ [ a, b]
x
The adjective local here means that f ( xm ) is min-
This definition can be generalized to functions of imum on a given interval [ a, b], but it is possi-
more variables in a similar way to how the defini- ble that there is another value r < [ a, b] satisfying
tions have been given for the case of functions of f (r ) < f ( x m ).
one and two variables. Some authors define the local minimum of a func-
If a function (of one or more variables) has an tion considering the interval [ xm − δ, xm + δ] with
extreme at a point where the function is differ- δ > 0. That is, we consider an interval of size 2 δ,
entiable, then this point is a critical point of the centered at x = xm .
function. The following figure shows the graph of a func-
Read also «Fermat’s theorem» and «Critical points». tion with a local minimum at x = p and a local
maximum at x = q.
306
Locus–Logarithmic equation
y • loga ( xy) = loga ( x ) + loga (y)
x
• loga = loga ( x ) − loga (y)
f (q) y
1
y = f (x) • loga = − loga ( x )
x
• loga ( x n ) = n loga ( x )
f ( p)
√ 1
• loga n x = log( x )
n
x
a p q b • loga ( a) = 1
• loga (1) = 0
• loga ( a x ) = x
Read also «Absolute minimum of a function». • aloga ( x) = x
Locus It is the set of all points, and only those Furthermore,
points, that satisfy a given set of conditions.
For example, the parabola is the locus of the • loga x = logb ( x ) · loga (b)
points that are equidistant from a fixed point F • logb x = loga ( x ) · logb ( a)
(the focus) and from a fixed line (the directrix) • 1 = loga (b) · logb ( a)
that does not pass through the focus.
Read also «Natural logarithm» and «Exponential
function».
Logarithmic differentiation Technique for calcu-
Axis
lating the derivative of a function when it is eas-
ier to derive the logarithm function than the given
function.
Although in this case it is not required, to exem-
plify consider the function y = x1/2 . If we cal- L
culate the natural logarithm on both sides of the
F equality, we get:
1
Directrix ln(y) = ln x1/2 = ln( x )
2
Computing the derivative on both sides of the
The plural of locus is loci.
equality,
Some authors consider the term locus to be depre- 1 dy 1 1
cated. They suggest to use curve, line, or surface, · = ·
y dx 2 x
instead.
Read also «Circumference», «Ellipse», «Hyperbola», and solving for dy/dx it is obtained:
«Mediatrix», «Bisector», «Parabola», and «Sphere». √
dy 1 y x 1
= · = = √
dx 2 x 2x 2 x
Logarithm Exponent to which the base must be
raised to obtain a given number as a result. Basically, the logarithmic derivation is an im-
If y = a x , where a > 0 and a , 1, then, plicit derivation, previously applying the loga-
rithm function on both sides of the equality.
loga y = x Read also «Implicit differentiation».
and it is read: «the logarithm of the number y in the Logarithmic equation Equation in which the un-
base a is equal to x». known appears in the argument of a logarithm.
For example, since 23 = 8, then, log2 8 = 3, and it For example,
is read: «the logarithm of 8 in base 2 is 3». ln( x + 1) − 5 = 0
The properties of logarithms in base a > 0, (a , 1),
are below. is a logarithmic equation.
307
Logarithmic function–Logarithmic spiral
Logarithmic function Function that is expressed Logarithmic mean The logarithmic mean mlog of
as the logarithm in base a (with a > 0, and the positive numbers p and q, is:
also a , 1) of the independent vatriable x, as: p−q
y = loga ( x ), where y is the dependent variable. mlog =
ln( p) − ln(q)
The graph of the logarithmic function base a is
shown below. for p , q. If p = q, then the logarithmic mean is
the number p.
y The logarithmic mean of p and q is always less
than, or at most, equal to the arithmetic mean of
y = loga x
those same numbers.
Notice that the reciprocal of the logarithmic mean
of p and q is equal to the slope of the line
1 that passes through the points ( p, ln( p)), and
(q, ln(q)). In addition, applying calculus tech-
x niques it can be shown that the tangent line to
O 1 the graph of the natural logarithm function at
x = 1/m is parallel to the line passing through
the points ( p, ln( p)) and (q, ln(q)).
y
The inverse function of the logarithmic function ln(q) y = ln(x)
base a is the exponential function base a: y = a x .
ln(1/m)
The domain of the logarithmic function is (0, ∞),
and its range is the set of all real numbers. For ln(p)
a > 1, the function is always increasing, while it x
p 1 q
is decreasing for 0 < a < 1. The graph of the loga-
m
rithm function is continuous and smooth, passing
L through the point (1, 0).
The derivative of the logarithmic function base a
On the other hand, note that:
is:
d [loga (v)] 1 dv Z1
= · p−q
dx v ln( a) dx mlog = = p x q1− x · dx
ln( p) − ln(q)
where ln( a) is the natural logarithm of a. 0
The antiderivative of the logarithmic function for p > 0, q > 0, and p , q.
base a is:
Logarithmic spiral Plane curve whose equation in
Z
v ln |v| − v polar coordinates is: r = a ek θ .
loga (v) · dv = +C
ln( a)
y
Read also «Logarithm», «Exponential function» ,
and «Natural logarithmic function».
Logarithmic integral function Function denoted
as li, and defined by:
Zx
dt
li( x ) = x
ln(t)
0
The function li( x ) satisfies:
li( x ) = Ei (ln( x ))
for all x > 0, where Ei( x ) is the exponential inte-
gral function.
308
Logic–Logistic function
Its parametric equations in rectangular coordi- Logistic differential equation Ordinary differen-
nates are: tial equation that models the evolution of a pop-
ulation over time considering exponential growth
x (t) = a ek t cos(t) and limited resources (space, food, etc.)
kt
y(t) = a e sin(t)
dP P
= r·P 1−
The logarithmic spiral is also known as Bernoulli dt K
spiral, equiangular spiral or growth spiral. where P is the population at time t, r is the intrin-
This curve appears in nature in the nautilus shell sic growth rate of the population (without restric-
and in the center of the sunflower flower. tions), K is the capacity of the system (maximum
size of the population that the considered system
Logic Branch of philosophy that study the meth-
can maintain).
ods and principles used in validating arguments
The solution of this differential equation is known
in reasoning.
as the logistic function.
Mathematics is based on logic so that its proofs
are irrefutable. K
P(t) =
1 + (K/P0 − 1) · e−rt
Logic operator Symbol that represents a logical
operation between two sentences or propositions. where P(t) is the population at time t, K is the
Examples of logical operators are negation (¬), system capacity, P0 is the population at time t = 0,
the conjunction (∧), the disjunction (∨), the con- and r is the rate intrinsic population growth.
ditional (→), the biconditional (↔), or joint denial Read also «Logistic function».
(↓).
Logistic function A function of the form
Logical consequence Relationship between the
premises and the conclusion of an argument that L
f (x) =
is deductively valid. 1 + e − k ( x − x0 )
Logical nor Logical connector denoted by ↓ whose
where x0 is the midpoint of its graph, L is its max-
imum, and k is its rate of logistic growth.
L
truth value is true if and only if, both propositions
are false, and its truth value is false otherwise.
y
The truth table for this logical connector is shown
below. y = f (x)
L
p q p ↓ q
T T F
1
T F F 2
F T F
F F T
x
where T means true, F means false and ↓ is the −2 2 4 6
Peirce arrow.
The logical nor is also known as joint denial, as The derivative of the logistic function is:
Peirce arrow and as Sheffer dagger.
k L e − k ( x − x0 )
Logical truth (1) A conclusion is said to have log- f ′ (x) = 2
1 + e − k ( x − x0 )
ical validity when the conclusion is a logical con-
sequence of the premises. The antiderivative of the logistic function is:
(2) A formula that has logical validity.
For example, Z
L · dx L
= · ln k + k ek(x− x0 ) + C
¬(¬ p) = p 1+e − k ( x − x 0 ) k
Read also «Valid formula». Read also «Sigmoid curve».
309
Long division–Lune
Long division When the polynomial a0 + a1 x + LU decomposition It is said that a non-singular
a2 x2 + · · · + an x n is divided by the polynomial matrix A has been decomposed in the form LU
b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm x m writing the whole proce- (lower-upper), if A has been expressed as the prod-
dure (with letters and coefficients) it is said that uct of two triangular matrices, the first L being a
the long division of the polynomials has been per- lower triangular matrix, and the second U an up-
per triangular matrix.
formed.
For example, for a matrix A of dimension 3 × 3,
For example, by dividing x3 − x2 − 8 x + 12 over
x − 1, applying the long division, it is obtained: a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 1 u12 u13
a21 a22 a23 = l21 1 0 0 1 u23
x2 + 0 x − 8 a31 a32 a33 l31 l32 1 0 0 1
1
x − 1 x3 − x2 − 8 x + 12a N
If A is a singular array, the LU decomposition
− x3 + x2 may not be unique.
−8x The LU decomposition is also known as LU fac-
+8x − 8 torization.
4
LU factorization Synonym of LU decomposition.
Read also «Synthetic division». Read also «LU decomposition».
Longitudinal section Cut obtained by intersecting Lucky number A natural number is a lucky num-
a solid with a plane parallel to an axis of said ber if it appears in the list that remains after ap-
solid. plying the lucky sieve. Given the natural num-
bers,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, · · ·
the sieve of luck consists, first in eliminating all
the even numbers first:
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, · · ·
L Notice that every second number has been re-
moved. In this iteration, after the number 1,
comes the 3. Next, the numbers are eliminated
3 by 3, thus eliminating the 5, the 11, the 17, etc.
1, 3, 7, 9, 13, 15, 19, · · ·
The next number in the list is 7, so from the list of
numbers that has been obtained, the numbers in
a position that is a multiple of 7 are eliminated:
1, 3, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, · · ·
It continues in this way indefinitely and the num-
bers that remain on the list are lucky numbers.
The longitudinal section is also known as longitu- As you can see, number 13 is a lucky number.
dinal cut.
Lune Region of the plane bounded by two arcs of
Lowest common denominator A whole number circumference of different radii.
that is the least common multiple of the denomi- If the arcs that delimit the perimeter of the lune
nators of two or more fractions. have radii a and b and c is the distance between
For example, considering the fractions 2/3 and the centers of the corresponding circles, then its
3/5, the lowest common denominator is the low-
area A is:
est common multiple of 3 and 5, which are the
denominators of the fractions. That is, the lowest 2 ac
A = 2 ∆ + a2 sec−1 +
common denominator of the fractions 2/3 and 3/5 b2 − a2 − c2
is 15. 2 bc
Read also «Least common multiple». −b2 sec−1
b2 + c2 − a2
310
Lustrum
where sec−1 is the inverse function of the secant
function,
q
1
∆= p ( p − 2 a)( p − 2 b)( p − 2 c)
4
and p = a + b + c. Lustrum Unit of time equivalent to five years.
311
L
312
M
Macaulay brackets Mathematical notation used to Some examples of Maclaurin series are below.
denote the ramp function,
x3 x5 x7 x9 x11
0 for x < 0 sin( x ) = x − + − + − +···
ramp( x ) = ⟨ x ⟩ = 3! 5! 7! 9! 11!
x for x ≥ 0 x2 x4 x6 x8 x10
cos( x ) = 1 − + − + − +···
2! 4! 6! 8! 10!
Some authors use x+ , or ( x )+ , to indicate that x2 x3 x4 x5
positive values of x are considered as they are, ex = 1 + x + + + + +···
2! 3! 4! 5!
whereas for negative values the value 0 is as-
signed to the function. Another notation that is where n! is the factorial of n.
also used to indicate the ramp function is { x },
but it is suggested to avoid its use, because it can
cause confusion with set notation. Maclaurin trisectrix Plane curve whose equation
Read also «Ramp function». in polar coordinates is:
θ
Maclaurin polynomial The polynomial function r = 2 a cos
3
∞
f (i ) (0) i
y= ∑ i!
x and its equation in rectangular coordinates is:
i =0
x2 ( x + 3 a)
obtained by calculating the Maclaurin series of a y2 =
a−x
given function, is the Maclaurin polynomial.
Read also «Maclaurin series».
y
Maclaurin series The Maclaurin series of a given
function y = f ( x ) is: a
∞
f (i ) (0) i
f (x) = ∑ i!
x
−3 a −2 a
0
0 a
x
i =0
where i! is the factorial of the number i, f (i) (0) −a
represents the i −th derivative of the function y =
f ( x ) evaluated at x = 0, and the derivative of or-
der zero is: f (0) (0) = f (0). −2 a
Maclaurin–Cauchy test–Main diagonal
Its parametric equations are:
1 8 13 12
−3 t2
x (t) = a
t2 + 1 14 11 2 7
2
t −3
y(t) = a t 2
t +1 4 5 16 9
Read also «Pascal’s limaçon».
15 10 3 6
Maclaurin–Cauchy test If f is a function defined
on the interval [1, ∞), continuous, non-negative,
The sum of each row, each column and each di-
and monotonically non-increasing, then the infi-
agonal in this magic square is 34.
nite series:
∞ Furthermore, observe that:
∑ f (i )
i =1 8 + 13 + 10 + 3 = 34
converges or diverges, if and only if, 4 + 14 + 9 + 7 = 34
11 + 2 + 5 + 16 = 34
Z∞
1 + 12 + 15 + 6 = 34
f ( x ) · dx
1
converges or diverges. Magnitude (Arithmetic) Number that indicates
In case it converges, the sum S of the series satis- the measure of a quality.
fies: For example, the magnitude of the area of a
Z∞
square is a number that indicates the quantifica-
n n
tion of its surface.
∑ f (i) ≤ S ≤ ∑ f (i) + f (x) · dx (Geometry) The magnitude of a vector is equal to
i =1 i =1 n
its length.
And the value L of the improper integral satisfies: For example, considering the vector ⃗v = ⟨4, 2⟩,
M Zn Zn ∞
its magnitude ∥⃗v∥, is calculated using the
Pythagorean theorem.
f ( x ) · dx ≤ L ≤ f ( x ) · dx + ∑ f (i ) p √
1 1 i =n ∥⃗v∥ = 42 + 22 = 20
The Maclaurin-Cauchy test is also known as the y
integral test for convergence of infinite series.
Magic square Rectangular arrangement of natural ⃗v = ⟨4, 2⟩
numbers so that in all its columns and all its rows
they add up to the same amount. ∥⃗v∥
A magic square of 3 × 3 is shown below.
x
6 1 8
And in general, the magnitude of a vector ⃗v =
⟨v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ⟩ of dimension n is:
7 5 3
q
∥⃗v∥ = v21 + v22 + · · · + v2n
2 9 4
Note that ∥⃗v∥ ≥ 0, and also ∥⃗v∥ = 0, if and only
if, ⃗v = ⃗0.
In this one, the sum of each row, each column and
each diagonal is 15. Main diagonal In a square matrix, the main diag-
A magic square of 4 × 4 is shown below. onal is the one that begins in the upper left corner
314
Mandelbrot set–Mathematical analysis
and ends in the lower right corner. f ( x, y) is the value of its joint probability density
For example, in the matrix: at ( x, y), the marginal density of X is:
a b c Z∞
d e f g( x ) = f ( x, y) · dy
g h i −∞
The main diagonal is the one that includes the en- for −∞ < x < ∞.
tries: a, e, i. The marginal density of Y is:
In a square matrix of size n × n, the main diago-
Z∞
nal is formed by the entries aii for i = 1, 2 · · · , n.
h(y) = f ( x, y) · dx
−∞
Mandelbrot set Fractal obtained as an iterative
composition of the complex function f (z) = z2 + for −∞ < y < ∞.
c, starting at z = 0. Marginal probability function If X and Y are two
The following figure shows a sketch of the fractal discrete random variables with probability func-
in a very low resolution format. tion p( x, y), then the marginal probability func-
tion of x is:
p( x ) = ∑ p( x, y)
y
and the marginal probability function of y is:
p x (y) = ∑ py (x, y)
x
If X and Y are two continuous random vari-
ables with joint density function f ( x, y), then the
marginal probability function of X is:
Z∞
Mantissa The part of a logarithm that is to the right
f x (x) =
−∞
f ( x, y) · dy M
of the decimal point.
For example, knowing that ln(π ) ≈ 1.144729886, and the marginal probability function of Y is:
its mantissa is 0.144729886.
Read also «Logarithm». Z∞
f y (y) = f ( x, y) · dx
Map Synonym of function. −∞
Read also «Function».
Read also «Joint distribution».
Marginal distribution If X and Y discrete random
variables and f ( x, y) is the value of its joint prob- Markov’s inequality If X is a non-negative ran-
ability distribution at ( x, y), the marginal distri- dom variable a > 0, then,
bution of X is:
E[ X ]
P( X ≥ a) ≤
g( x ) = ∑ f (x, y) a
y
That is, the probability that X is at least equal to
for each x in the range of X. Similarly, the a is, at most, the expected value of X divided by
marginal distribution of Y is: a.
Mathematical analysis Branch of mathematics in
h(y) = ∑ f (x, y) which the theory of functions (of a real variable
x
or of a complex variable), limits, continuity, dif-
for all y in the domain of Y. ferentiation, integration, infinite series, analytical
If X and Y are continuous random variables and functions and their properties are studied.
315
Mathematical engineering–Mathematical induction principle
Mathematical engineering Part of applied mathe- For example, to prove that:
matics that focuses on developing mathematical
methods and techniques for solving problems in n ( n + 1)
1+2+3+4+···+n =
the area of engineering and industry. 2
This requires an understanding of the laws of First check that the formula is valid for n = 1:
physics, chemistry, biology, etc., mathematical
modeling, and it is often aided with the use of 1(1 + 1)
1= =1
software to solve problems through numerical or 2
metaheuristic methods. And then it is supposed to be valid for n = k,
Developments in mathematics are usually moti-
vated by the problems that are addressed in math- k ( k + 1)
1+2+3+4+···+k =
ematical engineering. 2
Mathematical induction Proof method in which a and it is verified that it is valid for n = k + 1:
conjecture that depends on a natural number k is
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + k + ( k + 1)
proved. The proof is performed, first justifying
for k = 1, then assuming that the conjecture is k ( k + 1)
= + ( k + 1)
true for n = k, and proving that for n = k + 1 it 2
is also true. This shows that the conjecture is true k2 + k 2 k + 2 k2 + k + 2 k + 2
= + =
for all natural numbers. 2 2 2
For example, to prove that k2 + 3 k + 2 (k + 1)(k + 2)
= =
2 2
n ( n + 1)
1+2+3+···+n = which is precisely the application of the given for-
2
mula for n = k + 1. Therefore,
by mathematical induction, it is first verified that
the formula holds for k = 1, n ( n + 1)
1+2+3+4+···+n =
2
1 (1 + 1)
1= =1 for all n ∈ N.
2
As can be seen, the mathematical induction
It is then assumed that it holds for n = k, and is method is actually deductive, because from a ver-
M verified for n = k + 1. ified statement P(1) and a hypothesis P(k ) it fol-
lows that P(k + 1) is also valid. So it is correct
[1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + k ] + ( k + 1) to state that mathematical induction is not inductive,
k ( k + 1) but rather, deductive.
= + ( k + 1)
2
Mathematical induction principle Suppose an in-
k2 + k 2 k + 2 teger n is associated with a proposition P(n). If
= +
2 2 the proposition holds for n = 1, that is, P(1) is
2
k +3k+2 satisfied, and if assuming that P(n) is satisfied
=
2 (where n ∈ N) it can be shown that P(n + 1) also
(k + 1)(k + 2) holds, then, P(n) is satisfied for all natural num-
= bers.
2
For example, to prove that
It is seen that the same is obtained as if the pro-
posed formula is applied directly, so it is con- n
n
cluded that it is indeed satisfied for any n ∈ N. ( x + y ) n
= ∑ k x n−k yk
k =0
Read also «Principle of mathematical induction».
is true for all n ∈ N, verify first for n = 1,
Mathematical induction method Demonstration
method consisting of the following two steps. A 1
1 1− k k
proposition is valid for every natural number n if: ( x + y) = ∑
1
x y
k =0
k
i. it is valid for n = 1, and 1 1−0 0 1 1−1 1
= x y + x y
ii. from its validity for any natural number n = 0 1
k, it follows its validity for n = k + 1. =x+y
316
Mathematical language–Mathematical notation
Now the assumption is made that it holds for Therefore,
n ∈ N, and it is verified that it is actually true
for n + 1. Then, ( x + y ) n +1 = x n +1 + y n +1 +
n
n n
+∑ + x n − k +1 y k
n +1 k k − 1
n + 1 n +1− k k k =1
( x + y) n +1
= ∑ k
x y
0
k =0 n + 1 n − k +1 k
=∑ x y +
k =0
k
Since n +1
n + 1 n − k +1 k
+ ∑ x y +
k
( x + y)n+1 = ( x + y)( x + y)n k = n +1
n
n n + 1 n − k +1 k
= ( x + y) ∑
n
x n−k yk +∑ x y
k k =1
k
k =0
n n n +1
n + 1 n +1− k k
=∑
n
x n − k +1 y k + ∑
n
x n − k y k +1 = ∑ x y
k k k =0
k
k =0 k =0
= ( x + y ) n +1
But,
Which is what we wanted to prove.
n n
In this case, P(n) corresponds to Newton’s bino-
n n
∑ k x n − k +1 k
y =x n +1
+∑
k
x n − k +1 y k mial formula.
k =0 k =1
Mathematical language Notation used in mathe-
matics to communicate the problems that can be
And also tackled in mathematics and the methods of solv-
ing them. The mathematical language allows val-
n n −1
n n idating the methods and solutions found as well
∑ k x y = y + ∑ k x n − k y k +1
n − k k +1 n +1
as generalizing them to other problems.
k =0 k =0
n Mathematical notation allows us to represent
n
= y n +1 + ∑ x n − k +1 y k mathematical objects. The manipulation of math-
k =1
k − 1 ematical notation allows us to work with math-
ematical objects. It is worth mentioning that all
M
Adding the two previous results, we obtain: mathematical objects (number, function, vector,
etc.) are ideas. We can use them through the ma-
n nipulation of their different representations (by
n
( x + y ) n +1 = x n +1 +∑ k x n − k +1 y k + means of mathematical notation).
k =1 In this way, mathematical language allows work-
n
ing with mathematical objects and communicat-
n
+ y n +1 + ∑ x n − k +1 y k ing mathematical ideas (concepts, theorems, etc.)
k =1
k − 1
whose content is abstract (immaterial) in a precise
n
n and unambiguous way.
=x n +1
+y n +1
+∑ x n − k +1 y k +
k =1
k In addition to mathematical symbols, the mathe-
n matical language consists of rules for using these
n
+∑ x n − k +1 y k symbols to write expressions (formulas, opera-
k =1
k − 1 tions, equations, implications, etc.)
= x n +1 + y n +1 + On page 592 there is a list of the most frequently
n used mathematical symbols in elementary math-
n n
+∑ + x n − k +1 y k ematics.
k =1
k k−1
Mathematical logic Formal and symbolic study of
And by the properties of binomial coefficients, logic and its application in mathematics, com-
puter science, physics, among other sciences.
n n n+1 Mathematical notation System of symbolic repre-
+ = sentation of mathematical objects, the operations
k k−1 k
317
Mathematical proof–Matrix
that can be performed with said objects and the Mathematics It is the science that studies quan-
relationships between them. tities, forms, structures, patterns, spaces and
On page 592 symbols used in elementary mathe- change. To carry out this study, ideal mathemati-
matical notation are included. cal objects (number, function, vector, etc.) are cre-
Read also «Notation» and «Mathematical language». ated and some of their properties are stated and
others are deduced, as well as the relationships
between different mathematical objects.
Mathematical proof Justification of a statement, In mathematics, each accepted result (theorem) is
premise or sentence in a structured, logical and irrefutably deduced based on previously proven
irrefutable way from other true sentences. axioms and theorems.
The process carrying out proofs in mathematics is Some branches of mathematics are:
very important, because each new theorem must
be proved on the basis of the known axioms and • Set theory
other previously proven theorems.
• Arithmetic
For example, to justify that for all nonzero real x,
x0 = 1, • Algebra
1 x • Geometry
x0 = x1−1 = x1 · x −1 = x · = = 1. • Mathematical analysis
x x
Of course, necessarily x , 0 to avoid an indeter- • Topology
mination. • Linear algebra
Notice that in the previous example, you need to
know that x a+b = x a · x b , as well as x − a = 1/x a . In turn, each of these branches has other sub-
These results must have been proven before, or branches that make a more particular study in
possibly some of them are axioms or postulates each case. For example, geometry is subclassed
on which the development of the entire theory (of into plane geometry, analytic geometry, etc.
the corresponding branch of mathematics) rests. Mathematics is a problem-solving tool in sci-
Depending on how the theory is developed, some ence, engineering, technology, economics, fi-
results are sometimes postulated and considered nance, etc., and for the analysis of natural phe-
axioms (for example, some authors define a0 = 1 nomena through models and techniques that are
M by convention).
Read also «Convention».
used to understand the operation of complex sys-
tems, to make predictions, solving problems, etc.
Read also «Mathematical notation».
Mathematical structure A mathematical structure
is a nonempty set to whose elements properties Matrix In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangu-
and operations between them are defined. lar arrangement of mathematical objects, usually
For example, some structures defined for the set numbers.
of real numbers are order (greater, less, equal), The dimension of the matrix is indicated as m × n,
field structure (under addition and multiplica- here m i the number of rows and n is the number
tion), metric (to measure distances in terms of in- of columns.
tervals), etc. For example,
Some examples of mathematical structures are
field, ring, group, and vector space. 2 −1 7
1 4 −3
Mathematician A person who is an expert in
mathematics. is a 2 × 3 matriz (read as: two by three matrix),
Mathematicians generally focus on one area, so which indicates that it has two rows and three
if he focuses on geometry the mathematician is columns.
called a geometer, if he (or she) focuses on ba- The element located at the i −th row and in the
sic mathematics he (or she) is known as a pure j−th column is denoted by aij .
mathematician (usually he or she does not focus The matrix of dimension m × n is denoted by:
on the applications of mathematics), if he (or she) A = [ aij ], where 1 ≤ i ≤ m , and 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
focuses on the applications of mathematics he (or The basic operations between matrices are addi-
she) is known as an applied mathematician, and tion, difference, multiplication by a scalar, and
so on. multiplication of two matrices.
318
Matrix equivalence–Maurer rose
Let A = [ aij ], and B = [bij ], be two matrices of the By the way multiplication is defined, it is clear
same dimension, then that it is not always possible to multiply any two
matrices. Even if it is possible to compute A B, it
A + B = [ aij + bij ] is not always possible to compute B A. That is,
A − B = [ aij − bij ] multiplication between matrices is not commuta-
tive:
For example, if AB , BA
Read also «Dot product».
1 2 3 1
A= and B= If A, B and C are matrices of dimension m × n,
4 −1 2 5
and c is a scalar,
then,
i) A+0 = A
4 3 −2 1 ii) 0A =0
A+B = and A−B =
6 4 2 −6 iii) A+B = B+A
The multiplication of a matrix A = [ aij ] by a scalar iv) ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C )
c It is obtained by multiplying all the elements of v) c ( A + B) = c A + c B
the matrix A by c. That is, c A = [c · aij ]. vi) 1A = A
For example, taking A as defined above, if c = 2,
we have: Note that 0 has been used in (i ) as a matrix and
in (ii ) as a scalar to the left of the equal sign and
1 2 2 4 as a matrix to its right.
A= ⇒ 2A =
4 −1 8 −2
Matrix equivalence Two rectangular matrices A
The multiplication of two matrices A and B can be and B of dimension m × n are equivalent to each
carried out, if and only if, the number of columns other, if there exists an invertible matrix P of di-
in the first (left) matrix is equal to the number of mension n × n, and another invertible matrix Q
rows in the second (right) matrix. The cij element of dimension m × m, such that
of the matrix that is the result of the multiplica- B = Q−1 AP.
tion if the matrix A = [ aij ] of dimension m × n
by the matrix B = [bij ] of dimension n × p, is ob- If this is the case, then tha matrices A and B rep-
tained by calculating the dot product of the i −th
row of A by the j−th column of B.
resent the same linear transformation under two
different bases, where P and Q represents the
M
For example, considering the previous defini- change from one base to the other.
tions, Matrix equivalence is an equivalence relation on
the space of rectangular matrices.
1 2 3 1 Read also «Equivalence relation».
A= and B=
4 −1 2 5 Two rectangular matrices are equivalent, if and
only if, they have the same rank. If this is the
then, if C = A B,
case, from A you can obtain B using elementary
c = (1)(3) + (2)(2) = 7 operations on the rows and columns of A.
11
c12 = (1)(1) + (2)(5) = 11 Matrix similarity Two matrices A and B of size
c21 = (4)(3) + (−1)(2) = 10 n × n they are similar to each other, if there is
an invertible matrix P, such that:
c22 = (4)(1) + (−1)(5) = −1
B = P−1 AP
Therefore,
7 11 If this is the case, then the matrices A and B rep-
AB = resent the same linear transformation under two
10 −1
different bases, where P represents the change
Note that if B = [⃗b1 b⃗2 ], then, from one base to the other.
The similarity of matrices forms an equivalence
A B = A [⃗b1 b⃗2 ] relation in the space of the square matrices.
That is, each column of A B is the result of multi- Maurer rose Closed polygonal line with all its ver-
plying A by the corresponding column of B. tices on the graph of a polar rose.
319
Maximum–Mean value theorem for definite integrals
Mean deviation The mean deviation of a sample,
or sample mean deviation, is the average of the
absolute deviations of all the data in the sample.
For example, considering the data set: {2, 3, 6, 9},
the mean of the sample is x = 20/4 = 5. The de-
viation of each datum is shown in the following
table.
Measurement Deviation
xi δ
2 −3
3 −2
6 1
9 4
In the figure above, the polygonal line has 180
sides and their vertices are on the graph of a po-
The mean deviation is the average of their abso-
lar rose with 3 petals (n = 3.)
lute values. In this case, the mean deviation is
The coordinates ( x (i ), y(i )) of the i −th vertex are
2.5, because the sum of all absolute deviations is
computed using the parametric equations of the
10 and this value is divided by 4.
polar rose, setting a constant step-size d, and us-
This statistic measures on average how far away
ing:
is each piece of data from the arithmetic mean.
x (i ) = a cos(i d n θ ) · cos(i d θ ) Mean value theorem If the function y = f ( x ) is
y(i ) = a cos(i d n θ ) · sin(i d θ ) continuous in [ a, b] and differentiable in ( a, b),
then, there is at least one value c ∈ ( a, b) such
where a is the amplitude of the polar rose. that:
f (b) − f ( a)
f ′ (c) =
Maximum The largest value a variable can take. b−a
In words, the function has at least one point x = c
Mean The (arithmetic) mean is a measure of cen-
on the interval where the slope of the tangent line
M tral tendency in statistics.
The arithmetic mean x = m a of p and q is:
to the curve is equal to the slope of the secant line
through the points ( a, f ( a)) and (b, f (b)).
p+q
x = ma = y
2
The geometric mean m g of the positive values p f (b)
and q is:
√ y = f (x)
mg = p q
f (a)
The armonic mean mh of p and q is:
x
a c b
1 1
+
1 p q 2 pq
= ⇒ mh = The mean value theorem is also known as La-
mh 2 p+q grange’s theorem.
Read also «Mean value theorem for definite inte-
The quadratic mean mq of p and q is:
grals».
r
p2 + q2 Mean value theorem for definite integrals If the
mq =
2 function y = f ( x ) is positive, continuous and in-
tegrable in the interval [ a, b], then, there is one
If p < q, then, value ȳ > 0 such that:
p < mh < m g < m a < mq < q Zb
1
ȳ = f ( x )dx
b−a
a
320
Measure–Median
Geometrically, the value of the area under the are used to represent the corresponding value for
graph of the function y = f ( x ) can be expressed the entire population as a whole.
equivalently as the area of a rectangle with base The most frequently used measure of central ten-
b − a, and height ȳ. dency is the mean.
Measures of dispersion A value that indicates the
y
y = f (x) variability of the values in a data set.
The most frequently used measures of disper-
f (b) sion are the range, the interquartile range, the
mean deviation, the mean absolute deviation, and
the standard deviation, the latter being the most
ȳ used.
f (a) Medial triangle The medial triangle of a given tri-
angle △ ABC, is the triangle whose vertices are at
x the midpoints of the sides of the given triangle.
a b
C
In the figure above, ȳ represents the mean (aver-
age) value of f ( x ) over the interval [ a, b].
In words, the area under the graph of the func-
tion y = f ( x ) and above the x axis from x = a to P N
x = b, is equal to the area of the rectangle with
base b − a and height ȳ.
Measure Dimension or capacity of some object.
For example, the measures of the sides of the fol- A M B
lowing triangle are 4 cm, 3 cm and 5 cm respec-
tively. In the previous figure, M is the midpoint of side
AB, N is the midpoint of side BC, and P is the
midpoint of side AC. The triangle △ MNP with
vertices at points M, N and P is the medial trian-
m
gle of triangle △ ABC. M
3 cm
5c The medial triangle is also known as the midpoint
triangle.
Median The median of a triangle is the line that
passes through the midpoint of one side and the
4 cm vertex opposite it.
Measurement Data obtained from an observation.
A data measured in the interval level can be ar-
ranged in such a way that differences between
different values of successive measurements can
n M
be seen. The zero represents a point on the scale, dia
Me
which does not necessarily coincide with the zero
of the observed magnitude.
When the zero of the measurement coincides with
the zero of the observed magnitude, then it is said
that the data is measured in the rate level.
If you consider the triangle to be made up of in-
Measures of central tendency Constant value finitely many line segments parallel to the side
called central value, around which the values BC, the midpoints of those segments form the me-
of a set of observed data are concentrated. dian AM, with M being the midpoint of segment
The measures of central tendency are the (arith- BC. This segment balances the triangle, with re-
metic) mean, mode, and median. These values spect to the vertices B and C.
321
Mega-–Menelaus’s theorem
B where Li is the lower limit where the median lies,
N/2 is the half sum of the absolute frequencies,
M f i is the absolute frequency of the median class,
Fi−1 is the cumulative frequency before the me-
dian class, ai is the width of the class (the differ-
ence between the upper and lower limit values of
C the class).
A Mega- Prefix indicating 106 . It is abbreviated with
the capital letter M.
In a similar way, the triangle can be considered For example, one Megaliter is equal to one mil-
as formed by infinitely mamy segments parallel lion liters, that is, 1 ML = 106 L.
to the side AB. If N is the midpoint of side AB, Note that «Mega-» is abbreviated with (capital) M,
then the median BN balances the triangle about while «mili-» with lowercase m.
vertices A and C.
The point of intersection of the two medians AM Megaprime number A prime number that has at
and BN balances the triangle with respect to the least one million digits when written in the deci-
three vertices, due to the aforementioned. Conse- mal number system.
quently, the point where the three medians inter- For example, the number: 26972593 − 1 is a
sect is the point where the triangle balances. This megaprime number.
point is called barycenter.
Member (Algebra) In an equality, the expressions
to the left and to the right of the equals sign are
the members of that equality.
x2 y2 − 2 x + 3 y = x2 − 10 xy + 5 y2
Barycenter | {z } | {z }
left member right member
M (Set theory) We say that an element is a member
of a set if it belongs to the set.
For example, 2 is a member of the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
Here, member is synonym of element.
The barycenter is also known as centroid.
Read also «Centroid» and «Center of mass». Membership It is said that x is a member of the
(Statistics) The median of a frequency distribu- set A if x is one of its elements, and it is denoted
tion, denoted by Me , is the value for which the as: x ∈ A.
cumulative frequency equals N/2, where N is the If x is not an element of the set A, then we say
number of data points or the population size. The that x does not belong to the set and it isdenoted
median is the value that divides the data so that as: x < A.
half of the values are less than the median and the For example, 3 ∈ N, but π < Z. Note that the
other half are greater than it. concept of membership applies to the elements of
To calculate the median of a set of ungrouped the set, not to its subsets. In that case we use the
data, the data is ordered and if the number of concept of set inclusion.
data is even, the average of the two data that re- Read also «Subset».
main in the middle of the ordered list of data is
calculated. If the number of data is odd, the me-
Menelaus’s theorem Given the triangle △ ABC in
dian is the middle value in the list.
the plane, and the points D, E and F on the sides
To calculate the median from a table of grouped
BC, AC and AB, respectively, then D, E and F are
data, the following formula is used:
colinear, if and only if,
N
− Fi−1
EA CD BF
Me = L i + 2 · ai · · =1
fi EC DB FA
322
Mercator series–Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism
C where n is an integer.
The first five values of n that yield Mersenne
prime numbers are: 3, 7, 31, 127, and 8191.
E Metabiaugmented dodecahedron Polyhedron
with 20 faces, of which 10 are equilateral tri-
D angles and 10 are regular pentagons. It also has
22 vertices and 40 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
A B F area A are:
1 √
V= 25 + 11 5 a3
Mercator series The series 6s
x2 x3 x4 1 √ q √
ln |1 + x | = x − + − +··· A=5 14 + 5 5 + 75 + 30 5 a2
2 3 4 2
is known as the Newton-Mercator series.
The metabiaugmented dodecahedron is obtained
Equivalently,
by adding a pentagonal pyramid on two of the
∞ faces (not opposite or adjacent) of the dodecahe-
(−1)k+1 k
ln |1 + x | = ∑ k
·x dron.
k =1
This series converges for −1 < x ≤ 1.
Since
1 − un
= 1 − u + u2 − u3 + · · · + (−u)n−1
1+u
For −1 < u < 1, the limit as n tends to infinity
makes the numerator equal to 1. Integrating both
sides from u = 0 to u = x, gives
Zx
du
=
Zx
1 − u + u2 − u3 + · · ·
· dt
M
1+u
0 0
x
u2 u3 u4
ln |1 + u||0x = u− + − +···
2 3 4 0 The metabiaugmented dodecahedron is a John-
x2 x3 x4 son solid.
ln |1 + x | = x − + − +···
2 3 4
Metabiaugmented hexagonal prism Polyhedron
which is the equivalent of the Taylor series of the that has 14 faces of which 8 are equilateral trian-
natural logarithm function. gles, 4 are squares, and two are regular hexagons.
Setting x = 1 leads to It also has 14 vertices and 26 edges.
1 1 1
ln |2| = 1 − + − +···
2 3 4
The Mercator series is also known as the Newton-
Mercator series. This series was first published
by Nicholas Mercator, although it was also dis-
covered independently by Isaac Newton and by
Gregory Saint-Vincent.
Mersenne prime A prime number Mn is a
Mersenne prime if it is of the form:
Mn = 2 n − 1
323
Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron–Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
The metabiaugmented hexagonal prism is ob-
tained by adding a square pyramid to two non-
adjacent and non-parallel equatorial faces of a
hexagonal prism.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √ √
V= 2 2 + 9 3 a3
6 √
A = 4 + 5 3 a2
The metabiaugmented hexagonal prism is a John-
son solid.
The metabidiminished icosahedron is obtained
Metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron Poly-
by removing two pentagonal pyramids from an
hedron formed by 52 faces, of which 30 are equi-
icosahedron, so that two adjacent pentagonal
lateral triangles, 10 are square, 2 are regular pen-
faces are obtained.
tagons and 10 are regular decagons. It also has 70
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
vertices and 120 edges.
area A are:
1 √
V= 5 + 2 5 a3
6s
5 √ q √
A= 10 + 5 + 75 + 30 5 a2
2
The metabidiminished icosahedron is a Johnson
solid.
Metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Polyhedron with 42 faces, of which 2 are regu-
lar decagons, 10 are regular pentagons, 20 are
M squares, and 10 are equilateral triangles. It also
has 50 vertices and 90 edges.
The metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron is
obtained by adding a pentagonal cupola on two
non-opposite, non-adjacent decagonal faces of the
truncated dodecahedron.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
V ≈ 89.6878 a3
1 √
A= 20 + 15 3 + k a2
2
where
q r
√ √
k = 50 5+2 5+ 5 5+2 5
The metabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron is This geometric solid is obtained by removing two
a Johnson solid. non-opposite pentagonal cupolas from a rhombi-
cosidodecahedron. If the length of its edges is a,
Metabidiminished icosahedron Polyhedron that its volume V and its area A are:
has 12 faces of which 10 are equilateral triangles V ≈ 36.9672 a3
and the other two are regular pentagons. It also 5 √
has 10 vertices and 20 edges. A= 8 + 2 k a2
2
324
Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron–Method of exhaustion
where This geometric solid is obtained by removing a
r
√ √ pentagonal cupola from a rhombicosidodecahe-
k = 44 + 19 5 + 3 85 + 38 5 dron and rotating 36◦ a pentagonal cupola not
opposite the removed cupola. If the length of its
The metabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron edges is a, its volume V and its area A are:
is a Johnson solid.
Metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron Polyhe- V ≈ 39.2913 a3 !
dron with 62 faces, of which 12 are regular pen- √
15 3
tagons, 30 are squares, and 20 are equilateral tri- A = 25 + + k a2
4
angles. It also has 60 vertices and 120 edges.
where
s √ q √
55 2 5 5
k= 1+ + 5+2 5
4 5 2
The metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahe-
dron is a Johnson solid.
Metaheuristic A metaheuristic is a strategy that is
applied to an optimization problem so that it has
an acceptable solution, even if it is not optimal,
when the analytical method is too expensive in
◦ computation time or when there is no analytical
This geometric solid is obtained by turning 36
or numerical solution that converge fast enough
two non-opposite pentagonal cupolas of a rhom-
to be able to get an answer with some computing
bicosidodecahedron. If the length of its edges is
power.
a, its volume V and its area A are:
Without the use of metaheuristics, some problems
1 √
V=
3
60 + 29 5 a3
√ q √
could take years or even centuries to solve, but
with these strategies, a good enough solution can M
2 be achieved in a relatively short time (within a
A = 30 + 5 3 + 3 25 + 10 5 a
couple of days or in some cases a few hours), de-
The metabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron is a pending on the complexity of the problem, and
Johnson solid. the applicable metaheuristics used.
Metagyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Polyhedron with 52 faces, of which one is a reg- Metamathematics Mathematical study of the foun-
ular decagon, 11 are regular pentagons, 25 are dations of mathematics.
squares, and 15 are equilateral triangles. It also
has 55 vertices and 105 edges. Meter Unit of distance used in the International
System of Units. The symbol used for the meter
is m.
One meter is equal to 39.37 inches, or 3,281 feet,
or 1,094 yards.
Method of exhaustion Method used to calculate
the area of a figure, building polygons in it and
calculating the sum of the areas of said polygons.
The following figure shows the method of ex-
haustion applied to approximate the value of the
area of the circle as applied by Archimedes when
he tried to solve this problem.
325
Method of Gaussian elimination–Method of Lagrange multipliers
The second row indicates that y = 4. The first line
indicates that x + y =10. Substituting x = 4 into
this equation, we get y = 6.
The basic idea is to use the coefficient of an un-
known in an equation of the system of equations
to eliminate the terms corresponding to that se-
lected unknown from the other equations, mak-
ing the coefficients zero using elementary opera-
tions on the rows. This process is repeated until a
matrix in row echelon form is obtained, and from
it the solution of the system of equations is com-
puted.
Method of indivisibles Method developed by
Bonaventura Cavalieri for the calculation of areas
and volumes. The method consists in consider-
This method is deprecated. Instead of this ing plane figures as formed from parallel line seg-
method, the definite integral is currently used. ments, so that from another figure with the same
Read also «Definite integral». proportions in the corresponding segments, and
whose area is known, the area of the first figure
Method of Gaussian elimination Method to solve may be deduced.
a system of linear equations by means of its ma- Similarly, consider solids as made up of planes,
trix representation, performing operations on the and transform the original solid into another solid
coefficients of the matrix corresponding to the whose volume is known, so that the proportions
system of equations. of the corresponding parts of each solid are equal.
The process consists of applying elementary op- For example, to quantify the area of a circle with
erations to the rows of the matrix to reduce it to radius r, imagine the circle as made up of an infi-
a row echelon form matrix, and from the value nite number of circumferences. Starting from the
of an unknown, substitute this value in the other center of the circle, these circumferences are cut
equations, to calculate the values of the other un- along a radius and rearranged to form a triangle.
knowns one by one, until the value of all un-
M knowns are computed. This last part of the pro-
The base of this triangle is the circumference of
the circle (2 π r) and its height is the radius of the
cess is known as back-substitution. circle (r). Since Cavalieri already knew the for-
For example, consider the system of equations: mula to calculate the area of this triangle, he was
able to obtain the value of the area of the circle.
x + y = 10
x−y= 2 bh (2 π r )(r )
A= = = π r2
2 2
It is written in matrix form:
1 1 10 r
1 −1 2
2 πr
For the following system, the elements of the first
row are multiplied by −1 and these results are
added to the corresponding elements of the sec-
ond row (in the same column):
This method is a precursor to the concept of the
1 1 10 definite integral.
0 −2 −8 Read also «Cavalieri’s principle».
Now multiply all the elements of the second row Method of Lagrange multipliers To compute the
by −1/2, to obtain: local extrema of z = f ( x, y), subject to the con-
straint g( x, y, z) = k, solve:
1 1 10
0 1 4 ∇ f ( x, y, z) = λ ∇ g( x, y, z)
326
Method of undetermined coefficients–Midline
for x, y, z, and λ. The values ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) that satisfy The method consists of proposing a solution
this equation, are the extremes (maximum and Y ( x ) considering the functions that are obtained
minimum) of f ( x, y, z) subject to g( x, y, z) = k. when a linear combination of these function and
For example, to compute the values x, y that min- its successive derivatives is calculated, the non-
imize z = f ( x, y) = x2 + y2 , subject to the con- homogeneous part of the differential equation is
straint g( x, y) = x + y = 2, solve: obtained, leaving constants unspecified, so that
when the function and its successive derivatives
∇ f = λ∇ g
are substituted in the differential equation, an al-
Equivalently, solve the system of equations: gebraic system of equations is obtained, whose
solution allows knowing the values of the un-
f x = λgx ⇒ 2x = λ known constants.
f y = λgy ⇒ 2y = λ For example, considering the differential equation
Which indicates that x = y. since x + y = 2,
y′′ − y = cos( x )
x = y = 1. So, the point ( x, y) that is on
the paraboloid z = x2 + y2 , and on the plane the corresponding homogeneous equation is
x + y = 2 with the minimum value of z is at solved first. For this, the roots of its characteristic
(1, 1, 2). equation are considered:
z = x2 + y 2
r2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ r = ±1
z
So the general solution of the homogeneous dif-
ferential equation is:
y h ( x ) = c1 e t + c2 e − t
To solve the non-homogeneous part, the method
of undetermined coefficients is applied. For
this purpose, the particular solution of the non-
x+y =2
homogeneous part of the differential equation is
assumed to have the form:
y( x ) = k1 cos( x ) + k2 sin( x )
M
because from the successive derivatives of the
(1, 1, 2) sine and cosine functions, the cosine function is
obtained. Now substitute this function and its
y second derivative (y′′ = −k1 cos( x ) − k2 sin( x )) in
the non-homogeneous differential equation:
x
−2 k1 cos( x ) − 2 k2 sin( x ) = cos( x )
The method of Lagrange multipliers can be gen-
eralized to the calculation of the extremes of z = From this, −2 k1 = 1, therefore k1 = −1/2, while
f ( x, y) subject to g( x, y, z) = k1 , and h( x, y, z) = −2 k2 = 0, and then k2 = 0. Thus, the particu-
k2 , as follows: lar solution of the non-homogeneous differential
equation is: y p ( x ) = −(1/2) cos( x ).
∇ f = λ ∇ g + µ ∇h
Micro- Prefix denoted with the Greek letter µ,
The extremes of f ( x, y, z) subject to the given con-
which is used to indicate a submultiple of a unit,
straints, are at the values of ( x, y, z) that satisfy
multiplying said unit by 10−6 .
the previous equation.
For example, a micrometer is one millionth of a
Method of undetermined coefficients Method to meter, and is denoted by 1 [µm] = 10−6 [m].
calculate a particular solution of a non-
homogeneous ordinary differential equation. Midline The midline of a given triangle △ ABC
is the line segment whose end-points are at the
y(n) + qn−1 ( x )y(n−1) + · · · + q1 ( x ) y′ + q0 ( x )y = g( x ) middle-points of two sides of said triangle.
327
Midline theorem–Mile
C Midpoint rule It is said that the midpoint rule has
been applied when the Riemann sum is computed
by evaluating the function at the midpoint of each
interval [ xi , xi+1 ],
P Q
n
x i + x i +1
∑f 2
· ∆x
i =1
A B y
y = f (x)
The midline of the triangle △ ABC is parallel to f (b)
one of the sides of the triangle.
Read also «Median».
Midline theorem The midline of a triangle △ ABC
is parallel to one side of the triangle and is half f (a)
the length of the parallel side.
x
a b
C
Read also «Riemann sum».
Midsphere The midsphere of a polyhedron is a
P Q
sphere that is tangent to all the edges of said poly-
hedron.
A B
Read also «Midline».
M Midpoint The midpoint of the segment AB is the
point M of the segment that is the same distance
from its endpoints.
In other words, the midpoint of a segment is the
point that divides it into two segments of equal
length.
Below is a segment AB and its midpoint M.
M The radius of the midsphere is the midradius.
If an intersphere can be drawn for a polyhedron,
then the polyhedron is said to be a canonical poly-
A hedron.
The midsphere is also known as intersphere.
The coordinates ( x̄, ȳ) of the midpoint of the seg-
ment with endpoints at A( x1 , y1 ), and B( x2 , y2 ), Midradius The midradius is the radius of the mid-
are: sphere.
x + x2 y + y2
x̄ = 1 ȳ = 1 Read also «midsphere».
2 2
That is, the coordinates of the midpoint are ob- Mile Unit of distance in the English system that
tained with the average of the respective coordi- is equivalent to 1 609 meters (statute mile). One
nates of the ends of the segment. mile is also equal to 1 760 yards.
328
Mili-–Mixed number
Mili- Prefix denoted by the (lowercase) letter m, Minus–plus Symbol written as ∓ and that serves
which is used to indicate a submultiple of the as a binary operator, which indicates that two val-
unit, multiplying said unit by 10−3 . ues are obtained, one by subtracting and the other
For example, one milliliter represents 10−3 liters, by adding the operands.
and is denoted as 1 [mL] = 10−3 [L]. For example, the expression y = h ∓ a, represents
Note that the abbreviation uses a lowercase m. the values y1 = h − a, and, y2 = h + a.
When the abbreviation corresponds to an upper- Read also «Plus–minus».
case M it referes to the prefix «Mega-».
Read also «Mega-». Minute (Geometry) Measure of an angle denoted
by ′ and equal to 1/60 of a sexagesimal degree.
Milliard Number equivalent to one thousand mil- That is, 60 minutes is equal to a sexagesimal de-
lions. That is, a milliard is: gree.
(Financial mathematics) Measure of time equiva-
109 = 1 000 000 000 lent to 1/60 of an hour.
That is, 60 minutes make an hour.
The milliard is also known as billion. A minute is made up of sixty seconds, both in the
case of the unit of measure of angles and of time.
Million Number equal to 106 = 1 000 000.
Millionth Number equivalent to 1 divided by a Miquel’s theorem Given the triangle △ ABC in the
million. plane, if the points D, E and F are selected on the
1 −6
= 10 = 0.000 001 sides BC, AC and AB, respectively, then the three
106
circumferences that pass through each vertex of
the triangle and the points on the adjacent sides,
Minimum Smallest value that a variable or quan- pass through a common point M.
tity represented algebraically accepts or can take.
C
Minor If A = [ aij ] is a square matrix of dimension
n × n, the minor (i, j), denoted as Mij is the matrix
of dimension (n − 1) × (n − 1) which is obtained
by eliminating the i −th row and the j−th column
of the matrix A.
E
R
D
M
For example, if M
2 1 5
A = 3 4 −1 Q
1 2 3 P
then the minor (1, 1), denoted by M11 is:
A F B
4 −1
2 3
The point M where the three circles intersect is
Minor is also known as complementary minor. known as Miquel point.
Read also «Cofactor» and «Inverse matrix».
Mixed fraction A number that is written with a
Minuend In subtraction, the minuend is the num- whole part and a fractional part.
ber from which another quantity is being sub- For example: 1¾. This is equivalent to an integer
tracted. plus three-quarters.
minuend Mixed number Number formed by an integer part
9 876 and a fractional part that is a proper fraction.
− 5 324 subtrahend For example: 1¾.
4 552 difference To convert the mixed number to a fraction, write
the whole number part as a fraction with the same
329
Mixed product–Modulus
denominator as the fractional part of the mixed In the displayed histogram, the class mark of the
number, and add both parts. class C is the mode for having the highest fre-
For example, to represent the number 5 2/7 as quency.
a fraction, first convert 5 integers to sevenths:
5 = 35 Model A mathematical model is a theoretical rep-
7 . Adding the integer part expressed as a resentation of a real situation through mathemati-
fraction and the fractional part of the mixed num-
ber, it isobtained: cal symbols that is used to explain and/or predict
the behavior of a phenomenon.
35 2 37 A mathematical model can consist of an equa-
5 2/7 = + = tion, a system of equations or inequalities, an aug-
7 7 7
mented matrix, a diagram, a graph, a function,
Read also «Fraction». etc.
Mixed product Synonym of scalar triple product. Modular arithmetic Arithmetic system for whole
Read also «Scalar triple product». numbers. Given a positive integer n, called mod-
ulus, it is said that the integers p and q are con-
Möbius band A band-shaped surface that has only
gruent modulo n if p − q is divisible by n, and is
one face (which is why it is a non-orientable sur-
denoted as
face) and that is bounded by a closed curve.
p ≡ q(mod n)
If the number n satisfies p = k n + q, for some in-
teger k, then p ≡ q(mod n). This is another way
of stating that p − q is divisible by n.
For example,
13 ≡ 3(mod 5)
because 13 − 3 is divisible by 5.
If p ≡ 0(mod n), then p is divisible by n.
Modulo (Number theory) Given the integer num-
Its parametric equations are:
bers a, b, k, it is said that the number a is congru-
u ent to k modulo b, and it is denoted as: a ≡ k
M
v
x (u, v) = 1 + cos
2
v 2
u
cos(u) mod b, if:
a = bm+k
y(u, v) = 1 + cos sin(u)
2 2 where m ∈ Z.
v u
z(u, v) = sin In words, if the number a − k is divisible by b,
2 2 then a is congruent to k modulo b.
for 0 ≤ u ≤ 2 π, and −1 ≤ v ≤ 1. For example, 14 ≡ 4 mod 5, because:
Mode In a sample, the mode is the value that ap- 14 = 5 × 2 + 4
pears most often. Tha is, 14 − 4 is divisible by 5.
For the case of grouped data, the mode is rep- Read also «Modular arithmetic».
resented by the class mark of the class with the
highest frequency.
Modulus (Arithmetic) The conversion factor that
f converts logarithms of numbers calculated in the
natural base (e) to their equivalent value as a log-
arithm in base 10. Its value is:
1
≈ 0.43429448
ln |10|
(Vector calculus) The modulus of a vector is
equal to its magnitude. If the vector is ⃗v = ⟨ a, b⟩,
its modulus is:
x p
A B C D E F ∥⃗v∥ = a2 + b2
330
Moment–Monotonically decreasing function
Read also «Magnitude» and «Vector». Moment-generating function The moment gener-
(Complex variable) The modulus of a complex ating function of the discrete random variable X
number z = a + ib, denoted by |z| and is equal to: is: h i
p M X ( t ) = E et X = ∑ etx · f ( x )
x
| z | = a2 + b2
The moment generating function of the continu-
Observe that: a2 + b2 = z · z. ous random variable X is:
h i Z∞
Moment (Statistics) The r −th moment about the MX (t ) = E et X = etx · f ( x ) · dx
origin of a discrete random variable X, denoted
−∞
by µr′ is the expected value of X r .
The moment-generating function is said to exist if
µr′ = E [ X r ] = ∑ xr f ( x ) there exists a finite constant b such that MX (t) be
x finite for |t| < b.
If a and b are constants,
for r = 0, 1, 2, · · · .
h i
The mean of the values of a discrete random vari- i. MX + a (t) = E e(X + a)t = e at MX (t).
able X (that is, the expected value of X) is equal
to its first moment about the origin. ii. MaX (t) = E e a Xt = MX ( at).
h X+a i
iii. M X+a (t) = E e( b )t = e at/b · MX bt .
µ1′ = E[ X ] = ∑ x · f (X) b
x
If g( X ) is a function of a random variable X with
The r −th moment about the origin of a continu- density function f ( x ), then the moment generat-
ous random variable X, denoted by µr′ is the ex- ing function for g( X ) is:
pected value of X r .
h i Z∞
tg( X )
Z∞ E e = etg( x) f ( x ) · dx
µr′ = E [ X r ] = xr f ( x ) −∞
−∞
for r = 0, 1, 2, · · · . Monomial Polynomial that has exactly one term.
For example, 7 x2 y4 is a monomial. M
Moment about the mean The r −th moment of the Each term of a polynomial is a monomial.
discrete random variable X about its mean, de- Read also «Polynomial» and «Term».
r
noted by µr , is the expected value of ( X − µ) . Monotonically decreasing function It is said that
a function y = f ( x ), is a monotonically decreas-
µr = E [ X − µ ]r = ∑ ( x − µ )r · f ( x ) ing function if it satisfies f ( x2 ) ≤ f ( x1 ) for any
x
two values x1 , x2 with x2 > x1 .
for r = 0, 1, 2, · · · . For example, the function y = e− x is monotoni-
The r −th moment of the continuous random vari- cally decreasing because its derivative y′ = −e− x ,
able X about its mean, denoted by µr is the ex- is negative for all x ∈ R. This implies that
pected value of ( X − µ)r . e x2 ≤ e x1 for any x1 , x2 that satisfy x2 > x1 .
Z∞ y
r r
µr = E [ X − µ ] = ( x − µ) · f ( x )
−∞
for r = 0, 1, 2, · · · .
By definition, µ0 = 1, and also µ1 = 0, for any 1
random variable as long as µ exists. y = e−x
µ2 is the variance of the random variable X, de- x
noted by σ2 . µ3 is known as skewness or asymme- 1
try.
Read also «Variance». Read also «Decreasing function».
331
Monotonically increasing function–Multiple integral
Monotonically increasing function It is said that ii. The result of each trial is independent of the
a function y = f ( x ), is a monotonically increas- other trials.
ing function if it satisfies f ( x2 ) ≥ f ( x1 ) for any
iii. There are exactly k possible outcomes in each
two values x1 , x2 with x2 > x1 .
trial (classes).
For example, the function y = e x is monotonically
increasing, because its derivative y′ = e x is posi- iv. The probability that a result of an trial is of
tive for any x ∈ R. This implies that e x2 ≥ e x1 for a particular kind remains constant, trial after
any x1 , x2 that satisfy x2 > x1 . trial.
Read also «Exponential function» and «Increasing v. The random variables X1 , X2 , · · · , Xk where
function». Xi is the number of times the trial resulted
Month A month is the unit of time used to divide in the class i, such that X1 + X2 + · · · Xk = n.
the year and is approximately equal to 30 days.
Throughout the year, different months have dif- Multinomial theorem Generalization of Newton’s
ferent lengths. binomial, to calculate the n−th power of a poly-
For the calculation of interest and amortizations, nomial of m terms.
it is assumed that the month has 30 days.
( x1 + x2 + · · · + x m ) n =
Morrie’s law The following trigonometric identity
n
∑
k
= x11 · · · x2k2 · · · xm
km
1 k
k1 +k2 +···+k m =n 1 2
, k , · · · , k m
cos(20◦ ) · cos(40◦ ) · cos(80◦ ) =
8
where all the possible combinations of k1 ≥ 0,
is known as the Morrie’s law, which is general- k2 ≥ 0, . . ., k m ≥ 0 are selected such that
ized as
n −1 k 1 + k 2 + · · · + k m = n in the summation.
sin (2n ϕ)
∏ cos 2 k
ϕ =
2n sin(ϕ)
k =0 Multiple (Arithmetic) The integer number m is a
multiple of the integer number a if it can be writ-
Richard Feynman attributed said trigonometric
ten as: m = a · k, where k is an integer number.
identity to Morrie Jacobs.
For example, the number 12 is a multiple of 3, be-
Multi-step numerical method A numerical cause 12 = 3 × 4.
M method is a multi-step numerical method if, to
calculate the value yi+1 it uses at least two previ-
(2) One of the prefixes (deca, hecto, kilo, etc.) that
is used to represent a factor that indicates the
ous values: yi , yi−1 , · · · ,yi−k (where k ≥ 1, k ∈ number of times a unit of the International Sys-
N). tem of Units is taken.
For example, the Runge-Kutta method is a multi- Read also «International System of Units».
step numerical method.
Read also «Runge-Kutta method». Multiple integral Definite integral of a function
of several variables w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), which
Multinomial coefficient A generaization of the bi- generalizes the definite integral of functions of
nomial coefficients, applied in the multinomial one variable, as:
expansion which are given by Z ZZ
··· f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) · dx1 · dx2 · · · dxn
n n!
= D
k1 , k2 , · · · , k m k1 ! · k2 ! · · · k m !
where D indicates the domain of integration, dx1
where k1 ≥ 0, k2 ≥ 0, . . ., k m ≥ 0 are such that
is the differential of the variable x1 , with respect
k1 + k2 + · · · + k m = n.
to which the first integration is done, dx2 is the
Read also «Binomial coefficient».
differential of the variable x2 , with respect to
Multinomial experiment A multinomial experi- which the second integration is done, etc., and
ment is a probabilistic experiment that satisfy the dxn is the differential of the variable xn , with re-
following conditions: spect to which the last integration is performed.
Each definite integral is calculated considering
i. The experiment consists of carrying out a the rest of the variables as constants.
fixed number n of identical trials. Read also «Iterated integral».
332
Multiple root–Multiplication tables
Multiple root When a polynomial P( x ) the bino- When the events are independent, the product
mial x − r may be factored out several times, say rule reduces to:
k times, then it is said that it has a multiple root,
x = r with multiplicity k. P ( A ∩ B) = P( A) · P( B)
For example, the polynomial equation:
x4 − 5 x3 − 3 x2 + 17 x − 10 = 0 where P( A) is the probability of occurrence of the
event A and P( B) is the probability of occurrence
has four roots, x = 5, x = −2, x = 1, and x = 1. of the event B.
The multiplicity of the root x = 1 is 2. This is (Combinatorics) If there are a ways to do a first
because the polynomial can be factored as: thing, and b ways to do a second thing, then there
are a · b different ways to do both.
x4 − 5 x3 − 3 x2 + 17 x − 10 = ( x + 2)( x − 1)2 ( x − 5) Read also «Sum rule».
Read also «Multiplicity».
Multiplication tables Multiplication tables are ar-
Multiplication Binary operation consisting of an rays that are formed to indicate the result of mul-
abbreviation of the repeated addition of the same tiplying a fixed number k by the numbers from 1
number. to 10.
For example, multiplying 7 times 4 is denoted by: Traditionally in elementary school students are
7 × 4, and means adding the number 7 four times, asked to memorize the tables from 1 to 10.
or equivalently, adding the number 4 seven times. The multiplication tables from 1 to 9 are listed be-
The symbol × is calleda Saint Andrew’s Cross, or low.
also saltire, and is read times, when referring to
the multiplication of two numbers.
Often a b, or a · b, as well as a ∗ b is used to indi-
Mult. table (1) Mult. table (2) Mult. table (3)
cate the multiplication of a and b.
When it comes to other mathematical objects 1×1 = 1 2×1 = 2 3×1 = 3
(fractions, vectors, matrices, sets, etc.) multipli- 1×2 = 2 2×2 = 4 3×2 = 6
cation is done in a different way. 1×3 = 3 2×3 = 6 3×3 = 9
Read also «Matrix», «Scalar multiplication», «Dot
product», «Cross product» and «Cartesian product».
1×4 = 4
1×5 = 5
2×4 = 8
2 × 5 = 10
3 × 4 = 12
3 × 5 = 15
M
1×6 = 6 2 × 6 = 12 3 × 6 = 18
Multiplication of complex numbers Synonym of 1×7 = 7 2 × 7 = 14 3 × 7 = 21
Product of complex numbers. 1×8 = 8 2 × 8 = 16 3 × 8 = 24
Read also «Product of complex numbers».
1×9 = 9 2 × 9 = 18 3 × 9 = 27
Multiplication of fractionss Synonym of product 1 × 10 = 10 2 × 10 = 20 3 × 10 = 30
of fractions.
Read also «Product of fractions».
Multiplication rule (Probability) In probability,
Mult. table (4) Mult. table (5) Mult. table (6)
the multiplication rule to calculate the probabil-
ity of the occurrence of two events A and B one 4×1 = 4 5×1 = 5 6×1 = 6
after the other, denoted by P( A ∩ B), is: 4×2 = 8 5 × 2 = 10 6 × 2 = 12
4 × 3 = 12 5 × 3 = 15 6 × 3 = 18
P ( A ∩ B) = P( A) · P( B| A) 4 × 4 = 16 5 × 4 = 20 6 × 4 = 24
where P( A) is the probability of occurrence of the 4 × 5 = 20 5 × 5 = 25 6 × 5 = 30
event A and P( B| A) is the conditional probability 4 × 6 = 24 5 × 6 = 30 6 × 6 = 36
of B occurring given that A has already occurred. 4 × 7 = 28 5 × 7 = 35 6 × 7 = 42
That is, the probability of events A and B occur- 4 × 8 = 32 5 × 8 = 40 6 × 8 = 48
ring one after the other is equal to the probability
4 × 9 = 36 5 × 9 = 45 6 × 9 = 54
of A occurring multiplied by the probability of
event B occurring after A. 4 × 10 = 40 5 × 10 = 50 6 × 10 = 60
333
Multiplicative identity–Mutually exclusive
Multivariable calculus Analytical study of the
Mult. table (7) Mult. table (8) Mult. table (9) functions of several variables applying the ideas
7×1 = 7 8×1 = 8 9×1 = 9 of the infinitesimal calculus.
7 × 2 = 14 8 × 2 = 16 9 × 2 = 18 In multivariate calculus, vector functions are also
studied and the ideas of the calculus of a vari-
7 × 3 = 21 8 × 3 = 24 9 × 3 = 27
able are generalized to consider concepts such as
7 × 4 = 28 8 × 4 = 32 9 × 4 = 36 partial derivative, directional derivative, gradient,
7 × 5 = 35 8 × 5 = 40 9 × 5 = 45 total differential, double integral, triple integral,
7 × 6 = 42 8 × 6 = 48 9 × 6 = 54 etc., and their applications.
7 × 7 = 49 8 × 7 = 56 9 × 7 = 63 Read also «Partial derivative», «Directional deriva-
tive», «Double integral», «Multiple integral», «Gra-
7 × 8 = 56 8 × 8 = 64 9 × 8 = 72
dient», and «Total differential».
7 × 9 = 63 8 × 9 = 72 9 × 9 = 81
7 × 10 = 70 8 × 10 = 80 9 × 10 = 90 Mutually exclusive events Two events A and B
are mutually exclusive if the fact that one occurs
makes the occurrence of the other impossible. In
Multiplicative identity The real number 1 is the other words, if the simultaneous occurrence of
multiplicative neutral because for every real num- both events is impossible, the events are mutu-
ber a, the following is true: ally exclusive.
For example, if when observing the random vari-
a·1 = a able X that consists of the result of a toss (heads,
The number 1 is the unique real number having tails), A corresponds to the result heads and B to
this property. the result tails, entonces then the events A and B
are mutually exclusive, because we cannot have
Multiplicative inverse For every non-zero real both results in a single experiment.
number a there exists another number, denoted Two mutually exclusive events do not necessarily
by a−1 such that, span the entire sample space.
a · a −1 = 1 Mutually exclusive If a mathematical object may
have exactly one of two conditions, but not both,
The number a−1 is the multiplicative inverse of
M the number a.
then those conditions are mutually exclusive.
For example, an integer is either even or odd, but
The inverse multiplicative of the number zero is it cannot be both at the same time.
undefined. (Set theory) Two sets A and B are mutually ex-
Read also «To divide». clusive if A ∩ B = ∅.
Multiplicity A root r of a polynomial equation is Read also «Empty set» and «Disjoint sets».
of multiplicity k if we can factor the binomial x − r (Probability) Two events A and B are mutually
at most k times in the equation. exclusive if the occurrence of one makes the oc-
For example, in the equation: currence of the other impossible.
In other words, if the simultaneous occurrence of
( x − 3)7 ( x + 2) = 0 both events is impossible, the events are mutually
exclusive.
the root x = 3 is of multiplicity 7. Read also «Mutually exclusive events».
334
N
N Symbol used to represent the set of the natural constant,
numbers.
∇ (u + v) = ∇u + ∇v
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, · · · }
∇ (u v) = (∇u) v + u (∇v)
Read also «Natural number». ∇ (c v) = c (∇u)
Nabla Symbols ∇ used in multivariable calculus Based on this operator, vector operations fre-
to represent the differential operator. quently used in advanced mathematics and en-
gineering are defined.
∂(·) ∂(·) ∂(·) For example, the divergence ∇ · ⃗F and the rota-
∇= ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z tional ∇ × ⃗F of the vector field ⃗F.
used to denote the gradient (∇ f ), the divergence Napierian logarithm Synonym for natural loga-
(∇ · ⃗F), the rotational (∇ × ⃗F) and the Laplacian rithm.
(∇2 f ). Read also «Natural logarithm».
The expression ∇ f is read: del f . Since in this par-
Napier’s inequality If b > a > 0, then
ticular case it refers to the gradient of the function
f , it can also be read as the gradient of f . 1 ln |b| − ln | a| 1
Note that the symbol ∇ is basically the symbol ∆ < <
b b − a a
(capital delta) rotated 180◦ . For this reason, some
lecturers call the nabla symbol as atled operator Considering the figure below:
(atled is delta spelled backwards.)
Obviously, ∇ are ∆ different symbols. y
Read also «Nabla operator», «Gradient», «Diver-
gence», «Rotational», «Laplacian», «Hessian matrix»,
and «Multivariable calculus». b−a
1
a
Nabla operator (∇) Symbolic operator for vector 1
y=
differentiation, denoted by ∇, which obeys the 1 x
b
same derivation rules as vectors, at the same time
x
as the operators ∂/∂x, ∂/∂y, and ∂/∂z, have proper- a b
ties of a scalar, and is defined by:
∂ ∂ ∂ observe that
∇ = ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂
∂x ∂y ∂z Zb
1 dx 1
· (b − a) < < · (b − a)
For example, if u, v are scalar functions, and c is a b x a
a
Napoleon point–Natural logarithm
By computing the definite integral and then di- This result is attributed to Napoleon Bonaparte.
viding the terms by (b − a) the Napier’s inequal- Read also «Napoleon point».
ity is obtained.
Natural exponential function The natural expo-
Read also «Logarithmic mean».
nential function is the exponential function with
Napoleon point Given a triangle △ ABC in the base e,
plane, if the equilateral triangles △ ABR, △ BCP y = ex
and △ ACQ, are drawn on the sides of the triangle where e ≈ 2.718281828459 is the Euler’s number.
△ ABC, and if M, N, S are the centroids of those
equilateral triangles, the segments AM, BN, CS,
y y = ex
are concurrent. The point where these segments
intersect is the Napoleon point.
Q
C
N P
M
x
This function is also denoted by y = exp( x ).
A B The derivative of y = e x is:
dy
S = ex
dx
That is, the slope of the tangent line to the graph
of this function at ( x, e x ) is equal to its ordinate
R (e x ).
The exponential function y = e x is the unique so-
lution to the differential equation y′ = y, subject
This result is attributed to Napoleon Bonaparte. to the initial condition y(0) = 1.
Read also «Napoleon’s theorem». The antiderivative of the exponential function is:
Z
N Napoleon’s theorem If equilateral triangles (all in-
side or all outside) are drawn on the sides of any
ev · dv = ev + C
triangle lying in a plane, then the triangle with The Maclaurin series of the natural exponential
vertices at the centroids of those equilateral trian- function is:
gles is another equilateral triangle.
x x2 x3 x4 x5
ex = 1 + + + + + +···
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
Q
The Laplace transform of the function y = e at , is:
C
1
L e at =
N P s−a
M Read also «Exponential function» and «Natural log-
arithm function».
Natural logarithm Logarithm whose base is Eu-
ler’s number, e ≈ 2.7182818.
A B
The natural logarithm of the number x is denoted
by ln( x ), and is equivalent to:
S
ln( x ) = loge ( x )
where e ≈ 2.718281828.
Read also «Natural exponential function», «Natural
R logarithmic function», and «Number e».
336
Natural logarithmic function–Negative
Z
Natural logarithmic function Logarithmic func- • (ln(v))2 = v (ln |v|)2 − 2 v ln |v| + 2 v + C
tion in base e ≈ 2.7182818284590452354, denoted Z
by y = ln( x ), where dv
• = ln |ln |v|| + C
v ln(v)
1 n Z
e = lim 1 + dv
n→∞ n • = ln(v) + C
v
The domain of the natural logarithm function is The Taylor series of the function y = ln(1 + x ), is:
(0, ∞), and its range is the set of all real numbers. x2 x3 x4 x5
ln(1 + x ) = x − + − + −···
2 3 4 5
y
The function y = ln( x ) is the inverse function of
y = ln( x )
the natural exponential function y = e x .
Read also «Exponential function» and «Logarithm».
1
x Natural number The set of natural numbers is the
O 1 set of numbers we use to count.
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, · · · }
Some authors consider zero (0) as an element of
this set.
A natural number is any of the elements of the set
Written as a definite integral, the natural loga-
of natural numbers.
rithm function is:
Nautical mile Unit of distance in the English sys-
Zx
dt tem that is equivalent to 1 852 meters.
ln( x ) =
t
1 Necessary cause If x is a necessary cause of y, then
the presence of y necessarily implies the prior oc-
This represents the area under the graph of the currence of x. It should be noted that the occur-
function y = 1/t, from t = 1 to t = x. rence of x does not imply the occurrence of y.
Necessary condition In the implication p → q, q is
y the necessary condition.
This means that p cannot be true unless q is. So N
if q is false, then p is false too. In other words, as
long as p is true, q will also be true.
1
For example, a necessary condition for a quadri-
1
y= lateral to be square is that all of its angles measure
1/x t
t the same. However, this condition is not suffi-
1 2 3 ··· x cient.
Read also «Sufficient condition».
The derivative of the natural logarithm function Negative A number is negative if it is less than 0.
is: In mathematics, it is indicated that a quantity is
d [ln(v)] 1 dv
= · negative using the symbol −.
dx v dx On the number line, zero is assigned to the origin,
The antiderivative of the natural logarithm func- positive numbers are to the right, and negative
tion is: numbers are to the left.
Z
ln(v) · dv = v ln |v| − v + C
Origin
Other antiderivatives including the natural loga-
rithm function are below.
Z (−) (+)
• ln( a v) · dv = v ln( a v) − v + C −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
337
Negative angle–Net of a polyhedron
For example, −3 is a negative number because it y
is less than zero.
Read also «Real line».
a
Negative angle Angle that is measured in clock-
wise direction.
2a
x
−α
Read also «Dextrorotation» and «Levorotation».
Negative binomial distribution Discrete probabil-
ity distribution that models the number of suc-
cesses in a series of Bernoulli trials (identical and
with the same distribution) prior to a fixed (non- This curve is analogous to a cycloid, but it is gen-
random) number k of failures. erated by a point on a circumference that rotates
The probability function of this distribution with on another circumference, while the cycloid cir-
the parameters k (number of failures), r (number cumference rotates on a straight line.
of successes) and p (probability of success), is: Read also «Cycloid».
k+r−1
f (k; r, p) = pr (1 − p ) k
r−1
where f (k; r, p) is the probability that the next Nested intervals Sequence of intervals In for n =
Bernoulli’s trial is a success having previously ob- 1, 2, · · · so that In+1 is a subinterval of In for all n.
N served r − 1 successes and k failures, and
k+r−1 ( k + r − 1) !
=
r−1 (r − 1)! k!
( k + r − 1) · ( k + r − 2) · · · r x
= 0
k!
with 0 ≤ p ≤ 1.
The variance and expected value of this distribu-
tion are listed below.
• Variance: σ2 = p r/(1 − p)2 .
Net of a polyhedron (Geometry) The net of a
• Expected value: µ = p r/(1 − p).
polyhedron is a plane drawing of the faces of a
polyhedron arranged so that the polyhedron can
be formed by folding the drawing through the
Nephroid Plane curve that is generated by a point sides of the polygons (which are the correspond-
on the circumference of a circle of radius a that ing edges of the polyhedron).
turns (without slipping) on the outside of a cir- The following figure corresponds to the net of a
cumference of radius 2 a. dodecahedron.
338
Neutral element–Newton’s binomial
of the diagonals AC and BD, respectively. The
12 point K is the intersection of the segments PQ and
RS. The points E, F and K are on Newton’s line.
9
11
Newton trident Plane curve whose corresponding
10 algebraic equation is:
8 x y + a x3 + b x2 + c x = d
1 y
2
7
5
6
3
4
x
x y + a x3 + b x2 + c x = d 1 2 3
5
Neutral element For the addition, the neutral el- This curve is also known as parabola of Descartes
ement is the number zero since a + 0 = a, for all and trident curve.
a ∈ R.
Newton’s interpolation polynomial The New-
For the multiplication, the neutral element is the
ton’s interpolation polynomial is:
number one, since a · 1 = a, for all a ∈ R.
Read also «Inverse element». Pn ( x ) = f [ x0 ] +
n
Newton interpolation formula The polynomial
function y = f ( x ) can be represented as a series
+ ∑ f [ x0 , x1 , · · · , xk ]( x − x0 ) · · · ( x − xk−1 )
k =1
in terms of forward differences given by
where f [ x0 ] is the zero-order divided difference
∞
∆k [ f ]( a) of the function y = f ( x ), f [ x0 , x1 , · · · , xk ] is the
f (x) = ∑ k!
· ( x − a)k divided difference of order k of the function y =
k =0 f ( x ).
Newton’s interpolation formula is the discrete
equivalent of the Taylor series for the continuous
The formula given above for Pn ( x ) is also known
as the Newton’s interpolating divided difference for- N
case. mula.
Read also «Forward difference» and «Taylor series». Read also «Divided difference».
Newton’s binomial Formula used to calculate any
Newton line A straight line connecting the mid- non-negative power (integer or rational) of a bi-
points of the two diagonals of a convex quadrilat- nomial and whose formula is:
n
eral that has at most two parallel sides. n
( x + y) = ∑
n
x n−k yk
k =0
k
C
The coefficients of the resulting polynomial can
R
be calculated using the formula for the combina-
D E tion of n in k.
K Q
n n!
P =
F k k! ( n − k)!
A Newton’s binomial is also known as the binomial
S B expansion formula, the binomial formula, and as the
binomial theorem.
In the figure above, the points P, Q, R, S are the Read also «Combination», «Binomial coefficient»,
midpoints of the sides of quadrilateral ABCD, re- «Pascal’s triangle», «Principle of induction», and
spectively. The points E and F are the midpoints «Method of the fixed exponent».
339
Newton’s method–Nicomachus’s theorem
Newton’s method Numerical method used to Newton-Leibniz theorem The derivative of a def-
compute the roots of equations that consists of inite integral with respect to the upper limit of
calculating values that are increasingly closer to integration is equal to the value of the integrand
the (real) root of the considered equation. evaluated at the upper limit:
Consider the function y = f ( x ) differentiable on
an interval ( a, b) where one of its roots is sought. Zu
d
If xn is an approximate value of that root, the fol- f ( x ) · dx = y(u)
du
lowing approximation xn+1 is obtained with: a
f ( xn )
x n +1 = x n −
f ′ ( xn ) Newton-Mercator series The series
This value was obtained from considering the tan- x2 x3 x4
gent line to the graph of y = f ( x ): ln |1 + x | = x − + − +···
2 3 4
y − f ( xn ) = f ′ ( xn ) ( x − xn ) is known as the Newton-Mercator series.
If said tangent line intersects the x axis at the Equivalently,
point ( xn+1 , 0), the value of xn+1 is expected to ∞
(−1)k+1 k
be a better approximation of the root of the func- ln |1 + x | = ∑ k
·x
tion. k =1
0 − f ( x n ) = f ′ ( x n ) ( x n +1 − x n ) ⇒ This series converges for −1 < x ≤ 1.
f ( xn ) Since
x n +1 = x n − ′
f ( xn )
1 − un
= 1 − u + u2 − u3 + · · · + (−u)n−1
It is worth mentioning that this does not always 1+u
happen, since it depends on the concavity of the
function at xn . For −1 < u < 1, the limit as n tends to infinity
makes the numerator equal to 1. Integrating both
y sides from u = 0 to u = x, gives
y = f (x) Zx Zx
du
= 1 − u + u2 − u3 + · · · · dt
1+u
N 0
0
ln |1 + u||0x = u −
u2
+
u3
−
u4
+···
x
2 3 4 0
x2 x3 x4
ln |1 + x | = x − + − +···
2 3 4
which is the equivalent of the Taylor series of the
natural logarithm function.
This series was first published by Nicholas Mer-
cator, although it was also discovered indepen-
x
x1 x2 x0 dently by Isaac Newton and Gregory Saint-
Vincent.
Setting x = 1 leads to
1 1 1
ln |2| = 1 − + − +···
2 3 4
Nicomachus’s theorem Theorem that claims that
Newton’s method is also known as Newton- for any integer n ≥ 1,
Raphson method as well as Newton-Fourier method.
(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n)2 = 13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + n3
340
Ninth–Non-singular matrix
which in words says: the square of the n−th trian-
gular number equals the sum of the first n cubes.
Equivalently,
!2
n n
∑k = ∑ k3
i =1 i =1
This theorem is also known as squared triangular
number.
Ninth When we divide a whole into nine equal
parts, each of them is one ninth, or one ninth of
the whole.
Read also «Convex polyhedron».
Non-elementary antiderivative An antiderivative
Z
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F(x) = f ( x ) · dx
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
is a non-elementary antiderivative if it cannot be
written as a combination of a finite number of al-
gebraic, exponential, trigonometric and logarith-
mic functions.
Niven’s theorem The only rational values of x in For example, the antiderivatives of x x , sin( x2 ),
the interval 0◦ ≤ x ≤ 90◦ for which sin( x ) is a sin( x )/x, e− x /x, are non-elementary antideriva-
rational number are: x = 0, x = 30, and x = 90. tives.
One way to approximate the antiderivative in
these cases is through the use of the Taylor series
Nominal A datum is measured at a nominal level of the corresponding function. That is, instead of
if it is qualitative. antiderivating f ( x ), compute the antiderivate of
its Taylor series up to a certain term.
For example, using tags (A, B), names, attributes
(color, pattern, etc.) Read also «Liouville theorem» and «Taylor series». N
Non-elementary function Any function that can-
Nominal scale We say that a variable is measured not be expressed as an elementary function.
on a nominal scale when each of the values it can For example, the Fresnel integral function,
take has a name.
For example: Catholic, Presbyterian, Mormon, Zx
etc. S( x ) = sin t2 · dt
This scale is often used in surveys. 0
Nominal variable Qualitative variable to which is a non-elementary function.
unordered values can be assigned. Non-singular matrix A square matrix A of dimen-
For example, when the value that can be assigned sion n × n, is a non-singular matrix if there exist
to the variable is some color (blue, white, red, etc.) a matrix B of dimension n × n, such that
A B = B A = In
Non-convex polyhedron A polyhedron is a non-
convex polyhedron if there is (at least) one seg- where In is the identity matrix of dimension n × n.
ment whose endpoints are in the polyhedron, but That is, if A is invertible, then A is a non-singular
part of the segment lies outside the polyhedron, matrix.
so that it passes through at least one pair of faces Read also «Inverse matrix» and «Identity matrix».
of the polyhedron.
341
Non-standard analysis–Normal distribution
Non-standard analysis A branch of mathematics Normal curve The graph of a normal distribution
created by Abraham Robinson as an extension of is known as a normal curve.
the methods and concepts of mathematical anal- The normal curve is the graph of the probability
ysis based on infinitesimals and infinitely large density function:
quantities.
1 1 x −µ 2
The non-standard analysis is developed from hy- f (x) = √ e− 2 ( σ )
perreal number theory and non-standard set the- σ 2π
ory. where µ is the mean or expected value of the dis-
tribution, and σ is its standard deviation.
Nonagon Synonym of enneagon.
Read also «Enneagon». y
1 1 x−µ 2
Norm (Linear algebra) Length of a vector. The f (x) = √ e− 2 ( σ )
norm of a vector is also called the magnitude of σ 2π
the vector.
Read also «Magnitude».
(Complex variable) The norm of the complex
number z = a + i b, is:
p x
| z | = a2 + b2
The inflection points of the normal curve occur
and it is equal to the length of its geometric rep- exactly at x = −σ, and x = σ.
resentation in the complex plane. The area under the curve is equal to 1.
The norm of the complex number z is also known
as modulus or absolute value of z. Z∞
1 1 x −µ 2
(Analysis) A norm is a function of a vector space √ e− 2 ( σ ) · dx = 1
V to the nonnegative real numbers that has the σ 2π
−∞
following properties.
• p(⃗u + ⃗v) ≤ p(⃗u) + p(⃗v). Normal distribution A random variable X has a
continuous probability distribution whose den-
• p( a ⃗u) = | a| p(⃗u). sity function is:
• p(⃗u) = 0 only for ⃗u = ⃗0.
1 −( x − µ)2
N where ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ V , and a ∈ R.
f (x) = √
σ 2π
exp
2 σ2
for −∞ < x < ∞, with σ > 0, and its graph is:
Normal Synonym of perpendicular.
For example, when we say that the vector ⃗n is nor-
mal to the plane, it means that ⃗n is perpendicular
the the given plane.
z
x
µ
~n
The graph has the following properties:
P
• It has a maximum at x = µ (the mean).
y • The curve is symmetric about the mean.
x • The mean, median, and mode coincide at the
maximum of the function.
• The horizontal axis is an asymptote of the
curve.
Read also «Perpendicular». • The total area under the curve is 1.
342
Normal line–Normalization
• The inflection points of the curve are at x = has a normal distribution.
µ ± σ, where σ is the standard deviation. For example, when we measure a distance, we
• The curve is concave downward in the inter- make a measurement error that has a normal dis-
val (µ − σ, µ + σ ). tribution. The measurement error is symmetrical
with respect to the true value of the distance. In
• The curve is concave upward in the interval this example, each measurement can be viewed
(−∞, µ − σ) ∪ (µ + σ, ∞). as the average of several separate measurements.
The normal distribution is defined with two pa- The normal distribution is often used as an ap-
rameters: its population mean µ and its variance proximation to the binomial distribution.
σ2 . The normal distribution is very important in
If µ = 0, and σ2 = 1, the distribution is known as probability and statistics.
the standard normal distribution. Read also «Normal curve».
If X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn , are random variables with nor-
Normal line A line is normal to another line if they
mal distribution, with mean µi = E[ Xi ], and vari-
are perpendicular.
ance V [ Xi ] = σi2 , and if
In other words, normal is a synonym of perpendic-
n ular.
Y = ∑ a i Xi Read also «Perpendicular».
i =1
Normal plane For each point on a curve of the
where ai ∈ R are constants, then Y is a random
form:
variable with normal distribution such that:
⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
n
µ = E [Y ] = ∑ a i µ i = a1 µ1 + a2 µ2 + · · · + a n µ n the normal plane is the one generated by the unit
i =1 normal vector to the curve N̂ and the unit binor-
n mal vector B̂ to the given curve.
σ = V [Y ] = ∑ ai σi = a1 σ1 + a2 σ2 + · · · + an σn The unit binormal vector B̂ is the cross product
i =1
of the unit tangent vector T̂ and the unit normal
Furthermore, if vector N̂ to the given curve.
The normal plane is perpendicular to the unit tan-
Xi − µ i gent vector T̂ to the curve ⃗r (t).
Zi =
σi
for i = 1, 2, · · · , n, then,
n
N
∑ Zi2 z
i =1
Tˆ
B̂
has distribution χ2 with n degrees of freedom.
Read also «Chi-square distribution».
Further, ~r(t) N̂
1 n
n i∑
Ȳ = Xi
=1 1
has a normal distribution with mean µȲ = µ, and
variance σȲ2 = σ2 /n. −1
−1
And the random variables defined by Zi = ( Xi − y
1 1
µ)/σ, for i = 1, 2, · · · , n, are independent, with
standard normal distribution, and x
n
n
Xi − µ 2
∑ Zi = ∑ σ
Read also «Binormal vector» and «Frenet-Serret for-
i =1 i =1 mulas».
has distribution χ2 with n degrees of freedom. Normalization Transformation of a random vari-
Many phenomena where each data can be inter- able that has a normal distribution so that it has
preted as the average of several measurements a standard normal distribution.
343
Normalized vector–Notable points
If X is a random variable with a normal distribu- p ¬p
tion N (µ, σ2 ), its normalization consists in trans-
forming it into the variable Z, using: T F
F T
X−µ
Z=
σ where T means true, and F means false.
where µ is the population mean and σ is its stan- The word not in English is a logical negation.
dard deviation.
The variable Z thus defined has a normal distri- Notable angles Angles that are frequently found
bution with mean µ = 0 and standard deviation in geometric constructions and in solving prob-
σ = 1. lems involving triangles or polygons in general.
The notable angles are: 0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ .
Normalized vector Given a vector ⃗v other than the
zero vector, its corresponding normalized vector
90◦
is a unit vector with the same direction as ⃗v.
60 ◦
1 1
45 ◦
v̂ = ⃗v = ⟨v , v , · · · , vn ⟩
∥⃗v∥ ∥⃗v∥ 1 2 ◦
30
The following figure shows the vector ⃗u and its
corresponding normalized vector û.
0◦
z
uz Notable angles are also known as benchmark an-
gles.
k̂ Notable lines in the triangle The notable lines in
~u
a triangle are:
û
uy • Height
̂ y
ı̂ • Bisector
ux
N x
• Perpendicular bisector
• Median
Read also «Unit vector».
Read also «Height», «Bisector», «Perpendicular bi-
North One of the four cardinal points that indi- sector», and «Median».
cates the direction to the north pole of the earth.
Notable points The notable points of a triangle are
listed below.
North magnetic pole North direction indicated by
a compass. The geographic North does not neces- • Barycenter: is the point where its three medi-
sarily have to coincide with the magnetic North. ans intersect.
It depends on the place on the planet (Earth) from
where the measurement is made. There is usually • Circumcenter: is the point where its three per-
a small difference so magnetic north serves as a pendicular bisectors intersect.
good approximation to geographic north. • Incenter: is the point where its three bisectors
intersect.
NOT Logical connective denoted by ¬ for the op-
eration of a proposition. The sentence ¬ p (this is • Orthocenter: is the point where its three alti-
read as: not p) is the negation of p. If p is true, tudes intersect.
then, ¬ p is false and if p is false, then ¬ p is true.
The truth table for this logical operation is shown Read also «Barycenter», «Circumcenter», «Incenter»,
below. and «Orthocenter».
344
Notable product–Number e
Notable product Products with polynomials that they are not the ideas (that is, the mathematical
appear frequently in algebra so that in order to objects) themselves. The notation allows to work
save time while solving problems, it is suggested with the mathematical ideas through the manip-
to know their result by heart. ulation of the symbols that are used to represent
The most frequently used notable products are: mathematical objects.
( a + b)2 = a2 + 2 ab + b2 Null Something is said to be null when it is zero
( a + b)3 = a3 + 3 a2 b + 3 ab2 + b3 or it is empty.
For example, a null angle measures zero degrees
( a + b)( a − b) = a2 − b2
and a null set is an empty set.
( x + a)( x + b) = x2 + ( a + b) x + ab
( a + b)( a2 − 2 b + b2 ) = a3 + b3 Null hypothesis It is a general statement or de-
fault position that denies any relationship be-
( a − b)( a2 + 2 b + b2 ) = a3 − b3
tween two measured phenomena or association
Mastery in the application of notable products between groups.
and factoring are essential to solve problems and The null hypothesis is generally assumed to be
establish mathematical models. true until the evidence indicates otherwise.
For example, to solve the following system of The null hypothesis is denoted by H0 .
equations:
Null set A set that has zero elements.
3
x +y =a3 That is, the null set is the empty set (∅).
Read also «Empty set».
x+y=b
Nullary operation An operation is null if it re-
consider that:
quires no argument.
h i
( x + y )3 = x 3 + y3 + 3 x y ( x + y ) ⇒ An operation is null if it requires no argument.
b3 = [ a] + 3 xy (b) y=5
Consequently, Read also «Arity».
b3 − a Nullity Let T be a linear transformation that sends
xy =
3b the vectors of the vector space V to the vector
So the system can be reduced to:
space W . Then the nullity of T, denoted by ν( T )
is equal to the dimension of the kernel of T. N
Read also «Kernel».
b3 − a
xy=
3b Number Mathematical symbol that is used to rep-
x+y=b resent a quantity or a magnitude. In mathematics
numbers have been classified as:
Solving the second equation for y, and substi-
tuting this result into the first equation, gives a
quadratic equation that can be solved using the • Natural • Irrational
general formula for quadratic equations. • Integer (or whole) • Real
Once these two roots are obtained, we can solve • Rational • Complex
the second equation for y, and substitute in the
first equation of the initial system of equations
and use synthetic division to calculate the other Read also «Natural number», «Integer number»,
roots of the system of equations. «Rational number», «Irrational number», «Real num-
Read also «Factorization». ber» and «Complex number».
Notation Symbols used in the sciences (not only in Number e Transcendental number that serves as
mathematics) to represent abstract objects in an the base for natural logarithms, defined by:
understandable way for their study and analysis.
It is worth mentioning that the notation only 1 n
serves to represent the mathematical ideas, but e = lim 1 + ≈ 2.718281828459
n→∞ n
345
Number Pi (π)–Number system
Its value can be calculated using the series: required to approximate the value of the number
∞
π it may be used 22/7, as well as 355/113.
1 1 1 1
e= ∑ n!
= 1+ + + +···
2! 3! 4!
The number π is also known as the Archimedes’s
constant.
n =0
Read also «Irrational number» and «Transcendental
The number e satisfies: number».
Ze
dx Number line Straight line in which a fixed point is
=1
x chosen, which is called the origin and to which
1 zero is assigned, and using a unit of measure,
y points are marked with that unit of distance be-
tween them to mark them. The positive integers
are to the right and the negative to the left of the
origin.
1
1 Origin
y=
1/e x
x (−) (+)
1 2 e 3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
The number e is the base of the exponential func- Each real number can be assigned a point on the
tion y = e x , which satisfies that its derivative is real line, and each point on the number line cor-
equal to the function itself. responds to exactly one real number.
Number line is a synonym of real line.
dy
If y = e x ⇒ = ex Number prefixes Greek prefixes used to name
dx
polygons, polyhedra, etc., and are listed below.
The number e is also known as the Euler’s number.
Read also «Euler’s identity», «Exponential function», 1 mono- 11 hendeca-
«Natural exponential function», and «Complex expo- 2 bi- 12 dodeca-
nential function». 3 tri- 13 trideca-
Number Pi (π) Given a circumference, the number 4 tetra- 14 tessaradeca-
5 penta- 15 pentedeca-
N π is the number of times that its diameter fits in
its circumference. Numerically it is the result of 6 hexa- 16 hexadeca-
dividing the length of a circumference over the 7 hepta- 17 heptadeca-
length of its diameter. 8 octo- 18 octodeca-
9 ennea-/nona- 19 enneadeca-
10 deca- 20 icosi-
C
The multiples of ten from thirty are listed below.
D 30 triaconta- 70 hebdomeconta-
40 tessaraconta- 80 ogdoeconta-
50 penteconta- 90 eneneconta-
C
π= D 60 hexeconta- 100 hecato(n)-
Read also «Metric system».
Number system Set of symbols and rules to ex-
π is an irrational and transcendental number, and press numbers.
is approximately equal to: For example, the Roman numeral system used
π ≈ 3.1741592653589793 symbols like I, V, X, D, L, C, and a specific set
of rules to represent numbers. The Roman sys-
We generally use the approximation: π ≈ 3.1416 tem is a non-positional decimal system. In con-
to perform calculations with it. When a fraction is trast, the Hindu-Arabic numeral system employs
346
Number theory–Numerical integration
symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, along with A number system is also called numeric system.
a distinct set of rules for numerical representa- Read also «Roman numerals», «Decimal system»,
tion. This number system is both decimal and and «Arabic numerals».
positional.
Numerator In a fraction, the numerator indicates
In a non-positional number system, the relative
how many parts we are going to take from which
value of each symbol does not depend on its po-
the whole was divided.
sition, whereas in a positional system, it does.
In the fraction, the numerator is written on top
Synonym of numeral system.
and the denominator on the bottom.
Read also «Numeral system».
Numerator
Fraction =
Number theory Branch of mathematics that stud- Denominator
ies numbers, their operations and their proper-
ties. 2
5
Numeral Word or symbol used to denote a num-
ber.
For example, 1, 2, 3 are numerals in our number
system (Arabic). In the Roman numeral system
the numerals are I, II, III, etc.
Numeral system Set of symbols and rules for writ-
ing quantities. The symbols (or numbers) repre-
sent quantities and the rules specify how to repre-
sent quantities from combinations of the symbols
and operations (of representation) between them.
The base of the number system indicates how to For example, in the fraction 2/5, the denominator
group quantities to form numbers. For example, indicates that the whole is divided into 5 parts of
in a decimal numbering system (such as the Ro- the same size and the numerator indicates that 2
man) one counts from ten to ten, while in a viges- of those 5 parts are going to be taken.
imal numbering system (such as the Mayan) one Read also «Denominator» and «Fraction».
counts from twenty to twenty.
Numerical analysis Set of rules and methods for
A number system can be positional (such as Baby-
solving equations and problems through iter-
lonian) or it can be non-positional (such as Egyp-
ative methods. These methods are generally
tian).
We use a decimal and positional number system:
done through computer programming in high-
level languages.
N
it is decimal because we count using powers of
The object of study of the numerical analysis are
10 (base 10 number system), and it is positional
the algorithms that are used for the solution of
because the value of each number depends on
different types of mathematical models and their
its position relative to the other digits used when
computational efficiency.
writing the number. We currently represent quan-
Read also «Iteration» and «Algorithm».
tities by Hindu-Arabic numerals.
The Romans used a decimal number system that Numerical expression Expression that includes
was not positional. The Mayans used a vigesimal only operations on numbers without including
numbering system (base 20) that was positional. literals or unknowns, except perhaps, constant
When a number is written in a number system values widely used in mathematics such as num-
with a base other than 10, the base is indicated ber e ≈ 2.718281828, or the number π ≈
by a subscript to the right. For example, 1002 in- 3.141592654.
dicates that the number 100 in base 2 has been For example, a numerical expression is:
written, which is equivalent to the number four √
1+ 5
in base 10, (that is, 410 ). Since we use base 10, ≈ 1.61803398874989
whenever we write numbers in base 10 only, it is 2
not required to indicate the base, but when using
several bases it is suggested to always indicate the Numerical integration Integration procedure in
base, even when written in base 10, to avoid con- which the value of a definite integral is approx-
fusion. imated by means of iterative methods.
347
Numerical method–Nuptial number
Some well-known methods are Euler’s method, mathematics. It is frequently used in cases in
the trapezoidal rule, the Riemann sum, Runge- which, due to the dimension of the problem (due
Kutta method and the Simpson’s rule. to the number of equations, variables, etc.), its
Read also «Iteration», «Numerical method», «Eu- resolution is not manageable or practical using
ler’s method», «Trapezoidal rule», «Riemann sum», an analytical, graphical or other exact method.
«Runge-Kutta method», and «Simpson’s rule». Representative problems that are solved by nu-
merical methods are calculus of roots of equa-
Numerical method Algorithmic mathematical
tions, solving systems of linear algebraic equa-
technique that reformulates a mathematical prob-
tions, optimization problems, curve fitting, and
lem so that it can be solved through arithmetic
solution of ordinary or partial differential equa-
operations, usually through a computer program.
tions.
Numerical methods are applied to problems that
cannot be solved analytically. Numerical meth-
ods represent a powerful tool for solving a huge Nuptial number Synonym of Plato’s number.
range of problems in engineering, physics, and Read also «Plato’s number».
348
O
Obelus Symbol used to represent the division op- B
eration, consisting of a horizontal line and two
points, one above and the other below that line.
÷ Horizontal
A
For example, the division of 5 by 2 is represented
as 5 ÷ 2. In this case the lemniscus has been used. In the figure above, the segment AB is oblique.
However, 5/2 can also be used, just like 5 : 2, to Oblique cylinder Circular cylinder whose convex
represent the same operation. wall is not perpendicular to its circular bases.
The obelus is also known as lemniscus.
Objective function In an optimization problem,
the objective function represents the relationship
between the decision variables and the variable to
be maximized or minimized. h
For example, if a manufacturer produces x1 units
of type A sound equipment, and x2 units of type
B sound equipment, from which he obtains a
profit of $15.00 and $22.00, respectively, then if
what is sought is to maximize utility, the objec-
tive function is:
Oblique triangle An oblique triangle is any trian-
gle that is not a right triangle.
maximize: z = 15 x1 + 22 x2
Of course, this objective function could be subject
to certain restrictions given by the conditions of
the problem.
Oblique A geometrical object (line, segment, etc.)
is oblique if it is not horizontal nor vertical.
Oblong number–Octagon
If the lengths of its sides are known a, b, c and the Observation Result of obtaining information on a
measures of its angles α, β, and γ, then, statistical variable in a study relating to a specific
population.
• α + β + γ = 180◦ For example, when measuring the height of stu-
b sin(α) c sin(α) dents in a group, each measurement made is an
• a= = observation.
sin( β) sin(γ)
a sin( β) c sin( β) Obtuse angle Angle that measures more than a
• b= = right angle, but less than a straight angle. In other
sin(α) sin(γ)
words, the measure of an obtuse angle is greater
a sin(γ) b sin(γ) than 90◦ (π/2 rad) and smaller than 180◦ (π rad).
• c= =
sin(α) sin( β)
α
α
b
The obtuse angle is also known as blunt angle.
Obtuse triangle A triangle is obtuse if it has an
γ β obtuse angle.
a
From the lengths of its sides, the magnitudes of
its internal angles can be calculated by applying
the law of cosines.
b2 + c2 − a2
cos(α) = Obtuse trigonal trapezohedron Polyhedron
2 bc formed by 6 congruent faces, in the shape of a
a + c2 − b2
2
golden rhombus. It also has 8 vertices and 12
cos( β) =
2 ac edges.
a2 + b2 − c2
cos(γ) =
2 ab
O If s = ( a + b + c)/2, and r is the radius of the
inscribed circle of the triangle, then:
r
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
r=
s
Read also «Law of sines», «Law of cosines», and
«Law of tangents».
The volume V and the area A of the obtuse trigo-
Oblong number Natural number that is the result nal trapezohedron with edge a, are, respectively:
of multiplying two consecutive natural numbers: q √
1
V= 10 − 2 5 a3
q = n ( n + 1) 5
12 √ 2
A= 5a
The first oblong numbers are: 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, 5
56, 72, 90 and 110. The trigonal obtuse trapezohedron is also known
Depending on the author, if 0 is considered a nat- as golden obtuse rhombohedron.
ural number, then zero will also be an oblong
number. Octagon Polygon with 8 sides and 8 angles.
350
Octagonal trapezohedron–Octahedron
Octagon
To draw a regular octagon with compass and
ruler, first draw a square and its diagonals. Lay-
ing the compass on a vertex, open the compass The octagonal trapezohedron is also known as oc-
until it passes through the intersection of the di- tagonal deltohedron and as octagonal antibipyramid.
agonals. Now, leaning on each of the vertices of
the square, draw arcs that cut two sides of the
Octagram Eight-pointed star-shaped figure.
square passing through the intersection of the di-
agonals.
The intersections of the arcs with the sides of the
square are the vertices of the regular octagon.
V2 V1
V3 V8 O
To build the octagram, you begin by locating the
vertices of a regular octagon. the vertices are
V4 V7 numbered clockwise from 1 to 8. Finally, the
polygonal line is drawn with vertices at 1, 4, 7,
2, 5, 8, 3, 6, and 1.
Read also «Octagon» and «Heptagram».
V5 V6
Octahedron Regular geometric solid whose 8 faces
are equilateral triangles.
It also has 6 vertices and 12 edges. Each vertex of
the octahedron is shared by 4 of its faces.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√
2 3
V= a
Octagonal trapezohedron Trapezohedron with 16 3√ 2
faces. It also has 18 vertices and 32 edges. A=2 3a
351
Octal number–Odd function
For example, the point (1, 1, 1) is in the first oc-
tant, because all three of its coordinates are posi-
tive.
Octet Synonym of byte.
Read also «Byte».
Octile Octiles are values that divide the data from
a distribution —sorted in increasing order— in 8
parts, about the same number of data points.
Read also «Quantile» and «Quartile».
The octahedron is a Platonic solid. Octohedron Polyhedron with eight faces.
Read also «Platonic solids». For example, the square bipyramid is an octohe-
dron.
Octal number Number expressed in base 8.
For example, the number 3510 (thirty-five in base
ten) expressed as an octal number is: 3510 = 438 ,
because:
4 × 81 + 3 × 80 = 32 + 3 = 3510
Octant When a rectangular coordinate system is
defined in three-dimensional space, it is divided
into 8 parts that meet at the origin of coordinates.
Each of those 8 parts is called an octant.
z Another example of an octohedron is the hexago-
nal prism.
O
y
x
Octants are numbered using Roman numerals. Odd function A function with the property:
The octant where a point is located can be known f (− x ) = − f ( x ).
from the sign of the coordinates of the point. In other words, an odd function is symmetric
about the origin.
Octant x y z For example the function y = sin( x ) is and odd
function.
I + + +
II − + + y
y = sin(x)
III − − +
IV + − +
V + + − x
VI − + −
VII − − −
VIII + − −
352
Odd number–Open disc
Odd number An integer that when divided by two The ogive is also known as cumulative frequency
leaves a remainder of 1. polygon.
For example, the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, · · · Read also «Cumulative frequency», «Histogram»,
are odd numbers. and «Frequency polygon».
Ogive Graph of the accumulated frequency. Omega (Statistics) Letter of the greek alphabet (Ω)
To draw an ogive, (Uppercase omega) which is used in statistics to
represent the sample space.
a) Construct a frequency distribution table in-
Read also «Sample space».
cluding the cumulative frequency column.
(Set theory) The letter ω (lowercase omega) is
b) On the horizontal axis indicate the upper used in set theory to represent the first transfi-
boundaries of each class and on the vertical nite ordinal number.
axis indicate the cumulative frequency. Read also «Transfinite number».
c) Plot the points that correspond to the upper It is worth mentioning that the letter ω (lowercase
class boundaries and their corresponding cu- omega) is used in physics to represent angular ve-
mulative class frequencies. locity in rotational motion, or angular frequency
d) Connect the points drawn in the previous in harmonic motion.
section by means of a polygonal line. One Smallest natural number, denoted by 1.
The graph must start at the lower boundary of the This number has the property that any real num-
first class (because there the cumulative frequency ber a multiplied by it gives the number a.
is zero) and must end at the upper boundary of
a·1 = a
the last class (where the cumulative frequency is
equal to the sample size). By this property the number 1 is the multiplica-
For example, the ogive corresponding to the fol- tive identity in the field of real numbers.
lowing frequency table: The number 1 is not a prime number, because to
be a prime it is required to have two positive di-
Range Frecuency Cumulative F. visors, and the number 1 only has one positive
0 – 10 250 250 divisor.
10 – 20 1 200 1 450 If the number 1 were prime, then the fundamen-
20 – 30 2 500 3 950 tal theorem of arithmetic would not hold.
30 – 40 1 225 5 175 Read also «Natural number», «Prime number», and
40 – 50 850 6 025 «Fundamental theorem of arithmetic».
50 – 60 750 6 775 One step numerical method A numerical method
60 – 70 425 7 200
70 – 80 250 7 450
is one-step if to calculate the value yi+1 it uses
only a previous value yi .
O
80 – 90 37 7 487 For example, Euler’s method is a one-step numer-
90 – 100 13 7 500 ical method.
Read also «Euler’s method».
is shown below.
One-to-one function Synonym of injective func-
Cumulative F. tion.
Read also «Injective function».
8000
7000 Only if In logic, P only if Q is an implication de-
6000 noted by P ⇒ Q where P is sufficient for Q.
For example, x = 4, only if x2 = 16.
5000
Read also «If and only if ».
4000
3000 Onto function Synonym for surjective function.
2000
Read also «Surjective function».
1000 Open disc Set of points on the plane delimited by
0 Class a circumference not including the points that are
A B C D E F G H I J
on it.
353
Open interval–Opposite element
3. Calculate multiplications and divisions.
4. Calculate addition and subtraction.
For example, when evaluating: 3 × 52 + 7, we start
by squaring 5 (highest priority), then we multiply
that result by 3 (next priority) and finally add 7,
obtaining:
52 + 7 = 3 × 25 + 7 = 75 + 7 = 82
3 × |{z}
| {z } | {z }
1st 2nd 3rd
Open interval Interval that does not include its ex- Frequently, the operators precedence is also called
treme values. If the ends of the open interval are order of operations or priority of operations.
the points a and b, it is denoted by ( a, b), as well
as ] a, b[. Oppermann’s conjecture For every integer n >
Geometrically, the open interval ( a, b) includes all 1, there is at least one prime number between
points on the number line between a and b, but n · (n − 1) and n2 , and at least another prime num-
excluding these two extreme values and it is indi- ber between n2 and n · (n + 1).
cated as shown in the figure below. This conjecture remains unsolved.
x Opposite The opposite of the number x is − x.
O a b For example, the opposite of the number 3 is −3,
and the opposite of the number −10 is 10.
Read also «Opposite number».
Open problem Problem that has not been solved
yet. Opposite angles Two angles are opposite angles if
Open set Set whose complement is closed. the prolongation of the sides of one are the sides
In other words, a set that does not contain any of of the other.
its boundary points.
An example of an open set is an open interval.
Read also «Open interval» and «Open disc».
Operation Defined process by which one value is x α
obtained from another or others.
The most frequently used operations with num- β
O bers are: addition, subtraction, multiplication, di-
vision, power and taking root of a given order.
Read also «Arity».
Operator Mathematical symbol that indicates that
an operation must be carried out on one or sev- The opposite angles (α and β) are congruent.
eral mathematical objects. Since α + x = 180◦ , and also β + x = 180◦ , it fol-
For example, +, ÷, ×, are arithmetic
R operators lows:
(operating on numbers) while , ∇, are operators α = 180◦ − x = β
that operate on functions.
Read also «Arity». What was to be shown.
Opposite angles are also known as vertical angles.
Operator precedence The set of rules that indicate
which operations should be performed first in an
expression that includes multiple operations. Opposite element The opposite of the number a is
In summary, the priority of operations is: the number − a.
The adjective «opposite» comes from the fact that
1. Simplify expressions inside grouping signs on the number line, the numbers a and − a are at
(parentheses, brackets, etc.) the same distance from the origin, but on oppo-
2. Calculate powers and roots. site sides.
354
Opposite number–Order of integration
Opposite number The opposite of the number a is • a=b
the number − a. • a<b
A number and its opposite have the same abso-
lute value. Read also «Tricotomy».
The opposite of a number is also called symmet- (Calculus) The order of a derivative is equal to the
ric. Geometrically, the opposite of a number is the number of times the function has been derived.
same distance from the origin, but on the oppo- For example, the second-order derivative of the
site side. function y = x2 , is y′′ = 2.
(Differential equations) The order of a differen-
a a tial equation is the highest order of all the deriva-
x
−a a tives that appear in it.
0
For example,
Read also «Absolute value». y′′ + 5 y′ + 6 y = 0
Optic equation The equation whose unknowns are is a second order differential equation.
positive integer numbers a, b and c satisfying
Order of integration In a multiple integral, the or-
1 1 1 der of integration is carried out applying the pri-
+ = ority of the operations according to the grouping
a b c
signs.
Notice that, given a and b, c is one half the har- For example, in the iterated integral
monic mean of a and b.
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by Zb Zd
abc, it is obtained f ( x, y) · dx · dy
a c
bc+ac = ab
it is not stated explicitly, but it is understood (im-
Read also «Egyptian fraction» and «Harmonic plicitly) that there is a grouping sign enclosing the
mean». inner integral,
Optimization In an optimization problem it is re- Zb Zd
quired to maximize or minimize a quantity. f ( x, y) · dx · dy
OR Logical connective denoted by ∨ for the oper- a c
ation of disjunction between two prepositions. so that first it must be computed
The sentence p ∨ q (it is read as: «p or q») is true
only if at least one of the two p, or q, is true.
The truth table for this logical connective is
Zd
f ( x, y) · dx = F (d, y) − F (c, y) O
shown below. c
considering the y−variable as if it were a con-
p q p ∨ q
stant. This yields a function F (d, y) − F (c, y) that
T T T depends exclusively on y (because applying the
T F T fundamental theorem of calculus substitutes the
F T T values of the limits of integration instead of x)
F F F and then calculate the last definite integral that
depends on y
where T means true, and F means false.
The word or in English symbolizes a logical dis- Zb
junction. [ F (d, y) − F (c, y)] · dy
a
Order (Algebra) The real numbers are said to be
ordered because they satisfy the trichotomy. That Finally, this integral is evaluated by applying
is, given any two real numbers a, b, one and only again the fundamental theorem of calculus to ob-
one of the following conditions is met: tain the numerical value of the multiple integral.
If the multiple integral is a triple integral, or
• a>b of a higher order, according to the order of the
355
Order of magnitude–Ordinal number
operations, always begin by computing the in- y
ner integral with respect to the differential of 3 A(2, 3)
the first variable in the product of differentials
(dx · dy · dz · · · dw), then the next integral is com-
2 B(3, 2)
puted with respect to the second differential (dy),
and then it is integrated with respect to the third
differential (dz), and so on until all differentials 1
are depleted.
In a similar way multiple indefinite integrals must x
be computed. 1 2 3 4
Read also «Fubini’s theorem».
Ordered set (Algebra) A set A is an ordered set if
Order of magnitude In an expression of the form:
its elements satisfy the trichotomy.
Read also «Trichotomy».
N = a × 10b (Set theory) A set of values that have a preset or-
der.
where a is a real number, and b is an integer num-
For example, the coordinates of a point in three
ber, b is the order of magnitude of the number N.
dimensions must be given in the order x, y, z.
For example, the number 6.024 × 1024 , is of order
of magnitude 24. Ordinal A data is measured at the ordinal level if
it is qualitative or quantitative, so that it can be
Order of the operations The order of operations arranged in a certain order.
is the set of rules that indicate which operations
should be performed first in an expression that Ordinal number Numbers that indicate the or-
includes multiple operations. dered position of a set of objects.
In short, the order of operations is as follows: The first 20 ordinal numbers are:
• first • eleventh
1. Simplify expressions inside grouping signs
(parentheses). • second • twelfth
2. Calculate powers and roots. • third • thirteenth
3. Calculate multiplications and divisions. • fourth • fourteenth
• fifth • fifteenth
4. Calculate addition and subtraction.
• sixth • sexteenth
For example, when evaluating: • seventh • seventeenth
O 3 × 52 + 7
• eighth • eighteenth
• ninth • nineteenth
we start by squaring 5 (highest priority), then we • tenth • twentieth
multiply that result by 3 (next priority) and finally
add 7, obtaining: The following ordinal numbers are named by pre-
fixing the cardinal number for the tenths to the
52 + 7 = 3 × 25 + 7 = 75 + 7 = 82
3 × |{z} ordinal units. For example,
| {z } | {z }
1ro 2do 3ro
• 21: twenty-first
• 22: twenty-second
Ordered pair An ordered pair refers to a pair of • 23: twenty-third
values ( x, y) that determine a mathematical ob- • 24: twenty-fourth
ject that, in general, satisfy: ( a, b) , (b, a), that is, • 25: twenty-fifth
the same values in different order correspond to • 26: twenty-sixth
two different objects.
For example, the coordinates of a point are an or- • 27: twenty-seventh
dered pair, because in the Cartesian plane, (2, 3) , • 28: twenty-eighth
(3, 2). • 29: twenty-ninth
356
Ordinal scale–Orthodrome
Next, it is listed the names for ordinal numbers Orientation (Geometry) The direction or arrange-
that are multiples of ten. ment of an object, figure, or set of points with
respect to a coordinate system.
• 30: thirtieth For example, in the three-dimensional rectangu-
• 40: fortieth lar coordinate system, Euler angles can be used
• 50: fiftieth to indicate the orientation of an object.
Read also «Inclination» and «Euler angles».
• 60: sixtieth
• 70: seventieth
• 80: eightieth Orthocenter It is the point where the three alti-
• 90: ninetieth tudes of a triangle intersect.
• 100: hundredth
Sometimes an abbreviation of the name is used as
1st or 1st , instead of first. C
Read also «Cardinal number».
Ordinal scale We say that a variable is measured
in ordinal scale when it can take different values
that are ordered according to a scale.
For example, mild, moderate, severe.
This scale is often used in surveys. O
Ordinal variable Variable to which values can be B
assigned that have a certain order.
For example, the place obtained in a race: first,
second, etc. A
Ordinary differential equation A differential
equation is an ordinary differential equation if
its solution is a function of one variable.
For example, the solution of the ordinary differ-
ential equation:
y′′ − y = 0 Orthodiagonal quadrilateral Convex quadrilat-
is the function: y(t) = c1 et + c2 e−t , where c1 y c2
eral whose diagonals intersect at a right angle.
O
are abitrary constants.
Ordinary form The equation of a conic in its ordi- B
nary form refers to the equation the of that conic
in a factorized form.
For example, the ordinary form of the equation of
the circumference with radius r and center at the
point (h, k), is:
C A
2 2 2
( x − h) + (y − k) = r
Some authors call it the standard form to the ordi- D
nary form of an equation.
Ordinate Given the coordinates of a point in the
plane, P( x, y), the first coordinate (x) is called the
abscissa and the second coordinate (y) is called Orthodrome Circumference obtained as the in-
ordinate. tersection of a sphere with a plane that passes
Read also «Coordinate». through the center of said sphere.
357
Orthogonal–Orthogonal matrix
z z
⃗u
⃗v y
x
y
x
(2) It is said that a set of n non-zero vectors
{⃗u1 , ⃗u2 , · · · , ⃗un } of dimension n is an orthogonal
set of vectors if
⃗ui · ⃗u j = 0 for i , j
In words, if the vectors in the set are mutually
perpendicular, then it is said that the set is an or-
thogonal set of vectors.
Read also «Gram-Schmidt process».
In linear algebra the word orthogonal is used
The orthodrome is also known as great circle. while in elementary geometry perpendicular is
Read also «Sphere» and «Circumference». used instead.
Read also «Perpendicular».
Orthogonal (Geometry) Synonym of perpendicu- Orthogonal functions A set of functions ϕk ( x ) is
lar. orthogonal in a given interval [ a, b], if for any two
For example, two non-zero vectors are orthogonal functions of the set ϕm ( x ), and ϕn ( x ) it is satis-
if they are perpendicular (and therefore, their dot fied:
product is zero.) Zb
Also, by definition, the perpendicular bisector of 0 for m , n
ϕm ( x ) ϕn ( x ) · dx =
the segment AB is orthogonal to the segment AB. r for m = n.
a
where r , 0.
Orthogonal matrix A square matrix M is orthogo-
O nal if it is invertible and
M −1 = M T
A For example,
cos θ sin θ
M=
tor
sin θ − cos θ
isec
AB
is an orthogonal matrix because:
rb
B
a
cul
cos θ sin θ
T
M = = M −1
di
sin θ − cos θ
pen
Per
as can be verified:
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ 1 0
=
sin θ − cos θ sin θ − cos θ 0 1
(Linear algebra) (1) It is said that two non-zero A matrix M of dimension n × n is ortogonal, if
vectors ⃗u and ⃗v are orthogonal if they form an an- and only if, its columns form an orthonormal ba-
gle of π/2 radians (90◦ .) sis for the vector space of dimension n.
That is, if the vectors are perpendicular, it is said Read also «Base», «Inverse matrix», «transpose of a
that they are orthogonal vectors. matrix», and «Orthonormal».
358
Orthogonal polynomials–Orthonormal vectors
Orthogonal polynomials Sequence of polynomi- B̂
als Pn ( x ) such that for any two of them, z
Z T̂
Pn ( x ) · Pm ( x ) · dx = 0
N̂
for all m , n.
~r(t)
If in addition each polynomial satisfies: 1
Z
Pn ( x ) · Pn ( x ) · dx = 1 −1 −1
y
1 1
for all n, the sequence of polynomials is said to be x
orthonormal.
Some examples of sequences of orthogonal poly- Read also «Orthogonal» and «Frenet trihedron».
nomials are the Laguerre polynomials, the Leg-
Orthonormal vectors A set of n vectors {⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , . . .,
endre polynomials, and the Chebyshev polyno-
⃗vn } is an orthonormal set vectors if
mials.
⃗vi · ⃗v j = 0 for i , j
Orthogonal transformation Transformation that
⃗vi · ⃗vi = 1 for i = 1, 2, . . . , n
preserves angles and distances.
For example, the rotation of the plane about a
point is an orthogonal transformation.
In words, any two vectors in the set are perpen-
Read also «Rotation».
dicular to each other and all of them are unit vec-
tors.
Orthohedron Right rectangular prism.
For example, the set of vectors {ı̂, ȷ̂, k̂}, where:
ı̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩, ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩, k̂ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩, is an or-
z
thonormal set of vectors.
To verify that two vectors are perpendicular, the
dot product can be used. If the dot product of two
non-zero vectors is zero, they are perpendicular.
c
x y
b a ı̂ · ȷ̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩ · ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ = 0
ı̂ · k̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩ · ⟨0, 0, 1⟩ = 0
The orthohedron is also known as a cuboid as
well as rectangular parallelepiped.
ȷ̂ · k̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ · ⟨0, 0, 1⟩ = 0
O
Evidently, the vectors ı̂, ȷ̂, k̂, are unit vectors. So,
Orthonormal A set of n vectors {⃗u1 , ⃗u2 , · · · , ⃗un } of the set {ı̂, ȷ̂, k̂} is an orthonormal set of vectors.
dimension n is orthonormal if
z
⃗ui · ⃗u j = 0 for i , j
⃗ui · ⃗ui = 1 ∀i 2
In words, if the vectors in the set are mutually or-
thogonal and all of them are unit vectors, then it 1
is an orthonormal set of vectors. k̂
If {⃗u1 , ⃗u2 , · · · , ⃗un } is an orthonormal base for Rn , −1
and ⃗v ∈ Rn , then −1
ı̂ ̂
1
⃗v = (⃗v · ⃗u1 ) ⃗u1 + (⃗v · ⃗u2 ) ⃗u2 + · · · + (⃗v · ⃗un ) ⃗un 1 y
2
2
For example, the Frenet trihedron is an orthonor- x
mal set of vectors.
359
Osculating circle–Oval
Osculating circle Given the curve the osculating plane is the plane generated by the
unit tangent vector to the curve T̂ and the unit
⃗r (t) = ⟨ x (t), y(t), z(y)⟩, normal vector N̂ to the given curve.
the osculating circle is the circle that is tangent to
⃗r (t), of radius ρ = 1/κ, where κ , 0 is the curva-
z
ture of the curve at P, which is in the plane gen-
erated by the tangent (T̂) and normal ( N̂) vectors
to the curve at P. Tˆ
z N̂
Tˆ ~r(t)
~r(t) N̂ 1
1 −1
−1
y
1 1
−1 −1 x
y
1 1
x
The osculating plane is perpendicular to the unit
The curve ⃗r (t) and the osculating circle have the binormal vector B̂ of ⃗r (t).
same first and second derivatives evaluated at P, Read also «Frenet-Serret formulas».
so that the center of the osculating circle is the
center of curvature of ⃗r (t) at the point P.
Read also «Curvature». Osculating polyomial Let x0 , x1 , · · · , xn be n + 1
different real numbers in [ a, b], and mi a non neg-
Osculating curve The osculating curve of order k ative integer associated to xi for i = 0, 1, · · · , n. If
at the point P of a given function y = f ( x ), is the m = max(mi ) for i = 0, 1, . . . , n, and y = f ( x ) is
curve whose derivatives of order 1, 2, 3, etc., up defined in [ a, b], then the osculating polynomial
to k, are equal to the corresponding derivatives of that approximates f in the interval [ a, b] is a poly-
the given function. nomial P of lowest degree, such that:
The osculating curve of order k of the function
y = f ( x ) is the polynomial of the Taylor series of
d k P ( xi ) d k f ( xi )
y = f ( x ) considering up to grade k. =
dx k dxi
O T1 (x)
T5 (x) for i = 0, 1, · · · , n, and k = 0, 1, · · · , mi .
y
A Taylor polynomial of degree m0 is an example
of an osculating polynomial (for n = 0).
Ounce Unit of mass used in the English system,
equivalent to 28.38 grams.
x
y = sin(x) Outlier Observation (a datum) of a sample whose
value is outside the range where most of the data
are found.
An outlier may be due to an error in the record-
T7 (x) ing of the data, to an error in the measurement, to
T3 (x) the fact that the data does not correspond to the
sample, etc.
Osculating plane For each point on a curve of the
form: Oval Plane closed curve that has an axis of sym-
⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂ metry and resembles an ellipse.
360
Overdetermined system
an overdetermined system if it has more equa-
tions than unknowns.
For example,
x + y = 10
x−y=2
3x + 2 y = 7
Overdetermined system A system of equations is Read also «Underdetermined system».
361
O
362
P
p−quantile The p−quantile are values that divide est 25% of the data.
the data of a distribution in increasing order into Read also «Quartil», «Decil», «Percentil», and «Fre-
p parts, all of approximately the same number of quency distribution».
data.
The 2-fractiles is called median and divides the p−value In a hypothesis test, the value of p is
distribution into two parts. Half of the data in the the probability of obtaining test results at least as
distribution is less than the mean and the other large (or as small) as the observed results (com-
half is greater than the median. pared to previously observed), assuming that the
The 3-fractiles are called terciles and divide the null hypothesis is true.
data distribution into 3 parts. That is, the value of p is a measure of the plau-
The 4-fractiles are called quartiles and divide the sibility that the evidence we have is a result that
distribution in 4 parts. occurred by chance.
The 5-fractiles are called quintiles and divide the For example, if a coin is tossed 10 times, and the
distribution in 5 parts. null hypothesis is defined as: the coin is fair (both
The 6-fractiles are called sextiles and divide the sides of the coin have the same probability of be-
distribution in 6 parts. ing obtained as a result), then the value of p indi-
The 7-fractiles are called septiles and divide the cates the probability that at least as many heads
distribution in 7 parts. are obtained as were obtained in a particular ex-
The 8-fractiles are called octiles and divide the dis- periment, if the coin is indeed fair.
tribution in 8 parts. In that case, suppose that after tossing the coin 10
The 10-fractiles are called deciles and divide the times, we get heads 8 times and tails 2 times. The
distribution in 10 parts. p−value in this case is the probability that at least
The 12-fractiles are called duodeciles and divide 8 times heads are obtained:
the distribution in 12 parts.
The 16-fractiles are called hexadeciles and divide P(8) + P(9) + P(10)
the distribution in 16 parts. 10 10 10
The 20-fractiles are called ventiles, or also vigintiles 8 9 10
= 10 + 10 + 10
and divide the distribution in 20 parts. 2 2 2
The 100-fractiles are called percentiles and divide 1 10! 10! 10!
the distribution in 100 parts. = 10 + +
2 2! 8! 1! 9! 0! 10!
The more commonly used fractiles are the quar- 7
tiles, the deciles and the percentiles. = ≈ 0.0546875
128
The quartiles are denoted by Q1 , whose elements
are the lowest 25% of the data, Q2 whose elements considering that the null hypothesis is true, i.e.,
are between the 25% and the 50% of the data, Q3 that the coin is fair.
whose elements are between the 50% and the 75% That is, the p−value is the minimum significance
of the data, and Q4 whose elements are the high- value α for which the observed data indicate that
Palindrome–Pappus’s theorems
the null hypothesis should be rejected. C
Read also «Hypothesis test». B
A
If the p−value is very small, the statistical signifi-
cance is very high (under the considered hypoth-
esis, something very unlikely has happened). R
P Q
The p−value is not a fixed value, but changes
with each repetition of the test.
It is worth mentioning that the alternative hy-
pothesis cannot be accepted with a p−value
smaller than 0.05, unless there is external evi- a b c
dence to support said hypothesis and it is certain
that the sampling and data analysis were carried Pappus’s hexagon theorem Given two sets of
out correctly (or at least acceptable). collinear points { A, B, C }, and { a, b, c}, then the
The example shown above refers to a one-tailed pair of straight lines aB and Ab, aC and Ac, and
p−value. There are cases where a two-tailed bC and Bc, meet at the points P, Q and R, respec-
p−value can be calculated. tively, which are collinear.
The p−value is used to evaluate if there is incon-
sistency of the data with a particular statistical
C
model. B
The p−value depends on the interaction of (1) A
the size of the effect, (2) the size of the sample
(a larger sample size gives a smaller value of p,
other things being constant), and (3) the sampling Q R
P
error.
The p−value is often misunderstood as the proba-
bility that the null hypothesis is true, which is incor-
rect. a b c
Palindrome A number or a phrase is a palindrome The line passing through the points P, Q and R is
if reading it from right to left gives the same re- the Pappus line.
sult as reading from left to right.
For example, the numbers 111, 34543, 909 are Pappus’s theorems First theorem: the area S of a
palindromes. surface of revolution that is generated when a
A palindrome phrase is: Step on no pets, and an- plane curve of length L rotates about a fixed axis
other example is: Was it a car or a cat I saw?. that the curve does not intersect, such that the dis-
Note that in reading palindrome phrases you tance from its centroid to the axis of rotation is ȳ,
must ignore spaces, punctuation and capitaliza- is:
P tion. S = 2 π ȳ L
L
Palindromic number A number is a palindromic
number if reading it from right to left gives the
same number as reading from left to right.
For example, the numbers 111, 909, 3113, 34543,
123321, 95711759, are palindromic numbers.
Palindromic numbers are also known as palin-
drome numbers.
Read also «Palindrome».
Second theorem: the volume V of a solid of revolu-
Pappus line Given two sets of collinear points tion that is generated when a plane figure of area
{ A, B, C }, and { a, b, c}, then the pairs of lines aB A rotates about a fixed external axis, such that the
and Ab, aC and Ac, and bC and Bc, meet at the distance from its centroid to the axis of rotation is
points P, Q and R, respectively, which are on the ȳ, is:
Pappus line. V = 2 π ȳ A
364
Parabiaugmented dodecahedron–Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
The parabiaugmented hexagonal prism is ob-
tained by adding a square pyramid to two oppo-
site parallel equatorial faces of a regular hexago-
nal prism.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √ √
V= 2 2 + 9 3 a3
6 √
A = 4 + 5 3 a2
Parabiaugmented dodecahedron Polyhedron The parabiaugmented hexagonal prism is a John-
with 20 faces, of which 10 are equilateral tri- son solid.
angles and 10 are regular pentagons. It also has
22 vertices and 40 edges. Parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron Poly-
hedron formed by 52 faces, of which 30 are equi-
lateral triangles, 10 are squares, 2 are regular pen-
tagons and 10 are regular decagons. It also has 70
vertices and 120 edges.
The parabiaugmented dodecahedron is obtained
by adding a pentagonal pyramid on two of the
opposite faces of the dodecahedron. The parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron is
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its obtained by adding a pentagonal cupola on two
area A are: opposite decagonal faces of the truncated dodeca-
1 √ hedron.
V= 25 + 11 5 a3 If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
6s
area A are:
1 √ q √
A=5
2
14 + 5 5 + 75 + 30 5 a2 V ≈ 89.6878 a3
A=
1 √
20 + 15 3 + k a2
P
The parabiaugmented dodecahedron is a Johnson 2
solid. where
q r
√ √
Parabiaugmented hexagonal prism Polyhedron k = 50 5+2 5+ 5 5+2 5
that has 14 faces, of which 8 are equilateral trian-
gles, 4 are squares, and two are regular hexagons. The parabiaugmented truncated dodecahedron is
It also has 14 vertices and 26 edges. a Johnson solid.
Parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Polyhedron with 42 faces, of which 2 are regu-
lar decagons, 10 are regular pentagons, 20 are
squares, and 10 are equilateral triangles. It also
has 50 vertices and 90 edges.
This geometric solid is obtained by removing two
non-opposite pentagonal cupolas from a rhombi-
cosidodecahedron.
365
Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron–Parabola
Parabola Plane curve generated by a point moving
so that it remains the same distance from a fixed
point called the focus (F) and from a fixed line
called the directrix.
Axis
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its F
area A are:
V ≈ 36.9672 a3 Directrix
5 √
A= 8 + 2 k a2
2
where The equation of the horizontal parabola with ver-
r tex at the origin, with axis on the x axis and latus
√ √
k = 44 + 19 5 + 3 85 + 38 5 rectum of length 2 a is:
The parabidiminished rhombicosidodecahedron
y2 = 4 a x
is a Johnson solid.
Parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron Polyhe- The equation of the tangent line to this parabola
dron with 62 faces, of which 12 are regular pen- at x = x0 , is:
tagons, 30 are squares, and 20 are equilateral
triangles. It also has 60 vertices and 120 edges. r
a √
y= x + a x0
x0
√
where m = a/x0 is the slope of the tangent line.
The equation of the normal line to the parabola at
the point ( x0 , y0 ) is:
y0
y − y0 = − ( x − x0 )
2a
P √
where y0 = 2 a x0 .
The equation of the parabola in polar coordinates
is:
2a θ
r= = a sec2
This geometric solid is obtained by rotating 36◦ 1 + cos θ 2
two opposite pentagonal cupolas of the rhombi-
cosidodecahedron. The equation of the vertical parabola with vertex
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its at the origin, with axis on the y axis and latus
area A are: rectum of length 2 a is:
√ q √
A = 30 + 5 3 + 3 25 + 10 5 a2
x2 = 4 a y
1 √
V= 60 + 29 5 a3
3 Any tangent line at point P of the parabola makes
The parabigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron is a equal angles with the line parallel to the axis of
Johnson solid. the parabola and the line from P to its focus.
366
Parabolic barrel–Parabolic coordinates
y The coordinates of the point P( x, y) in the plane
written in parabolic coordinates (u, v) are given
by
P
x=u·v
1 2
y= u − v2
2
y
x
F
The parabola is one of the conic sections.
Read also «Equation of the parabola» and «Conic».
Parabolic barrel Surface of revolution that is gen-
erated when a portion of a parabola rotates
around a fixed axis which it does not touch. In the figure, the concave-up parabolas corre-
spond to constant-u curves and are confocal
y= y parabolas (all having the same focus, being the
ax2
+b origin) whose equations are:
x+
c
x2 u2
y= −
2 u2 2
On the other hand, the concave-down parabolas
r correspond to constant-v curves and are also con-
R focal parabolas with focus at the origin, whose
h equations are:
x
v2 x2
y=
2
− 2
2v P
The volume V of the parabolic barrel is: The formulas to convert the rectangular coordi-
nates of the point P( x, y) into parabolic coordi-
π 2 4π 8π nates P(u, v) are:
V= hr + hrR + hR2
5 15 15 rq
where r is the minor radius, R is the major radius, u= x2 + y2 − y · sgn( x )
and h is its height. rq
If y = a x2 + b x + c is the generatrix (or gener-
v= x 2 + y2 + y
ating curve), then, a = 4 (r − R)/h2 , b = 0, and
c = R.
where sgn( x ) is the sign function, u ∈ [0, ∞], and
Parabolic coordinates system of ortogonal coordi- v ∈ [0, ∞].
nates (u, v, φ) in which u and v represent dis- Read also «Sign function».
tances measured from two perpendicular curves The differential of area in parabolic coordinates
(the focal curves) and φ is the angle indicating the is:
direction of the origin to the point. dA = u2 + v2 · du · dv
367
Parabolic cylinder–Paradox
y z
φ=c
onsta nt
v = constant
z
P (u, v, φ)
dA
u = constant
x
x φ y
y
x
Parabolic cylinder Quadratic surface whose equa-
tion is:
x2 + 2 ay = 0
The generalization of the parabolic coordinates
to three-dimensional space is carried out through
the rotation of the parabolas around the axis of
symmetry of the parabolas (the y axis) which is
y
renamed as the z−axis, so that the parabolic coor-
dinates of the point P(u, v, φ) expressed in terms
of the rectangular coordinates P( x, y, z) are given x
by:
Paraboloid Quadratic surface whose equation is:
rq x2 y2
z= +
u= x2 + y2 − y · sgn( x ) a2 b2
rq
z
v= x 2 + y2 + y
P φ = arctan
y
x
where sgn( x ) is the sign function, u ∈ [0, ∞], y
v ∈ [0, ∞], and φ ∈ [0, 2 π ). x
In turn, the rectangular coordinates of the point
P( x, y, z) can be computed from its correspond-
If a , b the paraboloid is called elliptic paraboloid.
ing parabolic coordinates P(u, v, φ) using:
If a = b the paraboloid is called circular paraboloid.
Paradox A proposition that can be proven true and
x = u · v · cos( φ) false with no apparent logical error.
y = u · v · sin( φ) A paradox is also a statement that may appear to
1 2 be true but it turns out to be false (or vice versa).
z= u − v2 Read also «Interesting number paradox».
2
368
Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron–Parallelepiped
Paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahedron
Polyhedron with 52 faces, of which one is a reg- ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2
P
ular decagon, 11 are regular pentagons, 25 are
ℓ2
squares, and 15 are equilateral triangles. It also
has 55 vertices and 105 edges.
ℓ1
Read also «Perpendicular».
In analytic geometry, two lines are parallel if they
have the same slope. In other words, lines are
parallel if they have the same slope.
Read also «Equation of the line».
If ℓ1 , ℓ2 and ℓ3 are straight lines, then,
• ℓ1 ∥ ℓ1 .
• If ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2 , then, ℓ2 ∥ ℓ1 .
• If ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2 and also ℓ2 ∥ ℓ3 , then, ℓ1 ∥ ℓ3 .
This geometric solid is obtained by removing a
pentagonal cupola from a rhombicosidodecahe- Parallel curve A curve parallel to a given curve ℓ
dron and rotating 36◦ the pentagonal cupola op- is that curve whose points are at a fixed (perpen-
posite to the removed cupola. If the length of its dicular) distance d from the given curve ℓ.
edges is a, its volume V and its area A are:
V ≈ 39.2913 a3 !
√
15 3
A = 25 + + k a2
4
`
where
s √ Given a curve ℓ in the form of parametric equa-
q √
55 2 5 5 tions x (t), y(t), the parametric equations of the
k= 1+ + 5+2 5 curve parallel to it at a distance d, from ℓ, are:
4 5 2
The paragyrate diminished rhombicosidodecahe- d · y′ (t)
xd (t) = x (t) + p
dron is a Johnson solid. [ x ′ (t)]2 + [y′ (t)]2
Parallel Two straight lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 that lie in the d · x ′ (t)
same plane are parallel (denoted by ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2 ) if
they do not meet no matter how long they are
yd (t) = y(t) − p
[ x ′ (t)]2 + [y′ (t)]2 P
prolonged. A set of concentric circles are parallel curves.
In other words, two lines (in the plane) are par-
Parallelepiped Polyhedron whose 6 faces are
allel when the distance between them does not
parallelograms that are parallel in pairs.
change as they are extended.
ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2 ℓ1 ℓ2
To draw a line ℓ2 , passing through the point P and
parallel to a given line ℓ1 , first draw a perpendic-
ular to ℓ1 passing through P, and then draw a
perpendicular ℓ2 passing through P. The cube is an example of a parallelepiped.
369
Parallelogon–Parallelogram law
Parallelogon Polygon with which the plane can be Opposite sides of a parallelogram have the same
covered by placing the given polygon so that two measure, and also opposite angles have the same
neighboring polygons do not overlap, except on measure.
the sides. The diagonals of the parallelogram bisect each
Examples of parallelograms are square, parallelo- other.
gram, rhombus, regular hexagon, etc.
a
b
A diagonal of the parallelogram and its sides
form two congruent triangles.
D C
In order to tessellate, the polygon must have rota-
tional symmetry of 180 sexagesimal degrees.
Read also «Tessellation».
Parallelogram A quadrilateral that has two pairs
of opposite sides that are parallel.
A B
h
In the figure above △ ABD is congruent to the tri-
b angle △ BCD.
The height of the parallelogram is the perpendic- • Opposite angles in a parallelogram are con-
ular distance between two opposite sides, which gruent.
are called bases. • A parallelogram is a rectangle if and only if
P The area of a parallelogram is equal to the prod-
uct of the length of its base (b) times its height
its diagonals are congruent.
• A parallelogram is a rhombus if and only if
(h).
A = b·h its diagonals are perpendicular.
If d is the length of the diagonal of the parallel- • A parallelogram is a rhombus if and only if
ogram drawn from the vertex where the sides of each diagonal bisects one pair of its opposite
lengths a and b meet, forming an angle ϕ between angles.
them, then:
d2 = a2 + b2 + 2 ab cos(ϕ) Parallelogram law The sum of the squares of the
lengths of the four sides of a parallelogram is
equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of
its diagonals.
d In the figure below, the quadrilateral ABCD is a
a
ϕ parallelogram. Therefore,
b 2 2 2 2 2 2
AB + BC + CD + DA = AC + BD
370
Parallelohedron–Parametric equations
D For example, the parametric equations of the cir-
cumference of radius a centered at the origin are:
A x (t) = a cos(t)
C y(t) = a sin(t)
where t is the parameter, and ( x, y) are the coor-
B dinates of a point on the circumference of radius
a. It can be verified that these parametric equa-
When the diagonals are the same length, the tions satisfy the equation of the circle with center
parallelogram theorem becomes the Pythagorean at the origin.
theorem. If the circumference has its center at the point
Read also «Pythagorean theorem». C (h, k), then its parametric equations are:
Parallelohedron Polyhedron that can be used to x (t) = h + a cos(t)
fill the space using copies of it, with no two copies y(t) = k + a sin(t)
of the polyhedron overlapping except on faces
and no unfilled spaces between them. where t is the parameter.
Examples of parallelhedra are the cube, the par-
allelepiped, the regular hexagonal prism, among y
others.
P (x, y)
a
t
k
C(h, k)
x
h
Parameter (1.) Variable used to characterize the This is equivalent to:
evolution of a system.
(Statistics) Numerical value that characterizes x − h = a cos(t)
some quality of a population.
For example, the mean is a parameter of a pop-
ulation. Similarly, the constants that determine
y − k = a sin(t)
P
By squaring both sides of the two equations and
the shape of a probability distribution are param-
adding the results, it is obtained:
eters.
If the parameter characterizes a population, it is
called population parameter, while if it is to charac- ( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 = a2
terize a sample then it is called sample parameter.
(Geometry) Set of values that uniquely determine since cos2 (t) + sin2 (t) = 1.
a geometric figure. But if t = t0 is constant and let a = ρ to be the
For example, the parameters a and c uniquely de- parameter, then the parametric equations,
termine an ellipse.
x (t) = h + ρ cos(t0 )
Parametric equations Set of equations used to rep- y(t) = k + ρ sin(t0 )
resent a geometric object (curve, surface, etc.) in
such a way that each of its coordinates in a coordi- correspond to a straight line that passes through
nate system can be calculated from each equation the point P(h, k ) with slope m = tan(t0 ) for
of said set of equations. −∞ < ρ < ∞.
371
Pareto chart–Parity
y y
Q(x, y)
t0
k
P (h, k)
1
x x
h −1 1
−1
For functions defined algebraically in terms of
their rectangular coordinates, y = f ( x ), their
parametric equations can be obtained by defin-
ing:
Pareto chart Vertical bar graph in which each bar
indicates the frequency (or relative frequency)
x (t) = t corresponding to each class arranged in decreas-
ing order (from the highest to the lowest fre-
y(t) = f (t)
quency) so that the highest frequency appears to
the left of the graph and the class with lowest fre-
quency appears to the right.
And for the case of a function of two variables,
z = f ( x, y), some parametric equations can be y
generated as:
200
180
x (s, t) = s
160
y(s, t) = t
140
z(s, t) = f (s, t)
120
100
where s and t are the parameters of the surface. 80
The parametric equations of a curve in space are: 60
P x = x (t) y = y(t) z = z(t)
40
20
x
A B C D E F G H
where t is the parameter, x (t), y(t) and z(t) are Two vertical axes are often drawn, the one on the
not all constant functions, of the parameter t. left indicating the frequency and the one on the
For example, the graph in the xy plane of the right the relative frequency or cumulative per-
parametric equations centage of the total number of occurrences.
Parity Condition of a natural or integer number of
1 1 being an even or an odd number.
x (t) = 2 sin(t) + cos(5 t) + sin(13 t) An integer n is said to be an even number if when
4 2
1 1 divided by 2 leaves remainder equal to zero. 1
y(t) = 2 cos(t) + sin(5 t) + cos(13 t) and p.
4 2
The parity of an integer n consists of indicating
whether n is even or odd.
is below. Read also «Even number» and «Odd number».
372
Parseval’s theorem–Partial differential equation
Parseval’s theorem If a0 , an , and bn for n = zero.
1, 2, · · · , are the coefficients in the Fourier series With this, the instantaneous rate of change of the
corresponding to a periodic function f ( x ) with function z = f ( x, y) in the direction of the x axis
period k, then, is obtained, at a point in the domain of the func-
tion.
k/2
Z ∞
1 a20 1 The different ways to denote the first partial
k
[ f ( x )]2 · dx =
4
+
2 ∑ a2n + bn2 . derivative with respect to the variable x are:
n =1
−k/2
∂f
f x ( x, y) Dx ( f )
∂x
Partial derivative If w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) is a
function of n variables, the partial derivative of And for the second derivative, the notation is:
w with respect to xi is:
∂2 f
∂w f xx ( x, y) Dxx ( f )
= ∂x2
∂xi
f ( x1 , · · · , xi + ∆xi , · · · , xn ) − f ( x1 , · · · , xn ) For mixed derivatives, that is, when you first de-
= lim rive with respect to one variable and then with
∆xi →0 ∆xi
respect to another, the following notation is used:
That is, the derivative of the function is calcu-
lated considering all the variables as constants f xy ( x, y) Dxy ( f )
(x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), except the variable xi , with re-
spect to which the derivative of the given function which indicates that the function z = f ( x, y) was
w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) is being computed. derived first with respect to x and that result was
Here, the function of n variables is considered as a then derived with respect to y.
function of a single variable xi , and the derivative In the case of the fraction notation commonly
of this function is computed using the derivation used to denote the derivative, the second mixed
rules that apply for functions of one variable. derivative when the function is derived first with
For example, for the case of a function of two respect to the variable x and then with respect to
variables, z = f ( x, y), its partial derivative with the variable y, is:
respect to x is:
∂ ∂f ∂2 f
∂f f ( x + ∆x, y) − f ( x, y) =
= lim ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂x ∆x →0 ∆x
This indicates that the first derivative of the func-
z = f (x, y) tion with respect to x was then derived with re-
z spect to the variable y. Notice that the order of
the factors in the denominator (∂y ∂x) appear in
the reverse order of how the successive deriva-
tions were made. P
When the subscript notation is used to indicate
the partial derivation, in the subscripts the order
of the variables is the same as that followed in the
calculation of the partial derivatives.
y
∂2 f
x f xy =
∂y ∂x
Observation: the symbol ∂ is called dabba and is
c read partial derivative.
=
y Read also «Dabba».
Partial differential equation A partial differential
Observe that y is held constant, while x is given equation is an equation whose solution is a func-
an increment of size ∆x, and the limit of the quo- tion of at least two variables, and therefore, in the
tient of differences is computed as ∆x tends to equation appear partial derivatives.
373
Partial fractions
For example, a solution of the partial differential Read also «Coefficient matching method».
equation Case 3. The denominator factor decomposition
∂2 z ∂2 z Q( x ) includes non-repeated quadratic factors.
a2 2 − 2 = 0 In this case, the linear factors of the denominator
∂x ∂t
is the function: z( x, t) = sin( x − a t). are considered accordingly, applying cases 1 and
Read also «Partial derivative». 2, respectively. For quadratic factors, fractions are
written with a linear polynomial in the numera-
Partial fractions An algebraic fraction is expressed tor.
in partial fractions when it is represented as a For example, if
sum of several algebraic fractions with denomi-
nators whose degree is at most 2. Q( x ) = ( x − r1 )( x2 + p1 x + q1 )( x2 + p2 x + q2 )
The algorithm to express an algebraic fraction write:
(proper) as partial fractions, consists of consid- A0 A x + B1 A x + B2
ering four cases, depending on the nature of the + 2 1 + 2 2
x − r1 x + p1 x + q1 x + p2 x + q2
algebraic fraction.
Case 1. The denominator can be decomposed into And we proceed to calculate the coefficients by
non-repeating linear factors. applying the coefficient matching method.
Consider: Case 4. The factoring of the denominator Q( x )
includes repeated quadratic factors.
P( x ) a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + · · · + a 0 In this case, the linear factors of the denomina-
=
Q( x ) ( x − r1 )( x − r2 ) · · · ( x − rm ) tor are considered accordingly, applying cases 1
and 2, respectively. For quadratic factors, write
where n < m, as the sum of m fractions of the
as many fractions until the exponent of each
form:
quadratic factor is equal, writing a linear poly-
P( x ) A1 A2 A nomial in the numerator.
= + +···+
Q( x ) x − r1 x − r1 x − rm For example, the case of the factor ( x2 + p1 x +
q1 )k , write k fractions, as follows:
The coefficients A1 , A2 , · · · , Am may be computed
by means of A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2
+ +
P (r ) x 2 + p1 x + q1 2
( x + p1 x + q1 )
2
Ai = ′ i
Q (ri ) Ak x + Bk
+···+ k
where Q′ (ri ) is the derivative of the polynomial ( x 2 + p1 x + q1 )
Q( x ) evaluated at x = ri . In a similar way to the previous case, the coeffi-
Case 2. The denominator Q( x ) can be decom- cients A1 , B1 , A2 , B2 , · · · , Ak , Bk , are computed us-
posed into linear factors, some of which are re- ing the coefficient matching method.
peated. This artifice of writing an algebraic fraction as the
Consider:
P P( x )
=
a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + · · · + a 0
sum of simpler algebraic fractions is known as
Bernoulli’s method.
Q( x ) ( x − r1 ) k 1 ( x − r2 ) k 2 · · · ( x − r m ) k m In calculus, the partial fraction technique is used
as an antiderivation technique.
Write this fraction as For example,to compute:
Z
P( x ) A1 A2 Ak1 dx
= + +···+ +
Q ( x ) x − r1 ( x − r1 ) 2 ( x − r1 ) k 1 x (1 + x 3 )
B B2 Bkm observe that,
+ 1 + 2
+···+ +
x − r2 ( x − r2 ) ( x − r2 ) k m 1 1 + x3 − x3 1 x2
.. = = −
. x (1 + x 3 ) x (1 + x 3 ) x 1 + x3
M1 M2 Mk m So the antiderivative can be written as:
+ + +···+
x − rm ( x − r m )2 ( x − rm )k m Z Z
dx 1 x2
= − · dx
The coefficients A1 , A2 , · · · , Ak1 , B1 , B2 , · · · , Bk2 , x (1 + x 3 ) x 1 + x3
· · · , M1 , M2 , · · · Mkm , are calculated using the co- Z Z
dx x2 · dx
efficient matching method. = −
x 1 + x3
374
Partial sum–Pascal line
The first antiderivative is immediate. The sec- Parts per million Fraction denoted by ppm that
ond can be calculated with a change of variable represents the number of parts that are taken for
by defining u = 1 + x3 , because, du = 3 x2 · dx. every million of a total.
Therefore, by completing the differential,
Z Z Z Parts per thousand Fraction that represents the
dx dx 1 3 x2 · dx number of parts that are taken for every thousand
h
= −
x (1 + x 3 ) x 3 1 + x3 of a total. It is represented by the symbol .
1 3 One part per thousand is equal to one tenth of
= ln | x | − · ln 1 + x + C
3 1%; That is, 0.1%.
1 x3
= ln +C Pascal’s limaçon Plane curve whose equation in
3 1 + x3
polar coordinates is: r = b + a cos(θ ), for θ ≥ 0.
Read also «Antiderivative», «Change of variable»,
and «Camel’s principle».
y
Partial sum The partial sum of a series is the sum
of the first n terms of that series.
For example,
n
n · ( n + 1)
1+2+3+···+n = ∑i= 2
x
i =1
The partial sum of the terms of the sequence { ai }
from i = 1 to i = k, is:
k
Sk = ∑ a i = a1 + a2 + · · · + a k . Its parametric equations in rectangular coordi-
nates are:
i =1
Partition (Set theory) The partition of a non-empty x (t) = (b + a cos(θ )) cos(θ )
set A consists in writing A in the form: y(t) = (b + a cos(θ )) sin(θ )
A = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ A n for t ≥ 0.
where A1 , A2 , · · · , An are n subsets of A and none Pascal’s limaçon is also known as Pascal’s cochlea
of them is the empty set. or Pascal’s snail.
Note that each element of A is an element of ex-
actly proper subset Ai of A (for some i of 1 to n, Pascal line If six points are chosen on some conic
inclusive). section, and a hexagon is constructed with ver-
(Set theory) The partition of the interval [ a, b] is a tices at those points, and opposite pairs of sides
finite sequence of the form: are extended until they intersect, they intersect at
three points which are collinear.
P
x 0 < x 1 < x 2 < · · · < x n −1 < x n The line passing through these three points is Pas-
cal line.
where a = x0 , and b = xn .
Note that in the partition we obtain mutually ex-
clusive sets that cover the interval. That is, each B
element of each subset belongs to exactly one sub- C
set, and the union of all the subsets is a set that
A
contains all the values that are in the interval
[ a, b].
P N
M
Parts per hundred thousand Fraction denoted by
pcm which represents the number of parts that
are taken for every hundred thousand of a total. D
Also known as milli-percent. F
One part per hundred thousand is equal to one E
thousandth of 1%.
375
Pascal’s rule–Pattern
Pascal’s rule Identity relative to binomial coeffi- For example, to calculate: ( x + y)5 we calculate
cients which states that for finite natural numbers the first 6 rows of Pascal’s triangle and write the
n and k, coefficients, and then the literals with the corre-
sponding exponents.
n−1 n−1 n
+ =
k k−1 k ( x + y)5 = x5 + 5 x4 y + 10 x3 y2 + 10 x2 y3 +
where 0 ≤ k ≤ n, and (nk) is a binomial coefficient. +5 xy4 + y5
Read also «Combination», «Binomial coefficient»,
Note that the exponents of the literal x are de-
and «Pascal’s triangle».
creasing, starting from 5 and ending at 0, while
Pascal’s theorem If six points are chosen on some the exponents of the literal y are increasing, start-
conic section, and a hexagon is drawn with ver- ing from 0 and ending at 5. Also note that the
tices at those points, then the three pairs of oppo- sum of the exponents of the literals for each term
site sides (or their extensions, if necessary) inter- is 5.
sect at three points that are collinear. Pascal’s triangle is also known as Tartaglia’s tri-
angle, in honor of the Italian algebraist Niccolo
Fontana Tartaglia.
B
Read also «Newton’s binomial».
C
A Pathological case An instance of a mathematical
object that does not satisfy certain conditions and
N that in some way disobeys mathematical intu-
P M ition.
These mathematical objects are often constructed
to exemplify the need for the theory for a partic-
D ular branch of mathematics.
F
E For example, the Dirichlet function, which as-
signs 1 to all rational x and 0 to all irrational x,
serves as a pathological case to give counterex-
The straight line passing through the points M, N amples in mathematical analysis.
and P in the figure above is the Pascal line.
This theorem is also known as hexagrammum mys- Pattern We say that a sequence, a figure or a math-
ticum theorem. ematical object presents a pattern when it is pos-
sible to find a certain regularity in the object.
Pascal’s triangle Triangle used to calculate the co- For example, for the construction of some fractals
efficients of the n−th power of a binomial. a construction pattern is followed. An iteration
To calculate it, write 1 to the center on the first of the Koch fractal construction is shown in the
line. On the second line, write 1, 1, below, next to figure below.
P the number 1 on the first line. To get the follow-
ing rows, add two neighboring numbers to get
the one in the middle of them in the next row and
write a 1 at the beginning and at the end of each
row.
1 + 1
1 2 1 The pattern that was used for this construction is
+ +
as follows.
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
376
Peano axioms–Pentagon
We can say that for the construction of a sequence where cov( X, Y ) is the covariance of the variables
there is also a pattern, which consists of the rule X and Y, E[ X ] is the expected value of X, σX is
that helps us to generate the numbers that make the standard deviation of the variable X, µ X is
up the sequence, one after another. the mean of the variable X.
For example, in the sequence, 3, 10, 24, 52, etc., For the case of a sample of n data ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ),
the pattern or the rule to generate the terms of · · · , ( xn , yn ), is denoted by r xy and it is:
the sequence is: add two to the last term and multi- n
ply the result by two. ∑ ( xi − x̄ ) (yi − ȳ)
i =1
Peano axioms Postulated axioms for natural num- r xy = s s
n n
2 2
bers. ∑ ( xi − x̄ ) ∑ (yi − ȳ)
i =1 i =1
1. 0 is a natural number.
where x̄ is the sample mean of x, and ȳ is the
2. For all x ∈ N, x = x (reflexive property). sample mean of y.
3. For all x, y ∈ N, if x = y, then y = x (sym-
Pencil Family of geometric objects with a common
metric property).
property.
4. For all x, y, z ∈ N, if x = y, and y = z then For example, the bundle of lines that pass
x = z (transitive property). through a given fixed point, or the bundle of
5. For all x, y if x ∈ N, y x = y, then y ∈ N. planes that pass through a line (this line is com-
6. For all x ∈ N, S( x ) ∈ N. mon to all the planes).
If
7. For all x, y ∈ B, x = y if and only if S( x ) =
S ( y ). L1 : A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
8. For all x ∈ N, S( x ) = 0 is false. L2 : A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
where S( x ) is the successor function of x that is
defined as S( x ) = x + 1. are two planes that intersect, then the equation
L1 + λ L2 = 0 corresponds to a plane that passes
Peano existence theorem Let D be an open subset through the line of intersection of L1 and L2 ,
of R × R, and the continuous function f : D → where −∞ < λ < ∞ is a real number.
R, and x ′ (t) = f (t, x (t)) an explicit first order dif- Read also «Concurrent lines».
ferential equation, that is continuous and defined
over D, then, for each problem with initial value Pentacontagon Polygon of 50 sides.
x (t0 ) = x0 , for f where (t0 , x0 ) ∈ D has a local
Pentacontahedron Polyhedron of 50 faces.
solution y : I → R, where I is a neighbourhood
(or vecinity) of x0 in R, such that: Pentadecagon Polygon of 15 sides.
y′ (t) = f (t, z(t))
for all x ∈ I.
P
It is worth mentioning that the solution is not nec-
essarily unique.
Pearson’s correlation coefficient Pearson’s corre-
lation coefficient is a quantitative measure of the
correlation between two variables X and Y. For
the case of a population, it is denoted with ρ X,Y ,
and it is:
cov(X, Y) Pentagon Polygon of five sides.
ρ X,Y =
σX σY
E[( X − µ X )(Y −µY )]
=
σX σY
E [ X Y ] − E [ X ] E [Y ]
= q q
2
2
E [ X ] − ( E[ X ]) E [Y 2 ] − ( E[Y ])2
377
Pentagonal bicupola–Pentagonal gyrobicupola
The figure above shows a non-regular pentagon. Pentagonal bipyramid Polyhedron that has 10
To draw a regular pentagon using compass and faces in the shape of an equilateral triangle. It
ruler, we draw a circle and two perpendiculars in- also has 7 vertices and 15 edges.
tersect at the center of the circle. Leaning on the
midpoint (M) of the center of the circumference
and the intersection of the circumference with the
horizontal line, we open the compass until it in-
tersects the intersection of the circumference and
the vertical line (point P).
The pentagonal bipyramid is obtained by sym-
metrically joining two regular pentagonal pyra-
mids by their pentagonal bases.
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
and its area A are:
M
1 √
V= 5 + 5 a3
12√
5 3 2
A= a
2
The pentagonal bipyramid is a Johnson solid.
With this same radius, and leaning on M, we cut Pentagonal cupola Polyhedron with 12 faces, of
the horizontal line at point N. which one is a decagon, one is a pentagon, 5 are
The distance between N and P is the length of the quadrilaterals, and 5 are triangles. It also has 15
side of the regular pentagon. vertices and 25 edges.
P
l
P M N
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V, its
area A, and its height H, are:
1 √
V= 5 + 4 5 a3
6
1h √ i
A= 20 + 10 k a2
4s
The area A of a regular pentagon of side L is: √
5− 5
p √ H= a
25 + 10 5 2 10
A= ·L √ p √
4
where k = 80 + 31 5 + 2175 + 930 5.
Read also «Regular polygon». The pentagonal cupola is a Johnson solid.
Pentagonal bicupola Solid obtained by joining Pentagonal gyrobicupola Polyhedron with 22
two pentagonal cupolas at their bases. faces, of which 10 are equilateral triangles, 10 are
Read also «Pentagonal ortobicupola» and «Pentago- squares, and 2 are pentagons. It also has 20 ver-
nal gyrobycupola». tices and 40 edges.
378
Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda–Pentagonal icositetrahedron
Pentagonal hexecontahedron Polyhedron that has
60 faces in the shape of a pentagon. It also has 92
vertices and 150 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √
V= 5 + 4 5 a3
3 s !
5 √ q √
A = 10 + 10 + 5 + 75 + 30 5 a2
2
The pentagonal gyrobicupola is a Johnson solid.
If the length of its shortest edge is a, then the
Pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda Polyhedron with longest edge measure approximately 1.74985 a,
27 faces, of which 15 are equilateral triangles, 5 and its volume V and its surface area A, are:
are squares, and 7 are regular pentagons. It also
has 25 vertices and 50 edges. V ≈ 189.79 a3
A ≈ 162.699 a2
The pentagonal hexecontahedron is a Catalan
solid and is the dual polyhedron of the snub do-
decahedron.
Pentagonal icositetrahedron Polyhedron with 24
faces, all in the shape of a pentagon. It also has
38 vertices and 60 edges.
If the length of its shortest edge is a, then the
longest edge measure approximately 1.41964 a,
and its volume V, its area A, and its inradius r
are:
The pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda is obtained
V ≈ 35.6302 a3
by joining a pentagonal cupola and a pentagonal
rotunda by their decagonal bases, so that the tri- A ≈ 54.7965 a2 P
angles of the pentagonal rotunda are aligned with r ≈ 1.95068 a
the triangles of the pentagonal cupola.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
5 √
V= 11 + 5 5 a3
12
A = k a2
where
r q
1 √ √
k = 5+ 1900 + 490 5 + 210 75 + 30 5
4
The pentagonal gyrocupolarotunda is a Johnson
solid.
379
Pentagonal orthobicupola–Pentagonal pyramid
The pentagonal icositetrahedron is a Catalan solid area A are:
and is the dual polyhedron of the snub cube.
1 √
V= 45 + 17 5 a3
Pentagonal orthobicupola Polyhedron that has 22 6s
faces of which 10 are equilateral triangles, 10 are √ q √ 2
squares, and 2 are pentagons. It also has 20 ver- A = 30 10 + 3 5 + 75 + 30 5 a
tices and 40 edges.
The pentagonal orthobirotunda is a Johnson solid.
Pentagonal orthocupolarotunda Polyhedron that
has 27 faces of which 15 are equilateral triangles,
5 are squares, and 7 are pentagons. It also has 25
vertices and 50 edges.
The pentagonal orthobicupola is obtained by join-
ing two pentagonal cupolas by their respective
decagonal bases.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √
V= 5 + 4 5 a3
3 s
5 √ q √
A = 10 + 10 + 5 + 75 + 30 5 a2
2
The pentagonal orthocupolarotunda is obtained
The pentagonal orthobicupola is a Johnson solid. by joining a pentagonal cupola and a pentagonal
rotunda at their respective bases.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
Pentagonal orthobirotunda Polyhedron that has area A are:
32 faces of which 20 are equilateral triangles and
5 √
12 are pentagons. It also has 30 vertices and 60 V= 11 + 5 5 a3
edges. 12
1 √
A= 5+ k a2
4
P where:
q
√ √
k = 1900 + 490 5 + 210 75 + 30 5
The pentagonal orthocupolarotunda is a Johnson
solid.
Pentagonal pyramid Polyhedron that has 6 faces
of which 5 are equilateral triangles and one is a
regular pentagon. It also has 6 vertices and 10
edges.
The pentagonal orthobirotunda is obtained by
joining two aligned pentagonal rotundas by their
respective decagonal bases.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
380
Pentagonal rotunda–Pentahedron
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
1 √
V= 5 + 5 a3
24s
1 5 √ q √ 2
A= 10 + 5 + 75 + 30 5 a
2 2
The pentagonal (regular) pyramid is a Johnson
solid.
Pentagonal rotunda Polyhedron with 17 faces, of
which one is a regular decagon, 6 are regular pen-
tagons, and 10 are equilateral triangles. It also has
20 vertices and 35 edges.
A pentagonal trapezohedron can be constructed
from two pentagonal pyramids and a pentagonal
antiprism.
The pentagonal trapezohedron is also known as
pentagonal deltohedron and pentagonal antibipyra-
mid.
Pentagram Pentagonal star that is obtained as the
stellation of the regular pentagon.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area
A, and its height H are:
1 √
V= 45 + 17 5 a3
12
A=
1 √
5 k a2
P
2s
2
H = 1+ √ a
5
where
r The sum of the interior angles of the pentagram
√ √
k = 145 + 58 5+2 30 65 + 29 5 is equal to 180◦ . Each interior angle at the vertices
of the pentagram measures 36◦ .
Read also «Stellation».
The pentagonal rotunda is a Johnson solid.
Pentahedron Polyhedron of 5 faces.
Pentagonal trapezohedron Trapezohedron with A pyramid with a square base is an example of a
ten faces. It also has 12 vertices and 20 edges. pentahedron.
381
Pentakis dodecahedron–Percentage
Pentakis icosidodecahedron Polyhedron with 80
faces, of which 60 are isosceles triangles and 20
are equilateral triangles. It also has 42 vertices
and 120 edges.
The triangular prism is another example of a pen-
tahedron.
The pentakis icosidodecahedron is the dual poly-
hedron of the truncated rhombic triacontahedron
and it is also known as the chamfered dodecahedron.
Pentakis snub dodecahedron Polyhedron with
Pentakis dodecahedron Polyhedron with 60 faces 140 faces, of which 80 are equilateral triangles,
in the form of isosceles triangles. It also has 32 and 60 are isosceles triangles. It also has 72 ver-
vertices and 90 edges. tices and 210 edges.
The pentakis dodecahedron is obtained by adding
a regular pentagonal pyramid to each of the faces
of a regular dodecahedron.
P
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
If its shortest edge a, then its longest 3
measures
√
V ≈ 37.6166
s a
edge measures 9 − 5 /6, and its volume V √ q √
A = 15 95 + 6 5 + 8 75 + 30 5 a2
and its area A are:
5 √
V= 41 + 25 5 a3 This solid is the dual polyhedron of the pentago-
36 q nal hexecontahedron.
5 √
A= √ 421 + 63 5 a2 Percentage Fraction of a quantity that is taken for
3 2
every hundred contained in it and that is denoted
The pentakis dodecahedron is the dual polyhe- by the symbol %.
dron of the truncated icosahedron. That is, a percentage is a ratio that compares a
The pentakis dodecahedron is a Catalan solid. number to one hundred.
382
Percentage point–Perigal disection
For example, 10% of 500 is 50, because for every Perfect power A natural number of the form n =
hundred of the 500 we take 10, since there are 5 am where a and m are positive integer numbers.
groups of hundred, we get (5)(10) = 50. For example, 23 = 8, 32 = 9, 25 = 32, 62 = 36 are
The p percent of the amount M is computed us- perfect powers.
ing: If m = 2 the number is a perfect square and if
p·M m = 3 the number is a perfect cube.
R=
100
Perfect square trinomial Trinomial that can be
For example, 5% of 250 is:
written as a binomial squared.
(5)(250) For example, 4 x2 + 12 x + 9 is a perfect square
R= = 12.5 trinomial because:
100
When a percentage is indicated as a fraction or (2 x + 3)2 = 4 x2 + 12 x + 9
with a number that includes decimals, the corre-
If a squared trinomial cannot be written as a
sponding percentage value is obtained by multi-
squared binomial, then it is said to be a non-perfect
plying by 100. For example, if it is known that
square trinomial.
0.35 corresponds to a percentage expressed in
decimals, Perigal disection Given a righ triangle △ ABC
(0.35)(100) = 35 with lengths of its legs a = | AB| and b = | BC | and
That is, 0.35 is the 35%. hypontenuse of length c = | AC |, Perigal’s dissec-
To express a percentage as a decimal number, di- tion is a visual proof of the Pythagorean theorem.
vide by 100. For example, to convert 65% to a The dissection consists of dividing the square
decimal number, built on the hypotenuse into five quadrilaterals,
of which one is a square with side length b =
65 | BC | concentric with the square built on the hy-
= 0.65
100 potenuse AC and sides parallel to the legs of the
triangle △ ABC.
The other four are congruent quadrilaterals that
Percentage point Unit that represents the differ- are obtained by extending the sides of the square
ence of two percentages. (whose sides measure b) in one direction, until
For example, if a variable changes from 10% meeting the sides of the square built on the hy-
to 15%, had an increase of 5 percentage points. potenuse. These quadrilaterals can be accommo-
Note, however, that the (absolute) increment is dated in the square that was built on the leg AB,
50% of the initial value of the variable. as shown below.
Percentile Values that divide the measurements
made into one hundred equal parts.
To calculate percentiles, the data must be ordered
in increasing order.
The p percentile is the value that has p% of all P
values below it and (100 − p)% above it.
For example, the 35th percentile is greater than C
35% of all values and is less than 65% of all val-
ues.
Read also «Decile» and «Quartile».
Perfect number A natural number such that the
sum of its proper divisors is equal to it.
For example, the number 6 is a perfect number, A B
because its proper divisors (1, 2, 3) add up to 6.
Euclid showed that if for some integer n, the num-
ber 2n − 1 is a prime number, then 2 p−1 (2 p − 1),
is a perfect number.
Leonhard Euler proved that all perfect numbers
that are even have the form: 2 p−1 (2 p − 1).
No odd perfect number is yet known.
383
Perimeter–Permutation
Perimeter Line or closed curve that delimits a re- y k
gion of the plane. The length of such a line is also
known as the perimeter.
The perimeter of a polygon is equal to the sum of x
the lengths of its sides.
y = sin x
l5 l4
The period of the sine function is 2π.
The power content of a periodic function f ( x ) with
period k is:
P = l1 + l2 + l3 + l4 + l5
k/2
Z
1
[ f ( x )]2 · dx
k
−k/2
l1
l3
If a function is not periodic it is said that it is an
aperiodic function.
l2
Permutation A permutation P(n, r ) is an ordered
sequence of r objects from a set of cardinality n.
The perimeter of a closed geometric figure (such That is, you have a set of n objects and among
as the circumference) is equal to the length of the them you select r ≤ n, and once you choose them,
line that delimits it. you are going to order them in some way. Each
The perimeter is the length of the outline of a way of ordering them is a permutation.
plane figure. The number of permutations of n distinct objects
Read also «Contour» and «Polygon». is n!, where n! is the factorial of the number n.
The number of permutations of n distinct objects
Period given the function y = f ( x ), a there exists with circular array is (n − 1)!.
a value k such that for all x, f ( x ) = f ( x + k), then The number of permutations of n objects taking r
we say that the function f is periodic. The period at a time is denoted by P(n, r ). To choose the first
of the periodic function f is the minimum value object we have n options, to choose the second we
of k for which: f ( x ) = f ( x + k). have n − 1 options, and so on, until you choose
For example, the sine function is periodic and its the r −th object, for which you have n − (r − 1) op-
period is 2π. tions. Applying the fundamental counting prin-
ciple, these values are multiplied. Multiplying by
(n − r )!/(n − r )!, the result may be written as:
y k
P(n, r ) = n (n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1)
P x
= n (n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1)
(n − r )!
(n − r )!
n!
=
(n − r )!
y = sin x
Permutations are also known as arrangements.
For example, if we consider the set {1, 2, 3}, then,
Read also «Periodic function» and «Trigonometric we have the following permutations or arrange-
function». ments of 2 elements chosen from a set of 3 ele-
ments: {1, 2}, {2, 1}, {1, 3}, {3, 1}, {2, 3}, {3, 2}.
Periodic function If there exists a finite value k In permutation notation, P(3, 2) = 3!/(3 − 2)! =
such that for any x in the domain of the func- 3! = 6 different arrangements. Observe that {1, 2}
tion f it is satisfied: f ( x ) = f ( x + k ), then it is and {2, 1} are considered to be different.
said that f is a periodic function. For example, if you are going to make flags that
The period of the periodic function f is the minu- have two vertical lines from among the possible
mum value k > 0 that satisfies: f ( x ) = f ( x + k). colors white (1), blue (2) and yellow (3), consid-
For example, the sine function is periodic: ering the colors ordered away from the flagpole,
384
Perpendicular
the white and blue flag is different to the blue and P
white flag colors, so the order does matter.
However, if it is required to form teams of 2 mem-
bers from a group of three people, say {Armando,
Benjamin, Charles}, then the team formed by {Ar- ℓ1
mando, Benjamin} is the same as the team formed A B
by {Benjamin, Armando}.
In this case, regardless of the order, they are the
same team, so it is not about permutations, but
about combinations. Q
Read also «Combination» and «Factorial».
The point Q is the intersection of the two arcs.
Perpendicular Two lines are perpendicular if they The line through the points P and Q is perpen-
intersect forming four equal angles. That is, if two dicular to the given line.
lines form four right angles at their intersection,
then they are perpendicular.
If the lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 are perpendiculares, it is de-
ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2 P
noted as ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2 .
ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2 ℓ1
ℓ2 A B
ℓ1 Q
ℓ2
And to draw a line perpendicular to a given line
ℓ1 , passing through P, when P is on the given line,
To draw the perpendicular passing through the draw two arcs that cut the line ℓ1 leaning on the
point P, which is external to the given line ℓ1 us- point P, as shown below.
ing compass and ruler, we lean the compass on
the point P and draw two arcs that cut the line ℓ1
as shown below. P
P ℓ1
P
A B
ℓ1
A B
where A and B are the points of intersection of
where A and B are the points of intersection of the arc with the line ℓ1 .
the arc with the line ℓ1 . With a larger opening of the compass, draw two
With the same radius, leaning first on A and then intersecting arcs, leaning first on point A and then
on B, two intersecting arcs are drawn. on B.
385
Perpendicular bisector
Q The point M shown in the figure is the midpoint
of the segment AB.
To draw the perpendicular bisector of a segment,
ℓ1 with compass and ruler, open more than half the
length of the segment. Then draw arcs of the
P same radius that intersect each other, leaning first
A B on A and then on B as shown below.
The point Q is the intersection of the two arcs. B
The line ℓ2 passing through P and Q is perpen-
dicular to ℓ1 .
ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2
Q
A
ℓ1
The perpendicular bisector of the segment AB is
P the line that passes through the points of intersec-
A B tion of the arcs.
ℓ2
B
The line passing through ( x1 , y1 ) and that is per-
pendicular to the line y = m x + b is:
1 M
y − y1 = − ( x − x1 )
m
That is, if two lines are perpendicular, the prod-
A
uct of their slopes is equal to −1.
If the equation of the known line is written in the
general form: The perpendicular bisector has the property that
any of its points is equidistant from the end-
Ax+By+C = 0 points of the segment on which it was drawn.
In a triangle, the three perpendicular bisectors in-
the equation of the line perpendicular to it pass- tersect at a point called circumcenter.
ing through the point ( x1 , y1 ), is:
P A ( y − y1 ) = B ( x − x1 )
In a plane, if the lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 are perpendicular
to the line ℓ3 , then ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2 .
Perpendicular bisector The perpendicular bisector
of a segment is the line that is perpendicular to
the segment and passes through its midpoint.
B
Circumcenter
As the circumcenter is equidistant from the three
M vertices of the triangle, it is the center of the cir-
cumference that passes through the three vertices
of the triangle.
A Read also «Circumcenter».
386
Perspective–π (Pi)
Perspective A perspective is the formation on a x(t) = c1 x1 (t) + c2 x2 (t)
plane of an image corresponding to an object x1 (t) = cos(t) x2
when it is observed from a fixed point. Two fig-
x2 (t) = sin(t) x00 + x = 0
ures in a plane are in perspective to point O if
lines joining corresponding points intersect at O. {c1 = c2 }
Persymmetric matrix A square matrix A of dimen-
1
sion n × n is a persymmetric matrix if it is sym-
metric with respect to its secondary diagonal. x1
In other words, a square matrix A = [ aij ] is a per- −1 1
symmetric matrix if aij = an− j+1,n−i+1 for all i, j.
For example, the matrix: −1
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a12
a31 a21 a11
In the figure above, it is considered c1 = c2 . In the
is a persymmetric matrix.
general case, (for c1 , c2 ) the graphs are ellipses
Some authors define the persymmetric matrix as
for the considered differential equation.
a matrix that is symmetric with respect to both
diagonals. Phase portrait In the phase plane corresponding to
a differential equation, a (finite) set of curves rep-
resentative of the phase plane is the phase por-
Phase plane Considering the ordinary differential trait.
equation:
a y′′ + b y′ + c y = 0 x2
a x00 + b x0 + c x = 0
the graph of the fundamental solution set x1 = c1 x1 (t) = c1 er1 t
{ x1 (t), x2 (t)} in the x1 x2 plane is the phase plane. x2 = c2 x2 (t) = c2 er2 t
The graphs are generated considering the curves
with parametric equations:
1
x1 = c1 x1 ( t )
x2 = c2 x2 ( t ) x1
P
−1 1
changing the parameter values c1 and c2 so that −1
they satisfy the conditions imposed by the initial
conditions x (t0 ) = x0 , x ′ (t0 ) = x0′ .
For example, considering the differential equa-
tion x ′′ + x = 0, its fundamental solution set is
x1 (t) = cos(t), and x2 (t) = sin(t). Its phase plane
is generated by graphing the curves:
Read also «Phase plane».
x1 (t) = c1 cos(t)
π (Pi) The number π is defined as the number of
x2 (t) = c2 sin(t)
times the diameter fits in its circumference. Nu-
merically it is the result of dividing the length of
a circumference by its diameter.
387
Pi-prime number–Piecewise function
C
Pictogram Diagram that represents statistical data
in columns formed by icons (small figures that al-
D lude to the object that each class represents) and
that is useful for comparing data sets.
C
The height of each column is proportional to the
π= D quantity it represents (its frequency).
300
π is an irrational and transcendental number, and 250
is approximately equal to: 200
175
π ≈ 3.1741592653589793
We generally use the approximation: π ≈ 3.1416
to perform calculations with it.
The number π is also known as the Archimedes
constant.
Read also «Irrational number» and «transcendental The icon used to form the column must indicate
number». and identify the object to which the correspond-
ing column of the diagram refers to.
Pi-prime number A natural number is a pi-prime
number (π −prime) if it appears in the decimal
Pie chart The pie chart is for comparing data based
expansion of the number π.
on a total. It is drawn in the form of a circle and
For example, the numbers 3, 31, 314159, are
the data are represented as fractions in the form
π −prime numbers.
of pie slices.
Pick’s theorem If all the coordinates of the vertices
of a polygon are integers, then the area A of said
polygon is:
b
A = i+ −1
2
where i is the number of points inside the poly-
gon with integer coordinates, b is the number of
points on the perimeter of the polygon with inte-
ger coordinates (including the vertices.)
For example, in the figure,
P y
5 The sector diagram is used when there are few
values to represent (at most 7).
4 To make a pie chart, it is suggested to start with a
vertical line that passes through the center of the
3 circle that represents the total. Starting from this
line, the parts of the whole are represented pro-
2
portionally, from largest to smallest, in the clock-
1 wise direction.
The values of each sector of the total can be indi-
x cated with annotations.
1 2 3 4 5 The pie chart is also known as circle chart.
i = 8, b = 12, so its area is: Piecewise function Function defined based on
12 several functions, each of which is applied in
A = 8+ − 1 = 13 an interval of the domain of each corresponding
2
388
Pigeonhole principle–Plane
function. Pivot In linear algebra, when solving a system
For example, of linear equations using elementary row opera-
tions, the position of the pivot in a matrix A is the
0 for 0 < x location in A that corresponds to the first nonzero
y = f (x) = x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 number found in a given row in the reduced ech-
2x−1 for x > 1 elon form of A.
For example, given the matrix A,
y
y = f (x) 2 5 −7 1
0 3 9 2
0 0 1 −4
0 0 0 7
1 When starting the procedure to solve the system
of linear equations, the pivot is the number 2,
x which is found in the first row and the first col-
1 umn.
Once the operations to zero the coefficients of
The piecewise function is also known as hybrid the first column below the pivot have been per-
function and as a function defined by cases. formed, the next row is continued. The pivot in
Read also «Step function», «Sign function», and that case will be the number 3 found in the second
«Heaviside step function». row and the second column, and so on.
Pigeonhole principle If n objects are arranged in Pizza theorem If a circle is cut into 4 n sectors
m containers, where n > m (there are more ob- (with n ≥ 2), all with the same angle, and the
jects than containers) then at least one container sectors are numbered (either clockwise or coun-
has more than one object. terclockwise) then the sum of the areas of even
For example, if there are more than 27 people in sectors is equal to the sum of the areas of odd
a group, then there are at least two who have the sectors.
same initial in their first name, because the alpha-
bet has 26 different letters.
The pigeonhole principle is also known as Dirich-
let’s box principle and as Dirichlet’s drawer principle. 1
2 8
7
Pitot theorem If a circle can be inscribed in a 3
quadrilateral so that it is tangent to all four sides, 4 6
then the sum of the lengths of the opposite sides 5
of the quadrilateral is equal to its semiperimeter.
P
Q
P
It is worth mentioning that this is true, even if
the point common to all the sectors is not in the
center of the circle.
O Plane A two-dimensional surface that extends in-
finitely without changing direction, such that
given three noncollinear points on it, the line
through any two of those points is contained in
S that surface.
A plane is defined by 3 non-collinear points that
R are in it, or by a line and a point outside it, or two
lines on the plane that intersect.
389
Plane
Two planes that are not parallel intersect in a line.
The equation of the plane passing through the
point P( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and which is perpendicular to
the vector ⃗n = ⟨ a, b, c⟩ is:
a ( x − x0 ) + b ( y − y0 ) + c ( z − z0 ) = 0
which can be simplified to obtain: Two planes
ax+by+cz+d = 0 a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0
In vector form:
⃗n ·⃗r = 0 are perpendicular if:
where ⃗r = ⟨ x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ⟩. a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0
The angle θ formed by two planes:
z
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0 and
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
~n is defined as the angle formed by their respective
normal vectors, and it is:
P A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1 C2
cos θ = q q
y A21 + B12 + C12 A22 + B22 + C22
P x which is equal to the angle between the normal
vectors ⃗n1 = ⟨ A1 , B1 , C1 ⟩, and ⃗n2 = ⟨ A2 , B2 , C2 ⟩,
to the given planes.
If the three planes:
Two planes A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0, and
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 A3 x + B3 y + C3 z + D3 = 0
have only one point in common, the coordinates
are parallel if: ( x, y, z) of that point are:
a1 b c ∆x
= 1 = 1 x=
a2 b2 c2 ∆
∆y
If a given plane and a given line do not intersect, y=
∆
then the line is in a plane parallel to the given ∆z
plane. z=
∆
390
Plane geometry–Plus–minus
where: ρ is the unique real root of: x3 = x + 1.
This number satisfies:
A1 B1 C1
∆ = A2 B2 C2 ρ3 = ρ + 1
A3 B3 C3 ρ4 = ρ2 + ρ
D1 B1 C1 ρ5 = ρ2 + ρ + 1
∆x = D2 B2 C2
D3 B3 C3 The plastic number is also known as the Siegel
A1 D1 C1 number.
∆y = A2 D2 C2 Plato’s number Plato’s number is the number:
A3 D3 C3
A1 B1 D1 33 + 43 + 53 = 63 = 216.
∆z = A2 B2 D2
A3 B3 D3
Platonic solid Name given to the five regular poly-
If the four planes: hedra: tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahe-
dron and icosahedron.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0, Read also «Cube», «Dodecahedron», «Icosahedron»,
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0, «Octahedron», and «Tetrahedron».
A3 x + B3 y + C3 z + D3 = 0, and
Plücker’s conoid Ruled surface whose parametric
A4 x + B4 y + C4 z + D4 = 0 equations are:
have only one point in common, then: x (u, v) = v cos(u)
y(u, v) = v sin(u)
A1 B1 C1 D1
A2 B2 C2 D2 z(u, v) = sin(2 u)
=0
A3 B3 C3 D3
z
A4 B4 C4 D4
The distance D between the two parallel planes:
A x + B y + C z + D1 = 0, and y
A x + B y + C z + D2 = 0
x
is given by:
In rectangular coordinates, its equation is:
D2 − D1
D= √
A2 + B2 + C 2 z=
2 xy
x2+ y2
P
• If two planes are perpendicular to the same
Read also «Conoid» and «Ruled surface».
line, then the planes are parallel.
• If two parallel planes are cut by a third plane, Plus–minus (1) Symbol denoted as ± and that is a
then the generated lines of intersection are binary operator, which indicates that two values
parallel. are to be obtained, one by adding and the other
by subtracting.
Plane geometry Geometry that studies the proper- For example, in the general formula for solving
ties of objects in the plane: points, lines, curves, quadratic equations,
triangles, quadrilaterals, etc. √
−b ± b2 − 4 ac
x=
Plastic number Numerical constant denoted by 2a
the Greek letter ρ (rho) defined as: It is indicated that there are two values, the first
s √ s √ being √
3 9+ 69 3 9− 69
ρ= + ≈ 1.3247179572 −b + b2 − 4 ac
18 18 x1 =
2a
391
Point–Poisson distribution
and the second one, y
√ P1 P1 P
y1 λ=
−b − b2 − 4 ac PP2
x2 =
2a P
y
P2
Read also «Minus–plus». y2
(2) This same symbol ± is also used to denote a
range of values, with respect to a reference value x
and a range of variation. O x1 x x2
For example,
27 ± 1 The coordinates of the midpoint P of the segment
P1 P2 is obtained setting λ = 1 in the previous for-
denotes an interval from 26 = 27 − 1, to 28 = mulas:
27 + 1. x1 + x2 y1 + y2
x= y=
2 2
Point Geometric object that lacks length, width,
and depth, and is used to indicate a location in
space. Point of tangency Point at which a line touches a
In other words, the point has a length, area, and curve tangently.
volume of zero units each.
Euclid defined the point as: that which has no parts.
The point is considered the most fundamental ge-
ometric object.
P
Point of concurrency Point where two or more
straight lines intersect.
C
`1
`3
The previous figure shows a circle and a tangent
P
line at the point of tangency P.
Read also «Leibniz’s postulates».
P Poisson distribution Discrete probability distribu-
`2 tion that calculates the probability that a given
number of events will occur in a constant inter-
val of time, if the events occur with a constant
(known) mean ratio and the probability of occur-
rence of the next event does not depend on the
time that has passed from the moment the last
Read also «Concurrent lines». one occurred.
A random variable X has a Poisson distribution
with parameter λ > 0 if for k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , the
Point of division The coordinates of the point density probability function is:
P( x, y) that divides the segment with endpoints
at the points P1 ( x1 , y1 ), and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) in the ratio λ x e−λ
λ = P1 P/PP2 , are: f (x) =
x!
x1 + λ x2 y1 + λ y2 where e ≈ 2.71828182845905, x is the number of
x= y= occurrences of the event and x! is the factorial of
1+λ 1+λ
392
Poisson generating function–Polar curve
x. y
A Poisson random variable X has a Poisson dis- r
tribution and satisfies:
• The variance σ2 and the expected value E[ X ]
of X are equal to λ = σ2 = µ. y P(r, θ )
• In the Poisson distribution x is the number r
of times an event occurs in a fixed time in-
terval. θ x
• The occurrence of one event does not affect x r
the probability of the occurrence of a second
event.
The pole and the polar axis of the polar coordi-
• The average rate of occurrence of an event nate system are the equivalent to the origin and
is independent of the number of times that the x axis in the rectangular coordinate system,
event occurs in a time interval. respectively.
• Two events cannot occur at the same instant The polar coordinates of the point P(r, θ ) can be
of time. transformed into rectangular coordinates P( x, y),
using:
Poisson generating function The Poisson generat- x = r · cos(θ )
ing function of a sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , is:
y = r · sin(θ )
∞
xk
P( a k , x ) = ∑ ak e− x k!
In turn, the rectangular coordinates of the point
k =0 P( x, y) of the plane can be transformed to polar
coordinates P(r, θ ), using:
q
Polar axis Straight line that is used as a reference
r= x 2 + y2
to measure angles in the polar coordinate system. y
θ = arctan
y x
r The differential of area in polar coordinates is:
dA = r · dr · dθ.
y
y P(r, θ )
r + dr
r θ + dθ
P
r
dr
r
θ ·d θ
x r
x r ·d
θ
r·
dθ
The x axis of the rectangular coordinate system
shown in the previous figure coincides with the
polar axis of the polar coordinate system. dθ
Read also «Polar coordinates».
θ x
Polar coordinates The polar coordinates of the dr
point P in the plane are defined using the distance
from P to a point of reference called the pole and
the angle formed by the line that passes through Polar curve A polar curve is the graph of a polar
the pole and the point P with the polar axis (used equation of the form r = f (θ ), where r and θ are
as a reference). polar coordinates.
393
Polar form–Polar rose
y y
r = |sin(5 θ)| a=3
k=5
1
x
1 x
−1 1
−1
Polar form The polar form of the complex number Its parametric equations are:
z = a + ib, is:
x (t) = a cos(k t) cos(t)
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) y(t) = a cos(k t) sin(t)
where a is the radius of the surrounding circum-
√ b
where r = a2 + b2 and θ = arctan . ference of the rose and k is the number of petals
a of the rose when k is an odd integer, or it has 2 k
petals when k is an even integer.
If k = p/q, with p and q coprime, then the rose
I has p petals when both, p, q are odd, or 2 p if any
b of p and q is even. If k is irrational, the rose has
θ) infinitely many petals.
i sin
o sθ + The rose is an algebraic curve of order p + q when
r (c both p and q are odd, or else, of order 2 ( p + q),
z=
when any of the values p or q is even. If k > 1 the
θ R polar rose is a hypocycloid, and when k < 1, it is
a an epicycloid.
P The figure below shows the polar rose with four
petals.
Observe that in z = a + i b,
y
a = r cos θ
b = r sin θ
Read also «Complex number».
x
Polar rose A curve whose equation in polar coor-
dinates is of the form
r = a cos(k θ )
where the amplitude a and its angular frequency The envelope curve of the rose is a circumference
k are constants. of radius a.
394
Polar tractrix–Polygonal number
This family of curves is also known by the name Polish notation is frequently used in program-
rose as well as rhodonea of the Greek, rhodon, mean- ming. For solving algebraic problems, conven-
ing rose. tional notation is more appropriate.
Polish notation is also known as Warsaw notation
Polar tractrix Curve whose parametric equations and prefix notation.
are:
Polygon Closed plane figure delimited by line seg-
x (t) = a cos(t) cos (t − tan(t)) ments that do not intersect each other, except at
y(t) = a cos(t) sin (t − tan(t)) their ends.
Each line segment is a side of the polygon, and
for 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2. the point where two consecutive sides of the poly-
gon intersect is called vertex.
y
Vertex
Side
This curve is also known as tractrix spiral. The angles formed by the sides are the angles of
the polygon. The angles of the polygon that are
Pole Point in the plane that is used as a reference inside the polygon are its interior angles. The an-
from which distances are to be measured in the gles formed by extending one side of the polygon
polar coordinate system. with its corresponding adjacent side are the exte-
rior angles.
y The name of the polygon depends on the number
r of sides (n) it has.
n Name n Name
y 3 Triangle 7 Heptagon
P(r, θ )
4 Quadrilateral 8 Octagon
r 5 Pentagon 9 Enneagon
6 Hexagon 10 Decagon
θ
x
x r Polygonal number A number represented by dots
arranged in the shape of a polygon. P
For example, the triangular numbers,
The origin of the rectangular coordinate system
shown coincides with the pole of the polar coor-
dinate system.
The axis used in the polar coordinate system as a
reference to measure angles is called the polar axis.
Read also «Polar coordinates».
Polish notation Mathematical notation in which
a mathematical operation is indicated before the the square numbers,
operands.
For example, (7 − 1) × 9 in Polish notation is de-
noted as:
× − 7 1 9
This indicates that 9 should be multiplied by the
result of subtracting 1 from 7.
395
Polygonal region–Polyhedron
or the pentagonal numbers. The name of the polyhedron depends on the
number of faces it has.
• 4: tetrahedron.
• 5: pentahedron.
• 6: hexahedron.
• 7: heptahedron.
• 8: octahedron.
• 9: nonahedron (also enneahedron).
Polygonal region Plane and closed figure
bounded by a polygonal line that can be decom- • 10: decahedron.
posed into a finite number of coplanar, triangular • 11: undecahedron (also hendecahedron).
regions that do not overlap each other.
• 12: dodecahedron (also duodecahedron).
D • 13: tridecahedron.
• 14: tetradecahedron (also tetrakaidecahe-
dron).
C
• 15: pentadecahedron (also pentakaidecahe-
dron).
E
• 16: hexadecahedron (also hexakaidecahe-
dron).
A B • 17: heptadecahedron (also heptakaidecahe-
dron)
Polyhedron A geometric solid bounded by poly- • 18: octadecahedron (also octakaidecahe-
gons such that (1) each polygon shares its sides dron).
with other polygons such that distinct sides corre- • 19: enneadecahedron (also enneakaidecahe-
spond to distinct adjacent polygons, (2) each side dron).
of each polygon is common to exactly two poly-
• 20: icosahedron.
gons, and (3) from any polygon of the solid, any
other polygon of the solid can be reached by pass- • 30: triacontahedron.
ing through adjacent polygons. • 40: tetracontahedron.
• 50: pentacontahedron.
• 60: hexacontahedron (also hexecontahe-
P dron).
• 70: heptacontahedron.
• 80: octacontahedron.
• 90: enneacontahedron.
• 100: hectahedron (also hectohedron).
• 1 000: chiliahedron.
• 10 000: mirihedron.
• 100 000: decemirihedron.
The polygons that delimit it are the faces of the
• 1 000 000: hectamirihedron.
polyhedron. The line segments in which the ad-
jacent faces touch each other are the edges of the • 10100 : googolohedron.
polyhedron. The points where the edges inter- • n: enohedron.
sect are the vertices of the polyhedron. If all of its
faces are the same regular polygon, then the poly- Read also «Archimedean solids», «Platonic solids»,
hedron is a regular polyhedron. «Catalan solids», and «Johnson solids».
396
Polynomial–Polynomial function
Polynomial Algebraic expression of the form: Observe that if P( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · +
an x n ,
a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + a n x n
where n is an integer, which is known as the de- P (0) = a0 ,
gree of the polynomial. The coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , P (1) = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + a n
· · · , an , are real numbers, and an , 0. P(−1) = a0 − a1 + a2 − · · · + an
The particular name that each polynomial re-
ceives depends on the number of terms it has. Read also «Rules of the exponents», «Distributive
law», and «Like Terms».
Terms Name Example
Polynomial division Operation between polyno-
1 Monomial 3 x2
mials P( x ) and Q( x ), denoted by P( x )/Q( x ), as
2 Binomial 2 + x3
well as P( x ) ÷ Q( x ), that consists in finding poly-
3 Trinomial 1 + 2 x + 3 x2
nomials C ( x ) and R( x ) such that:
It is often called polynomial if it has more than
P( x ) = Q( x ) · C ( x ) + R( x )
three terms.
The polynomial is a generalization of a num-
where P( x ) is the dividend, Q( x ) is the divisor,
ber, where x represents a number. For example,
C ( x ) is the quotient and R( x ) is the remainder.
7 x2 + 3 x + 4 for x = 10 represents the number
The division of polynomials is done using the
7 (10)2 + 3 (10) + 4 = 7 × 100 + 3 × 10 + 4 = 734 same algorithm used in the division of numbers.
For example, the division of x3 + 5 x2 + 11 x + 15
Consequently, the algorithms and procedures over x + 3 is:
used for operations with numbers are applicable
for operations with polynomials as well. x 2 +2 x +5
1
The elementary operations defined for polyno- x + 3 x3 +5 x2 +11 x +151
mials are: addition, difference (or subtraction), − x 3 −3 x 2
product (or multiplication), and division. 2 x2 +11 x
The sum of two or more polynomials is obtained −2 x 2 −6 x
by adding similar terms: 5 x +15
5 x3 + 4 x2 + 3 x − 4 −5 x −15
+ 3 x3 − 2 x2 + 4 x + 9 0
8 x3 + 2 x2 + 7 x + 5 In this example, P( x ) = x3 + 5 x2 + 11 x + 15
The multiplication of two polynomials is obtained is the dividend, Q( x ) = x + 3 is the divisor,
by applying the distributive law together with the C ( x ) = x2 + 2 x + 5 is the quotiend, and R( x ) = 0
is the remainder.
rules of the exponents:
x3 + 5 x2 + 2 x + 6
Read also «Algorithm of the division». P
× 3x + 5 Polynomial function The polynomial function of
degree n is a function of the form:
5 x3
+ 25 x2
+ 10 x + 30
3 x4 + 15 x3 + 6 x2 + 18 x
y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + · · · + a n x n
3 x4 + 20 x3 + 31 x2 + 28 x + 30
where a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an , are real numbers, all
And the division of two polynomials is obtained
the exponents of the variable x are positive inte-
by applying the same algorithm as the numerical
ger numbers, and an , 0.
division:
The domain of every polynomial function is the
x + 3 set of real numbers (R).
1
x + 2 x2 + 5 x + 4 a N The range of the polynomial function of odd de-
− x2 − 2 x gree n is R. To determine the range of the even
+3x +4 degree n polynomial function, it is often required
−3x −6 to graph it and/or apply infinitesimal calculus
−2 techniques.
397
Polynomial interpolation–Population mean
Notice that if you evaluate the polynomial func- In numerical methods, various polynomial inter-
tion at x = 1, you get polation techniques are studied.
Among the most frequently used are Newton’s
f (1) = a0 + a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + a n divided differences method and Lagrange’s poly-
nomial method.
which is the arithmetic sum of the coefficients of Read also «Lagrange polynomial» and «Newton’s in-
the polynomial. terpolation polynomial».
If the function is expressed in factored form
Polynomial remainder theorem The remainder of
y = an ( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 ) · · · ( x − xn ) dividing the polynomial P( x ) by x − a is P( a).
From the division algorithm,
then the roots of the function are x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · ,
xn . P( x ) = Q( x ) · ( x − a) + r
y y = f (x) so, P( a) = Q( a) · ( a − a) + r = r, what was to be
proved.
For example by dividing P( x ) = x3 − 6 x2 +
11 x − 6 over x − 1, using synthetic division it is
obtained:
1 −6 11 −6 1
−1 7 −18
1 −7 18 −24
The remainder is −24. Thus, P(1) = −24.
Observe that if x = k is a root of the polynomial
x P( x ), then P( x ) is divisible by x − k.
x1 x2 x3 x4
Read also «Factor theorem».
Polynomial sequence A polynomial sequence is a
sequence of polynomials whose nonnegative in-
dex coincides with the degree of the polynomial.
For example, the Abel polynomials.
Read also «Abel polynomials», «Chebyshev polyno-
mials», «Laguerre polynomials», and «Legendre poly-
nomials».
Polynomial interpolation Interpolation technique
in which a set of data is used ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), Poncelet–Steiner theorem Any Euclidean con-
P ( x3 , y3 ), · · · , ( xn , yn ), and from them a polyno-
mial of degree m is computed
struction, insofar as the given and required ele-
ments are points (or lines), if it can be completely
drawn with compass and ruler (both), it can also
y = Pm ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + am x m be completed with the ruler alone, if it is provided
of a circle with its center in the plane.
which is used to estimate the value of ŷ from a
value of x̂ that is not in the known data. Population In statistics, the population refers to
the set of elements whose answers, results, mea-
y surements, or count are of interest.
The given set corresponds to the universe from
which a sample is chosen for study.
The population parameters are those calculated
from observed data on all elements of the popu-
lation. The sample parameters are those that are
ŷ calculated from those observed in a sample.
x Population mean If X1 , X2 , X3 , · · · , X N constitute
a x̂ b the values of a variable measures for members of
398
Population variance–Positive area
the population, then the population mean µ of z
said variable is:
n
∑ Xi
i =1 ~r(t)
µ= t)
N ~r(
1
where N represents the size of the population.
−1 −1
Population variance The population variance σ2 of y
a population of size N is: 1 1
x
N
2
∑ ( xi − µ )
i =1 Read also «Polar coordinates», «Rectangular coordi-
σ2 =
N nates», «Cylindrical coordinates», and «Spherical co-
ordinates».
where xi is the i −th value of the data, and µ is
the population mean.
Positive A number or algebraic expression is posi-
Porism Mathematical proposition or corollary ob- tive if its value is greater than zero.
tained as a direct consequence of a proof (in a To indicate that a quantity is positive, it is pre-
similar way as the corollary is obtained from a ceded by the sign +. When no symbol appears,
theorem so that for its derivation no additional it is understood that the positive sign is implicitly
assumptions are required.) considered.
Read also «Greater than».
Position Location of an object or point in space.
In mathematics, the position of a point is indi- Positive area (Vector calculus) It is said that the
cated by the coordinates of the location of that area of a region Q of the plane bounded by a
point in a coordinate system. closed curve C, which does not intersect itself, is
positive, if when plotting the curve counterclock-
wise, the region Q is to the left of the path.
z
z
C : ~r(t)
P (x, y, z)
Q
y
x
x y
P
In Cartesian coordinates, the position of a point P
in a three-dimensional space is given by P( x, y, z).
The position of an object can be described alge- If the region Q is to the right when you go around
braically by a position vector function ⃗r (t), of the the curve C that bounds it, then the area is said to
form: be negative.
⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂ As a vector, the area A of a given region Q of the
plane is defined as a vector of magnitude equal
where t is a parameter (generally, time), x (t), y(t), to the area of the region and whose (positive) di-
and z(t) are the (deterministic) components of the rection is perpendicular to the plane that contains
position vector, which consist of continuous func- the referred area so that it is positive.
tions of the variable t. For each value of t, ⃗r (t) re- That is, if the perimeter of Q is traversed in a hor-
turns the value of the position of that object. The izontal plane in the counterclockwise direction,
graph of the vector function ⃗r (t) for a ≤ t ≤ b is and the region is to the left of the path, the vector
the path of the object in the given interval. points upwards.
399
Positive direction–Power function
~n if ∇ f ( x, y, z) = ⃗F ( x, y, z). That is, if the gradient
of f is the vector field ⃗F ( x, y, z), then f is the po-
C : ~r(t) tential function of ⃗F.
Not all vector fields have a potential function.
If a vector field has a potential function, then the
Q field is said to be a conservative vector field.
Potential infinity Infinity considered as a quantity
that can be approached, more and more, but can
never be reached.
Positive direction The positive direction of a co- For example, when an interval is divided into n
ordinate axis indicates the direction in which the parts, and n is made to grow, larger and larger, it
values on the axis (as a number line) are increas- is said that the number of parts into which the inter-
ing. val is divided tends to infinity. Here, the potential
In the Cartesian plane, the horizontal axis is infinity is considered.
known as the x axis, and its positive direction is For example, if you define dx = 1/n, where n
towards the right. The vertical axis is known as is a quantity that grows without limit, potential
the y axis, and its positive direction is upwards. infinity is being used, because the interval [0, 1]
is considered to be divided into an increasingly
y large quantity n, but it never reaches infinity. In
this sense, it is an ideal process that never ends:
you can always consider a larger value for n and
Positive direction →
you never reach infinity. That’s why it’s called
potential infinity.
Pound Unit of mass equivalent to 0.454 kg, or 16
ounces.
x
Positive direction →
Power It is the result of multiplying a number (the
base) by itself several times.
Note that the arrow drawn on each axis indicates
its corresponding positive direction.
Postulate Proposition that is accepted as true, be- Exponent
cause there is no principle from which it can be
P deduced.
Postulate is not synonymous with axiom. The ax- Base 25 = 32 Power
iom is self-evident; the postulate is not.
5
2 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32
The postulate can also refer to a requirement | {z }
being accepted. For example, one can postu- 5 factors
late the existence of positive quantities less than
any quantity that can be represented numerically
(concretely) and call them infinitesimal.
In this sense, postulate is a request to accept an Read also «Laws of the exponents».
assumption as true.
For example, Euclid’s Parallel Line Postulate.
Read also «Leibniz’s postulates». Power function A function of the form: y = x n ,
where n > 0 is a natural number.
Potential function A scalar function w = f ( x, y, z) For n = 1 you get the identity function y = x, for
is a potential function corresponding to the field: n = 2 you get the quadratic function y = x2 , for
n = 3 you get the cubic function y = x3 , and so
⃗F ( x, y, z) = M ı̂ + N ȷ̂ + P k̂ on.
400
Power of a point–Present value
y because the numbers 1 through 11 can be written
as the sum of the divisors of the number 12.
Precision (Computing) Number of significant fig-
ures that a quantity has.
y = x5 For example, the value of π with a precision of 5
y = x4 figures is: 3.1416.
y = x3 (Statistics) Precision measures the degree to
1
y = x2
which repeated measurements under the same
x conditions show the same results.
1 The precision of a measurement system is re-
lated to the reproducibility and repeatability of
the measurements.
Power of a point If two lines passing through a To indicate the precision of the results, the aver-
point P intersect a fixed circumference at points age value measured or observed and the margin
A, B and C, D, respectively, then AP · PB = of error must be indicated. For example,
CP · PD is a constant called power of the point P.
2.5 m ± 0.125 m
B C If the precision is not indicated (±0.125 m), it is
said that it has a false precision or overprecision.
P Predictive inference Inferential statistics with a
predictive approach where statistical forecasting
A techniques are studied.
D Predictor variable In a statistical experimental de-
sign, a predictor variable is the variable that char-
acterizes the initial conditions of a hypothetical
scenario, and on which the value of the response
variables is supposed to depend.
Observation: the point P does not necessarily In general, a hypothetical scenario includes sev-
have to be a point interior to the circumference. eral predictor variables.
The predictor variable is also known as regressor,
C explanatory variable, input variable, and manipulated
D variable.
P O Premise In logic, propositions from which a con-
clusion is inferred are called premises.
The premises are the elementary components of
B
A reasoning.
Read also «Conclusion» and «Syllogism».
P
Present value The present value of an amount of
If d is the distance from P to the center of the cir-
cumference of radius r, the power of the point P money is its current value today.
about that circumference is equal to d2 − r2 . Present value is the value of money for the time
t = 0.
Powerful number A natural number of the form The present value PV corresponding to the future
n = p2 q3 , where p and q are two positive integer value FV under a compound interest rate i is cal-
numbers. culated with:
For example, 1, 4, 8, 9 are powerful numbers.
FV
Powerful numbers are also known as square-full PV =
numbers and as 2-full numbers. (1 + i ) n
The present value of an annuity (PVA) of n peri-
Practical number Positive integer n such that all
odic payments is:
positive integers less than n can be represented as
the sum of the different divisors of n. A 1
For example, the number 12 is a practical number, PVA = 1 −
i (1 + i ) n
401
Primality–Prime polynomial
where A is the value of the individual payment 2 3 5 7 11
made in each period, n is the number of periods, 13 17 19 23 29
and i is the compound interest rate. 31 37 41 43 47
53 59 61 67 71
Primality Condition of a natural or integer num-
Notice that except for 2, all prime numbers are
ber of being or not being a prime number.
odd, but not all odd numbers are prime. For ex-
An integer p is said to be a prime number if it has
ample, the number 21 is not prime, since it has 4
exactly two natural divisors: 1 and p.
divisors (1, 3, 7, and 21).
The primality of an integer n consists of indicat-
The only prime number that is even is the num-
ing whether n is prime or not.
ber 2.
Read also «Prime number».
There are infinitely many prime numbers.
Primary number Synonym of prime power. Read also «Euclid’s theorem».
Read also «Prime power». The prime number is (conveniently) defined in
this way so that the number 1 is not considered
Prime factor A prime number p is a prime factor among the prime numbers and the fundamental
of n, if n is divisible by p. theorem √of arithmetic still holds.
For example, 5 is a prime factor of 30, because 30 If r = n, where n is a prime number, then r is
is divisible by 5, since 30 = 2 · 3 · 5. an irrational number.
Suppose that n = p/q is a rational number, then
Prime factorization Representation of a composite p2
natural number n as a product of prime numbers, n= ⇒ q2 r = p2
q2
m
Since p2 is a perfect square, in its decomposition
∏ ai i = a11 · a22 · · · aαmm
α α α
n=
i =1
as a product of prime factors, it has an even num-
ber of factors (including multiplicities), but q2 n
where all the factors ai for i = 1, · · · , m are prime has an odd number of factors, since q2 , being a
numbers. perfect square, has an even number of factors (in-
If the factors ai are written in ascending order, cluding multiplicities) and n is a prime number.
then it is said that the number n has been written Thus, at the left-hand side of the equality there
in its prime factorization in the canonic form (or is an odd number of factors whereas in the right-
standard form). hand side there is an even number of factors. This
For example, contradiction indicates that the initial hypothesis,
100 = 22 · 52 that r is rational, is false.
Read also «Sieve of Eratosthenes», «Composite num-
The number τ (n) of divisor that the number n has ber», and «Fundamental theorem of arithmetic».
is:
m Prime number theorem If π ( x ) denotes the func-
P τ (n) =
i =1
∏ ( α i + 1) tion that indicates how many prime numbers
there are that are not greater than x, then,
For example, the number of divisors of the num- x
π (x) ∼
ber 100 is: ln( x )
In words, as x grows large, π ( x ) divided over
τ (100) = τ (22 · 52 ) = (2 + 1)(2 + 1) = 9 x/ ln( x ) is approximately 1.
Considered one of the most important in all
Indeed, the divisors of the number 100 are: 1, 2, of mathematics, the prime number theorem de-
4, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50 and 100. scribes how prime numbers are distributed.
Prime number Natural number that has exactly Prime polynomial Polynomial that cannot be writ-
two positive divisors. ten as the product of two non-constant polynomi-
For example, the number 2 is prime, since its only als with real coefficients.
divisors are 1 and 2. For example, the polynomial x2 + 1 is a prime
The number 9 is not a prime number, since it has polynomial.
3 divisors: 1, 3, and 9. The prime polynomial is also known as irreducible
The first 20 prime numbers are: polynomial and as unfactorable polynomial.
402
Prime power–Prismatoid
Prime power Integer and positive power of a
prime number.
For example, 32 = 9 is a prime power.
The prime power is also known as «primary num-
ber». h
Prime quadruplet A prime quadruplet is made up
of four primes that fall between five consecutive
odd numbers, where the first two and the last two
are prime numbers. Pentagonal prism
For example, (5, 7, 11, 13), and (11, 13, 17, 19) are
prime quadruplets.
Notice that the prime quadruplets are of the form The two parallel polygonal faces are the bases of
p, p + 2, p + 6 and p + 8. the prism. Both bases are congruent polygons.
The lateral faces of the prism are all of its non-
Prime triplet A prime triplet is formed by three base faces (those parallelogram-shaped faces).
prime numbers such that the first and the last dif- A prism is a right prism if its lateral faces are per-
fer by (at most) 6. pendicular to the bases of the prism. If a prism is
For example, (5, 7, 11), (7, 11, 13), and (11, 13, 17) not a right prism, then it is said to be an oblique
are prime triplets. prism.
There is only one triplet of numbers p, p + 2, p + 4 The height of a prism is the perpendicular dis-
such that all are a prime: 3, 5 and 7. There can tance between its bases.
be no other because assuming that k is a positive The area A of a prism is:
integer, if p = 3 k (greater than 3) then p is not a
prime number; if p = 3 k + 1, then p + 2 is a mul- A = p h + 2 Ab
tiple of 3, and therefore, it is not a prime number,
and if p = 3 k + 2 then p + 4 is a multiple of 3, so, where h is its height, p is the perimeter of its base,
it cannot be a prime number. and Ab is the area of its base.
Read also «Twin prime». The volume V of a prism is:
Principle A truth that has been proven. V = Ab · h
Synonym of law.
where Ab is the area of the base and h its height.
Principle of superposition If y1 (t), y2 (t), · · · , yn (t), A regular prism is a right prism whose bases are
are n distinct solutions of the homogeneous linear regular polygons.
differential equation, of order n,
Prismatoid Polyhedron whose vertices lie in two
L[y] = a0 (t) y + a1 (t) y′ + a2 (t) y′′ + · · · + y(n) = 0 parallel planes.
then any linear combination of the known solu-
tions
P
y ( t ) = c1 y1 ( t ) + c2 y2 ( t ) + · · · + c n y n ( t )
is also a solution of that differential equation.
For example, knowing that y1 (t) = cos(t), and
y2 (t) = sin(t), are solutions of the differential
equation, y′′ + y = 0, then,
y(t) = c1 cos(t) + c2 sin(t)
is also a solution of said differential equation, for
any values of the arbitrary constants c1 and c2 .
Prism Polyhedron with two identical and parallel Examples of prismatoids are prisms, antiprisms,
polygonal faces, and the other faces being paral- frustums, cupolas, pyramids, parallelepipeds,
lelograms. and wedges.
403
Probability–Probability generating function
Probability In mathematics, probability is a way is a function f ( x ), defined over R such that:
of quantifying the plausibility of occurrence of an
event. Zb
The probability value P( A) of an event A satis- P( a ≤ X ≤ b) = f ( x ) · dx
fies: 0 ≤ P( A) ≤ 1. a
When an event A has n different possible out-
comes, all equally likely, the probability P( A) of for any constants a, b, where a ≤ b.
one of those events occurring is: A probability density function of a continuous
random variable X satisfies:
1
P( A) = i. f ( x ) ≥ 0 for −∞ < x < ∞.
n
Z∞
And more generally, when there are k favorable ii. f ( x ) · dx = 1.
cases of obtaining a particular outcome A from an −∞
experiment among n equally likely possible cases,
the probability of the event is: If f ( x ) is the probability function and F ( x ) is the
distribution function of the random variable X at
favorable outcomes k x, then,
P( A) = =
posible outcomes n
i. P( a ≤ X ≤ b) = F (b) − F ( a), for a ≤ b.
The probability that this event does not occur is: dF ( x )
ii. f ( x ) = , whenever the derivative ex-
dx
n−k ists.
P( A′ ) = = 1 − P( A)
n
The probability density function is a function
Note that P( A) + P( A′ ) = 1. whose value at any point in the sample space can
If an event is assigned the probability of zero (0), be interpreted as the relative probability that the
then that event is (virtually) impossible to occur. value of the random variable is equal to that sam-
If an event is assigned the probability of one (1), ple.
then that event occurs with certainty (in theory). The probability density function is used to com-
If E1 and E2 are independent events, whose re- pute the probability that the value of a random
spective probabilities are p1 and p2 , then the variable is in a given interval.
probability that both occur is: p1 · p2 . If a distribution has a density function, then its
The probability that E1 and E2 do not occur si- derivative is the probability density. Mathemati-
multaneously is: 1 − p1 p2 . cally:
The probability that neither occurs is: (1 − d ( F ( x ))
= f (x)
p1 )(1 − p2 ). dx
The probability that E1 occurs, but E2 does not, is: where F ( x ) is the cumulative distribution func-
P p1 (1 − p2 ).
The probability that E1 does not occur, but E2
tion and f ( x ) is the probability density.
The probability density function is also known as
does, is: (1 − p1 ) p2 . probability density, density function, or simply as
The probability that one event occurs and the density.
other does not is: p1 + p2 − 2 p1 p2 . The distributions of discrete random variables do
For any sample space, the probability of an event not have a probability density function.
corresponding to the empty set is zero: P(∅) = 0.
If E1 and E2 are events of the same sample space Probability distribution function Synonym of
and E1 ⊂ E2 , then, P( E1 ) ≤ P( E2 ). distribution function.
If E1 and E2 are two events from the same sample Read also «Distribution function».
space, then,
Probability generating function If X is a discrete
P( E1 ∪ E2 ) = P( E1 ) + P( E2 ) − P( E1 ∩ E2 ) random variable, whose values are in the non-
negative integers, the probability generating func-
Read also «Sample space». tion of X is:
h i ∞
Probability density function A probability den-
sity function of a continuous random variable X
P(t) = E t X = ∑ pi ti
i =0
404
Problem–Product of matrices
where p( X = i ) = pi is the probability that the Product of fractions The product of the fractions
variable X takes the value i, and the sum is con- a/b and c/b is:
sidered for all possible values of t where P(t) is a c a·c
finite. =
b d b·d
Since in an algebraic fraction, the literals repre-
Problem A proposition or question that requires a
sent numbers, this definition is also applicable for
procedure, method, technique or strategy (gener-
algebraic fractions.
ally unknown) to find its solution.
If an algorithm is already known to answer the Product of matrices The multiplication of two ma-
question, it is not a problem, but an exercise. trices A and B can be carried out if and only if
In mathematics, not all problems have a number the number of columns in the first (left) matrix is
or an algebraic expression as a solution. Some- equal to the number of rows in the second (right)
times the solution of the problem consists in say- matrix. The element cij of the result of the mul-
ing that the problem has no solution. For exam- tiplication of the matrix A = [ aij ] of dimension
ple, the solution of calculating the number x that m × n by the matrix B = [bij ] of dimension n × p,
satisfies: x + 2 = x, is: «such number x does not is obtained by calculating the dot product of the
exist». i −th row of A by the j−th column of B.
For example, considering
Product It is the result of the multiplication of two
numbers or algebraic expressions. 1 2 3 1
A= and B=
Considering the real numbers a, b and c, the prod- 4 −1 2 5
uct has the following properties. Then, if C = A B, it follows that
• Commutative: a · b = b · a. c11 = (1)(3) + (2)(2) = 7
• Acsociative: a · (b · c) = ( a · b) · c. c12 = (1)(1) + (2)(5) = 11
• Identity element: a · 1 = a. c21 = (4)(3) + (−1)(2) = 10
1 c22 = (4)(1) + (−1)(5) = −1
• Multiplicative inverse: a · = 1, for a , 0.
a Therefore,
1 2 3 1 7 11
Product of a sequence The product of the terms of C = AB = =
4 −1 2 5 10 −1
a sequence ai is equal to the product of all the
terms of the sequence from i = 1 to i = n. The From the way multiplication is defined, it is clear
product is denoted using the notation pi: that it is not always possible to multiply two ma-
trices. Even if it is possible to compute A B, it is
n not always possible to compute B A. That is, mul-
∏ a i = a1 · a2 · a3 · · · · · a n tiplication between matrices is not commutative:
i =1
and is read: the product of the factors ai from i = 1
AB , BA
For example, considering the matrices A and B as
P
to n, or, the product for i from 1 to n of ai .
For example, the product of the first 5 harmonic defined before,
numbers is: 3 1 1 2 7 5
BA= =
5
2 5 4 −1 22 −1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∏i = · · · · =
1 2 3 4 5 120 If A is a matrix of dimension n × m, B is another
i =1
matrix of dimension m × p, and C is another ma-
Read also «Capital pi notation». trix of dimension p × q, then,
A ( BC ) = ( AB) C
Product of complex numbers The product of com-
plex numbers: z1 = a1 + i b1 , and z2 = a2 + i b2 , is The result A ( BC ) is a matrix of dimension n × q.
defined by Assuming that A, B, C are matrices such that the
operations indicated below are possible, then:
z1 · z2 = ( a1 · a2 − b1 · b2 ) + i ( a1 · b2 + a2 · b1 ) A ( B + C ) = AB + AC
Read also «Complex number». Read also «Matrix» and «Dot product».
405
Program–Proof by contradiction
Program List of instructions that allows the solu- Descriptive geometry describes the methods of
tion of a problem through the computer. Pro- representing solid body shapes in a plane. It
grams are usually written in some programming also develops the methods to determine, from the
language so that the computer can understand figures (correctly constructed), the shape of the
and perform the instructions. solids they represent.
The first person in human history to write a pro-
Proof Synonym of mathematical proof.
gram for a machine was Ada Lovelace.
Read also «Mathematical proof ».
Projection (Linear algebra) The projection of the
Proof by construction Mathematical proof
vector ⃗u upon the vector ⃗v (⃗u , ⃗0, ⃗v , ⃗0) is the
method in which an instance (a concrete exam-
vector denoted by Proy⃗v⃗u, and defined by:
ple) with a particular property is constructed to
⃗u · ⃗v demonstrate that said object with that property
Proy⃗v⃗u = ⃗
v exists.
∥⃗v∥2
For example, to show that there are functions
z that are continuous at a point, but are not dif-
ferentiable there, we√can consider the case of the
~u function y = | x | = x2 . Obviously, this function
is continuous at x = 0, because
lim | x | = 0 = |0|
x →0
But its derivative is:
1 2 −1/2
θ y
Pr dy x
oy = x (2 x ) = √
~v ~u dx 2 x2
which presents an indetermination in x = 0.
x ~v This shows that there are indeed functions that
are continuous at some value in their domain
(Projective geometry) The projection of a point P x = x0 , but are not differentiable at that point.
on a plane π is the foot of the perpendicular from A counterexample can also be used instead of an
P on the plane. instance.
The following figure shows the projection of the For example, to show that not all odd numbers
points P, Q, R, and S on the plane xy (where are prime, a composite number is constructed by
z = 0). multiplying two odd numbers (greater than 1).
The number (3)(7) = 21 is an odd number that is
z not prime, since it has 4 divisors: 1, 3, 7, and 21.
Therefore, not all odd numbers are prime num-
bers.
P Q
P
Proof by contradiction Demonstration in which
R the initial premise is assumed to be false and a
S contradiction or a false premise is reached, thus
concluding that the assumption is false, making
the initial premise true.
The proof by contradiction is also called reductio
a c d
y ad absurdum.
b For example, to prove that there are infinitely
x many primes, assume the opposite: that there ex-
ists a prime number p that is the largest of all
prime numbers. Then construct the number:
Read also «Dot product».
N = (2)(3)(5)(7) · · · ( p) + 1
Projective geometry Branch of mathematics that
studies geometric properties that are invariant which is 1 plus the product of all prime num-
with respect to projection and perspective trans- bers from 2 to p. This number is not divisible by
formations. any of the prime numbers, because a remainder
406
Proof by contraposition–Proper vector
of 1 is always obtained. Therefore, it has exactly Propello dodecahedron Polyhedron with 72 faces,
two divisors 1 and N), and it is a prime number, of which 60 are specular-symmetric quadrilater-
which is obviously greater than p, the supposed als and 12 are regular pentagons. It also has 80
largest prime number. This contradiction proves vertices and 150 edges.
that there are infinitely many prime numbers.
Proof by contraposition Proof that consists in
showing that if ¬q then ¬ p when it is required
to prove that if p, then q.
For example, to show by contraposition that if
2 · x = 0, then x = 0, it is necessary to show that
x , 0, Then 2 · x , 0.
First, let’s suppose that x > 0. If that is the case,
then 2 x > 0. Finally, if x < 0, then 2 x < 0. By
trichotomy, the third posibility is x = 0, which is
not required to verify here.
Proof by exhaustion Mathematical proof method
in which the statement to be proved is divided Proper divisor A divisor d of the number k is a
into a finite number of cases and each one is proper divisor if |d| < |k|. For example, the (pos-
proved as true. itive) divisors of 10 are: 1, 2, 5, and 10. Its proper
For example, to show that if c divides a b, know- divisors are: 1, 2 and 5, because they are smaller
ing that ( a, c) = 1, there are two cases: either c| a, than 10.
or c|b. Read also «Divisor» and «Proper factor».
Case 1 is discarded because ( a, c) = 1 indicates
that a and c have no common factors. Case 2 must Proper factor A number r is a proper factor of the
be true, if the initial hypothesis is true. Therefore, number n, if 1 ≤ r < n is a divisor of n.
if c| a b, and ( a, c) = 1, it follows that c|b. Read also «Proper divisor».
Proof by vacuity A proof method that is based on Proper factorization The factorization of the com-
the fact that an empty set has no elements. posite number n is a proper factorization if none
For example, to show that the empty set is a lin- of the factors is the number 1 nor the number n.
early independent set of vectors, one can consider For example, a proper factorization of the number
the fact that if there is any element vector of the 100 is:
set that can be written as a linear combination of 100 = (10)(10)
the other vectors, then the set is not linearly inde- A factorization of the number 100 that is not a
pendent. proper factorization is: 100 = 1 · 100.
Due to vacuity (i.e., emptiness), it is not possible
to write any of the vectors of the empty set as
No prime number has a proper factorization. All
composite numbers have at least one proper fac- P
a linear combination of the other vectors, so the torization.
empty set is linearly independent. Read also «Prime number» and «Composite num-
Another way to argue this same result is with the ber».
definition of the base of a vector space: the base of
Proper fraction When the numerator of a fraction
a vector space V of dimension n is a linearly inde-
is less than its denominator, we say that the frac-
pendent set of n vectors that generate V . Consid-
tion is a proper fraction.
ering that the vector space consisting of the zero
In other words, if the quotient r of the fraction is
vector {⃗0} is zero-dimensional (n = 0), by defi-
less than 1, then the fraction is a proper fraction.
nition, the basis of this vector space is a linearly
For example, 2/7 is a proper fraction because
independent set with n = 0 vectors. This implies
2 < 7.
that the basis of the vector space {⃗0} is the empty
set, and therefore (by the definition of base of a Proper value Synonym of «eigenvalue».
vector space) ∅ is a linearly independent set of Read also «Eigenvalue».
vectors.
Proper vector Synonym of «eigenvector».
Read also «Dimension».
Read also «Eigenvector».
407
Property–Proportional mean
Property We say that a (mathematical) object has a Proportion of division Given the segment AB and
property if it has a specific characteristic, to which one point P on it, the proportion of division λ
that property refers. of the segment AB by the point P is the ratio:
λ = | AP|/| PB|.
Proportion Equality between two ratios. For example, if | AB| = 10, and the point P is lo-
For example, cated at 6 units of the point A, then, | AP| = 6
x 7 and | PB| = 4, and the proportion of division of
=
7 2 the segment AB by the point P is:
is a proportion expressing the fact that the ratio
| AP| 6 3
of x to 7 is equal to the ratio of 7 to 2. λ= = = = 1.5
| PB| 4 2
In geometry the proportion is expressed as:
The coordinates of the point of division P( x, y)
a : b :: c : d that divides the segment with endpoints at
P1 ( x1 , y1 ), and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) in the ratio λ = P1 P/PP2 ,
and it is read as: «a is to b as c is to d». are:
If two ratios a : b and c : d are equal it is
said that the four terms a, b, c and d are propor- x + λ x2 y + λ y2
x= 1 y= 1
tional. The terms a and d are «extremes» of the 1+λ 1+λ
proportion, while b and c are the «means» of the
y
proportion.
If b = c it is said that b is «the proportional mean» P1 PP
y1 λ= 1
between the extremes. That is, if PP2
a : b :: b : c y P
then b is the proportional mean between a and c. P2
y2
If a ∼ b, there is one constant k different from
zero such that a = k b.
If a ∼ c, and b ∼ c, then x
O x1 x x2
• ( a + b) ∼ c
Proportional division Division of a segment in
• ( a − b) ∼ c
√ two or more parts in the proportion given by two
• ab ∼ c or more quantities (numbers).
If a ∼ c, and b ∼ d p q r
• ab ∼ cd A B C D
P •
a
b
∼
c
d Read also «Division of a segment» (Analytic geom-
etry).
Proportion by addition Given the proportion Proportional mean The proportional mean x of the
a/b = c/d, then (a+b)/b = (c+d)/d. non-negative numbers p and q is:
Proportion by addition and subtraction Given √
x = pq
the proportion a/b = c/d, then: (a+b)/(a−b) =
(c+d)/(c−d). The proportional mean coincides with the geo-
metric mean of two numbers.
Proportion by alteration Given the proportion Read also «Geometric mean».
a/b = c/d, then a/c = b/d. (Arithmetic) In the proportion a : b :: c : d, the
terms a and d are the «extremes» of the proportion,
Proportion by inversion Given the proportion while b and c are the «means» of the proportion.
a/b = c/d, then b/a = d/c. If b = c it is said that b is «proportional mean» be-
tween the extremes. That is, of
Proportion by subtraction Given the propotion
a/b = c/d, then (a−b)/b = (c−d)/d. a : b :: b : c
408
Proportional parts–Pseudocode
then b is the proportional mean between a and c. 100 90 80
110 70
Read also «Proportion». 120 60
130 50
140 40
Proportional parts When it is required to divide 150 30
an amount n into two or more proportional parts 160 20
a : b : c : · · · , etc., the requested proportional
170 10
parts of n are the numbers u, v, w, etc., that sat-
180 0
isfy the following two conditions:
1. u : v : w : · · · , etc., are in the solicited pro- Usually, the angles indicated on the protractor
portion a : b : c : · · · , etc. (the graduation) are in sexagesimal degrees.
Read also «Sexagesimal degree».
2. n = u + v + w + · · · .
Pseudocode Description in spoken (natural) lan-
guage of the steps of an algorithm or a sys-
For example, to divide the number n = 30 in tem. Traditionally pseudocode is written with
two proportional parts in the proportion 2 : 3, the structure of a program written in some pro-
the numbers of the ratio are considered as repre- gramming language, indicating the expected in-
sentatives of the parts, so the total is represented puts and outputs.
by 2 + 3 = 5. To simplify your writing you can include obser-
Proportional parts are obtained by dividing n = vations, clarification of exceptions, mathematical
30 over the sum of the parts (the total, 5) and this notation, etc.
quotient is multiplied by each part. Thus, if a = 2, For example, the pseudocode for the algorithm to
b = 3, determine whether a given natural number n is
prime or not is as follows.
an (2)(30)
= = 12
a+b 5 Paso 1. Ask for n (the number you want to know if
bn (3)(30) it is prime or not)
= = 18
a+b 5 Paso 2. IF n = 1,
return «n is not prime» and END.
And since, 12 + 18 = 30, the numbers 12 and 18 End IF
are the proportional parts of 30 in the proportion
2 : 3. Paso 3. IF n = 2, or n = 3,
return «n is prime» and END.
End IF
Proposition Statement of a law or principle. It
can also be an issue that needs to be resolved or Paso 4. Assign d ← 3
demonstrated.
In mathematics the most used propositions are:
Paso 5. Si n > d and n ≡ 0 mod d,
return «n It is not prime» and END.
P
the axiom, the postulate, the theorem, the corol- End IF
lary, and the problem.
Paso 6. IF n = d,
(Logic) Entity bearer of truth values.
return «n is prime» and END.
For example, The Moon is closer to Earth than to the
End IF
Sun.
Paso 7. Assign: d ← d + 2.
Propositional calculus Branch of logic in which Paso 8. IF d ∗ d > n,
propositions and the operations between them to return «n is prime» and END.
form more complex propositions are studied. ELSE Go To Step 5.
End SI
Propositional variable Discrete variable that can
The advantage of using pseudocode is that it is
be assigned only the values true or false.
easier to understand by people who are not ex-
perts in programming or in a particular program-
Protractor Instrument used to measure angles. ming language.
409
Pseudoprime–Pyramid
Pseudoprime An integer n is pseudoprime if n is Pure mathematics Study of mathematics, its the-
a divisor of 2n − 2. ory, structure, methods and procedures, in order
For example, the number 5 is pseudoprime, be- to increase mathematical knowledge. In this case,
cause it is a divisor of 30, and 30 = 25 − 2. the applications of mathematics are not taken into
account, although generally what is discovered in
Pseudosphere Surface of revolution obtained pure mathematics can be used in other branches
when the tractrix is rotated around its axis. of science.
The parametric equations of this surface are:
Pursuit curve Given a point A moving along a
x = sech(u) cos(v) straight line with constant speed, a pursuit curve
y = sech(u) sin(v) is the path that a point P describes that moves
z = u − tanh(u) with constant speed and whose direction always
points towards the location of A.
for u ∈ R, and v ∈ [0, 2 π ).
y
z
x y
P
x
Read also «Tractrix». A
Ptolemy’s theorem In every cyclic quadrilateral,
Pyramid Geometric solid with a polygon as a base
the product of the lengths of its diagonals is equal
and the other faces being triangles with a com-
to the sum of the products of the lengths of the
mon vertex.
pairs of opposite sides.
The triangular faces of the pyramid are called lat-
In the quadrilateral ABCD, it is satisfied:
eral faces.
| AC | · | BD | = | AB| · |CD | + | BC | · | AD | The height of the pyramid is the perpendicular
distance from the base to the vertex common to
B all lateral faces.
If the foot of the height is at the centroid of the
base of the pyramid, then it is a right pyramid.
C
P A
Pure imaginary number A number is a pure imag-
inary number if its square is a negative real num-
ber.
Hexagonal pyramid
In the complex number z = a + i b, the real part is
a and its imaginary part is b, where i is the imag-
inary unit. If a = 0, then z is a pure imaginary The volume V of the pyramid is:
number. 1
Read also «Complex numbers». V= AB h
3
410
Pythagorean constant–Pythagorean identities
where A B is the area of the polygon (the base)
and h is its height, which is the distance measured
perpendicularly from the base to the vertex com-
mon to the triangular faces. c b
Notice that the volume of a pyramid is equal to
one-third of the volume of a prism with the same
base and the same height. θ
A pyramid is a regular pyramid if its base is a reg- a
ular polygon and its lateral faces are congruent.
The slant height of a regular pyramid is the height
of one of its lateral faces.
By the Pythagorean theorem,
√
Pythagorean constant The number 2 ≈ 1.4142 is
known as the Pythagorean constant. a2 + b2 = c2
Pythagoras proved that√this number is irrational,
and it is believed that 2 was the first number to
be shown to be irrational. Dividing both sides by c2 , we get:
The geometric construction with
√ compass and
ruler of a segment of length 2 is pretty easy: a2 b2
the diagonal + =1 ⇒
√ of a square of unit length measures c2 c2
exactly 2. a 2
b 2
+ =1
c c
√
2
1 By definition cos(θ ) = a/c, and sin(θ ) = b/c.
Therefore,
1 cos2 (θ ) + sin2 (θ ) = 1
Read also «Irrational number». Dividing both sides of the last identity by cos2 (θ ),
it is obtained:
Pythagorean equation Equation of the form
cos2 (θ ) sin2 (θ ) 1
2
x +y = z2 2 + = ⇒
cos2 (θ ) cos2 (θ ) cos2 (θ )
where x, y, and z are positive integer numbers.
The values x, y, z that satisfy the Pythagorean
1 + tan2 (θ ) = sec2 (θ )
P
equation are known as Pythagorean triples. On the other hand, if instead of dividing by
Read also «Pythagorean theorem» and «Pythagorean cos2 (θ ) the terms of the first justified identity, we
triple». divide by sin2 (θ ), it is obtained:
Pythagorean identities Trigonometric identities
cos2 (θ ) sin2 (θ ) 1
that can be justified using the Pythagorean the- + = ⇒
2 2
orem. sin (θ ) sin (θ ) sin2 (θ )
cot2 (θ ) + 1 = csc2 (θ )
2 2
sin (θ ) + cos (θ ) = 1
tan2 (θ ) + 1 = sec2 (θ ) The following figure shows the geometric rep-
cot2 (θ ) + 1 = csc2 (θ ) resentation of the trigonometric ratios in a unit
circle. With it, applying the Pythagorean theo-
Considering a right triangle with legs of length a rem, the three Pythagorean trigonometric identi-
and b, and hypotenuse of length c. ties can be readily deduced.
411
Pythagorean theorem–Pythagorean triple
y Being lengths of the sides of right triangles, these
triplets satisfy the Pythagorean theorem.
cot θ
1
5
c θ 3
cs
cθ
se
tan θ
sin θ
4
θ It is not possible to build a primitive Pythagorean
x triangle such that the length of the height that
cos θ 1
goes from the hypotenuse to the vertex of the
right angle is an integer.
Read also «Pythagorean triple» and «Pythagorean
Pythagorean theorem In any right triangle lying in
theorem».
a plane, the sum of the squares of the lengths of
the legs is equal to the square of the length of the Pythagorean triple A triple of integer numbers
hypotenuse. a, b, c that satisfy:
a2 + b2 = c2
For example, (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), and (20, 21, 29)
c are Pythagorean triples.
b
a 5
3
Algebraically, if a and b are the lengths of the legs
of the right triangle and c is the length of its hy-
potenuse, then: c2 = a2 + b2 . The justification for
this result is shown in the definition of the geomet- 4
P ric mean theorem.
Read also «Geometric mean theorem» and «Visual If the lengths of the sides of a triangle are equal to
proof ». the values of the Pythagorean triple respectively,
the triangle is a right triangle.
Pythagorean triangle Right triangle with integer A Pythagorean triple is a primitive triple if the
side lengths. greatest common divisor of a, b and c is 1.
The table below shows the side lengths of some If a, b, c is a Pythagorean triple, then,
Pythagorean triangles.
a2 + b2 = c2
Leg 1 Leg 2 Hypotenuse
Dividing both sides by c2 , it is obtained:
3 4 5
5 12 13 a 2 2
b
7 24 25 + =1
c c
8 15 17
9 40 41 Defining x = a/c, and y = b/c, it follows that:
11 60 61
13 84 85 x 2 + y2 = 1 ⇒ y2 = 1 − x2 = (1 − x )(1 + x )
412
Pythagorean triple
Or, These values are Euclid’s formulas to calculate
y 1−x Pythagorean triples a, b, c, from two natural num-
=
1+x y bers u and v.
Since the two fractions are equivalent, suppose If u and v are relative primes and of different
that number is t = u/v. Then, parity, then the Pythagorean triple is a primi-
tive triple; that is, a, b and c are the small-
t x − y = −t and x+ty = 1
est integers with which a right triangle can be
Solving this system of linear equations, we get: formed with sides proportional to the values of
the Pythagorean triple.
1 − t2 2t
x= 2
y= From a primitive Pythagorean triple a, b, c a non-
1+t 1 + t2
primitive Pythagorean triple can be obtained by
Substituting x, y, t in terms of a, b, c, u, and v, it is multiplying each number of the triple by a posi-
obtained: tive integer k. That is, if a, b, c is a Pythagorean
a v2 − u2 b 2 uv triple k a, k b, k c is also a Pythagorean triple.
= 2 = 2 Therefore, there are infinitely many Pythagorean
c u + v2 c u + v2
And a Pythagorean triple can by obtained letting triples.
a = v2 − u2
b = 2 uv
c = u2 + v2
413
P
414
Q
Q Symbol that represents the set of rational num- Each quadrant is characterized by the sign of the
bers. x and y coordinates of the points in it, according
Read also «Rational number». to what is shown below.
Q′ Symbol that represents the set of irrational Quadrant I II III IV
numbers.
Read also «Irrational number». x + − − +
y + + − −
QEA Latin acronym for: quod est absurdum, that
means which is absurd. This acronym was com- The points that are at the axis are not on any
monly used at the end of a proof by contradiction. quadrant (for being at some border that delim-
It is currently deprecated. its the quadrants).
Read also «Rectangular coordinates».
QED Latin acronym for: «Quod erat demonstran-
dum», that means what was to be proved. Quadratic Of degree two or raised to the second
power.
QEF Latin acronym for: «Quod erat faciendum», que
For example, a quadratic equation is a second de-
significa: what was to be done.
gree polynomial equation:
This phrase was common in plane geometry
books, at the end of a geometric construction with a x2 + b x + c = 0
ruler and compass. It is currently deprecated.
where a , 0.
Quadrangle Synonym of quadrilateral. Read also «Polynomial» and «Quadratic equation».
The word quadrangle is deprecated.
Read also «Quadrilateral».
Quadratic equation Equation of the form:
Quadrant In a system of rectangular coordinates,
the set of axis divide the plane in 4 regions. Each a x2 + b x + c = 0
one of those regions is a quadrant.
where a , 0.
y The quadratic equation is solved by means of the
general formula to solve quadratic equations:
√
Quadrant II Quadrant I −b ± b2 − 4 ac
x1,2 =
2a
x also known as the quadratic formula.
The quantity D = b2 − 4 ac is called the discrimi-
Quadrant III Quadrant IV nant, and its sign indicates the nature of the roots
of the quadratic equation.
Quadratic formula
• If D > 0, the roots are real and different. Using the method of completing the square, if the
• If D = 0, the roots are real and equal. coefficient of the quadratic term is not 1, divide
all the terms of the equation by that coefficient
• If D < 0, the roots are complex numbers. to make it 1. Then half the coefficient of the lin-
ear term is taken out (in the previous equation,
y it is half of 6) and square it (to get 9). Then we
y = a x2 + b x + c seek to add and subtract from the independent
term what is required to obtain that value (9 in
√ √ the given example). Then,
b2 − 4 ac b2 − 4 ac
h i
2a 2a
x x2 + 6 x + 6 = x2 + 6 x + 6 + 3 − 3
x2 xv x1 h i
b = x2 + 6 x + 9 − 3
xv = −
2a = ( x + 3)2 − 3 = 0
Now, solve the equation to obtain x:
( x + 3)2 = 3 ⇒
√
x+3=± 3 ⇒
√
x = −3 ± 3
If the quadratic equation is written as: √ √
Thus, x1 = −3 − 3, and x2 = −3 + 3.
x2 + p x + q = 0 The general formula for solving quadratic equa-
tions (mentioned earlier) is the method that is the
The roots x1 , x2 , satisfy: x1 + x2 = − p, as well as: most laborious, most of the time, but it always
x1 · x2 = q, so that, gives the roots of any quadratic equation.
The quadratic equation is also known as second
x 2 − ( x1 + x2 ) x + x1 · x2 = 0 degree equation and as a polynomial equation of de-
gree two.
Equivalently,
Read also «Quadratic formula» and «Camel’s princi-
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) = 0 ple».
Quadratic formula The general formula for solv-
Read also «Vieta’s formulas».
ing quadratic equations is:
Other methods of solving quadratic equations are
√
factoring, completing squares, or the graphing −b ± b2 − 4 ac
method. x=
2a
For example, to solve the equation:
where a, b and c are the coefficients of the
x2 + 5 x + 6 = 0 quadratic equation: a x2 + b x + c = 0.
Starting from a x2 + b x + c = 0, in order to com-
Q Using the factoring method, we must calculate
two numbers that add up to 5 and their product
plete the square, multiply both sides of the equal-
ity by 4 a to get
is 6. Those numbers are 2 and 3. So,
4 a2 x2 + 4 ab x + 4 ac = 0
2
x + 5 x + 6 = ( x + 2)( x + 3) = 0
Now add b2 − 4 ac on both sides of the equation,
Therefore, x1 = −2, and x2 = −3 are the roots of
the equation. 4 a2 x2 + 4 ab x + b2 = b2 − 4 ac
If it is not easy to find two numbers that added Factoring the right hand side of the equation, you
give the coefficient of the linear term and when get
multiplied give the independent term, then the
(2 ax + b)2 = b2 − 4 ac
method of completing the square can be used.
For example, to solve the equation: Take square root on both sides of the equation to
obtain: p
x2 + 6 x + 6 = 0 2 ax + b = ± b2 − 4 ac
416
Quadratic function–Quadratic surface
And solving for x, the quadratic formula is ob- where a , 0.
tained: √ The graph of a quadratic function is a vertical
−b ± b2 − 4 ac parabola.
x=
2a
Since y = a x2 + b x + c is a quadratic polynomial
function, its graph is a parabola, and the geo-
y y = x2 − 4 x + 3
metric representation of the roots of the quadratic 4
equation is the intersection of the parabola with
the x axis. 3
For b2 − 4 ac > 0, there are two real different 2
roots.
1
y
x
y = a x2 + b x + c −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
√ √
b2 − 4 ac b2 − 4 ac
Read also «Equation of the parabola» and «Polyno-
2a 2a
x mial function».
x2 xv x1
Quadratic irrational number An irrational num-
b
xv = − ber that is a solution of an irreducible quadratic
2a equation (which cannot be expressed as a prod-
uct of two polynomials with integer coefficients)
with rational coefficients.
A quadratic irrational number p has the form:
√
a+b c
p=
d
If b2 − 4 ac = 0 the parabola is tangent to the x
where a, b, c, d are integer numbers and d , 0.
axis and the two roots of the quadratic equation
2 Read also «Quadratic equation» and «Quadratic for-
a x + b x + c = 0 are equal real numbers.
2 mula».
If b − 4 ac < 0, there is no intersection between
the parabola and the x axis and the two roots are Quadratic mean The quadratic mean mq of the n
conjugate complex numbers. values x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , is:
That is why the value of D = b2 − 4 ac is called s
discriminant and it is used to know the nature of x12 + x22 + · · · + xn2
the roots of the quadratic equation. mq =
n
• If b2 − 4 ac > 0, then the roots of the The quadratic mean of p and q, is:
quadratic equation are two different real
r
numbers.
• If b2 − 4 ac = 0, then the roots of the
mq =
p2 + q2
2
Q
quadratic equation are two equal real num-
bers (repeated roots).
Quadratic surface A surface whose equation in
• If b2 − 4 ac < 0, then the roots of the
rectangular coordinates can be written in the
quadratic equation are two conjugate com-
form:
plex numbers.
a11 x2 + a22 y2 + a33 z2 +
Read also «Cubic equation» and «Completing the
square». +2 a12 xy + 2 a23 yz + 2 a13 xz +
+2 a14 x + 2 a24 y + 2 a34 z + a44 = 0
Quadratic function Second degree polynomial
function. That is, a function of the form: The quadratic surfaces are therefore the sphere,
y = a x2 + b x + c x 2 + y2 + z2 = a2
417
Quadratic surface
z z
a a
a
y
x
y
x
the hyperbolic paraboloid,
x2 y2
− −z = 0
a2 b2
the ellipsoid,
z
x2 y2 z2
+ + =1
a2 b2 c2 1
z
−1 0 −1 y
1 1
a b x
c
y the circular hyperboloid of one sheet,
x
x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 − 2 =1
a a b
the circular paraboloid,
z
x2 y2
2
+ 2 −z = 0
a a
z
Q
x y
y
x
the elliptic paraboloid, the circular hyperboloid of two sheets,
x2 y2 x2 y2 z2
+ −z = 0 + − = −1
a2 b2 a2 a2 b2
418
Quadratic surface
z the circular cone,
x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 − 2 =0
a a b
y
x
y
x
the elliptic hyperboloid of one sheet,
the elliptical cone,
x2 y2 z2
+ − =1
a2 b2 c2 x2 y2 z2
+ − =0
a2 b2 c2
z
y
x
y
x
the circular cylinder,
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 a2
the elliptic hyperboloid of two sheets,
x2 y2 z2
2
+ 2 − 2 = −1 a a
a b c
z
Q
h
y
x
the elliptical cylinder,
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
419
Quadrature–Quadrifolium
y
a
b
f (x) − g(x)
y = f (x)
y = g(x)
x
a dx b
The problem of the quadrature of figures
the hyperbolic cylinder,
bounded by curved lines is solved by means of
the definite integral.
x2 y2 For example, the area A bounded by the graphs
2
− 2 =1
a b of the functions y = f ( x ), and y = g( x ) between
the vertical lines x = a, and x = b is given by:
z
Zb
A= [ f ( x ) − g( x )] · dx
a
where f ( x ) > g( x ) for all x ∈ [ a, b].
The term quadrature is deprecated.
Read also «Definite integral».
Quadric surface Synonym of quadratic surface.
y Read also «Quadratic surface».
x Quadrifolium Polar rose with four petals whose
parametric equations are:
and the parabolic cylinder. x (t) = a sin(2 t) cos(t)
y(t) = a sin(2 t) sin(t)
x2 + 2 ay = 0
y
z
a=4
Q
1
y x
−1 1
x −1
Quadrature The quadrature of a region of the
plane bounded by one or several curves is the
area of the region bounded by those curves.
420
Quadrilateral–Quantile function
In polar coordinates, its equation is: D C
r = a cos(2 θ )
a h
and its corresponding algebraic equation is:
3 2
x 2 + y2 = a2 · x 2 − y2
A b B
Quadrilateral Polygon of four sides. A rombus is an equilateral parallelogram. The
A quadrilateral is shown below. rombus is not necessarily equiangular.
Although deprecated, quadrangle and tetragon are
Synonyms of quadrilateral.
Qualitative data Data consisting of an attribute, la-
bel, or non-numeric values.
Qualitative data describe a quality.
Examples of qualitative data are color, race,
model (of a car), etc.
Qualitative variable In statistics, a variable is qual-
itative if it only indicates some quality without in-
A quadrilateral with no parallel sides is called a dicating a number.
trapezium (NA) or irregular quadrilateral (BE). For example, when indicating a degree of impact
A quadrilateral that has at least a pair of parallel of a hurricane on a building, the survey could in-
sides is called a trapezium (BE) or trapezoid (NA). clude an ordinal scale: none, slight, moderate, se-
Above, (BE) means British English, while (NA) vere, total loss.
means North American English. It may also include a nominal scale to measure
another aspect, such as the type of construction:
D C mud, wood, concrete.
Quantifier Operator that specifies the number of
individuals who satisfy a formula.
Read also «Existential quantifier» and «Universal
quantifier».
A B
Quantile function Given a cumulative distribution
A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides is function (CDF) and a probability p, the quantile
called a parallelogram. function specifies the value x (of the random vari-
D C
able X) that with probability p, x will be greater
than the values randomly obtained from the CDF. Q
That is, the quantile function returns the value of
x such that:
FX ( x ) = Pr ( X ≤ x ) = p
A B The cumulative distribution function returns the
value of p from the value of x, while the quantile
A rectangle is a parallelogram whose angles are all function returns the value of x from the value of
right angles. p.
A square is an equilateral rectangle. The square is That is, the quantile function of a probability dis-
the regular quadrilateral. tribution is the inverse of a cumulative distribu-
A romboid is a parallelogram with unequal adja- tion function.
cent sides and opposite sides of equal length. Read also «Cumulative distribution function».
421
Quantitative data–Quotient
Quantitative data Data that consists of the result alternate around each vertex of the polyhedron.
of a numerical measurement or count. The cuboctahedron and the icosidodecahedron
For example, the weight of a person is a quantita- are examples of quasiregular polyhedra.
tive data.
Quantitative variable Variable that quantifies
some quality and can be assigned a numerical
value.
For example, height, age, volume, etc.
Quarter When a whole is divided into four equal
parts, each part is called a quarter.
A quarter is denoted as a fraction using 1/4,
where 1 is the numerator and the denominator
is the number 4.
1 1 1 1
Quintal Unit of mass equivalent to 100 kilograms.
4 4 4 4
Quintile Quintiles are values that divide the data
of a distribution in increasing order into 5 parts,
of approximately the same number of data.
Read also «Fraction». The elements of the first quintile are the data of
Quartic plane curve of degree four. the lowest 20%; the second quintile is formed by
Some examples of equations that correspond to the data between 20% and 40%, the elements of
quartics are the following. the third quintile are the data between 40% and
60% of the distribution, and so on.
x 4 + x 2 y2 + y2 = x ( x 2 + y2 ) Quotient Arhtimetic Result of dividing two quan-
x 4 = x 2 y − y3 tities.
2 2 2 2 2 2
x y −b x −a y =0 For example, by dividing 10 ÷ 5 = 2, the quotient
is the number 2, the dividend is the number 10
and the divisor is the number 5.
(Algebra) In the division P( x )/G ( x ) where P( x )
Quartile Values that divide a distribution into four is a polynomial of degree m, and G ( x ) is a poly-
parts of approximately the same size. nomial o degree n, the quotient is a polynomial
To calculate the quartiles, the data values of the Q( x ) of degree m − n (at most), such that:
distribution must be in increasing order.
Q The first quartile is the value that is greater than
25 % and less than 75 % of all values; the second
P( x ) = Q( x ) · G ( x ) + R( x )
quartile is greater than 50 % of the population and where R( x ) is another polynomial of degree n (at
less than the other 50 % of all data; the third quar- most), is the remainder.
tile is greater than 75 % of all values and less than For example
25 % highest stratum of all data, and the fourth
quartile is 25 % greater of the values of the distri- x2 + 4 x + 5 1
= x+2+
bution. x+2 x+2
Quasiregular polyhedron Polyhedron whose because x2 + 4 x + 5 = ( x + 2)( x + 2) + 1.
faces are two types of regular polyhedra, which Read also «Division algorithm».
422
R
R Symbol that represents the set of real numbers. is a radical solution whose solution is x = 8.
Read also «Real number».
Radian A unit of angle measure that is equal to the Radical function A function of the form:
angle subtended by an arc of length equal to the √
radius. y= n x
where n ≥ 2 is a natural number called index of
the root.
If n is even, then the domain and range of the
function is the set of nonnegative real numbers.
r
r
y
1 rad √
r y = 2x
√
y = 4x
√
One radian is denoted by 1 rad. y = 6x
The following table shows some equivalences be- √
1 y = 8x
tween sexagesimal degrees (◦ ) and radians (rad).
◦ 0 30 45 60 90 180 270 x
1
rad 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2 π 3 π/2
The measure θ (in radians) of an angle that sub-
If n is ood, then the domain and range of the func-
tends an arc of length a in a circumference of ra-
tion is the set of all real numbers.
dius r is:
arc a
θ= =
radius r
y
Since π [rad] = 180◦ , it follows that a radian √
(1 rad) is equal to 180/π ≈ 57.2957795 sexagesi- y= 3x
√
mal degrees, as well as a sexagesimal degree (1◦ ) y= 5x
1 √
is equal to π/180 ≈ 0.01745329 radians. y= 7x
Radical equation Equation in which radicals ap- x
pear. 1
For example,
√ √
x+1 = x−4+1
Radical of an integer number–Radius of curvature
If z is a complex variable, the function n−th root The segment with endpoints at a point on the cir-
of z is defined as: cumference and at the center of the circumference
√ is also called the radius.
n
z = z1/n = elog(z)/n
Radius of a regular polygon Segment with one
where log(z) is the logarithm of the complex endpoint at the center of a regular polygon and
number z. the other at one its vertices.
Read also «Logarithm» and «Complex number».
Radical of an integer number The radical of the
whole number n, denoted by rad(n), is the prod-
uct of the different prime numbers that divide n. us
radi
rad(n) = ∏p
p|n
being p a prime number.
Read also «Product of a sequence».
Radical symbol Symbol used in mathematics to Radius of curvature The radius of an osculating
√ circle is the radius of curvature of the curve:
indicate the operation of root extraction: n .
The index n expresses the order of the root (cubic,
fourth, etc.) ⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
For example, to indicate the fifth root, the index 5
is used.: at t.
√
5 The value of the radius of curvature ρ is ρ = 1/κ,
32 = 2
where κ is the curvature of the curve at t.
When dealing with the square root, the index is
omitted (implicit in the symbol). That is to say, z
√
5 is the square root of 5.
It is worth mentioning that in the case of the T̂ ρ
square root, the radical symbol refers only to the
positive square root of its argument.
The radical symbol is also known as root symbol, 1 ~r(t)
radical sign and surd.
Read also «Root extraction» and «Laws of the expo- −1 −1
nents». y
1 1
x
Radicand The number or expression that repre-
sents the argument of a radical. √
For example, in the expression 3 x + 5, the radi- If ds is the differential of arc length and dθ is the
cand is x + 5. differential of change of direction of the curve, be-
ing θ the angle that the tangent to the curve makes
Radius Distance from the center of a circle to any with a line parallel to the axis x, then the radius
R of its points. of curvature is:
ds
ρ=
dθ
If f ( x, y) = 0 is an implicit expression of the curve
and f x , f y are partial derivatives with respect to
x, and y, respectively, and f xx , f yy and f xy are the
r
corresponding second partial derivatives, the ra-
C dius of curvature is:
3/2
f x2 + f y2
ρ=
f xx f y2 − 2 f xy f x f y + f yy f x2
424
Radius of torsion–Random variable
When the curve is expressed in polar coordinates, Random We say that an event, a process, or an ex-
dr/dθ = r ′ , and d2 r/dθ 2 = r ′′ , the radius of cur- periment is random if it is not possible to predict
vature is: with full certainty the next result or the next step
′
3/2
2
r + (r ) 2 of the process.
ρ= 2 ′ 2 ′ For example, the fact that it will rain on March
r + 2 (r ) − r r
12th next year cannot be predicted, so it is a ran-
Read also «Osculating circle», «Osculating plane», dom event. When tossing a coin, the result is also
and «Curvature». random, as it can be head or tail.
Read also «Probability».
Radius of torsion Given a curve C, and its torsion
τ at the point P, the radius of torsion σ of C at P, Random number Generated number to exhibit
is: characteristics of randomness in statistics.
1 Strictly speaking, the generated number is pseudo-
σ= random, because you can predict which number
|τ |
comes after a given one, from the algorithm used
Read also «Torsion». to generate them.
The most commonly used algorithm to generate a
Radius vector Position vector of a point, with ini- sequence of pseudo-random numbers with a ho-
tial point at the origin (0, 0, 0) and end point at mogeneous distribution is the linear congruential
P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ). method, which consists of establishing a seed x0
and use the recurrence formula:
z
xn+1 = ( a xn + b) mod m
z0 where a, b, m are very large integer numbers (co-
prime to each other), xn+1 is the pseudo-random
P (x0 , y0 , z0 )
~u number after xn in the generated sequence.
Random sample A sample is a random sample, if
O y the probability of choosing an individual is given
y0
x x0 by the probability distribution of said sample.
Random variable Variable whose value depends
on the outcome of a random experiment.
Radix In a number system the radix is the base of
said number system. More formally, if S is a sample space and X is a
real function defined on the elements of S, then X
For example the binary system has radix 2, while
the decimal system has radix 10. is a random variable.
Read also «Base». If the number of elements in the sample space is
finite, then it is a discrete random variable other-
Ramp function The ramp function, denoted as wise, it is a continuous random variable.
R( x ), is defined as: The mean µ of a discrete random variable is:
0 for x < 0 µ = ∑ x P( x )
y = R( x ) =
x for x ≥ 0 That is, the mean of the discrete random variable
y
x is equal to the sum of the products of the values
of the discrete variable multiplied by their corre- R
sponding probability of occurrence values, for all
possible values for x.
The variance σ2 of a random variable is:
σ2 = ∑ ( x − µ )2 P ( x )
where P( x ) is the probability of occurrence of the
value x of said discrete random variable, and µ is
its mean.
The random variable is also known as stochastic
x variable.
Read also «continuous random variable».
425
Randomization–Ratio
Randomization Randomization is applied to a
process when study subjects are randomly as- y
signed to different groups to receive a particular f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
r=
treatment. ∆x
y = f (x)
Range (Analysis) The codomain of a function is f (x + ∆x)
also known as the range of the function. f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
Read also «Codomain». f (x)
(Statistics) The range of a data set is defined as ∆x
the difference between the largest and smallest of x x + ∆x
x
all data. In other words, the range of a data set is
the smallest interval that contains all of them.
The range is a measure of the dispersion of the
The instantaneous rate of change (at a point) of
data, since it indicates how far apart are the two
y with respect to x is equal to the derivative of y
furthest data points of the sample.
with respect to x.
(Linear algebra) The range of a linear transforma-
tion T that sends the vectors of the vector space dy f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
V to the vector space W , is denoted as Range( T ), f ′ (x) = = lim
dx ∆x →0 ∆x
and is given by:
Read also «Derivative» and «Slope».
Range( T ) = {⃗
w∈W: w
⃗ = T (⃗v), for a ⃗v ∈ V }
The range of T is a subspace of W . Rate of convergence In numerical methods, the or-
der of convergence is a number that quantifies the
Rank (Linear algebra) The rank of the matrix A speed at which a sequence converges to its limit-
is the dimension of the vector space spanned by ing value.
its columns. Therefore, the rank of a matrix A is If a sequence { xk } that converges to L, satisfies:
equal to the maximum number of linearly inde-
pendent columns of A. |x − L|
lim n+1 =µ
The rank of A is denoted by range( A). x →∞ | xn − L |q
The rank of A is not modified when performing
elementary operations on the rows or columns of then it is said that the sequence has order of con-
A. vergence q ≥ 1 and its rate of convergence is µ.
If q = 1, the sequence is said to have a linear or-
Rank-nullity theorem Let V and W be finite di- der of convergence. If q = 2, the sequence has a
mensional vector spaces over a field F, and let quadratic order of convergence, etc.
T : V → W be a linear transformation. Then The order of convergence indicates the depen-
dim(V ) = dim(Ker( T )) + dim(Im( T )), dence of the error of an iterative method on the
n−th iteration in terms of n.
where dim(V ) is the dimension of V , The rate of convergence µ is a constant that is
dim(Ker( T )) is the nullity of T, and dim(Im( T )) associated with the error caused by the iterative
is the rank of T. Here, Ker( T ) is the kernel of T, method.
and Im( T ) is its image.
This theorem is known as the fundamental theo- Ratio (1.) The ratio of the numbers a, b is the result
R rem of linear algebra. obtained by dividing them.
Rate of change The rate at which one quantity a
varies with respect to another. is the ratio of a and b.
b
If the value of y depends on x according to y =
f ( x ), the average rate of change of y with respect The quantity a is the consequent and b is the an-
to x is: tecedent. In other words, the ratio of two numbers
is the relative magnitude of the first to the second:
∆y f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) how many times larger is the consequent than the
r= =
∆x ∆x antecedent.
which is the slope of the secant line to the graph The ratio of the numbers a and b is also denoted
of the function y = f ( x ), passing through the using a : b. The symbol : is the colon (punctuation
points ( x, f ( x )) and ( x + ∆x, f ( x + ∆x )). symbol), used in mathematics to denote the ratio
426
Ratio test–Rational function
(that is, the quotient) of two quantities. Defining:
(2.) In a geometric sequence, the ratio r of the
1 1
sequence is the quotient of any two consecutive x+ =k ⇒ x2 + = k2 − 2
terms: x x2
a
r = n +1 and substituting in the rational equation,
an
So that an+1 = r · an . 1 1
x2 + 2 + a x + +b=0
x x
Ratio test If the series h i
k2 − 2 + a ( k ) + b = 0
∞
∑ ai This is a quadratic equation easily solvable by the
i =1
application of the quadratic formula.
does not contain terms equal to zero, and it is Once these two roots for k have been obtained,
such that we proceed to compute the corresponding values
a for x, using the definition x + 1/x = k. With these
lim n+1
n→∞ an values for x, synthetic division can be used to find
the other roots of the polynomial equation.
does exists and it is equal to L, then,
Rational expression A rational expression is a
• If L < 1, the series is absolutely convergent,
fraction where the numerator and denominator
• If L > 1, the series diverges, and are algebraic expressions, being the denominator
• If L = 1, the test cannot give a conclusion. different from zero.
For example,
Read also «Absolute convergence». a x2 + b x + c
Rational equation An equation involving alge- x3 − 1
braic fractions. Two rational expressions a/b and c/d are equal if
For example, the equation: a d = b c.
Elementary operations with algebraic expressions
3 2 are performed with the same algorithms that are
+ =7
2x+1 3x+1 used with numerical fractions.
is a rational equation. a c ad+bc
• + =
For a system of rational equations in the form b d bd
a c ad−bc
a b • − =
+ =c b d bd
x y a c ac
• · =
d e b d bd
+ =f a c ad
x y • ÷ =
b d bc
it is convenient to solve the system of equations a −a a
• − = =
for 1/x, and 1/y considering it as a system of lin- b b −b
ear equations. Once the solution for this system −a a
• =
is known the solution for x and y can readily be −b b
obtained.
Also in certain cases of polynomial equations it is •
a
=
a·k
{ k , 0}
R
b b·k
convenient to transform them algebraically to ob-
Read also «Rules of the exponents».
tain fractional equations.
For example, to solve the equation: Rational function A function of the form:
Pm ( x )
x4 + a x3 + b x2 + a x + 1 = 0 y=
Qn ( x )
it is convenient to divide over x2 both sides of the
where Pm ( x ) and Qn ( x ) are polynomials of de-
equality to get:
grees m and n, respectively.
a 1 For example, y = 2 x/ x2 + 1 is a rational func-
x2 + a x + b + + 2 =0 tion.
x x
427
Rational number–Ray
y This indicates that a0 qn is a multiple of p. Since p
2x and q are coprime, necessarily p is a divisor of a0 .
y= 2
x +1 Similarly, the polynomial equation can be ex-
1
pressed as:
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 q a0 qn−1 + a1 pqn−2 + · · · + an−1 pn−1 = − an pn
−1 Thus, an pn is a multiple of q. Since p are q are
coprime, it follows that q divides an , what was to
In this case, P1 ( x ) = 2 x, and Q2 ( x ) = x2 + 1. be proved.
Rational number The set of rational numbers is Rational term Term that is expressed as a quotient
the set of all numbers that can be expressed as the of two polynomials of finite degree.
quotient of two integers, where the denominator For example,
is different from zero. x−1
p x2 + 1
Q = x x = , p, q ∈ Z; q , 0
q is a rational term.
A rational number is any element of the set of ra-
tional numbers. Rationalize Carry out a root rationalisation.
All integers and all natural numbers are also ra- Read also «Root rationalisation».
tional numbers.
Ray A part of a line that has a starting point and
For example, the numbers: −→
no endpoint. That is, the ray AB is the locus of
1 3 2 18 a point P which moves in the same plane as A
, , − , −
2 7 5 7 and B so that A, B and P are collinear and B lies
between A and P.
are rational numbers.
Rational point A point of the plane ( x, y) where −→
AB
both x and y are rational numbers.
P
√ example, (1, 0) is a rational point, whereas
For
( 2, 2) is not.
B
Rational root theorem If x = p/q (where p and q
are coprime) is a rational root of the polynomial
equation: A
a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + a n x n = 0
The ray is denoted by indicating first the initial
with integer coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · , an (an , 0), point and then any other point through which it
then p is a divisor of a0 , and q is a divisor of an . also passes.
Let P(n) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an x n , with in- −→ −→
Two rays AB and AC are opposite rays if A, B
R teger coefficients a0 , a1 , · · · , an . If r = p/q is a
root of P(n) = 0 with p and q coprime, then
and C are collinear and A lies between B and C.
2 n −→
p p p AB
a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an =0
q q q B
Multiplying by qn it is obtained:
A
a0 qn + a1 pqn−1 + a2 p2 qn−2 + · · · + an pn = 0 −→
AC
Equivalently, C
p a1 qn−1 + a2 pqn−2 + · · · + an pn−1 = − a0 qn In this case, | BC | = | AB| + | AC |.
428
Real function–Reciprocal rectangles
Real function A real function is a mathematical • Multiplicative identity: a · 1 = a
function whose domain is a subset of the real
• Multiplicative inverse: a · (1/a) = 1, a , 0.
numbers (R), and whose range is a subset of the
real numbers. The distributive property: a (b + c) = a b + a c, in-
For example, the function: volves both, addition and multiplication.
The set of numbers that satisfies all these proper-
y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 ties is called field.
The rational numbers also form a field, that is,
is a real function.
they also fulfill these properties.
Real interest rate It is the nominal profitability of The set of complex numbers is also a field.
an asset discounting the loss of value of money Read also «Rational number», «Irrational number»,
due to inflation. «Complex number», «Field», and «Distributive (prop-
The exact value of the real interest rate is calcu- erty)».
lated with the following formula:
Reciprocal (Arithmetic) The reciprocal of the
i−π number x , 0 is: 1/x.
r= Note that the reciprocal of 1/x is x, and also that
1+π
the reciprocal of the fraction p/q is q/p (where
where π is the inflation rate. p · q , 0).
The calculation of the real interest rate can be ap- For example, the reciprocal of 2 is 1/2, and the re-
proximated by subtracting the nominal interest ciprocal of 1/2 is 2.
rate minus the rate of inflation. The reciprocal of the number x is denoted by x −1 .
The reciprocal is often (erroneously) called the in-
r ≈ i−π
verse of the number. Numbers do not have an
where r is the real interest rate, i is the nominal inverse, but functions and operations do.
interest rate and π is the inflation rate.
It is generally used to calculate the purchasing
Reciprocal rectangles Two rectangles are said to
power of a loan.
be reciprocal one of the other if the rectangles are
Real line Synonym of number line. similar and the width of one equals the length of
Read also «Number line». the other.
Real number A real number is one element of the
set of the real numbers.
The set of real numbers is the set obtained as the B H
union of the sets of rational numbers and irra- H = b
b h
tional numbers.
R = Q ∪ Q′
B h
The real numbers have the following properties.
For the addition: If two reciprocal rectangles share the congruent
• Closure: a + b ∈ R
side on both of them, then they have perpendicu-
lar diagonals. R
• Commutative: a + b = b + a
• Associative: ( a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
• Additive identity: a + 0 = a
• Additive inverse: a + (− a) = 0 H b
For the multiplication:
• Closure: a · b ∈ R B h
• Commutative: a · b = b · a
• Associative: ( a · b) · c = a · (b · c) Read also «Right triangle altitude theorem».
429
Rectangle–Rectification
Rectangle A quadrilateral that has four equal inte- z
rior angles.
z
The perimeter P and the area A of the rectangle
of base b and height h, are: P (x, y, z)
A=b·h y y
P = 2 (b + h) x
x
The differential of volume in rectangular coordi-
nates is:
h
dV = dx · dy · dz
z = f (x, y)
b
Opposite sides of the rectangle are parallel, so the
rectangle is a parallelogram whose 4 interior an-
gles are right angles.
The length of the two diagonals of the rectangle
are equal.
dV
a c d
y
b
R
x
Read also «Coordinate».
The square is an equilateral rectangle (the square Rectangular function The rectangular function,
is a rectangle that is also a rhombus.) denoted as rect( x ), is defined as:
Read also «Rombus» and «Parallelogram».
0 if | x | > 1/2
Rectangular coordinates Rectangular coordinates
rect ( x ) = 1/2 if | x | = 1/2
are defined from a system of mutually perpen-
1 if | x | < 1/2
dicular coordinate axes that share the same unit
of measurement in all their axes.
If the point P is in the plane, there are required y
only two coordinates ( x, y) to locate it.
y 1
2
R 2 P(4, 2)
−2 − 21 1
2
1 2
x
1
The rectangular function is also known as rectan-
x gle function, rect function, gate function, and unit
1 2 3 4 pulse.
For the location of a point P in a 3-dimensional Rectification Rectifying a curve consists in calcu-
space the rectangular coordinate system uses lating its length.
three mutually perpendicular set of axes. Each The problem of calculating the length of curves is
coordinate of the point P( x, y, z) correspond to solved in the integral calculus.
one axis. Read also «Arc length».
430
Rectified rhombicuboctahedron–Rectified truncated icosahedron
Rectified rhombicuboctahedron Polyhedron that
has 50 faces, of which 30 are squares, 8 are equi-
lateral triangles, and 12 are rhombi. It also has 48
vertices and 96 edges.
Rectified truncated cuboctahedron Polyhedron
that has 74 faces, of which 48 are acute trian-
gles, 12 are squares, 8 are regular hexagons, and
6 are regular octagons. It also has 72 vertices and
144 edges.
If the length of its edge is a, then
√ the length of the
width√of the rhombus is 2 a 3/3, and its length
is 2 a 6/3, and the volume V of this solid is:
√ √
87 2 + 70 3 3
V= ·a
9
Rectified snub cube Polyhedron that has 62 faces,
of which 32 are equilateral triangles, 24 are
mirror-symmetric pentagons, and 6 are squares.
It also has 60 vertices and 120 edges.
√ edge is a, then the length
If the length of its short
of its long edge is 6 a/2, and its volume V is:
√
V = 56 + 43 2 a3
Rectified truncated icosahedron Polyhedron that
has 92 faces, of which 60 are isosceles triangles,
20 are regular hexagons, and 12 are regular pen-
tagons. It also has 90 vertices and 180 edges.
R
√ is a, then the
If the length of its short edge
length of its long pedge is 2 a, and its vol-
ume V is: V = 9808 + p + q · a3 /3, where
p3 √
pp= 946005042176 + 2755642368 33, and q =
3 √
946005042176 − 2755642368 33.
Rectified truncated cube Polyhedron that has 38
faces, of which 24 are isosceles triangles, 8 are
equilateral triangles, and 6 are equilateral oc-
tagons. It also has 36 vertices and 72 edges.
431
Rectified truncated octahedron–Reduced matrix
√ edge√is a, then the length
If the length of its short
of its long edge is ( 15 − 3) a/2, and its vol-
ume V is:
√ z
V = 73 5 − 60 a3
Tˆ
B̂
Rectified truncated octahedron Polyhedron that ~r(t) N̂
has 38 faces, of which 24 are isosceles triangles,
6 are squares, and 8 are equilateral hexagons. It 1
also has 36 vertices and 72 edges.
−1 −1
y
1 1
x
Read also «Binormal vector» and «Frenet-Serret for-
mulas».
Rectilinear Object characterized by one or several
straight lines.
For example, rectilinear motion is performed on
a straight line.
Recurrence relation Function with domain in the
natural numbers and range in the terms of a se-
Rectified truncated tetrahedron Polyhedron that quence, so that the previous values are used to
has 20 faces, of which 4 are equilateral triangles, calculate the current value of the function.
12 are isosceles triangles, and 4 are equilateral For example, the Fibonacci sequence is obtained
hexagons. It also has 18 vertices and 36 edges. using the following recurrence relation:
a n = a n −1 + a n −2
In words, this formula says «the current term is
equal to the sum of the last two terms».
Reduced matrix A reduced matrix in the row ech-
elon form is a matrix that satisfies the following
four conditions:
i. If there are rows that consist of zeros only,
they are in the lowest rows of the matrix.
R ii. Starting from the left, the first nonzero num-
ber in any row is 1.
iii. If two consecutive rows do not consist of all
zeros, then the first 1 on the bottom row is
Rectifying plane For each point on a curve of the
farther to the right than the first 1 on the top
form:
row.
⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
iv. Any column that contains the first 1 in a row
the rectifying plane is the one generated by the has zeros in all of its other elements.
unit tangent vector T̂ and the unit binormal vec-
tor B̂, both referred to the given curve ⃗r (t). The first three conditions correspond to a matrix
The rectifying plane is perpendicular to the unit in row echelon form.
normal vector N̂ of ⃗r (t). Read also «Row echelon form of a matrix».
432
Reducible fraction–Reflection
Reducible fraction (Arithmetic) A fraction is a re- removing it from the system of equations does
ducible fraction if its numerator and denominator not change the solutions of the system (the same
have common factors. solutions are obtained considering the system of
In other words, if it is possible to find an equiva- equations with or without that equation).
lent fraction with the numerator and denominator For example, in the system of equations:
less than those of the given fraction, the fraction
x + y = 10
is reducible.
For example, 2x + 3 y = 20
3 x + 4 y = 30
6 (2)(3) 2
= = the equation 3 x + 4 y = 30 it is redundant, since
9 (3)(3) 3
the same solutions are obtained if the system of
(Algebra) When an algebraic fraction can be sim- linear equations is solved with or without it.
plified, because its numerator and denominator Reference system Set of axes that serve to indicate
have common factors, it is a reducible algebraic coordinates of points in physical space so that it
fraction. serves to locate and orient the objects that are in
For example, a system under study.
x2 − 1 To specify a reference system, it is required to in-
x+1 dicate the origin (the point from which distance
is a reducible algebraic fraction because x2 − 1 can and/or angle measurements will be made), and
be factored as ( x + 1)( x − 1), and therefore, the the directions of the axes in the case of a reference
algebraic fraction can be simplified as follows: system based on a rectangular coordinate system,
or the corresponding in other coordinate systems.
x2 − 1 ( x + 1)( x − 1) Read also «Coordinate system», «Cylindrical coordi-
= = x−1 nates», «Spherical coordinates», and «Polar coordi-
x+1 x+1
nates».
for x , −1.
Reflection Transformation of the points of a figure
Reducible polynomial Polynomial that can be ex- with respect to a fixed line ℓ, called the axis of re-
pressed as the product of two or more polynomi- flection or line of reflection, so that for each point
als of degree greater than or equal to 1. P of the figure the point P′ is considered symmet-
For example, rical to P with respect to ℓ.
6 + 11 x + 6 x2 + x3 = ( x + 1)( x + 2)( x + 3) P Q
is a reducible polynomial.
If a0 is a constant, such that it is a factor of a poly- `
nomial, then a0 is said to be a trivial factor of the
given polynomial. Any other factor that is not a
trivial factor is called nontrivial factor of the poly- P0 Q0
nomial.
Every reducible polynomial is the product of a A reflection about the x axis of a geometric ob-
finite number of nontrivial factors that are irre- ject (figure, graph, etc.) that is in the plane is
ducible polynomials. The degree of any nontriv-
ial factor of a polynomial is less than or equal to
obtained by changing each of its points P( x, y) by R
P′ ( x, −y).
the degree of that polynomial. A reflection with respect to the axis y of a geomet-
Read also «Irreducible polynomial» and «Fundamen- ric object (figure, graph, etc.) that is in the plane
tal theorem of algebra». is obtained by changing each of its points P( x, y)
Reductio ad absurdum Demonstration by proving by P′ (− x, y).
that the opposite leads to a contradiction. The reflection about the plane x = 0 of a curve
Synonym of proof by contradiction. or a surface that is in a three-dimensional space is
Read also «Proof by contradiction». obtained by changing each of its points P( x, y, z)
by P′ (− x, y, z).
Redundant equation Given a system of equations, The reflection about the plane y = 0 of a curve
a particular equation is said to be redundant if or a surface that is in a three-dimensional space is
433
Reflex angle–Regula falsi
obtained by changing each of its points P( x, y, z) y
by P′ ( x, −y, z). y = f (x)
The reflection about the plane z = 0 of a curve or f (b)
a surface that is in a three-dimensional space is f (a)
obtained by changing each of its points P( x, y, z)
by P′ ( x, y, −z). A
x
Reflex angle Angle that measures more than a a b
straight angle, but less than a perigonal angle. In
other words, the reflex angle measures more than Read also «Definite integral».
180◦ (that is, π radians), but less than 360◦ (that
Regula falsi Numerical method to calculate the ze-
is, 2 π radians).
ros of the function y = f ( x ). Basically it is a trial
and error method, using false (proposed) values
α as values close to the root and from these, use lin-
ear interpolation.
The values x = ai and x = bi are considered,
such that f ( ai ) · f (bi ) < 0. The equation of the
line passing through the points ( ai , f ( ai )) and
(bi , f (bi )) is:
The reflex angle is also known as concave angle f ( bi ) − f ( a i )
y − f ( ai ) = ( x − ai )
and as incoming angle. bi − a i
The intersection of this line with the x axis gives
Reflexive property The reflexive property of the approximation to the root we are looking for.
equality says that every number is equal to itself.
Mathematically, a = a. y
Read also «Equality».
f (bi )
Region Subset of the Cartesian plane.
A region can be, for example, the solution of an
x
inequality or a system of inequalities. ai ci bi
y f (ai )
10 x + y > 10
8 Substituting y = 0, the value x = ci of the inter-
section is obtained. Substituting, we get:
6
x
f ( bi ) − f ( a i )
+
− f ( ai ) = ( ci − ai )
y
4 bi − a i
=
10
2 − f ( ai ) [bi − ai ] = [ f (bi ) − f ( ai )] (ci − ai )
R 2 4 6 8 10
x
a f ( a i ) − bi f ( a i )
f ( bi ) − f ( a i )
= ci − ai
Therefore:
The area A of the region of the plane delimited by a f ( ai ) − b f ( ai )
ci = ai +
the vertical lines x = a, x = b, the axis x and the f ( bi ) − f ( a i )
graph of the function y = f ( x )(where f ( x ) ≥ 0 in f ( bi ) − f ( a i ) a f ( ai ) − b f ( ai )
the interval [ a, b]), is equal to the definite integral = ai · +
f ( bi ) − f ( a i ) f ( bi ) − f ( a i )
of the function y = f ( x ) from x = a to x = b.
a f ( bi ) − a f ( a i ) + a f ( a i ) − b f ( a i )
=
Zb f ( bi ) − f ( a i )
A= f ( x ) · dx a f ( bi ) − b f ( a i )
=
a f ( bi ) − f ( a i )
434
Regular hexagonal toroid with 12 faces–Regular polygon
Then, to approximate the root from the known Regular number Number whose prime factoriza-
data, the following formula is used: tion includes powers of 2, 3, and 5 only.
For example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9 are examples
a i f ( bi ) − bi f ( a i ) of regular numbers.
ci =
f ( bi ) − f ( a i ) The regular adjective comes from the mathemat-
ics of the Babylonian times, because the prime
It is then evaluated f (ci ) and it is decided if the
numbers 2, 3 and 5 are divisors of 60, and Baby-
value x = ci is accepted as the root of the function
lonian mathematics used a sexagesimal base.
(depends on the size of the acceptable error in the
calculation).
If more iterations of the procedure are required, Regular polygon A polygon has all its sides and
the interval [ ai , ci ] is chosen, if it is satisfied: all its angles equal. That is, a regular polygon is
f ( ai ) · f (ci ) < 0, or [ci , bi ], if f (ci ) · f (bi ) < 0. an equilateral and also an equiangular polygon.
The regula falsi is also known as the interpolation
method as well as false position method.
Read also «Secant method».
Regular hexagonal toroid with 12 faces Polyhedron
that has 12 non-convex hexagon-shaped faces. It
also has 24 vertices and 36 edges.
αn
i
L
The center of a regular polygon is the common
center of the circles inscribed and circumscribed
to it.
Regular hexagonal toroid with 24 faces Polyhedron
having 24 non-convex hexagon-shaped faces. It
also has 48 vertices and 72 edges.
r
R
C
The central angle of a regular polygon is the angle
with vertex in the center of the polygon formed
by two lines that pass through the endpoints of
one of its sides.
435
Regular polygon
• Sum of external angles:
Sext = 360◦ = 2 π rad
• Area:
nLa 1 180◦
C α A= = n L2 cot
2 4 n
where L is the length of its side and a its the
length of its apotem.
• Radius of the inscribed circle:
L 180◦
r = cot
2 n
The interior angle of a regular polygon is the
smallest angle formed by two consecutive sides. • Radius of the circumscribed circle:
The apothem of a regular polygon is the distance
L 180◦
from the center of the polygon to the midpoint of R = csc
one of its sides. 2 n
A regular triangle is shown in the figure below.
em
Apoth
Below is a square, which corresponds to a regular
quadrilateral.
The radius of the circle inscribed to the regular
polygon has the same length as its apothem.
Formulas to calculate some of the elements of the
regular polygon of n sides are given below.
• Measure of the central angle:
360◦ 2π
αn = = rad
n n
R • Sum of the interior angles:
The figure below shows a regular pentagon.
Sint = 180◦ (n − 2)
• Measure of the interior angle:
180◦ (n − 2)
i=
n
• Number of diagonals:
n ( n − 3)
D=
2
436
Regular polyhedron
The figure below shows a regular hexagon.
A regular decagon is shown in the figure below.
A regular heptagon is shown in the figure below.
Two regular polygons with the same number of
sides are similar.
Regular polyhedron Convex polyhedron whose
faces are regular polygons congruent to each
other with all their dihedral angles equal.
Regular polyhedra are: tetrahedron, cube, octahe-
dron, dodecahedron and icosahedron.
The figure below is a regular octagon.
R
Tetrahedron
The volume V and the area A of the tetrahedron
whose edge measures a are:
√
2 3
V= a
12
√ 2
The figure below shows a regular nonagon. A= 3a
437
Regular pyramid
whose edge measures a are:
√
5 3+ 5
V= · a3
√ 12
A = 5 3 · a2
Octahedron
The volume V and the area A of the octahedron
whose edge measures a are:
√
2 3
V= a
3√ Cube
A = 2 3 a2
The volume V and the area A of the cube whose
edge measures a are:
V = a3
A = 6 a2
Regular polyhedra are also known as Platonic
solids.
Regular pyramid A regular pyramid is a pyramid
Dodecahedron whose base is a regular polygon whose center co-
incides with the foot of the perpendicular that
passes through the common vertex of the lateral
The volume V and the area A of the dodecahe- faces.
dron whose edge measures a are: All lateral faces of a regular pyramid are isosceles
triangles congruent to each other.
√
15 + 7 5 The slant height of a pyramid is the height of one
V= · a3 side face.
s4 √ The height of the pyramid is the segment with
3+ 5 2 ends at the center of the pyramid base and at the
A = 15 √ ·a
5− 5 vertex common to the lateral faces.
R
h
Icosahedron
The height can refer to the segment (the height)
The volume V and the area A of the icosahedron or its length.
438
Regular tessellation–Relative degree
Regular tessellation A tessellation of the plane us- Rejection region In a hypothesis test, it is the set
ing only regular polygons and all polygons with of values for which the null hypothesis is rejected.
the same number of sides. Read also «Acceptance region».
There are three regular polygons with which the
plane can be tessellated: the triangle, Related rates In mathematics, an instantaneous
rate of change is modeled through the derivative
of a function. When we analyze how two or more
quantities whose changes are related we obtain
an equation that involves several rates of change.
That is, an equation that involves the derivative
of several functions. It is then said that the equa-
tion has related rates or that it is a related rates
problem.
For example, the equations v = g t and s = gt2 /2
are a mathematical model of the free fall of objects
the square, near the Earth’s surface when air resistance is not
taken into account. Here, v is the instantaneous
velocity (measured in meters per second), g is the
acceleration due to gravity (measured in meters
per square-second), t is the time (measured in sec-
onds), and s is the displacement (measured in me-
ters .)
To compute dv/ds, which represents the change
in speed per unit increment in distance traveled,
we can apply the chain rule,
and the hexagon. dv ds dv
· =
ds dt dt
The previous equation includes related rates.
Solving for dv/ds, substituting the corresponding
derivatives, and simplifying it is obtained:
dv (dv/dt) g 1 g
= = = = .
ds (ds/dt) gt t v
The result indicates that the change in velocity
Read also per unit increment in displacement is inversely
proportional to the current velocity v.
Tessellation
Relation (1.) A relation R defines correspondences
Regular tetragonal toroid with 18 faces Polyhedron between the elements of two sets A and B.
that has 18 faces, of which 12 are trapezoid- If a ∈ A and b ∈ B, then, a R b indicates that a
shaped and 6 are square. It also has 18 vertices and b are related.
and 36 edges. (2.) A way to compare two elements of the same
set.
R
For example, inequalities are relations that are de-
fined for real numbers.
Other examples of relations between two num-
bers are: a = b, a|b, a < b, etc.
Relative degree The relative degree of a variable in
a term (monomial) is the exponent corresponding
to that variable.
For example, in the monomial
7 x 3 y2 z5
439
Relative error–Remainder
the variable x is of relative degree 3, the variable is negligible with respect to k, it is said that r is a
y is of relative degree 2, and the variable z is of relative zero with respect to k.
relative degree 5. For example, when considering a circumference
Read also «Absolute degree» and «Degree of a poly- whose radius becomes smaller and smaller so that
nomial». it tends to zero, it is considered that at the limit
(just before the circumference becomes a point)
Relative error The relative error of a measurement the properties of the circumference are main-
is defined as: tained. As soon as it becomes a point (the radius
x − x̂
ν= of the circumference is absolute zero) the point no
x
longer possesses the properties of the circumfer-
where x is the true value, x̂ is the observed value, ence.
so x − x̂ is the error in the measurement. Similarly, when we consider a line segment whose
The error as a percentage is: length gets smaller and smaller, we consider that
it continues to have the properties of a segment
δ = (100%) ν (as long as its length is positive or a relative zero).
As soon as its length is (absolute) zero the seg-
ment becomes a point and then it no longer has
Relative extreme value The function y = f ( x ) has the properties of a segment.
a relative extreme value at x = x0 if it has a rela- The term relative zero is deprecated.
tive maximum or relative minimum there. Read also «Infinitesimal», «Actual infinite», «Poten-
tial infinite», and «Diferential».
If f ( x0 ) ≥ f ( x ) for all x in some interval [ a, b] that
cointains the point x = x0 , then the function has
a relative maximum at x = x0 . Remainder (Arithmetic) In a numerical division,
If f ( x0 ) ≤ f ( x ) for all x in some interval [ a, b] that the elements are: the dividend a, the divisor b,
cointains the point x = x0 , then the function has the quotient q, and the remainder r, so that:
a relative minimum at x = x0 .
The relative extremes are also known as local ex- q
treme. b a
a = bq+r ⇒ ..
.
Relative frequency Given a frequency distribu-
tion, the relative frequency of a class is computed r
by dividing the absolute frequency by the total
number of data (sample size). When division is denoted using what is colloqui-
For example, in the following frequency distri- ally called the long division symbol, the number
bution, the last column includes the relative fre- that remains (the leftover) at the end of the divi-
quency for each class. sion which is smaller than the dividend, is the
remainder.
For example, in the division
Class Range Frecuency Relative F.
A 0 – 10 175 0.985920 25
B 10 – 20 300 0.169014 12 307
C 20 – 30 450 0.253521 67
R D
E
30 – 40
40 – 50
400
350
0.225352
0.197183
7
F 50 – 60 100 0.055338 the remainder is 7.
(Algebra) If f ( x ) and g( x ) are two polynomials
The sum of all the relative frequencies in a fre- where g( x ) is not a constant, such that:
quency table is equal to 1.
The relative frequency represents the fraction of f ( x ) = g( x ) · q( x ) + r ( x )
the total data that is in each class.
where q( x ) and r ( x ) are polynomials such that
Relative zero When considering a finite quantity k the degree of r ( x ) is smaller than the degree of
divided by a very large amount M, you get a frac- g( x ), then, q( x ) is the quotient of the division of
tion r = k/M which is very small compared to the f ( x ) by g( x ), and r ( x ) is the remainder.
initial amount k. If for practical terms, r = k/M Read also «Division algorithm».
440
Removable discontinuity–Resultant
Removable discontinuity A function y = f ( x ) Note that to indicate that in the decimal represen-
presents a removable discontinuity (also called tation a string of digits is repeated periodically, a
avoidable discontinuity) at the point x = x0 , if the horizontal line is used above the string of digits
limit that is repeated.
lim f ( x ) On the other hand, 1/40 has a finite decimal rep-
x → x0
resentation,
exists, but f ( x0 ) is undefined.
For example, the function 1 1
= 3 = 0.025
40 2 ·5
x2 − x − 2
y=
x−2
because 40 = 23 · 5.
is undefined for x = 2. If r = p/q, where q = 2a · 5b , can be multi-
plied in both, the numerator and denominator by
y n = 2b− a if b > a, or by n = 5a−b if a > b, to
obtain a power of 10 in the denominator. By di-
5 viding n · p over 10m , where m is the maximum
x2 − x − 2
y= between a and b, you get a number with a finite
x−2
4 decimal expression.
In the case of the previous example,
3
1 1 52 25 25
2 = 3 · 2 = 3 3 = 3 = 0.025
40 2 ·5 5 2 ·5 10
1 Every irrational number has an infinite non-
periodic decimal expression.
x Read also «Rational number» and «Irrational num-
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 ber».
Replication (Statistics) Repetition of an experi-
The limit of the function when x tends to 2 exists ment under the same conditions that have been
(because both, the left limit and the right limit ex- carried out on more occasions.
ist),
x2 − x − 2
lim =3 Response variable In a statistical experimental de-
x →2 x−2
sign, a response variable is the variable that is ob-
so you can define f (2) = 3, to remove the discon-
served or obtained as a prediction of an output
tinuity.
variable (caused by a variation in the values of
Repeating decimal The decimal representation of the predictor variables).
a rational number r can be of two forms:
i. with finite decimal representation, or Result Numerical or algebraic value of an opera-
ii. with infinite periodic decimal representa-
tion.
tion.
(Statistics) Possible output or value of an experi-
R
ment.
In the first case, the prime factorization of the de- Different results are mutually exclusive (if one oc-
nominator of the rational number r has only pow- curs when performing the experiment, another
ers of 2 and 5. If the prime factorization of the de- cannot occur).
nominator of the number r has a prime number Read also «Sample space».
different to 2 and 5, then its representation as a
decimal number is a repeating decimal number.
Resultant Vector that results from adding two or
For example,
more vectors.
1 The following figure shows the vectors ⃗u, ⃗v and
= 0.142857142857 · · · = 0.142857 the resultant ⃗u + ⃗v.
7
441
Reuleaux triangle–Rhombic enneacontahedron
~u ~u + ~v
x
~v
Read also «Vector».
This solid can be used to fill the space using iden-
Reuleaux triangle Curved plane closed figure tical copies of it, so that parts of the copies do not
composed of three circular arcs of the same ra- overlap each other and without leaving gaps.
dius with intersections at the vertices of a equilat- The rhombic dodecahedron is the Catalan solid
eral triangle. that is the dual polyhedron of the cuboctahedron.
Read also «Escher solid».
Rhombic enneacontahedron Polyhedron formed
by 90 rhombus-shaped faces, of which 60 are
rhombuses
√ whose diagonals are in the proportion
1 : 2 (these faces are identical to those of the
rhombic dodecahedron) congruent to each other
and 30 other rhombuses whose diagonals
are in
√
the proportion 1 : φ2 (where φ = 1 + 5 /2),
being these faces also congruent to each other. It
also has 92 vertices and 180 edges.
This figure has a constant width, thus it can ro-
tate inside two tangent parallel lines and, inde-
pendently of the orientation of the figure, it will
always exactly fit.
R Leonhard Euler studied this figure.
Rhombic dodecahedron Polyhedron formed by 12
quadrilaterals in the shape of rhombus. It also has If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
14 vertices and 24 edges. area A are:
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its s √
area A are: 20 56 5 3
V= 43 + a
√ 3 3
√
3 3
16
V= a A = 20 + 40 2 a2
9
√ 2
A=8 2a
442
Rhombic hexecontahedron–Rhombic triacontahedron
Rhombic hexecontahedron Polyhedron that has Rhombic solid Solid whose faces are congruent
60 faces in the shape of a golden rhombus. It also rhombuses.
has 62 vertices and 120 edges. For example, the rhombic dodecahedron is a
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its rhombic solid.
area A are:
r
√
V = 4 2 5 + 5 a3
√
A = 24 5 a2
The rhombic solid is also known as rhombohedron.
Rhombic triacontahedron Polyhedron that has 30
diamond-shaped faces. It also has 32 vertices and
The rhombic hexecontahedron is a stellation of 60 edges.
the rhombic triacontahedron.
Rhombic icosahedron Polyhedron that has 20
diamond-shaped faces (all congruent with each
other). It also has 22 vertices and 40 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
q
V = 4 5 + 2 5 a3
√
√
R
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its A = 12 5 a2
area A are:
q The ratio of the lengths of the diagonals of the
√ faces (they are all diamond-shaped) is:
V = 2 5 + 2 5 a3
√ √
A = 8 5 a2 1+ 5
φ= ≈ 1.61803398874989
2
The rhombic icosahedron can be obtained from
the rhombic triacontrahedron, by removing 10 The rhombic triacontahedron is a Catalan solid
faces (from the middle of the solid, in the form and is the dual polyhedron of the icosidodecahe-
of a belt of rhombuses). dron.
443
Rhombicosidodecahedron–Rhombus
Rhombicosidodecahedron Polyhedron with 62 The rhombicuboctahedron is also known as elon-
faces, 12 of which are regular pentagons, 30 are gated square orthobicupola. Its dual polyhedron is
squares, and 20 are equilateral triangles. It also the deltoidal icositetrahedron.
has 60 vertices and 120 edges. The rhombicuboctahedron is an Archimedean
This geometric solid is obtained by truncating the solid.
vertices of a cuboctahedron.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its Rhombohedron Hexahedron whose faces are
area A are: identical rhombuses.
√ q √ 2
A = 30 + 5 3 + 3 25 + 10 5 a
1 √
V= 60 + 29 5 a3
3
The rhombicosidodecahedron is also known as
small rhombicosidodecahedron and it is the dual The rhombohedron is also known as the rhombic
polyhedron of the deltoidal hexecontahedron. hexahedron.
Rhombicuboctahedron Polyhedron with 26 faces, Rhomboid Parallelogram that is not a rectangle.
18 of which are squares and the other 8 equilat-
eral triangles. It also has 24 vertices and 48 edges.
D C
This geometric solid is obtained by truncating the
vertices of a cuboctahedron. Another way to ob-
tain it is by adding two (aligned) square cupolas a h
to the octagonal bases of a right octagonal prism.
A b B
The perimiter P and the area A of the rhomboid
are:
R P= 2 ( a + b)
A = b·h
In the rhomboid, each pair of adjoining angles is
supplementary. Two of its angles are acute and
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its the other two are obtuse. The bisectors of the ad-
area A are: joining angles are perpendicular to each other. Its
√ ! diagonals intersect at its centroid which is its cen-
10 2 ter of symmetry.
V = 4+ a3
3
√ Rhombus Quadrilateral that has all 4 sides of the
A = 2 9 + 3 a2 same length.
444
Riemann double sum–Riemann hypothesis
where z = f ( x, y) is a function of two variables
defined in the region of the plane where the sum
is computed, f xi , y j · ∆xi · ∆y j represents the
volume of a rectangular prism with base ∆xi · ∆y j
and height f xi , y j .
z = f (x, y)
Opposite sides of the rhombus are parallel, so it
is also a parallelogram.
The perimeter P of the rhombus is P = 4 a, where
a is the length of one of its sides.
The area A of the rhombus is:
D1 · D2
A=
2
where D1 and D2 are the lengths of its diagonals. ∆y
The diagonals of the rhombus are bisectors of
their respective angles and intersect each other at ∆x y
right angles.
R
x
If f ( x, y) ≥ 0 in R, the summation of all the terms
of the form f ( xi , yi ) · ∆xi · ∆y j gives an approxi-
mation of the volume under the graph of the func-
tion z = f ( x, y), above the xy plane in the region
R.
z = f (x, y)
Read also «Orthodiagonal quadrilateral».
The point of intersection of the diagonals of the
rhombus coincides with the incenter (center of the
inscribed circle) as well as with its center of sym-
metry.
R
x
If R is the radius of its inscribed circle and s is its
R
semiperimeter, then, Riemann hypothesis A mathematical conjecture
that the Riemann zeta function has its zeros only
A = s·R at negative even integers and its complex roots
have real part equal to 1/2.
The rhombus is an equilateral rhomboid. The Riemann zeta function is:
Opposite angles of a rhombus are congruent. ∞
1
Riemann double sum Sum of the form: ζ ( s ) = ∑ n s
n =1
n m
∑∑f xi , y j · ∆xi · ∆y j where s is a complex variable.
Read also «Riemann zeta function».
i =1 j =1
445
Riemann sphere–Riemann sum
Riemann sphere Model that represents the com- y
y = f (x)
plex plane adding the point at infinity.
Geometrically it is the unit sphere with center f (b)
at the origin. The stereographic projection from
the point (0, 0, 1) to the point ( x, y, 0) correspond-
ing to the complex number z = x + i y on the f ( a)
complex plane, so that the numbers outside the
Riemann sphere are covered by the upper hemi- x
sphere (the points on the sphere that lie above a b
the complex plane), and the numbers that are in-
side the unit circle are represented in the lower In the limit, as n approaches infinity, the Riemann
hemisphere (whose points are below the complex sum corresponds to the definite integral.
plane).
Zb n
∑ f (xi ) · ∆x
f ( x ) · dx = lim
n→∞
a i =0
t
N If the evaluation for the subinterval [ xi , xi + ∆x ]
is performed at x = xi , it is said that the left Rie-
mann sum has been computed.
y y
P x y = f (x)
f (b)
The coordinates ( x, y, z) on the sphere corre-
f (a)
sponding to the complex number z = a + i b, are:
2a x
x= a b
1 + a2 + b2
2b If the evaluation for the subinterval [ xi , xi + ∆x ] is
y=
1 + a2 + b2 performed at x = xi + ∆x, it is said that the right
a2 + b2 − 1 Riemann sum has been computed.
z=
1 + a2 + b2
y
y = f (x)
f (b)
Riemann sum The Riemann sum S of the function
y = f ( x ), in the interval [ a, b], is defined by:
f (a)
n
S= ∑ f (xi ) · ∆x
R i =1
a b
x
where ∆x = (b − a)/n, being n a positive in-
teger number, xi represents the left endpoint of The Riemann sum can also be evaluated at the
the subinterval [ xi , xi+1 ], where x0 = a, xi+1 = midpoint of each subinterval and, in general, at
xi + ∆x, for i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1, so that xn = b. any point xi∗ within the corresponding subinter-
Here it is assumed that y = f ( x ) is defined at xi val [ xi , xi + ∆x ].
for all i = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n. The Riemann sum is a numerical method to ap-
If y = f ( x ) is positive in the interval [ a, b], the proximate a definite integral. In general, as n
Riemann sum represents an approximation of the grows, ∆x becomes smaller and the approxima-
area bounded by the graph of the function y = tion gets better.
f ( x ), the x axis, and the vertical lines x = a, and Read also «Midpoint rule» and «Trapezoidal rule».
x = b.
446
Riemann zeta function–Right circular cone
Riemann zeta function The Riemann zeta func-
tion is defined as:
∞
1
ζ (s) = ∑ n s
n =1
α
where s is a complex variable.
Notice that: If two lines meet at four right angles, the lines are
1 1 1 1 said to be perpendicular.
ζ (s) = 1 + + s + s + s +··· The symbol next to the vertex of an angle indi-
2s 3 4 5
cates that it is a right angle.
Dividing both sides of the equality by 2s it is ob- Read also «Perpendicular».
tained:
Right circular cone Solid obtained by considering
1 1 1 1 1 1 one of the two branches of the cone (the part of
ζ (s) = s + s + s + s + s + · · ·
2s 2 4 6 8 10 the cone generated from the vertex in a direction
Subtracting the last two equations we get: of the generatrix) and cutting this surface by a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone, so
1 1 1 1 1 that the section obtained is a circumference.
1 − s ζ (s) = 1 + s + s + s + s + · · ·
2 3 5 7 9
h
Notice that all terms with a multiple of 2 in the
denominator have been eliminated in the subtrac-
tion.
Dividing this result by 3s , we get: r
1 1 1 1 1 1
s
1 − s ζ (s) = s + s + s + s + · · ·
3 2 3 9 15 21
And doing the subtraction of the two previous
s
equations we get:
1 1 1 1 1
1− s 1 − s ζ (s) = 1 + s + s + s + · · ·
3 2 5 7 11
The base of the right circular cone is the circle ob-
Now all terms with a multiple of 3 in the denom- tained by cutting the plane with the cone.
inator have been eliminated. The volume of the cone of height h and radius r
If you continue with this procedure, basically is:
π
what you are doing is applying the Sieve of Er- V = r2 h
atosthenes to the denominators of the terms on 3
the right of equality. If this process continues ad And the convex (lateral) area of the cone is:
infinitum, the following representation of the Rie- p
mann zeta function is obtained: Alateral = π r r2 + h2
∞
1 The area of its base is calculated with the formula R
ζ (s) = ∏ 1 − p−s to calculate the area of the circle:
i =1 i
A = π r2
where pi is the i −th prime number. This repre-
sentation of the zeta function is due to Euler. The slant height (s) of the right circular cone is:
The Riemann zeta function is also known as the p
Euler-Riemman zeta function. s = r 2 + h2
Read also «Sieve of Eratosthenes». The measure of the plane angle θ formed at its
Right angle Angle formed when two lines inter- vertex is: r
sect at four equal angles. In other words, the right θ = 2 arctan
h
angle measures 90◦ (or, π/2 rad).
447
Right circular cylinder–Right prism
Right circular cylinder Geometric body with two Right prism Prism with bases perpendicular to its
parallel circular bases and a curved (convex) sur- lateral faces.
face perpendicular to its bases. A right triangular prism is shown below.
The area A and the volume V of the right circular
cylinder are:
A = 2 πr2 + 2 πr h
V = πr2 h
where r is its radius and h is its height.
And the following figure shows a prism with a
h right rectangular base.
The surface area S of the convex surface of the
cylinder (not considering the circular caps) is:
S = 2πrh
Read also «Archimedes theorem» and «Right prism».
A right pentagonal prism is shown in the figure
below.
Right coordinate system Coordinate system in
which when tracing the positive direction of the
x axis to the East and the positive direction of
the y axis to the North, both axes on a horizontal
plane, the positive direction of the z axis points
upwards.
One way to verify that the coordinate system is
right is to apply the right-hand rule to the vector
product: ı̂ × ȷ̂ = k̂.
z y The figure below shows a right hexagonal prism.
R
k̂ ̂
ı̂
x
A right heptagonal prism is shown in the figure
Read also «Right-hand rule». below.
448
Right triangle
The sides that form the right angle are called legs
and the third side is called the hypotenuse.
Given the lengths a and b of the two legs of the tri-
angle and its hypotenuse (c), and the magnitude
α of one of its acute angles,
A right octagonal prism is shown below. c
b
α
a
it is satisfied:
p
c= a2 + b2
q
a= (c + b)(c − b)
q
A right nonagonal prism is shown in the figure b= (c + a)(c − a)
below.
b
a = c cos(α) =
tan(α)
b = c sin(α) = a tan(α)
Read also «Trigonometric function» and
«Pythagorean theorem».
The acute angles of a right triangle are comple-
mentary.
If an altitude is drawn perpendicular to the hy-
potenuse of a right triangle, the triangles formed
Finally, a right decagonal prism is shown. are similar to each other, and they are also similar
to the given triangle.
m
n
a b
R
It is worth mentioning that a right prism can have
an irregular polygon as its base.
a+b m n
Right triangle A triangle is a right triangle if one = =
m b h
of its interior angles is a right angle. a+b m n
= =
n h a
Read also «Geometric mean theorem».
In an isosceles right triangle, if the length of its
√ is L, then the length of its hypotenuse is
legs
2 L.
449
Right triangle altitude theorem–Rising factorial
Rigor Standard that must be followed when car-
rying out a mathematical demonstration to ir-
refutably guarantee a conclusion obtained from
certain hypotheses or premises, applying in each
√ 2L
L step of the demonstration the properties, theo-
rems, axioms, rules of inference, etc., complete
and correct.
Euclid is considered the father of mathemati-
cal rigor by introducing the axiomatic method
L through his work known as The Elements. It in-
cludes demonstrations mainly of geometry and
Right triangle altitude theorem In any right trian- number theory. For example, there it is shown
gle lying in a plane, if h is the length of the al- that there is an infinite number of prime num-
titude perpendicular to the hypotenuse, and a, b bers,
√ the Pythagorean theorem, that the number
are the lengths of the projections of the legs on 2 is an irrational number, among many other
the hypotenuse, then theorems.
Read also «Proof », «Metamathematics», and «Ax-
h2 = a · b. iomatic system».
Ring (Geometry) Synonym of annulus.
Read also «Annulus».
(Abstract algebra) Algebraic structure consisting
m of a set R endowed with two binary operations,
n
h denoted by + and ·, that satisfy the following
properties.
i. For any a and b of R, a + b ∈ R.
a b ii. For any a and b of R, a + b = b + a.
iii. For any a, b, and c of R, ( a + b) + c = a +
By similarity of triangles, ( b + c ).
a h iv. There is one element of R, denoted by 0, such
= ⇒ h2 = a · b that a + 0 = a for all a ∈ R.
h b
v. For any a ∈ R, there is one element α ∈ R
On the other hand, observe that
that depends of a, such that a + α = 0.
m2 + n2 = b2 + h2 + a2 + h2 vi. For any a and b of R, a · b ∈ R.
2 2 2
= b +2h +a vii. For any a, b, and c of R, ( a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
= b2 + 2 ab + a2 viii. For any a, b, and c of R, a · (b + c) = a · b +
= ( a + b )2 a · c, as well as (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.
Which is precisely the Pythagorean theorem. Note that the elements of the ring do not neces-
The right triangle altitude theorem is also known sarily satisfy a · b = b · a.
R as geometric mean theorem.
Read also «Pythagorean theorem».
Rising factorial The rising factorial of order n ≥ 1
of the natural number x > 0, denoted by x (n) is
Right-hand rule Mnemonic rule to identify the di- defined as the product of n consecutive natural
rection of the result of calculating the cross prod- numbers from x to x + n − 1.
uct of two vectors ⃗u and ⃗v.
Form with the thumb, index and middle fingers x (n) = x ( x + 1)( x + 2) · · · ( x + n − 1)
of the right hand, right angles between them, tak- ( x + n − 1) !
=
ing them as representing vectors. If the vector ( x − 1) !
⃗u points in the direction of the index finger, and
Observe that if n = 0, then:
the vector ⃗v points in the direction of the middle
finger, then ⃗u × ⃗v points in the direction of the ( x + 0 − 1) ! ( x − 1) !
thumb. x (0) = = =1
( x − 1) ! ( x − 1) !
450
Rolle’s theorem–Root of an equation
So, by convention it is defined: x (0) = 1. 1 I 11 XI 21 XXI
Some authors represent the ascending factorial of 2 II 12 XII 22 XXII
order n of the number x by x n . 3 III 13 XIII 23 XXIII
4 IV 14 XIV 24 XXIV
Rolle’s theorem If a real function y = f ( x ) is con- 5 V 15 XV 25 XXV
tinuous in the interval [ a, b], and differentiable in
6 VI 16 XVI 26 XXVI
the interval ( a, b), and further f ( a) = f (b), then
7 VII 17 XVII 27 XXVII
there is at least one value x = c in ( a, b), such that
8 VIII 18 XVIII 28 XXVIII
f ′ (c) = 0.
9 IX 19 XIX 29 XXIX
Geometrically, if a function is continuous and dif-
10 X 20 XX 30 XXX
ferentiable on [ a, b], and the function has the same
value at the endpoints of this interval, then the Note that although this number system uses base
function has at least one critical point on that in- 10 (counting by tens), it is not positional, so the
terval. value of each symbol does not depend on its po-
sition.
y y = f (x) When a hyphen is written on top of Roman nu-
meral symbols, it indicates that that amount is
multiplied by a thousand.
f (a) For example V represents 5 000, and C represents
f (b) 100 000.
Read also «Numeral system».
f (c)
Root Number that when multiplied a number of
x times indicated by the index of the root, is equal
a c b
to another given value.
For example, the fifth root (the index of the root
Roman numerals Decimal, non-positional, num- is 5) of 32 is 2, because 25 = 32.
bering system used by the ancient Romans. In The
√ square root is denoted by the radical sign:
this numbering system I represents 1, V repre- k, and higher order roots are√indicated with
n
sents 5, X represents 10, L represents 50, C rep- an integer index. For example, k indicates the
resents 100, D represents 500 and M represents n−th root.
1 000. Read also «Root extraction».
They did not have a symbol to represent the num-
ber zero. Root extraction Reverse operation of exponentia-
To write a number using the Roman numeral sys- tion.
tem, write the symbols of greater value first, ex- Given a ∈ R, and n ∈ N, the root extraction con-
cept when one symbol must be subtracted from sists in computing the number x such that an = x.
another that is to its right (for example, IV in Ro- The value of x is the n−root of a, and it is denoted
man numerals is 5 − 1 = 4). Ff one symbol is as: √
to be subtracted from another, only if the second x= n a
symbol is worth 5 or 10 times as much, and it may If n = 2 it’s the square root, and if n = 3 it’s the
appear once to the left of it. Then, cubic root. In the case of the square root, it is not
• I may be subtracted of V or X.
necessary to indicate the index explicitly, so it can
be expressed as: √
R
• X may be subtracted of L or C. x= a
• C may be subtracted of D or M. For n > 2 the indices √ are explicitly indicated√ as
for the cubic root 3√a (n = 3), fourth root √ 4
a
The symbols I, X, C, and M can be repeated at
(n = 4), fifth root 5 a (n = 5), sixth root 6 a
most three times.
(n = 6), etc.
It is not allowed to write the symbols V, L and D
more than once. Root of an equation The root of the equation
Some numbers written in the Roman numeral f ( x ) = 0 is the value of x that makes f ( x ) = 0.
system and their equivalents in the Hindu-Arabic For example, the roots of the equation: x2 − 1 = 0,
positional decimal system are shown in the fol- are x = 1, and x = −1, because when we sub-
lowing table. stitute any of these values in the variable, the
451
Root of unity–Root rationalisation
equation reduces to zero. Root of unity A root of unity is a complex number
Geometrically, the root of the equation f ( x ) = 0 such that when raised to the given power n, we
represents the point where the graph of y = f ( x ) get 1.
intersects the x axis. The roots of unity are distributed on the unit cir-
cle of the complex plane, such that these points
are at the vertices of a regular polygon of n sides
y with a vertex at the point z = 1 + 0 i.
y = f (x)
1
I
x ζ2
1 2 3 4 1
ζ1
−1
Roots ζ3
For example, the equation 0 ζ0 R
0 1
xn = a ⇒ xn − a = 0
ζ4
has n repeated roots in the field of real numbers
for a > 0, independently of the parity of n. simi- ζ6
larly, it has n repeated roots when a < 0, and n is ζ5
odd: √
x= n a If ξ is a root of unity, then ξ m with m integer, is
If n is even and a < 0, the equation has n imagi- also a root of unity. If n is a prime number, the
nary roots. roots of unity are ξ 0 , ξ 1 , ξ 2 , · · · , ξ n−1 .
√ If m and n are coprime, then,
x=i n a
In the field of complex numbers, the equation has xm − 1 = 0
n distinct roots. These roots can be calculated us- xn − 1 = 0
ing the formula:
have no roots in common, except ξ = 1. If m and
√
n 2 kπ 2 kπ
x = a cos + i sin n are not coprime and the greatest common di-
n n visor of them is k, then the roots common to the
where k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , (n − 1), for a > 0. If a < 0, two equations:
then it should be used:
xm − 1 = 0
√n
x = − a [cos( φ) + i sin( φ)] xn − 1 = 0
where: are all the roots of x k − 1 = 0.
(2 k + 1) π
φ=
n Root rationalisation (Arithmetic) Process that
and k = 0, 1, 2, · · · , (n − 1). consists of converting a fraction with an irrational
R I
denominator into an equivalent fraction whose
denominator is an integer.
For example,
a = −7
2 √ √
n=6 1 1 2 2
x2 x1 √ = √ · √ =
1 2 2 2 2
Or, √ √
3 3
x3 0 x0 R 1 1 4 4
0 1 2 √
3 = √
3 · √
3 =
2 2 4 2
(Algebra) Process that consists of representing an
x4 x5 algebraic fraction with an irrational denominator
452
Root test–Rotation angle
in an equivalent algebraic fraction whose denom- Its parametric equations are:
inator is not irrational.
To this end, the initial fraction is multiplied by the x (t) = a cos(k t) cos(t)
unit expressed as the quotient of one algebraic ex- y(t) = a cos(k t) sin(t)
pression over itself such that by simplifying the
product of the denominators is an algebraic ex- The rose is also known as Polar rose.
pression with no roots.
For example, Rotation Rigid motion of the plane around a fixed
√ √ line or a fixed point, which is called the axis or
5 5 3− x 5 3− x point of rotation (respectively).
√ = √ · √ =
3+ x 3+ x 3− x 9−x
y
y′
Root test The series
∞
x′
∑ ai
i =1
is such that 0◦
q
n
θ=3
lim | an | x
n→∞
does exists and is equal to R, then,
To perform a rotation of an angle θ about the ori-
• If R < 1, the series is absolutely convergent, gin of a point P( x, y) in the plane, by means of a
• If R > 1, the series diverges, and matrix multiplication, use:
• If R = 1, the test cannot give a conclusion. ′
x cos θ sin θ x
=
If in the last case, R = 1, the limit value is reached y′ − sin θ cos θ y
with values greater than 1, then the series di-
verges. where x ′ , y′ are the coordinates of P after the ro-
Read also «Absolute convergence». tation.
If R = [rij ] is a rotation matrix, then rij are the
Rose A curve whose equation in polar coordinates direction cosines of the angles formed by the axes
is of the form of the initial coordinate system and the final coor-
r = a cos(k θ ) dinate system. Also, if the rotation is orthogonal,
R satisfies:
where the amplitude a and its angular frequency R T = R −1
k are constants.
Read also «Direction cosines».
y If ⃗v is a vector in R3 and ê is a unit vector about
which the vector ⃗v is going to rotate an angle of
a=3 magnitude θ according to the right hand rule, the
k=5 resulting vector ⃗vrot is:
⃗vrot = ⃗v cos(θ ) + (ê × ⃗v) sin(θ )
+ê (ê · ⃗v) (1 − cos(θ )) R
1
This formula is known as the Rodrigues rotation
x formula.
−1 1
Rotation angle Angle that a figure is rotated or
−1 changed in its orientation about an axis or a fixed
coordinate system.
The following figure shows a coordinate system
(x ′ y′ ) that has been rotated 30◦ with respect to the
coordinate system xy. That is, the rotation angle
in this case is 30◦ .
453
Rotation matrix–Row
y
y′
x′
◦ C
0
θ=3
x
Read also «Rotation», «Dextrorotation» and «Lev-
A regular hexagon exhibits radial symmetry. Its
orotation».
center of symmetry is its center (C).
Rounding Process of approximating a value to a
Rotation matrix A rotation matrix is a matrix that
quantity considering some of its figures to get the
transforms the vectors by rotating them an angle
closest multiple of a power of ten to it.
θ.
For example, rounding the value of π to ten-
In R2 , the rotation matrix is:
thousandths we get: π = 3.1416.
Depending on the use of rounding, it may consist
cos θ − sin θ of rounding to the nearest integer. In this case,
R=
sin θ cos θ then if the first digit of the decimals is equal to
or greater than 5, it is rounded to the next nearest
In three dimensions, rotation can be performed integer of the value to be rounded. For example,
about the x axis in 27.55, it rounds to 28, but 27.45 rounds to 27.
Similarly if you are going to round to the tens,
1 0 0 hundreds, thousands, etc.
R x (θ ) = 0 cos θ − sin θ
Rounding error In calculating a numeric value, a
0 sin θ cos θ
finite (usually fixed) number of digits is generally
used when performing the operation.
with respecto to the y axis The rounding error ϵ is equal to the difference of
the exact value (x) minus the approximate value
cos θ 0 sin θ (x̃) obtained when the calculation is performed
Ry (θ ) = 0 1 0 using a finite number of decimal places in the op-
− sin θ 0 cos θ eration.
For example, in arithmetic calculation:
or with respect to the z axis 1 2
+ ≈ 0.333 + 0.4 = 0.733
3 5
cos θ − sin θ 0 the rounding error is:
Rz (θ ) = sin θ cos θ 0
0 0 1 ϵ = 0.3̄ + 0.4 − 0.733 = 0.73̄ − 0.733 = 0.0003̄
Read also «Rounding» and «Truncation».
R A general rotation can be performed by multiply-
ing these three matrices (R x (θ ), Ry (θ ) and Rz (θ )).
Row In a matrix, a row is a horizontal line of its
elements.
At each rotation about the axes, the rotation is
In the following matrix A, the first row is formed
considered to be counterclockwise, and in a right
by the elements a, b and c:
coordinate system.
Read also «Right-hand rule». a b c
A= d e f
g h i
Rotational symmetry A geometric object exhibits
radial symmetry when its center is the center of The dimension of a matrix is denoted as m × n,
symmetry. where m is the number of rows and n is the num-
For example, a regular polygon exhibits radial ber of columns.
symmetry. Read also «Matrix».
454
Row echelon form of a matrix–Rule of Sarrus
Row echelon form of a matrix A matrix is in its For example, dividing x3 − x2 − 8 x + 12 by x − 1,
row echelon form if the following three condi- applying synthetic division, we get:
tions are met:
1 −1 −8 12 1
i. If it has rows that consist of zeros only, they 1 0 −8
are in the lowest rows in the matrix. 1 0 −8 4
ii. Starting from the left, the first nonzero num-
ber (the leading coefficient of that row) in That is,
any row is 1.
x3 − x2 − 8 x + 12 4
iii. If two consecutive rows do not consist of all = x2 − 8 +
zeros, then the first 1 on the bottom row is x−1 x−1
farther to the right than the first 1 on the top
row.
Each given matrix A is (row) equivalent to one, Rule of Sarrus Mnemonic rule to calculate the de-
and only one, matrix reduced to its row echelon terminant of a matrix of dimension 3 × 3. The
form. rule consists in writing the first two rows of the
Some authors do not impose the condition that determinant below it and calculating the products
the leading coefficient of each row is equal to 1. of the elements of the determinant, starting with
A matrix reduced to the row echelon form is the the main diagonal and the following two diago-
result of having applied the Gaussian elimination nals (from left to right and from top to bottom),
algorithm to another (initial) matrix. and changing their sign to the products obtained
when the elements of the diagonals that go from
Row equivalent matrices In linear algebra two right to left and from top to bottom are multi-
matrices A and B are row equivalent if B can plied.
be obtained from A using only elementary oper-
ations on the rows of A.
If this is the case, then the matrices A and B, con- a b c
sidered as homogeneous systems of equations, d e f
have the same solutions. g h i
Matrix row equivalence is an equivalence relation − +
a b c
on matrix space. − +
d e f
− +
Ruffini’s rule Rule for calculating the division of a
polynomial of degree n ≥ 2 by a linear binomial
x − r, by means of synthetic division.
Finally, these products are added to obtain the
value of the 3 × 3 determinant.
Step 1: The coefficients of the dividend polyno-
mial are written, in the decreasing order of the
a b c
powers of x, and in those powers that do not
∆ 3×3 = d e f
appear in the polynomial, a zero is written.
g h i
Step 2: Substitute the divisor x − r by r.
Step 3: Write the leading coefficient in the quo-
= aei + cdh + b f g
−ceg − a f h − bdi
R
tient.
Step 4: Multiply by r the last term of the obtained Alternatively, Sarrus’ rule can be applied by writ-
quotient and write the product under the next ing the first two columns to the right of the deter-
coefficient of the polynomial. minant and carrying out the diagonal products in
a similar way to the previous case, considering
Step 5: The last product obtained and the respec-
the same sign as those obtained on the diagonals
tive coefficient of the dividend polynomial are
that go from left to right and from top to bottom,
added.
and changing the sign of the products that are
Step 6: Steps 4 and 5 are repeated until the coef- obtained from those that go from left to right and
ficients are exhausted. from bottom to top.
455
Ruled surface–Russell’s paradox
− − − The Runge-Kutta method consists in choosing a
a b c a b step size h > 0, and from the value t = t0 where
d e f d e the value of y is known, calculate:
g h i g h 1
y n +1 = y n + (k + 2 k2 + 2 k3 + k4 )
+ + + 6 1
t n +1 = t n + h
Ruled surface A surface S is a ruled surface if for iteratively, where:
every point in S there is a straight line that is in
S. k1 = f (tn , yn )
The surface can be considered as generated by h h
the movement of a straight line ℓ (the generatrix) k2 = f tn + , yn + k1
2 2
when moving over one (or several) curve(s) (the
h h
directrix). k3 = f tn + , yn + k2
2 2
The parameterization of a ruled surface is of the
form: k4 = f (tn + h, yn + k1 h)
⃗r (u, v) = ⃗s(u) + ν⃗t(v)
Successive values of yn+1 correspond to the ap-
where ⃗s is the directrix and ⃗t is the director of the proximate solution of the differential equation.
ruled surface. Geometrically k1 , k2 , k3 and k4 may be interpreted
Examples of ruled surfaces are the convex surface as follows.
of the cylinder, the cone, the Möbius strip, and
the hyperboloid of one sheet. • k1 is the slope of the solution at (tn , yn ).
• k2 is the slope of the solution at the point
obtained using Euler’s method, with an in-
crease in the variable t of size h/2. That
is, the slope is evaluated at the point (tn +
h/2, yn + f (tn , yn ) h/2).
• k3 is the slope of the solution at the midpoint
of the interval, but at the height y that is
obtained by applying Euler’s method, using
the slope corresponding to k2 .
• k4 is the slope of the solution at the right end
Read also «Skew polygon» and «Helicoid».
of the interval, using the height for y that
Rules of the exponents The laws of the exponents is obtained using the slope corresponding to
are the following. k3 .
• am · an = am+n Basically, what is done with the method is to con-
sider a weighter average of the slopes of the solu-
• ( a · b)m = am · bm
tion at three points in the interval [tn , tn + h]: the
am
• = am−n far left, the midpoint, and the far right. Two val-
an
R •
a m
= m
am
ues are calculated at the midpoint, and greater
weight is given to the resulting values for the
b b slope of the midpoint.
• a0 = 1 ( a , 0) If f does not depend on y, the Runge-Kutta
1 method, is equivalent to a numerical integration
• = a−m using Simpson’s rule.
am
Read also «Simpson’s rule».
• ( am )n = amn
Russell’s paradox Let R be the set whose elements
Runge–Kutta method Numerical method to ap- are all sets that are not elements of themselves. If
proximately solve the first order differential equa- R is not an element of itself, then it should be an
tion dy/dt = f (t, y), subject to the initial condition element of itself (because of the way R is defined),
y ( t0 ) = y0 . but if it is an element of itself, then it contradicts
456
Russell’s paradox
its definition (so it should not be an element of This is Russell’s paradox.
R).
Mathematically,
R = { x | x < x }. Then, R ∈ R ⇔ R < R.
457
R
458
S
Saddle point The point ( x0 , y0 ) is a saddle point at the midpoint of a side, and the other at the
of the function z = f ( x, y), if ( x0 , y0 ) is a critical point where the perpendicular bisector of that
point and, side meets the circumference.
∂2 f ∂2 f
· <0
∂x2 ( x0 ,y0 ) ∂y2 ( x0 ,y0 )
In other words, a saddle point of the graph of a
function is a point where the first partial deriva-
tives are zero and the second partial derivatives
(with respect to each variable, x and y) have dif-
ferent signs (the concavity in the direction of the
a
x axis and in the direction of the y axis are differ-
ent, one is up and the other is down).
For example, the function z = x2 − y2 , satisfies s
∂ f /∂x = 0, and ∂ f /∂y = 0 at (0, 0), indicating
that it has a critical point at the origin.
The length of the radius (r) of the circle circum-
scribed to the polygon is equal to the length of
z = x2 − y 2 the apothem (a) plus the length of the sagitta (s).
Therefore, s = r − a.
1
It is worth mentioning that sagitta is also the
length s of the segment called sagitta.
Sample A subset of a population that is randomly
−1 −1 chosen to represent it in a statistical study.
0
y If X1 , X2 , X3 , · · · , Xn are independent and iden-
1 1
x tically distributed random variables, they consti-
tute a random sample of an infinite population
given by the distribution that they have.
Also, the trace curve for y = 0 is z = x2 , which Sample error (Statistics) A sampling error is the
is concave up and the trace curve for x = 0 is difference between the value of a characteristic in
2
z = −y , which is concave down. So this function the sample and that of the population.
has a saddle point at the origin. For example, if the age of a city population has
a mean of 35 years, and the mean of the selected
Sagitta In a regular polygon inscribed in a circle, sample is 45 years, the corresponding sampling
the sagitta is the segment whose ends are, one error is 10 years.
Sample mean–Saw wave
Sample mean If X1 , X2 , X3 , · · · , Xn constitute a y
random sample, then the sample mean is: y = g(x)
n y = f (x)
∑ Xi
i =1
X̄ =
n
If the random sample corresponds to an infinite x
population with mean µ, then E[ X̄ ] = µ. c
x̄ is read: x bar.
Read also «Arithmetic mean».
Sample space The sample space of a random
event, denoted by S, is the set of all possible out- y = h(x)
comes of that event, in such a way that each result
corresponds to an element or point of the sample
space and to each element of the sample space
The functions y = g( x ) y y = h( x ) are called the
corresponds a result.
lower and upper bounds of y = f ( x ), respectively.
For example, the sample space for the experiment
The sandwich theorem is also known as the
that involves tossing a coin is {heads, tails}, be-
squeeze theorem, the bounding theorem, the
cause these are the possible results of this event.
comprised function theorem, among others.
Each element of the sample space is called sample
point.
Sample variance If X1 , X2 , X3 , · · · , Xn constitute a Satisfy We say that a value satisfies an equation
random sample, then their sample variance s2 is: when substituting this value in the equation re-
duces it to a valid equality. Similarly, when a set
n of conditions are given and some mathematical
∑ ( Xi − X̄ )2 object holds for all those conditions, we say that
s 2 = i =1 the mathematical object satisfies those conditions.
n−1
For example, if we impose as a condition for a ge-
where X̄ is the mean of the variable Xi . ometric figure that the sum of its interior angles
is not greater than 200◦ , any triangle in the plane
Sampling Technique used to select a sample from satisfies that condition.
a population to represent it in a statistical study. Another example, the function:
The intention of the selected sampling technique
is to ensure that the results obtained from the
sample effectively represent those that would be y = c1 sin( x ) + c2 cos( x )
obtained if the study or treatment were given to
the entire population. satisfies the differential equation y′′ + y = 0, be-
Read also «Random sample», «Stratified sample», cause substituting the function and its second
«Cluster sample», «Convenience sample», and «Sys- derivative into the differential equation reduces
tematic sample». it to a true equality.
Read also «Solution».
Sandwich theorem If y = f ( x ), y = g( x ) and
y = h( x ) are three functions defined in the in-
S terval ( a, b), except, possibly at some point in the Saw wave Continuous, piecewise-defined, and pe-
interval x = c. If these functions satisfy riodic curve defined as:
g( x ) ≤ f ( x ) ≤ h( x )
t 1 t
x (t) = 2 a 2 − + −1
as well as p 2 p
lim g( x ) = lim h( x ) = L for t ∈ R, where ⌊t⌋ is the floor function, a is the
x →c x →c
amplitude of the wave, and p is the period of the
then lim f ( x ) = L. function.
x →c
460
Scalar–Scale
x(t) each point of a wall, the gravitational potential
around a planet, the concentration of a substance
1 (at every point) of a solution, etc.
t Scalar matrix Diagonal matrix with all elements
0 1 2 3 4 5 on the diagonal being a scalar c.
−1
c 0 ··· 0
0 c ··· 0
Read also «Piecewise function». .. .. .. ..
. . . .
Scalar Quantity or magnitude that can be fully 0 0 ··· c
measured with a real number.
For example, temperature, mass, and volume are That is, a scalar matrix is of the form c In , where
scalar quantities. c ∈ R, and In is the identity matrix of dimension
(Linear algebra) In linear algebra, scalar is syn- n × n.
onymous with real number (or complex number).
Scalars are traditionally denoted using lower case Scalar multiplication The multiplication of the
literals (a, b, c, etc.), the vectors using literals with vector ⃗u by the scalar c is:
a small arrow on top ⃗u, ⃗v, indicating that it is a
vector. Some authors denote vectors using literals c ⃗u = ⟨c u1 , c u2 , c u3 ⟩
with bold font without the arrow above (u, v, etc.)
Arrays are denoted with uppercase literals (A, B, Geometrically, when c > 1, this operation consists
etc.) of scaling c times the size of the vector ⃗u with its
direction unchanged, and if 0 < c < 1, then the
Scalar curl The scalar curl of the vector field
⃗F ( x, y) = M( x, y) ı̂ + N ( x, y) ȷ̂, is: vector ⃗u reduces its magnitude keeping its direc-
tion unmodified.
∂N ∂M
∇ × ⃗F · k̂ = − z
∂x ∂y
Note that the component of the vector field ⃗F in c ~u
the direction of k̂ is zero and the other two com-
ponents do not depend on z, thus ⃗F is in the xy ~u
plane. Furthermore, the curl of ⃗F is: y
⃗ ∂N ∂M
∇×F = − k̂ x
∂x ∂y
Consequently rot(⃗F ) always points in the direc-
If c < 0, the direction is reversed.
tion of the vector k̂.
Scalar multiplication should not be confused with
Note that the scalar curl of ⃗F depends on the vari-
the scalar product. In a scalar product, two vectors
ables x and y, but it does not depend on z.
are multiplied and the result is a scalar, while in
Read also «Green’s theorem» and «Stokes’ theorem».
a scalar multiplication, a scalar is multiplied by a
Scalar field A scalar field is a function that asso-
vector and the result is a vector.
Read also «Scalar product».
S
ciates a scalar (a number) to every point in space.
The function must be such that the value associ- Scalar product Synonym of dot product.
ated with each point is independent of the coor- Read also «Dot product».
dinate system used. That is, the function assigns
the same value to the same point, regardless of Scale (1.) Set of marks on an instrument to make
the coordinate system used as a reference. measurements.
Examples of applications in physics are the tem- The figure below shows part of a ruler with its
perature at each point of a space, the pressure on scale in centimeters.
461
Scale factor–Scientific notation
the model (linear, quadratic, exponential, etc.) to
be used for some data analysis technique (such as
1 cm linear regression).
Scholium Observation of a particular characteris-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 tic of8one or9 more10propositions,
11 12 referring
13 to
14their15 16 17
relationship, their application, their extension or
limitation.
(2.) Number or ratio that indicates the number of Schwarz’s theorem If z = f ( x, y) is a function of
times the graphic representation of a figure has two variables, defined in a region D of space, and
been magnified (or proportionally reduced) for P is a point where both f x , and f y (the first par-
handling it more easily. tial derivatives with respect to x, and y of f ) are
defined, then
Scale factor Constant number used to indicate the
proportion of the corresponding parts of two ob- ∂2 f ∂2 f
= .
jects that are similar. The scale factor can be spec- ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
ified as a ratio, such as 1 : a, which indicates that
the dimensions of the second object are a times This result can be generalized for functions of
the size of the corresponding dimensions of the more than two variables, such as:
first. ∂2 f ∂2 f
For example, if a map indicates that the scale fac- = .
∂xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂xi
tor is 1 : 100 it indicates that 1 [cm] in the map
represents 100 [cm] in the physical dimensions of In other words, regardless of the order of differ-
the terrain that is represented on the map. entiation, the second derivatives are the same.
Read also «Constant of proportionality» and «Simi- The Schwarz’s theorem is also known as Clairaut’s
larity». theorem, as Young’s theorem, as the symmetry of sec-
ond derivatives, and as equality of mixed partials.
Scalene triangle A scalene triangle is a triangle
with all its sides having different lengths. Scientific notation A mathematical notation to
write very large or very small numbers.
To write a number in scientific notation write the
first digits of the number and then, the decimal
point. At the right of the decimal point write the
following significant figures of the number and
then the corresponding power of 10 whose expo-
nent is equal to the number of figures that the
decimal point has been shifted to the left in the
actual number in the standard notation (base 10).
For example, 1 537 000 = 1.537 × 106 .
Scatter plot Diagram showing two-variable data Notice that the decimal point was shifted six dig-
in the plane generally used to identify trends in its to the left, that’s why we write exponent 6 to
them. the number 10.
When the decimal point is moved to the right, the
y exponent must be a negative one.
For example, 0.00035 = 3.5 × 10−4 .
S Now the decimal point has moved 4 places to the
right, so the exponent has a negative sign.
Note that
3.5 3.5
3.5 × 10−4 = = = 0.00035
104 10 000
x
In other words, scientific notation is actually an
application of the rules of exponents to the base of
The scatter diagram is commonly used to identify the decimal number system to conveniently write
the behavior of the data to make the decision of very large or very small quantities.
462
Secant–Second derivative test
Secant (Geometry) The secant of a curve or figure y
is a straight line that meets it at more than one
point.
1
nt
Seca
cθ
tan θ
se
θ
x
1
Read also «Pythagorean identities».
Secant method Numerical method to compute the
zeros of the function y = f ( x ). Starting with
the points x = xi−1 , and x = xi such that
The figure above shows a circle and a secant. f ( xi−1 ) · f ( xi ) < 0, calculate the equation of the
Read also «Tangent». line passing through the points ( xi−1 , f ( xi−1 )),
(Trigonometry) The secant function is defined as and ( xi , f ( xi )) and the approximate value of the
the reciprocal of the cosine function. root of the function is the point where this line
intersects the x axis.
1 y y = f (x)
sec( x ) =
cos( x )
In the right triangle, the trigonometric ratio f (x1 )
known as the secant of the angle α (smaller than
90◦ ) is equal to the length of the hypotenuse di-
vided by the length of the opposite leg. x
x0 x2 x1
Hypotenuse f (x0 )
sec α =
Opposite leg
The iterative method is performed using the for-
mula:
Opposite leg
e
us x i − x i −1
en x i +1 = x i − · f ( xi )
ot
Hyp f ( x i ) − f ( x i −1 )
S
α Second derivative test (Calculus) Let y = f ( x ) be
Adjacent leg a function such that f ′ ( x0 ) = 0. That is, x0 is a
critical point of the function. Then,
• If f ′′ ( x0 ) < 0, f ( x0 ) is a local maximum.
The following figure represents the secant of the • If f ′′ ( x0 ) > 0, f ( x0 ) is a local minimum.
angle θ in a unit circle. • If f ′′ ( x0 ) = 0, f ( x0 ) is an inflection point.
463
Secondary diagonal–Section
For example, considering the function: i. If D ( x0 , y0 ) > 0 and f xx ( x0 , y0 ) > 0, then
f ( x, y) has a local minimum at ( x0 , y0 ).
x
y= ii. If D ( x0 , y0 ) > 0 and f xx ( x0 , y0 ) < 0, then
x2 + 1
f ( x, y) has a local maximum at ( x0 , y0 ).
the first derivative of this function is:
iii. If D ( x0 , y0 ) < 0, then f ( x, y) has a saddle
′ dy 1 − x2 point at ( x0 , y0 ).
f (x) = = 2
dx ( x 2 + 1) iv. If D ( x0 , y0 ) = 0, the test cannot give a con-
Its critical points are at x = 1, x = −1. The second clusion about ( x0 , y0 ).
derivative of the function is:
If D ( x0 , y0 ) = 0, it is usually convenient to graph
′′ d2 y 2 x x2 − 3 the function about ( x0 , y0 ) to know the nature of
f (x) = 2 = 3 the critical point.
dx ( x 2 + 1)
To make sense of this discriminant, recall that the
Evaluating the second derivative at x = −1, it is graph of the function z = f ( x, y) is concave up in
obtained f ′′ (−1) = 1/2 > 0, therefore the func- the direction of the x axis if f xx ( x0 , y0 ) > 0, and
tion has a minimum at x = −1. it is concave down if f xx ( x0 , y0 ) < 0. Similarly,
On the other hand, evaluating f ′′ (1) = −1/2, the graph of the function is concave up in the di-
therefore, the function has a maximum at x = 1. rection of the y axis if f yy ( x0 , y0 ) > 0, and it is
concave down if f yy ( x0 , y0 ) < 0.
y To have a maximum or a minimum, it is neces-
sary that both concavities (in the direction of the
0.5 x x axis as well as in the y axis) at ( x0 , y0 ) coincide,
y=
x2 +1 so that the product f xx ( x0 , y0 ) · f yy ( x0 , y0 ) must be
a positive number.
x If both concavities at ( x0 , y0 ) are different, the sec-
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 ond partial derivatives have opposite signs, and
the product f xx ( x0 , y0 ) · f yy ( x0 , y0 ) is a negative
number, and consequently D < 0, whence ( x0 , y0 )
−0.5 is a saddle point.
Read also «Critical point» and «Saddle point».
Moreover,
Secondary diagonal In a square matrix, the sec-
2 x x2 − 3 ondary diagonal is the one that begins in the up-
′′ 2
f (x) = = 0 ⇒ 2x x −3 = 0
( x 2 + 1)
3 per right corner and ends in the lower left corner.
For example, in the matrix:
So the graph of the √ function has inflection
√ points
at x = 0, x = − 3, and at x = 3. At these a b c
points the graph of the function changes its con- d e f
cavity. g h i
The second derivative test is due to Leibniz.
Read also «Concavity» and «First derivative test». The secondary diagonal is the one that includes
(Multivariable calculus) Let z = f ( x, y) be a the entries: c, e, g.
function of two variables with continuous par- In a square matrix of size n × n, the secondary
S tial derivatives in a region where the point
( x0 , y0 ) lies, satisfying f x ( x0 , y0 ) = 0, as well as
diagonal is formed by the entries aij for i =
1, 2 · · · , n, and j = n − i + 1.
f y ( x0 , y0 ) = 0. The discriminant D, defined by: The secondary diagonal is also known as antidi-
agonal, minor diagonal and off diagonal.
2
D ( x0 , y0 ) = f xx ( x0 , y0 ) f yy ( x0 , y0 ) − f xy ( x0 , y0 ) Read also «Matrix» and «Main diagonal».
is used to know if the critical point ( x0 , y0 ) of the Section Intersection of two geometric objects.
function z = f ( x, y) is a local maximum, a local For example, a circumference is the section ob-
minimum, or a saddle point, according to the fol- tained from the intersection of a sphere with a
lowing criteria. plane.
464
Segment–Semicircumference
B
AB
A
ℓ
Semi- Prefix used in mathematics that means half
of.
For example, semiperimeter means half of the
perimeter.
Semicubical parabola Curve whose equation in
rectangular coordinates is:
y2 = k ( x − a)( x − b)( x − c)
where k ∈ R.
y
y = ±k x3/2
The following figure shows the section obtained
by cutting a cube with a plane passing through
the midpoints of the edges that the plane inter-
sects, dividing the cube into two equal parts.
Semicircle Half of a circle.
This section of the cube is shaped like a regular
S
hexagon.
Read also «Trace».
Segment Line interval delimited by two of its Read also «Circle».
points.
The segment starting at point A and ending at Semicircumference Arc of circumference joining
point B is denoted by AB. two ends of a diameter.
465
Semifactorial–Series
nc e Sensitivity analysis Study of the effect caused in
m fere a variable when changing the other variables in-
u
irc volved in a mathematical model.
ic
Sem
For example, in a problem calculating the cost of
production of an item, sensitivity analysis studies
how the price of that item changes as the prices
of raw materials and other inputs change (labor,
rental of equipment, etc.) required for its produc-
Semifactorial The semifactorial of the number n, tion.
denoted by n!!, is equal to the product of all the
Separable equation A first-order differential equa-
natural numbers from 1 to n with the same parity
tion y′ = f ( x, y) is separable if it can be written
as n. If n is even, multiply all even numbers from
in the form:
1 to n,
n
2 M ( x ) dx + N (y) dy = 0
n!! = ∏ (2 k ) = n ( n − 2) ( n − 4) · · · (4) (2)
k =1 Once the differential equation has been expressed
and if n is odd, multiply all odd numbers from 1 in this way, the procedure to solve it consists of
to n. computing the antiderivative of each term, and if
n +1
possible, solving y( x ).
2 In general, an equation will be obtained that is
n!! = ∏ (2 k − 1) = n ( n − 2) ( n − 4) · · · (3) (1) considered the (implicit) solution of the differen-
k =1
tial equation.
For example, the semifactorial of 5 is:
Septile The septiles are values that divide the data
5!! = (5)(3)(1) = 15 of a distribution in increasing order into 7 parts,
By convention, 0!! = 1. of approximately the same number of data.
The semifactorial of n satisfy: Read also «Fractile», «Quartile», and «Percentile».
( n + 1) !
n!! =
(n + 1)!! Sequence List of numbers that follow a certain rule
to calculate each term iteratively depending on
If n = 2 k with k positive integer, then,
the value of one or several previous terms.
k
n!! = 2 k! The numbers that make up the list are called terms
of the sequence.
The semifactorial is also known as double factorial. For example, the sequence: 3, 8, 18, 38, 78, · · · fol-
For odd n, the semifactorial is also known as odd low the rule: «add 1 to the last term of the sequence
factorial. and multiply the result by two».
Semiperfect number A natural number n is a Read also «Fibonacci Sequence».
semiperfect number if it is equal to the sum of
Series The sum of the terms of a sequence.
some or all of its proper divisors.
When the sequence is arithmetic, it is called an
For example, the numbers 6, 12, 18, 20, 24, and 28
arithmetic series.
are some examples of semiperfect numbers.
The formula to calculate the arithmetic series of
Semiprime number A natural number is a the first n terms is:
S semiprime number if it is the product of exactly
two prime numbers. Sn =
n ( a1 + a n )
For example, 4, 6, 9, 10, and 14 are semiprime 2
numbers. where a1 is the first term and an is the n−th term
None of the proper divisors of semiprime num- of the sequence.
bers is a composite number. When the terms being added form a geometric
Semiprime numbers that are perfect squares have sequence, the value of the geometric series is:
exactly three divisors.
Semiprime numbers are also known as biprime a (1 − r n )
numbers. Sn = 1
1−r
466
Serpentine curve–Seventh
where a1 is the first term and r is the ratio of the y
sequence. 2
For example, the series a=1
b=4
p + ( p + 1) + ( p + 2) + · · · + ( q − 1) + q 1
abx
y=
a2 + x2
is computed with: x
1 2 3
( p + q)(q − p + 1)
S= −1
2
and the series: −2
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + · · · + (2 n − 1) = n2
The name of this curve is due to Isaac Newton.
That is, the sum of the first odd numbers results Set A well-defined collection of objects. By well-
in a perfect square. Other known formulas for defined it is understood that for each object it is
series are given below. possible to decide whether or not it is in the set.
For example, the set of integers greater than zero,
n
n ( n + 1) but less than 10, denoted by A, is:
• ∑i=
i =0
2
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
n
n ( n + 1 ) ( 2 n + 1 )
• ∑ i2 = When it cannot be determined whether or not an
i =0
6 element is in the set, we say that the set is not well
defined.
n
n ( n + 1) 2
• ∑ i3 = Two sets A and B are the same if they have ex-
i =0
2 actly the same elements.
n 2 To indicate that the object a is an element of the
n (n + 1)(2 n + 1)(3 n2 + 3 n − 1)
• ∑ i4 = set A, we write: a ∈ A.
i =0
30 The basic operations between sets are union, in-
n
(n + 1)(2 p + n) tersection, difference, complement, and Cartesian
• ∑ ( p + i) = product.
i =0
2
Read also «Venn diagram», «Cardinality», «Union»,
n
«Intersection», «Difference», and «Complement».
• ∑ 2 i = n ( n + 1)
i =0 Set square (1) Set of instruments for drawing lines
n in plane geometry. The set square consists of two
• ∑ (2 i + 1) = n2 right triangles, one with angles of 90◦ , 60◦ , and
i =0 30◦ and the other one 90◦ , 45◦ , and 45◦ .
n
• ∑ ln(i) = ln(n!)
i =0
n
1 1
• ∑ 2i = 2−
2n
i =0
n −1
1 − an
• ∑ ai = 1−a
, { a , 1}.
S
i =0
n −1
a − n a + ( n − 1 ) a n +1 In some countries the set square is called triangle
• ∑ i ai =
(1 + a )2
, { a , −1}.
ruler set.
i =0
Set theory Branch of mathematics that studies sets,
Serpentine curve Plane curve whose correspond- their properties, their operations, and their appli-
ing algebraic expression is: cations.
abx Seventh When we divide a whole into seven equal
y= parts, each of them is one seventh of the whole.
a2 + x2
467
Sexagesimal degree–Shell method
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (x, y) (x + m y, y)
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
Read also «Fraction».
x
Sexagesimal degree A unit for the measure of an-
gles equivalent to 1/360 part of a complete turn Observe that the shear mapping consist in adding
around the circumference. to the x −coordinate of the point the quantity m y
That is, a sexagesimal degree is built on a cir- while leaving the y−coordinate unchanged.
cumference by dividing it into 360 equal parts. If m > 0, the point ( x, y) shifts to its right, while if
The central angle subtended by one of these parts m < 0 the point shifts towards its left. Because of
measures one sexagesimal degree. this, horizontal lines remain unchanged. The ver-
tical lines are transformed in straight lines with
slope 1/m.
The angle φ = arctan(1/m) that transformed ver-
1◦ tical lines form with the x −axis is known as shear
angle.
In matrix form, the horizobntal shear mapping is
written as:
One sexagesimal degree is denoted by the sym- ′
bol: ◦ , and it is usually called by saying only de- x 1 m x x+my
= =
gree. y′ 0 1 y y
One sexagesimal degree is divided into 60 min-
utes. (’) and this one in 60 seconds (”). Similarly, if it is a vertical shear mapping, then
A right angle measures 90◦ . the point ( x, y) is shifted to the point ( x, m x + y).
One sexagesimal degree (1◦ ) is equivalent to The vertical shear in matrix form is expressed as:
π/180 ≈ 0.01745329 radians.
One radian (1 rad) equals 180/π ≈ 57.2957795 x′ 1 0 x x
= =
sexagesimal degrees. y′ m 1 y mx+y
Read also «Radian» and «Gradian».
The shear mapping is also known as transvection,
shear transformation, or simply as shearing.
Sexagesimal system Numbering system based on Read also «Linear Transformation».
the number 60.
It is currently used to measure time (hours, min- Sheldon prime The number 73 is known as the
utes and seconds) and angles (sexagesimal de- Sheldon Prime.
grees). 73 is a prime number that has the product of its
digits is equal to (7)(3) = 21 and furthermore, 73
S Sextile Sextiles are values that divide the data of
is the 21st prime number in the list of all primes.
Not only that, also if you change the order of the
a distribution in increasing order into 6 parts, of digits of the number 73 you get 37, which is an-
approximately the same number of data. other prime number that is precisely number 12
Read also «Fractile», «Quartile», and «Percentile». in the list of all prime numbers, and 12 is the
number that is obtained by change the order of
the figures of 21.
Carl Pomerance and Chris Spicer proved that 73
Shear Mapping of the plane that sends the point
is Sheldon’s only prime number.
( x, y) to the point ( x + m y, y), where m is a con-
Read also «Palindromic numbers».
stant known as shear factor.
468
Side–Sigma notation
Shell method Method to establish a definite inte- Side In a polygon, a side is a line segment whose
gral to calculate the volume of a solid of revolu- endpoints are at two consecutive vertices of the
tion by dividing the solid into shells, which can polygon.
be cylindrical or spherical, depending on which
is more convenient.
When spherical shells are considered, the method
consists of dividing the interval [ a, b] into n subin-
tervals of the same size and considering the part
of the solid that corresponds to each subinterval
as a hollow sphere of radius xi and thickness ∆x.
Side
First, the approximate value of the volume ∆Vi of
a spherical shell is calculated by multiplying the
area of the sphere of radius xi by the thickness ∆x
of the shell.
∆Vi ≈ 4 π ( xi )2 · ∆x The sides of the polygon form the perimeter of
The approximate volume of each shell is then the figure, which delimits its area.
added to obtain an approximation of the volume Sierpiński number Odd natural number k, such
of the solid. that k · 2n + 1 is a composite number for every
n n natural number n.
V = ∑ ∆Vi ≈ ∑ 4 π ( xi )2 · ∆x For example, k = 78 557 is a Sierpiński number.
i =1 i =1
This approximation becomes better as the solid is Sigma notation Mathematical notation that allows
divided into more parts, and the limit as n tends to indicate the sum of several terms of a sequence.
to infinity (i.e., the definite integral), gives the ex- If x1 , x2 , · · · , xn are the terms of a sequence that
act value of the volume. must be added, this operation is indicated as fol-
lows:
n Zb n
V = lim ∑ ∆Vi = 2
4 π x · dx ∑ x i = x1 + x2 + · · · + x n
n→∞ i =1
i =1 a
And it is read as: the sum of all the terms xi where
In the following figure a generic spherical shell of
the index i goes from 1 to n.
this method is shown.
For example, the sum of the first 100 natural num-
z bers using sigma notation is denoted as follows:
100
∑ i = 1 + 2 + · · · + 100
i =1
Some properties of the sigma notation are listed
below.
n
• ∑ a = na
i =1
x y n n
xi
• ∑ c ai = c ∑ ai
∆x
i =1 i =1
n
• ∑ [ a i + bi ] = ∑ a i + ∑ bi
n n S
i =1 i =1 i =1
!
n m m n
• ∑ ∑ aij = ∑ ∑ aij
i =1 j =1 j =1 i =1
If the shells under consideration are cylindrical, This notation is used in integral calculus in the
the method is known as the cylindrical shells definition of the definite integral as a Riemann
method. sum.
Read also «Cylindrical shells method». Read also «Definite integral».
469
Sigmoid curve–Sign function
Sigmoid curve The sigmoid curve is a class of y
functions whose graph has the shape of an «S». x
An example is the function y=√
1 + x2
1
1
f (x) =
1 + e− x 0.5
y x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
y = f (x)
L
−1
1
2
Read also «Logistic function».
Sign A symbol that represents a mathematical ob-
x ject, an idea, or a characteristic of an object. In
−2 2 4 6
mathematics, signs can also indicate operations.
(+, −, ×,÷, ∩, ∪, etc.), the nature of a mathemat-
ical object (positive, negative, ∅, etc.), can indicate
Another example is the arctangent function. ⌢
the type of mathematical objects (△, ∠, AB, etc.),
relationship between objects of the same nature
(≤, ≥, ,, ⊥, etc.), among oter things (∞, %, π, ⃗u,
y R+ , etc.)
(Arithmetic) The sign of the number x ∈ R is
1 positive (+) if x > 0. If x < 0, then its sign is
negative (−). The number zero (0) has no sign
(zero is neither negative nor positive). The num-
x ber zero is the border between positive numbers
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
and negative numbers.
y = arctan(x)
−1 Read also «Sign function».
Sign function Mathematical function denoted as
sgn( x ) that is defined by:
Another example is the hyperbolic tangent func- −1 if x < 0
tion. y = sgn ( x ) = 0 if x = 0
1 if x > 0
y
y
y = tanh(x)
1
1
x
x
S −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 O
−1
The graph of the function Equivalently, the sign function can be defined as:
x
x y = sgn( x ) =
y= √ |x|
1 + x2
where | x | is the absolute value of x, considering
is also considered a sigmoid curve. sgn(0) = 0.
470
Sign rules–Similarity
The derivative of the absolute value function is Significant figures The significant figures of a
the sign function, except in x = 0. number (written in a positional numbering sys-
(Complex variable) The sign function defined for tem) are the digits that contribute to the precision
every non-zero complex number z is: of its numerical value.
For example, in 6.024, all figures are significant
z
sgn(z) = figures, but in 0.02400, only 2 and 4 are, because
|z|
the zeros to the right of the 4 do not add to the
where |z| is the module of the complex number z. precision of the number’s value.
Equivalently, for every nonzero complex number Some authors give the following definition of a
z, significant figure: if the number x is written in
sgn(z) = ei arg(z) decimal notation with a precision of k significant
figures, then the first k digits of the number x
where arg(z) is the argument of the number z. match the rounding of x up to that digit.
Sign rules Rules that apply to the product of two Read also «Significant digits».
signed quantities.
Silver number Mathematical constant denoted by
The sign rules are as follows:
δS , and equal to the irrational number
+·+=+ √
δS = 1 + 2 ≈ 2.41421
+·−=−
−·+=− Two quantities a, b are in the silver ratio δS , if
−·−=+ 2a+b a
= = δS
In short, when multiplying two quantities with a b
the same sign we obtain a quantity with a posi-
tive sign (+) and when we multiply two quanti-
ties with different signs we obtain a quantity with Silver rectangle A rectangle is a solver rectangle if
a negative sign (−). the lengths of its sides a, b are in the silver ratio
Similarly, the rules for division of signed quanti- δS :
ties are below. 2a+b a √
= = δS = 1 + 2 ≈ 2.41421
+÷+=+ a b
+÷−=−
−÷+=−
−÷−=+ 1
√
1 1+ 2
Significance level Synonym of statistical signifi-
cance.
Read also «Statistical significance». Similar matrices Two matrices A and B of dimen-
sion n × n are similar if there exist an invertible
Significant digits The number x̃ approximates x
matrix C of dimension n × n such that:
with n significant digits if n , 0 is the greatest
number for which B = C −1 AC
| x − x̃ |
|x|
< 5 × 10−n This transformation of mapping matrix A into S
matrix B is called similarity transformation.
For example, the number x = 1 000 may be ap- If A and B are similar matrices, then A and B
proximated with n = 4 significant digits if: have the same characteristic equation and, conse-
quently, the same eigenvalues.
|1 000 − x̃ |
< 5 × 10−4 Similarity Two polygons are said to be similar if
|1 000|
one is drawn to scale of the other.
Or, |1000 − x̃ | < 0.5. That is, 999.5 < x̃ < 1 000.5. That is, two figures are similar if they have the
Read also «Significant figures». same shape, but not necessarily the same size.
471
Similarity transformation–Simple linear regression
For example, two arcs of a circle, circular sec- Simple event Event that cannot be decomposed
tors or circular segments are similar if they cor- into more elementary events, so that it corre-
respond to equal central angles. sponds to a point in the sample space.
If two triangles are similar, then: The literal E is generally used to denote a simple
event.
• Two sides are proportional and the angle be-
tween them is in each triangle. Simple fraction A fraction that does not have an
integer part in its writing.
• Two equal angles. For example, 3/7 is a simple fraction.
• All three sides are proportional. Read also «Proper fraction».
Simple interest Interest calculated from the initial
The following triangles are similar:
capital.
If n is the number of time intervals the money was
used, i is the interest rate and C is the initial cap-
ital, the interest I is calculated with the formula:
I = niC
And the amount M to be paid in that same period
is:
M = C (1 + ni )
Read also «Test for similarity of triangles».
In similar polygons, the homologous or corre-
sponding parts (sides, angles, diagonals, etc.) are Simple linear regression Given a set of n data
those that are located in correspondence with {( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ), · · · , ( xn , yn )}, where yi
each other that is drawn to scale. depends functionally of xi , according to y =
The ratio of the perimeters of two similar poly-
m̂ x + b̂, it is required to calculate the parameters
gons is equal to the ratio of the lengths of any
m̂, and b̂ of the equation of the line that best fits
two corresponding sides.
the n known data.
The ratio of the areas of two similar plane figures
is proportional to the square of the ratios of their y
homologous (or corresponding) sides.
Similarity transformation Two matrices A and B
x + b̂
of dimension n × n are similar if there is an in- y = m̂
vertible matrix C of dimension n × n such that: yi
B = C −1 AC
This transformation of mapping matrix A into
matrix B is called similarity transformation.
x
xi
Simple closed curve Closed curve that does not
cut itself.
From the n data ( xi , yi ) the values of m̂ and b̂ can
S be computed using:
n ∑ xy − (∑ x ) (∑ y)
m̂ =
n ∑ x 2 − ( ∑ x )2
b̂ = ȳ − m̂ x̄
where x̄ is the mean of the values xi , ȳ is the mean
of the values yi , ∑ x is the sum of the values xi ,
∑ y is the sum of the values yi , ∑ xy is the sum of
Read also «Jordan curve». the values xi · yi .
472
Simplex method–sinc function
The line y = m̂ x + b̂ is known as the regression Simpson’s rule Numerical method to calculate the
line and is the one that minimizes the sum of the approximate value of the definite integral:
squares of the vertical distances from the points
( xi , yi ) to the regression line. Zb
The regression line can be used to estimate the f ( x ) · dx
value of ỹ for a particular value of x̃ whenever x̃ a
is in the range of the known data (with which the
for a function y = f ( x ) which is positive on the
parameters m̂ and b̂ of the regression line were interval ( a, b).
computed). It is not recommended to use the re- The method consists in dividing the interval [ a, b]
gression line to make a forecast (that is, to calcu- into n subintervals of length ∆x = (b − a)/n,
late the value of ỹ for a x̃ out of the range of the and consider the function in each subinterval
known data.) [ xi , xi+1 ] as a parabola passing through the points
Read also «Least squares method». ( xi , f ( xi ), ( xm , f ( xm )), and ( xi+1 , f ( xi+1 )), where
Simplex method Method for solving linear opti- xm is the midpoint of the considered interval.
mization problems involving an objective func- In this way, you have to:
tion and several inequality constraints. The set
Zb
of points that satisfy all the inequalities simulta- ∆x
f ( x ) · dx = [ f ( x0 ) + f ( xn )+
neously is the feasible region. The optimization 3
problem consists of calculating the coordinates of a
the point of the feasible region that optimizes the + 2 f ( x2 ) + 2 f ( x4 ) + 2 f ( x6 ) + · · ·
objective function. + 4 f ( x1 ) + 4 f ( x3 ) + 4 f ( x5 ) + · · · ]
This iterative method gets closer to the optimal
solution after each iteration. In general, the opti- where ∆x = (b − a)/n, and xi+1 = xi + ∆x.
mal solution is found at one of the vertices of the The error size in the Simpson’s rule is:
polygon that form the constraints (the feasible re-
(∆x )4
gion is delimited by the inequalities) or on one of − ( b − a ) · f (4) ( ξ )
the sides of said polygon (in this case there would 180
be an infinite number of optimal solutions). where ξ ∈ [ a, b].
Read also «Feasible region».
Simulation Use of a physical, mathematical or
Simplification In mathematics, to simplify an ex- computational model to reproduce the conditions
pression means to express it in an equivalent way, of a process.
but easier to interpret. The use of a simulation allows to know results
For example, of situations that are impractical, very expensive,
2 2 dangerous, or impossible, for which it is consid-
x − 6 x + 9 = ( x − 3)
ered that its use often implies saving money.
Read also «Cancelling out».
sinc function Function denoted by sinc, and de-
Simplification of a fraction We say that we have fined for all x , 0, as:
simplified a fraction when we have reduced it into
sin( x )
an equivalent simpler one. y = sinc( x ) =
For example, reducing the fraction 12/20 gives x
The normalized sinc function is defined as:
12 3·4 3
= =
20 5· 5 sin(π x )
4
Or also, in the case of an algebraic fraction,
y = sinc( x ) =
πx S
In both cases, the function for x = 0 is defined by
x4 − 1 x2 + 1 x2 − 1 the limit:
=
x+1 x+1
sin( a x )
x 2 + 1 ( x − 1)
( x+)
1 sinc(0) = lim =1
= x →0 ax
x+1
= x 2 + 1 ( x − 1) The derivative of the sinc function is:
d(sinc( x )) cos( x ) − sinc( x )
for x , −1. =
dx x
473
Sine
The sinc function can be expressed equivalently The graph of the sine function is as follows.
as:
sin( x ) ∞ x
= ∏ cos n
x n =1
2 y
The normalized form of the sinc function can be 1 y = sin x
expressed equivalently as: 3π
2
∞ x
sin(π x ) x2
= ∏ 1− 2
π
2
π 2π
πx n =1 n −1
On the other hand, the normalization of this func-
tion implies: The graph of the sine function has a period T =
Z∞ 2 π.
sin(π x )
· dx = 1 Read also «Period».
πx The roots of the sine function are at the points
−∞
x = k π, where k is an integer. Its maxima are at
However, the points x = (2 k + 1) π/2, and its minima are at
Z∞ the points x = (2 k − 1) π/2, where k is an integer.
sin(π x )
· dx = ∞ The derivative of the sine function is:
πx
−∞
d[sin(v)] dv
= cos(v) ·
dx dx
Sine In a right triangle, the sine of an acute posi-
tive angle α is: And the antiderivative of the sine function is:
y Z
sin(α) =
r sin(v) · dv = − cos(v) + C
where y is the length of the opposite leg and r is
the length of the hypotenuse. The Maclaurin series of the sine function is:
x3 x5 x7
sin( x ) = x − + − +···
3! 5! 7!
Opposite leg
e
us ∞
ot
en (−1)i
yp =∑ x 2 i +1
H
i =0
( 2 i + 1 ) !
The Taylor series of the sine function around
α
x = a, is:
Adjacent leg
( x − a )3 ( x − a )5
The trigonometric function sine is defined for sin( x − a) = ( x − a) − + −···
3! 5!
any angle α. Given an angle with a horizontal ∞
(−1)i
side and vertex at the origin, its sine, denoted = ∑ (2 i + 1 ) ! ( x − a )2 i +1
by sin(α) is defined as the coordinate on the y i =0
axis of the point of intersection of the other (non-
The general case of the sine function is:
horizontal) side of the angle with the unit circle.
S y
y = A sin(ωx + φ)
where A is the amplitude of the wave, φ is the
horizontal displacement (phase shift) and ω is the
angular frequency of the wave (measured in radi-
ans per second), so that 2 π f = ω, where f is the
sin(α)
regular frequency (in hertz).
In terms of complex numbers,
α
x
cos(α) 1 sin( x ) = Im eix
474
Sine integral–Sixth
By Euler’s formula, the sine function can also be y
|
written as:
|x
3
=
eix − e−ix
y
sin( x ) =
2
2
for x ∈ R.
Read also «Euler’s formula».
1
The Laplace transform of the sine function is:
a x
L {sin( a x )} = -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
s2 + a2
If z is a complex variable, the sine function of z is Functions that have a singular point at x = x0 can
defined as: be analyzed using the concept of the limit (or the
eiz − e−iz one-sided limits) of the function at x = x0 .
sin(z) =
2i
Singularity A mathematical object exhibits a sin-
gularity at a point P if it is not defined at P, or if
Sine integral The sine integral, denoted as Si( x ) is its behavior changes drastically.
the function defined by: For example, the function:
Zx Zx sin( x )
sin(t) y=
Si( x ) = · dt = sinc(t) · dt x
t
0 0
has a singularity at x = 0, because the function
is not defined √ there, while the derivative of the
where sinc( x ) is the sinc function.
function y = 3 x has a singularity at x = 0 be-
The sine integral function is an odd function,
cause it is not defined there.
which satisfies:
Read also «Sine integral».
Z∞
sin(t) π Sinusoid curve Curve whose shape coincides with
lim sinc( x ) = · dt =
x →∞ t 2 that of the graph of the sine function or the cosine
0
function.
Read also «sinc function».
y
Singleton A set that has exactly one element. In 1
other words, the unitary set is a set whose cardi-
nality is 1.
The singleton is also known as unit set. x
Singular matrix It is said that a matrix A is singu-
lar if A−1 does not exist. -1 y = sin(x)
Read also «Inverse matrix».
Singular point A point x0 in the domain of func- The sinusoid curve may have parameters of am-
tion y = f ( x ) where the function is defined, but plitude A, frequency ϕ, phase shift δ, and vertical
its derivative f ′ ( x0 ) is undefined.
For example, the function y = | x | =
√
x2 has a
displacement k, different from the base function
y = sin( x ). Therefore, the general form of the S
singular point at x = 0, because its derivative at sinusoid curve is:
that point is undefined:
y = A sin(ϕ x − δ) + k
dy x
f ′ (x) = = √ The sinusoid curve is also known as sine wave.
dx x2 Read also «Trigonometric function».
So, f ′ (0) is undefined, although the function there Sixth When we divide a whole into six equal parts,
is defined ( f (0) = 0). each of them is one sixth, of the whole.
475
Skew lines–Slope
Slack variables are generally considered non-
negative.
Read also «Simplex method».
1 1 1 1 1 1
6 6 6 6 6 6
Slope The slope m of a line passing through the
points P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ), is:
Read also «Fraction». y2 − y1 ∆y
m= =
x2 − x1 ∆x
Skew lines Two lines are skewed lines if they are
not in the same plane (and therefore do not inter-
sect). Geometrically, the slope indicates how many
units the straight line advances vertically for ev-
ery unit it advances in the positive direction of
C z the x axis.
B
A
y
y y2
x D
Skew lines are also called non-coplanar lines.
∆y
Skew polygon A polygon whose vertices are not
in the same plane.
α
y1
∆x
α
x
x1 x2
For example, the slope of the line passing through
the points (1, 1) and (3, 5) is:
Slack variable In a linear optimization problem
that is solved by the simplex method, a slack vari- y2 − y1 5−1 4
m= = = =2
able is a variable that is added to an inequality x2 − x1 3−1 2
(constraint) to make it an equality.
For example, the inequality Meaning that, for each unit that the line advances
S x1 ≤ 20
in the (positive) direction of the x axis, advances
2 in the (positive) direction of the y axis.
Considering the right triangle with vertices at
It can be converted to an equality using the slack
( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x2 , y1 ) of the figure above,
variable y1 :
the tangent of the shown angle α, is equal to the
x1 + y1 = 20
ratio of the length of the opposite leg (∆y) over
where y1 = 20 − x1 . That is, the slack variable the length of the adjacent leg (∆x).
is the difference between 20 and the value of the That is, the slope of the line is equal to the tan-
variable x1 . In this way inequality can be changed gent of the angle that it forms with the horizontal
into equality. axis.
476
Small stellated dodecahedron–Smooth function
ℓ
m = tan α
α
x
In other words, two lines with the same slope are If its shortest edge a, then the longest
√ measures
√
parallel. edges measure 5 a/ 2, and its volume V and
Read also «Equation of the line». its surface area A are:
The letter m for the slope comes from the Latin q √
25
mutatis meaning change. V= 7 + 3 5 a3
Read also «Inclination». 8
15 √
A= 15 a2
2
Small stellated dodecahedron Polyhedron with The small triambic icosahedron is an isohedral
12 faces, all in the shape of a pentagram. It also figure.
has 12 vertices and 30 edges.
Smaller than (Arithmetic) We say that a is less
If the edge has length a, then its volume V and its
than b if the difference a − b is negative and we
surface area A are:
denote it by a < b.
q √ For example, 6 < 8, because 6 − 8 = −2, and −2
1 3 is a negative number.
V= 3 5−5a
4 q Geometrically, if a is to the left of b on the number
√ 2 line, then a < b.
A = 15 85 − 38 5 a
x
0 a b
Read also «Inequality».
Smooth A function y = f ( x ) is smooth in the inter-
val ( a, b) if its derivative is defined at every point
in the interval.
The function y = x2 is a smooth function, since
y′ = 2 x is defined for all x ∈ R. On the other
hand, the absolute value function (y = | x |) is not
smooth at the origin, since its derivative is not de-
fined at the origin. At this point, its graph has a
sudden change in direction.
Geometrically, the graph of a smooth function
does not exhibit sudden changes in direction. S
Hence the adjective smooth.
If the derivative of the function y = f ( x ) is de-
fined for all x in a given interval ( a, b), then the
function is said to be smooth on that interval.
Read also «Absolute value function».
Small triambic icosahedron Polyhedron with 70 Smooth function A function y = f ( x ) is smooth in
faces, all in the shape of a triangle. It also has the interval ( a, b) if its derivative f ′ ( x ) is defined
32 vertices and 60 edges. for every point in the given interval.
477
Snap–Snub dodecahedron
y
y = f (x)
x
a b
Snap The snap is a physical quantity that is defined
as the fourth derivative of the position, equivalent
to the third derivative of the velocity, equivalent
to the second derivative of the acceleration, and
also equivalent to the first derivative of the jerk
or jolt. Snub disphenoid Polyhedron formed by 12 faces,
Read also «Jerk». all of them being equilateral triangles. It also has
8 vertices and 18 edges.
Snub cube A polyhedron with 38 faces of which 6
are squares and 32 are equilateral triangles. The
snub cube also has 24 vertices and 60 edges.
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
its area A are:
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
(8 k + 6) a3 and its area A are:
V= p
3 2 · ( k 2 − 3)
√
A = 6 + 8 3 a2 V ≈ 0.859494 a3
√
A = 3 3 a2
where
S 1+
p
3
19 − 3
√
33 +
p
3
19 + 3
√
33
The snub disphenoid is a deltahedron.
k= The snub disphenoid is a Johnson solid.
3 Read also «Deltahedron».
The snub cube is an Archimedean solid.
Snub cuboctahedron Polyhedron formed by 74 Snub dodecahedron Polyhedron formed by 92
faces, of which 56 are equilateral triangles, 6 are faces, of which 80 are equilateral triangles and 12
squares and 12 are rhombuses. It also has 48 ver- are regular pentagons. It also has 60 vertices and
tices and 120 edges. 150 edges.
478
Snub square antiprism–Solid angle
Solenoidal vector field A vector field is a
solenoidal vector field if its divergence is zero.
∇ · ⃗F = 0
If ⃗F is the speed of an incompressible fluid, then
∇ · ⃗u = 0 indicates that the density of the fluid
remains constant.
Read also «Divergence».
Solid Three-dimensional geometric figure.
Solids are also known as bodies.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
s
√ q √
A = 15 95 + 6 5 + 8 75 + 30 5 a2
V ≈ 37.6166 a3
The snub dodecahedron is an Archimedean solid.
Snub square antiprism Polyhedron that has 26
faces of which 24 are equilateral triangles and 2
are squares. It also has 16 vertices and 40 edges.
In mathematics, the word is often used solid as a
synonym of polyhedron.
Read also «Polyhedron».
Solid angle Consider a unit sphere centered at a
fixed point P. The solid angle Ω is a measure
that quantifies the visible portion of the sphere’s
surface when viewed from P.
The snub square antiprism is obtained by adding
a chain of equilateral triangles between the Ω
squares of a square antiprism.
The volume V and the area A of the nub square 1
antiprism of edge of length a, are:
V ≈ 3.60122 a3
A= 2+6 3 a
√ 2
The solid angle is measured in steradians (sr). S
For a sphere of radius r, the measure of the solid
The snub square antiprism is a Johnson solid. angle is given by
Software Programs and information that contain A
the instructions that tell a computer what to do Ω=
r2
(for example, to function), how to communi-
cate with peripheral devices (monitor, keyboard, where A is the area of the spherical cap covered
mouse, printer, etc.), among other functions. by the solid angle.
Read also «Program». Read also «Steradian» and «Spherical cap».
479
Solid geometry–Solution set
Solid geometry Geometry that studies objects in where R represents the limits of integration such
three-dimensional space, such as polyhedra. that the entire region that rotates around the y
Read also «Solid». axis is covered.
Read also «Double integral» and «Polar coordi-
Solid of revolution Solid that is generated when a nates».
plane region is rotated about a fixed axis, which
is known as the axis of rotation. Solution (1.) Answer to a problem.
In the following figure, the solid of revolution (2.) Algorithm, process, method or technique
was obtained by rotating around the y axis the used to solve a problem.
flat region delimited by the graph of the function (Algebra) Set of values, algebraic expressions,
z = f (y), the y axis, and the lines y = a and y = b. functions, etc., that when substituting in an equa-
tion or in a system of equations, true equalities
z are obtained.
(Differential equations) A solution of a differ-
ential equation is a function y = f (t) such that
when substituted into the differential equation, it
reduces to a true equality.
For example, a solution of the differential equa-
z = f (y) tion: y′′ + y = 0 is the function y = c1 cos(t) +
c2 sin(t), where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants,
because when you add this function to its second
x y derivative, you get zero.
Solution set (Linear algebra) Set of values that sat-
The volume V of this solid of revolution is calcu- isfy each of the equations of a system of equa-
lated using the following definite integral: tions.
For example, the solution set of the system of lin-
Zb
ear equations:
V=π [ f (y)]2 · dy
a x+ y+ z= 6
3 x + 2 y + z = 10
And the surface area S of this solid is: 4 x + 3 y + 2 z = 16
s 2
Zb is the set of values ( x, 4 − 2 x, 2 + x ). Note that
df
S = 2π f (y) 1 + · dy from the value of x, the corresponding values of
dy
a y and z are calculated.
(Optimization) Set of points that satisfy a system
if d f /dy is defined for all x in [ a, b]. of inequalities.
Read also «Surface of revolution».
If the curve that delimits the region is given in y
2
polar coordinates r = f (θ ) and the solid of revo-
+
10 x − y > −2
x
lution is obtained by rotating the region about the
=
9
y
axis x, the volume V is given by:
+4
x 8 x + y < 12
7 y = x/3
V = 2π r2 sin(θ ) · dθ · dr
6 −x + 3 y < 12
R
5
S where R represents the limits of integration so 4
x − y > −2
y
=
as to cover the entire plane region that rotates 3
x + y < 12
−
around the x axis.
x
2
−x + 3 y < 12
+
If the curve that delimits the region is given in
12
1 x > 0; y > 0
polar coordinates r = f (θ ) and the solid of revo- x
lution is obtained by rotating a region of the plane 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
around the y axis, the volume V is given by:
x In this case, the solution set is synonymous with
feasible region.
V = 2π r2 cos(θ ) · dθ · dr
R
Read also «Feasible region».
480
Solve for a variable–Speed
Solve for a variable Process of solving an equation The spatial diagonal is also known as space diago-
for one variable using algebraic operations so that nal.
the final the final expression is equivalent to the
Span The span of n vectors ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn , is the set
initial one.
of all the vectors ⃗v that can be written as their
For example, considering that 2 x + 3 y = 12, by
linear combination:
solving for y it is obyained:
Span{⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn }
12 − 2 x 2 = {⃗v : ⃗v = c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cn⃗vn }
y= = 4− x
3 3
Geometriucally, if n = 1 (for ⃗v1 , ⃗0) the span is a
straight line passing through the origin.
If n = 2, and the set of vectors is linearly indepen-
Sophomore’s dream The following identities due
dent, the space generated is a plane that passes
to Johann Bernoulli
through the origin.
Z1 ∞ z
x − x · dx = ∑ n−n
0 n =1
Z1 ∞ ∞
x x · dx = ∑ (−1)n+1 n−n = − ∑ (−n)−n
0 n =1 n =1
are known as the sophomore’s dream in mathe- ~v
matics. y
Space Set of mathematical objects that are delim- x
ited for study by giving it an algebraic structure. ~u
The algebraic structure consists of treating the el-
ements of the set as points and establishing prop-
erties of these objects and relationships between If n = 3, and the set of vectors is linearly inde-
them. pendent, then the generated space is the three-
A mathematical space is not necessarily a physi- dimensional space.
cal space, although physical space is often studied The span is also known as linear span.
through mathematical spaces. Read also «Linear independence».
The physical space is modeled through geome- Spectral factorization Factorization of a matrix in
try. Euclidean geometry assumes that space is canonic form by representing it in terms of its
flat, so that a line passes through two different eigenvalues and its eigenvectors.
points, a plane passes through three non-collinear
points, and four non-coplanar points are in a 3- Spectral Radius The spectral radius ρ( A) of a
dimensional space. square matrix A of dimension n × n, is the largest
value of the absolute value of its eigenvalues λ1 ,
Spatial diagonal In a polyhedron, a spatial diago- λ2 , · · · , λ n .
nal is a line segment whose ends are at two ver-
ρ( A) = max (|λ1 |, |λ2 |, |λ3 |, · · · |λn |)
tices that do not belong to the same face of the
polyhedron.
z
Speed (1.) Number that indicates the change in the
position of an object per unit of time.
S
Speed is computed by dividing the distance trav-
c eled by the time it took to travel that distance.
(2.) Magnitude of the velocity vector, regardless
of its direction.
Read also «Vector» and «Vector function».
(3.) In calculus, speed is equal to the first deriva-
y tive of the position function with respect to time.
x a b
481
Sphenocorona–Sphere
Sphenocorona Polyhedron that has 14 faces of A radius r of the sphere is a line segment that
which 12 are equilateral triangles and 2 are goes from the center of the sphere to any of its
squares. It also has 10 vertices and 22 edges. points. A diameter of the sphere is a line segment
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its that passes through the center of the sphere and
area A are: has its ends on its surface. The length D of the
s r diameter is equal to twice the radius: D = 2 r.
q √
1 3 The ends of a diameter of the sphere are the poles
V= 1+3 + 13 + 3 6 a3 of the sphere.
2 2
√ 2
A= 2+3 3 a z
r r
y
x
Sphenocorona is a Johnson solid. The surface area S and the volume V of the sphere
Sphenomegacorona Polyhedron that has 18 faces of radius r are:
of which 16 are equilateral triangles and two are S = 4π r2
squares. It also has 12 vertices and 28 edges. 4π 3
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its V= r
3
area A are: respectively.
Note that the surface area of the sphere is four
V ≈ 1.94833
a3
√ 2 times the area of the circle that is obtained when
A= 2+4 3 a the sphere is cut with a plane passing through
its center. Furthermore, the surface area of the
sphere is equal to the area of the convex surface
of its circumscribed cylinder.
a a
S y
The sphenomegacorona is a Johnson solid. x
2a
Sphere It is the set of points in three-dimensional
space that lie at a fixed distance r, measured from
a fixed point C. The fixed point C is the center of
the sphere and the fixed distance r is its radius.
The sphere is the surface generated by rotating Read also «Archimedes theorem».
a circle around its diameter (without considering The volume of the sphere is equal to its surface
the points contained within this surface). area times one third of its radius.
482
Spherical angle–Spherical coordinates
The equation in rectangular coordinates of the The equation of the plane tangent to the sphere
sphere of radius r, centered at the origin is: of radius r passing through the point ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
of the sphere is:
x 2 + y2 + z2 = r 2
x0 ( x − x0 ) + y0 ( y − y0 ) + z0 ( z − z0 ) = 0
The equation of the sphere of radius r with center Read also «Equation of the tangent plane».
at ( x0 , y0 , z0 ), is: Some authors consider the sphere as the geomet-
ric solid obtained by rotating a semicircle around
( x − x0 )2 + ( y − y0 )2 + ( z − z0 )2 = r 2
its diameter. Thus considered, the sphere is the
The parametric equations of the sphere of radius set of points that are at a distance less than or
r and center at ( x0 , y0 , z0 ), are: equal to the radius (r). When the sphere is consid-
ered as a solid, its surface is referred to as spherical
x = x0 + r sin( φ) cos(θ ) surface, or as surface of the sphere.
y = y0 + r sin( φ) sin(θ ) Spherical angle A spherical angle is the intersec-
z = z0 + r cos( φ) tion of two circles that lie on the surface of a
sphere.
for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 π, and 0 ≤ φ ≤ π. The magnitude of the spherical angle is a quan-
Any cross section obtained by cutting the sphere titative measure of the difference in the direction
through a plane is a circle. of the arcs on these circles.
Read also «Spherical cap».
The plane that passes through the center of the C
sphere cuts the sphere into two equal parts. Each
of these parts is called hemisphere.
Read also «Hemisphere».
The intersection of a plane that intersects the
sphere passing through the center of the sphere
is called great circle, or orthodrome.
Read also «Great circle».
A plane tangent to the sphere is that plane that B
passes at a distance r from the center of the A
sphere, so that the plane touches the sphere at
a single point.
The figure shows the spherical angle ACB.
z
Spherical cap Synonym of «spherical cap» and
«spherical segment of one base».
Read also «Spherical dome»
Spherical coordinates The spherical coordinates
(ρ, θ, z) of the point ( x, y, z) in rectangular coor-
dinates are:
q
r ρ = x 2 + y2 + z2
x x
cos(θ ) = = p
r x 2 + y2
x
y z
cos(ϕ) = = p
z S
ρ x + y2 + z2
2
where ρ ≥ 0, 0 ≤ θ < 2 π, and 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π.
To convert from spherical coordinates (ρ, θ, ϕ) to
rectangular coordinates ( x, y, z) use:
x = ρ sin(ϕ) cos(θ )
A plane perpendicular to the radius of the sphere
that passes through the end of the radius that y = ρ sin(ϕ) sin(θ )
touches the sphere is tangent to the sphere. z = ρ cos(ϕ)
483
Spherical curve–Spherical dome
z Spherical curve Curve whose points lie on the sur-
z face of the sphere.
For example, the following sinusoidal curve lies
on the surface of a sphere, which is why it is
called spherical sinusoidal curve.
P( x, y, z)
ϕ P(ρ, θ, ϕ)
ρ z
θ y
y
x
x
The differential of volume in spherical coordi- −r
−r
nates is: r y
r
dV = ρ2 sin(ϕ) · dρ · dϕ · dθ x
z
ρ sin φ dθ
ρ dφ
Another spherical curve is the intersection of a
cylinder with a sphere, which is known as Vi-
viani’s curve.
dφ
φ
ρ θ
ρ + dρ y
x θ θ + dθ
The differential of surface area in spherical coor-
dinates is:
dS = ρ2 sin ϕ · dϕ · dθ
where ρ, θ, ϕ are the coordinates of the point in Read also «Viviani’s curve».
spherical coordinates where the differential of
area is located.
Spherical dome Portion of a sphere that is ob-
z tained when it is cut with a plane.
ρ sin φ dθ
a
S ρ
sin
φ
ρ dφ
h
dφ
dS
φ
θ r
ρ y
x θ θ + dθ
484
Spherical frustum–Spherical sector
The area S of the curved surface of the spherical
dome is:
S = 2 π r h
S = π a2 + h2
where r is the radius of the sphere and h is the
height of the dome (observe that 0 ≤ h ≤ 2 r).
If the radius of the sphere (r) is unknown, but the
radius of the spherical dome a and its height h are
known, then,
a2 + h2
r=
2h
The volume V of the spherical dome is:
π
V = h 3 a2 + h2
6 Spherical sector Portion of the sphere bounded by
π 2 a circular cone whose vertex is at the center of the
V = h (3 r − h )
3 sphere.
The spherical dome is also known as spherical cap,
a
and spherical segment of one base.
Spherical frustum Synonym of spherical segment. h
Read also «Spherical segment».
Spherical helix Curve in space whose parametric
equations are:
t
x (t) = sin cos(t) r
2c
t
y(t) = sin sin(t)
2c
t The basis of the spherical sector is the surface that
z(t) = cos
2c is a portion of the sphere.
The surface area A of the spherical sector (not in-
z cluding the area of the cone) is:
A = 2πrh
The surface area S of the spherical sector (includ-
ing the area of the cone) is:
S = π r [2 h + a ]
The volume V of the spherical sector is:
y 2
V= π r2 h
x 3
If 2 ϕ is the plane angle formed at the vertex of
S
the cone, its volume V is:
2
V = π r3 (1 − cos ϕ)
3
The height z̄ of its centroid is:
Spherical lune Part of the surface of a sphere that 3
z̄ = (2 r − h )
is included between two planes that pass through 8
the diameter of given sphere. Read also «Spherical segment».
485
Spherical segment–Spherical triangle
Spherical segment Portion of the sphere that is ob- R
tained when it is cut with two parallel planes. r
a
b
If r is the radius of the sphere, a the radius of the
lower base of the spherical segment, b the radius
of its upper base, and h the distance between both Spherical spiral Spiral-shaped curve on the sur-
bases, face of a sphere whose parametric equations are:
p
[( a − b)2 + h2 ] [( a + b)2 + h2 ] cos(t)
r= x (t) = √
2h 1 + a2 t2
sin(t)
The surface area S of the spherical segment with- y(t) = √
out considering the circular bases is: 1 + a2 t2
−a t
z(t) = √
S = 2πrh 1 + a2 t2
And the total surface area A, including the circu- for −30 π ≤ t ≤ 30 π.
lar bases is:
A = π 2 r h + a2 + b2 z
Its volumen V is:
1
V= π h 3 a2 + 3 b2 + h2
6
If one of the planes that cuts the sphere is tangent y
to it, the spherical segment has only one base, and
it is known as a spherical dome. x
The spherical segment is also known as spherical
S zone and as spherical frustum.
Read also «Spherical dome».
Spherical shell Region of space delimited by two
concentric spheres.
The volume of a spherical shell of outer radius R
Spherical triangle Portion of the surface of a
and inner radius r is:
sphere that is bounded by three arcs of a great
4 h 3 i circle.
V = π R − r3
3
486
Spherical Wedge–Spheroid
h
r
Another way to obtain a spherocylinder is by
adding a hemisphere of radius r to each of the
circular bases of a circular right cylinder of ra-
dius r and height h.
Read also «Great circle». The surface area S and the volume V of the sphe-
rocylinder of height is h and radius r are:
Spherical Wedge Region of a sphere bounded by
two planes that intersect each other in a diameter
S = 4 π r2 + 2 π r h
of the sphere.
4
V = π r3 + π r2 h
3
z
The spherocylinder is also known as a capsule.
Read also «Discorectangle».
Spheroid Surface obtained when an ellipse is ro-
tated around one of its axes. If the axis of rota-
tion is about the z axis, then the equation of the
θ
spheroid is:
x y
x2 y2 z2
+ + =1
a2 a2 c2
z
The volume V of a spherical wedge whose inter-
a a
nal angle is θ radians is:
2 3
V= θr
3 c
whereas the surface area S of its convex face is: x
y
S
S = 2 θ r2
The spherical wedge is also known as spherical
ungula. If the ellipse is rotated around its minor axis
(c < a), an oblate spheroid is obtained (shown
Spherocylinder Solid of revolution that is obtained in the previous figure.) If the ellipse is rotated
by rotating a discorectangle around its axis that around its major axis (c > a), a prolate spheroid
passes through the ends of its semicircles. is obtained (shown in the figure below).
487
Spiral–Square
z Spiral of Theodorus Spiral obtained with √right√ tri-
angles whose hypotenuses measure 1, 2, 3, 2,
a a etc., by drawing them in such a way that the hy-
potenuse of the last drawn triangle is used as the
length of one of the legs of the next right triangle
to be drawn, the other leg being of length 1, as
shown in the following figure.
c
y
y
x
√4
3
√
5
√
2
√
6 √
√ 1
√ x
7 17
√
√
√8 16
√
√ 9 15
√ 14
If the rotating ellipse is a circle, a sphere is ob-
√ 13
10
√
tained (c = a).
11
12
Read also «Ellipsoid».
Spiral It is the locus of a point that moves at a con-
stant rate along a straight line that revolves at a The spiral of Theodorus is also known as
constant rate about one of its points. Pythagorean spiral, square root spiral, and Einstein
The parametric equations of the spiral are: spiral.
x (t) = a t cos(ωt) Square (Arithmetic) The square of the number n,
denoted by n2 , is the result of multiply it by itself:
y(t) = b t sin(ωt) n2 = n · n.
For example, the square of 3 is: 3 × 3 = 9.
y Remark: squaring does not mean multiplying by
two, but by itself.
(Geometry) Regular quadrilateral. The square is
a rectangle that has the property that all its sides
have the same length.
x
a
S
The square is a rectangle and a rhombus at the
same time. Because it is a rectangle, it is also a
parallelogram.
A spiral is a plane curve, while a helix is a three- The perimeter P and the area A of the square
dimensional curve. whose side length is a, are:
Read also «Golden spiral», «Archimedean spiral»,
«Fermat’s spiral», «Spiral of Theodorus», «Doppler P=4a
spiral», «Logarithmic spiral», and «Helix». A = a2
488
Square bicupola–Square-free integer
The length of the side of a square is equal to the Square bicupola Solid obtained by joining two
length of the diameter of its inscribed circle. square cupolas at their bases.
The length of the diagonal of a square is equal
to the length of the diameter of its circumscribed
circle. Read also «Square cupola», «Square orthobicupola»,
and «Square gyrobicupola».
Square cupola Polyhedron with 10 faces, of which
one is an octagon, 5 are quadrilaterals and 4 are
D triangles. It also has 12 vertices and 20 edges.
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V, its
area A, and its height H, are:
√ √
A = 7 + 2 2 + 3 a2
√ !
2 2
The length √D fo the diagonal of the square of V = 1+ a3
length a is 2 a. 3
√
The diagonals of the square are perpendicular to 2
each other, are bisectors of the (respective) angles H= a
2
of the square, and they intersect each other at the
center of gravity of the square.
The square has 4 lines of symmetry.
The square cupola is a Johnson solid.
Square-free integer An integer number n is a
Since the square is a regular polygon, the center square-free integer if all its prime factors are dif-
of its inscribed and circumscribed circles coincide ferent. That is to say, if p divides n, then p2 is not
at the center of the square. one of its divisors.
n = p1 p2 · · · p k
S
where p1 , p2 , . . ., pk are the k prime factors of n,
and all of them appear raised to the power 1.
For example, since 21 = (3)(7) is a square-free
integer, while 20 = (2)2 (5) is not.
The radical of an integer n is its largest square-
free factor.
Read also «Radical of an integer number».
489
Square foot–Square root
Square foot Unit of area used in the English sys-
tem equivalent to 0.093 square meters, or 144
square inches.
Square gyrobicupola Polyhedron with 18 faces,
of which 8 are equilateral triangles and 10 are
squares. It also has 16 vertices and 32 edges.
The square orthobicupola is obtained by joining
two square cupolas by their respective octagonal
bases.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√ !
The square gyrobicupola is obtained by joining 4 2
V = 2+ a3
two square cupola at their bases, rotating 45◦ one 3
cupola with respect to the other. √
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its A = 2 5 + 3 a2
area A are:
√ ! The square orthobicupola is a Johnson solid.
4 2 3
V = 2+ a Square pyramid Polyhedron that has 5 faces of
3
√ which 4 are equilateral triangles and one is a
A = 2 5 + 3 a2 square. It also has 5 vertices and 8 edges.
The square gyrobicupola is a Johnson solid.
Square matrix That matrix that has the same num-
ber of rows as columns.
For example, the following is a square matrix of
3 × 3.
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
Square meter Unit of area denoted by m2 , and that √ 3
is equivalent to the area of a square whose sides 2a
V=
measure one meter in length. 6 √
A = 10 + 3 a2
The square pyramid is a Johnson solid.
1 m2 Square root The square root of the number x is the
S 1m
number r with the property that when multiplied
by itself gives x.
In other words, the square root of x is the number
1m r that satisfies: r2 = x.
For example, the square root of 100 is 10, because
Square orthobicupola Polyhedron that has 18 102 = 10 · 10 = 100
faces of which 8 are equilateral triangles and the
other 10 are squares. It also has 16 vertices and 32 The square root of a negative number is not a real
edges. number.
490
Square unit–Standard base
To calculate the square root of numbers that are By the definition of a function, this curve is not
not perfect squares there are different methods. a function, since for t = 1 the value of x is not
For example, to find the square root of the num- unique.
ber a, you can
√ use the definition of a geometric Note that the length of the interval in which the
mean, m g = ab, making b = 1. With the follow- curve remains at its maximum value is equal to
ing geometric construction the length of the interval in which it remains at
its minimum value, and this cycle repeats indefi-
nitely.
Square–cube law When an object increases in size
√ proportionally k times in all its dimensions, the
a final object’s surface area is proportional to the
square of the factor k, and its volume is propor-
tional to the cube of the factor k.
So, if a1 is the initial dimension of the object and
a 1 a2 is the final dimension, and all its dimensions
are increased by the same factor, then its final sur-
and measuring face area A2 , is:
√ the length of the segment gives an
estimate of a. 2
Read also «Geometric mean». a2
A2 = A1
There are also iterative methods for calculating a1
square roots.
where A1 is the initial surface area, and its final
√ also «Newton’s method».
Read
volume V2 is:
If a is an irrational number, the it is not possible
√
to write it as p + r, where p and r are integer 3
a2
numbers with a , p. V2 = V1
If a and a1
√ √ b are integer coprime numbers,
√
then
a + b cannot be expressed as p, where p where V1 is the initial volume of the object.
√
is an integer number. Moreover, a · b is an irra- Observe that a2 = a1 · k, where k is the propor-
tional number. tionality factor by which the dimensions of the
object were increased.
Square unit Unit of area formed by a square with For example, considering a polyhedron with edge
sides of measure equal to the unit. of length a, if its edges are tripled in size (k = 3),
Square vara Unit for area used in the Spanish sys- its surface area increases k2 = 9 times, and its
tem, equivalent to 0.7 m2 . volume increases k3 = 27 times.
Square vara literally means square rod or square pole. Squared triangular number The theorem that
Read also «Vara». claims that for any integer n ≥ 1,
Square wave Periodic polygonal curve defined by
intervals as: (1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n)2 = 13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + n3
1 for 2 k ≤ t ≤ 2 k + 1 which in words says: the square of the n−th trian-
x (t) = gular number equals the sum of the first n cubes
−1 for 2 k + 1 ≤ t ≤ 2 k + 2
is known as the squared triangular number.
where k ∈ Z. Equivalently,
!2
S
x(t) n n
∑k = ∑ k3
i =1 i =1
1
This theorem is also known as Nicomachus’s theo-
t rem.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Standard base A linearly independent set of n vec-
−1 tors {⃗e1 , ⃗e2 , ⃗e3 , · · · , ⃗en } of dimension n is a stan-
491
Standard deviation–Statistical hypothesis
dard base if, if, it has a normal distribution with mean µ = 0,
and standard deviation σ = 1.
⃗e1 = ⟨1, 0, 0, · · · , 0⟩ If a random variable X has a normal distribution
⃗e2 = ⟨0, 1, 0, · · · , 0⟩ with mean µ, and standard deviation σ, then,
⃗e3 = ⟨0, 0, 1, · · · , 0⟩
X−µ
.. Z=
. σ
⃗en = ⟨0, 0, 0, · · · , 1⟩ is a random variable that has a standard normal
distribution.
The standard base is orthonormal. This is, Read also «Normal distrition».
⃗ei ·⃗e j = 0 if i , j Stasheff polyhedron Polyhedron that has 9 faces
⃗ei ·⃗ei = 1 ∀i of which 3 are squares and 6 are pentagons with
mirror symmetry. It also has 14 vertices and 21
In other words, the elements of the standard base edges.
are unit vectors that are mutually perpendicu-
lar to each other, in such a way that each one is
aligned to on of the axis of the rectangular coor-
dinate axis.
Read also «Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization
method» and «Orthonormal».
Standard deviation The standard deviation or
standard deviation, denoted by s, for a sample
of n data { x1 , x2 , · · · , xn }, is:
r
∑ ( x i − x )2
s=
n
where x is the sample mean. Some properties of
the standard deviation that make it a useful mea-
sure of variability in data are listed below. The Stasheff polyhedron is a generalization of the
pentagon in three dimensions that is also known
• It is always non-negative, for it is defined as as associahedron.
the square root of a non-negative quantity.
• The standard deviation gives an indication Stationary point Synonym of critical point.
of how much the data values deviate from The term stationary point is deprecated.
the mean value: the larger the standard devi- Read also «Critical point».
ation the wider the spread of the data values,
Statistic Numerical value obtained from the ob-
whereas a smaller standard deviation indi-
served values of one or more random variables.
cates a smaller spread.
That is, a statistic is a function of the values of
• Since all data values are taken into account an observable random variable and known con-
in the computation of the standard devia- stants.
tion, it is sensitive to outliers or extreme val- For example, the mean is a statistic.
ues in the data.
S • The standard deviation is expressed in the Statistical hypothesis It is a hypothesis in which
something is stated about the type of distribution
same units as the original data.
and the properties of a random variable and that
• It is easy to interpret it and it makes it useful can be accepted or refuted by applying statistical
to compare variability across different data methods to the sample data.
sets. That is, the statistical hypothesis makes an as-
Read also «Variance». sumption related to the parameters of a popula-
tion that can be verified by observing a process
Standard normal distribution A random variable that is modeled through a set of random vari-
X has a standard normal distribution, if and only ables.
492
Statistical inference–Stellated octahedron
Statistical inference Technique that consists of ap- given function, the formula is applied iteratively:
plying data analysis of a sample to infer the cor-
responding values of some variables, based on [ f ( xn )]2
x n +1 = x n −
the assumption of a probability distribution that f ( xn + f ( xn )) − f ( xn )
these variables present in a population.
In general, this numerical method converges to
Statistical significance A result is statistically sig- the root faster than Newton’s method.
nificant when it is highly unlikely to occur by Read also «Newton’s method».
chance given that the null hypothesis was as- Steiner’s problem Steiner’s problem consists of
sumed to be true. calculating the maximum of the function:
If the available data is highly unlikely, assuming
no difference, then the difference is said to be sta- y = f ( x ) = x1/x
tistically significant.
A statistically significant difference indicates that The solution to this problem is to find the deriva-
there is statistical evidence that there is a differ- tive of y = f ( x ):
ence, but this has no implication or relationship
to the magnitude or nature of the difference. ′ 1/x 1 − ln( x )
f (x) = x
It is defined as the probability of making a type I x2
error.
and solve the equation that is obtained by setting
Read also «Type I error».
this derivative equal to zero.
The maximum of this function is obtained when
Statistical technique Technique used for the gen-
x = e, where e is the Euler number (e ≈
eration of hypotheses, experimental design, sam-
2.718281828).
pling, collection, treatment and synthesis of data,
and interpretation of the information thus ob-
tained to estimate, predict or make inferences. y
Statistical techniques are often applied to support
decision making. y = x1/x
e1/e
Statistical variable A characteristic of a popula-
tion that can take different values.
For example, the average weight of adults in a
x
country is of interest to know the health levels of e 3
0 1 2 4
its population.
Statistician A statistician is a person who special- Steiner–Lehmus theorem If in a triangle, two of its
izes in statistics. Other terms for the same mean- bisectors have the same length, then the triangle
ing are specialist in statistics, or expert in statistics. is an isosceles triangle.
Read also «Mathematician».
C
Statistics Branch of mathematics that is respon-
sible for the collection, organization, representa-
tion, analysis, interpretation and applications of
numerical data through a set of techniques with
scientific rigor that are frequently used as support
for decision-making.
D D
S
The goal of statistics is to make inferences about
the parameters of a population based on informa-
tion from a sample.
A B
Statistics is divided into inferential statistics and de-
scriptive statistics.
Stellated octahedron Polyhedron obtained from
Steffensen’s method Method for calculating roots the stellation of the octahedron. This polyhedron
of equations. For a value x0 close to the root of a has 8 triangular faces, 8 vertices, and 12 edges.
493
Stellation–Stem-and-leaf display
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its Read also «Regular polygon».
area A are: (Space geometry) The process of creating a new
polyhedron by extending the edges (or faces) of a
1
V= √ a3 given polyhedron until they meet.
23 For example, the Escher solid is obtained from the
√ 2
A=2 3a stellation of the rhombic dodecahedron.
The stellated octahedron is obtained by the inter-
section of two (regular) tetrahedrons so that their
vertices are at the vertices of a cube, in such a
way that the diagonals of the cube are the edges
of the tetrahedra.
The stellated octahedron is also known as Kepler’s
stella octangula, and as tetrahedron-tetrahedron com-
pound.
Read also «Stellation.»
Stellation (Plane geometry) The process of creat-
ing a new polygon from the polongation of the
sides of a given polygon until they intersect each
other.
When a regular polygon is stellated, a star is ob-
tained whose vertices are equidistant from the
center of the stellated polygon, so they are on a Stem-and-leaf display In a stem and leaf display
circumference. each datum is separated into a stem and a leaf.
For example, if you have data whose values in-
clude up to the hundreds, the stem could be the
hundreds digit, and the leaves the rest of the dig-
its of each data.
Considering the following data table:
S
120 135 157 185 199
121 125 165 170 185
145 155 172 180 185
the correspoinding stem and leaf display can be
built considering the stem as the two digits corre-
sponding to the hundreds and tens, and as leafs
the units digit of each datum.
494
Step function–Stewart’s theorem
12 0 1 5 surface of a unit sphere, originating from the cen-
13 5 ter of the sphere.
14 4 The measure Ω [sr] of a solid angle of measure is
15 7 5 given by:
16 5 A
17 0 2 Ω= 2
r
18 5 5 0 5
19 9 where A is the surface area of the spherical cap
subtended by the solid angle, and r is the radius
Step function Function defined by intervals, in of the sphere.
each of which is constant.
For example, the Heaviside step function:
A
0 for x < 0
y=
1 for x ≥ 0
The graph below shows a step function defined Ω
by intervals.
r
y
Read also «Solid angle».
Stereographic projection Projection of a sphere on
a plane.
x
z
Step functions have the following properties.
• The sum and product of two step functions N
is another step function.
• If the domain of the step function consists
of a finite number of intervals, it takes on a
finite number of values. y
x
• The definite integral of a step function on a
finite interval is a piecewise linear function. P
In practical applications it is more common to
find step functions defined for a finite number of For each point Q(ξ, ν, ζ ) on the sphere, there cor-
intervals. respond one point P( x, y, 0) of the plane z = 0,
The sign function (sgn( x )) is another example of except at the point N (0, 0, 1), which corresponds
step function. to the points that are an infinite distance from the
Read also «Sign function» and «Piecewise function». point (0, 0, 0) on the plane z = 0.
S
Stewart’s theorem Given the triangle △ ABC in the
Steradian Unit of measurement of the solid angle plane and the point P upon the side AB of said
in the International System of Units. triangle, the length of the cevian CP satisfies:
The symbol for the steradian is sr.
As an analogy, consider that the radian is the unit 2
of measurement for a plane angle that subtends a2 · AP + b2 · PB = c · CP + AP PB
an arc with a length equal to the radius. Simi-
larly, the steradian is the unit of measurement for where a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides BC,
a solid angle that covers one unit of area on the AC, and AB, respectively.
495
Stochastic–Streamline
A Straight angle Angle that measures exactly the
same as two right angles. In other words, a
straight angle measures 180◦ , or π radians.
α
P
c
b
The sides of the straight angle lie on the same line.
C a B
Straight line Line that does not change direction
Read also «Cevian». and it is usually denoted by ℓ.
Stochastic A variable is a stochastic variable if it
varies randomly. `
If a variable is not stochastic, then it is said to be
deterministic.
Read also «Random» and «Deterministic».
The word line is often used as a synonym of
Stochastic variable Synonym of random variable. straight line. A line can also be curved. For ex-
Read also «Random variable». ample, a circumference is also a line, but it is not
Stokes’ theorem If S is an open orientable sur- straight, since it constantly changes direction.
face (with two faces), bounded by a simple closed To avoid repetition, generally the term «line»
refers to a straight line while «curve» refers to a
curve C (which does not intersect itself), and ⃗F
curved line, as long as the context allows.
is a vector field with continue partial derivatives,
x
Read also «Curve» and «Equation of the line».
then
∇ × ⃗F · n̂ dS = ⃗F · d⃗r Straightedge Instrument used in geometry to
S C draw lines.
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to dS, and the In plane geometry the straightedge is considered
path C, defined by the vector function ⃗r (t) is tra- without scale (graduation), so that we cannot
versed counterclockwise, so that when n̂ points measure distances, but only draw straight lines
up, this direction is away from the surface. with it (i.e., an unmarked ruler).
The following figure shows a part of a marked
z ruler.
−1 1 cm
−1
0 C
1 y
1 R 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S x
In words, Stokes’ theorem states that the total flux Stratified sample Sample whose individuals were
of the curl of the vector field ⃗F passing through chosen in such a way that all segments of the pop-
the surface S is equal to the total circulation of ⃗F ulation are appropriately represented in said sam-
along the path C. ple.
William Thomson (better known as Baron Kelvin)
communicated this result to Sir George Gabriel Streamline An integral curve that has the property
Stokes, who repeatedly included it in examina- that the derivative vector is tangent to this curve
tions, which is why it was attributed to him. at all points.
496
Strict conditional–Submatrix
y y
x
1 −a a
x
−1 1
−1
The strophoid is also known as logocyclic curve.
Subfactorial The subfactorial of the natural num-
ber n, denoted by !n is the number of permuta-
tions of the elements of a cardinality set n, so that
Strict conditional Binary logical function, which no element appears in its initial position.
joins two prepositions, denoted by p → q, that
!n = (n − 1) (!(n − 1)+!(n − 2))
returns false when q is false and p is true, and re-
turns true otherwise. where !0 = 1, and !1 = 0.
The truth table for this logical connective is The following table shows some values of !n.
shown below.
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
p q p → q !n 1 0 1 2 9 44 265
T T T
A permutation where none of the elements ap-
T F F
pears in its initial position is also known as de-
F T T
rangement.
F F T
Another equivalent way of algebraically express-
ing the subfactorial for n ≥ 0 is:
where T means true, and F means false. n
In the notation p → q, p is the antecedent and q (−1)i
!n = n! · ∑
the consecuent of the conditional. i =0
i!
It is worth mentioning that p → q is not an im-
plication of the type cause-efect. That is, the con-
ditional operation p → q is not a causal relation- Subindex A symbol (usually a number) written
ship between p and q. to the lower right of a literal or other symbol to
uniquely identify it from a set of elements.
Strophoid Plane curve whose equation in Carte- For example, in the vector, ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 ⟩, the
sian coordinates is: subindex of each component denoted with the lit-
2
y =x · 2
a−x
eral v is the subscript used to indicate if it is the
first (v1 ) or the second (v2 ) of its components. S
a+x Submatrix A submatrix B of the matrix A of di-
mension m × n is obtained by eliminating several
and its corresponding polar equation is: rows and columns of A.
For example, considering
sin(2 θ − α)
r = a·
sin(θ − α) 5 2 1
A = 2 −1 7
where a and α are constants. 1 4 −3
497
Submultiple–Substitution method
the submatrix B that is obtained by eliminating If A is a subset of B, then we say that the set A
the first row and the second column of A is: is included in B, which is denoted by: A ⊂ B, or
equivalently, the set B includes the set A, which
2 7
B= is denoted by: B ⊃ A.
1 −3
The following diagram shows the set A, which is
It is worth mentioning that it is possible to elimi- a subset of the set B.
nate only columns (at least one) or only rows (at
least one) to obtain a submatrix of A. B
Submultiple One of the factors used to indicate a
A
fraction of a unit of the International System of
Units. A⊂B
Read also «International System of Units».
Subnormal Given the graph of y = f ( x ), a tangent
line to it at P( x, f ( x )), and a line perpendicular
to said tangent, the subnormal to the curve in P
is the projection on the x axis of the perpendicu-
lar from the point of tangency P to the point R, The empty set ∅ is a subset of any set, since there
where the normal cuts the x axis. is no element of ∅ that does not belong to the sec-
ond (by vacuity).
y Every set is a subset of itself.
y = f (x)
Substitution Algebraic procedure that consists of
replacing an algebraic expression or a numerical
value (A) by a literal (or other algebraic expres-
sion) because that literal is equal to the algebraic
P expression or numeric value (A).
f (x) For example, when solving a system of linear
equations using the substitution method, solve
for one unknown in one equation and substitute
the resulting expression into the other equations
to reduce the system of n equations to a system
x of n − 1 equations.
Q x R
Substitution method Integration technique that
consists of defining some auxiliary variable v in
The length | xR| of the subnormal is: terms of the integration variable x and changing
the variable in the integrand so that the new ex-
dy
| xR| = y · pression is immediately integrable, that is, there
dx is a known formula to calculate the obtained an-
where dy/dx is the derivative of y = f ( x ) evalu- tiderivative.
ated at x. For example, to compute
Read also «Subtangent». Z
dx
Subset A set A is a subset of another set B if all the ex + 1
S elements of A are also in B.
For example, if
observe that
1 1 + ex − ex 1 + ex ex
= = −
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and ex + 1 1 + ex 1 + ex 1 + ex
e x
B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} =1−
1 + ex
then the set A is a subset of the set B, because all
Therefore,
elements of A are also elements of B.
Z Z Z Z x
If there is any element of A that is not in B, then dx ex e · dx
A is not a subset of B. = 1− · dx = dx −
ex + 1 1 + ex 1 + ex
498
Substitution rule–Sum
To calculate the second antiderivative, it is con- The length | Qx | of the subtangent is:
venient to apply the substitution method: define
v = 1 + e x , so that, dv = e x · dx, and the an- f (x)
| Qx | = = f ( x ) cot(α)
tiderivative is immediate, since dy
Z dx
dv
= ln |v| + C
v
Subtrahend In subtraction, the subtrahend is the
Consequently,
number being subtracted from another quantity
Z Z Z
dx e x · dx (the minuend).
= dx − = x − ln |1 + e x | + C
ex + 1 1 + ex
9 876 Minuend
The substitution method is also known as the
method of change of variable and as the substitution − 5 324 Subtrahend
rule. 4 552 Difference
Read also «Completing the differential».
Substitution rule Synonym of substitution Successor function Mathematical function de-
method. noted as S(n) whose domain and range are the
Read also «Substitution method». natural numbers n ∈ N defined by:
Subtraction Binary mathematical operation de- S(n) = n + 1
noted with the symbol −.
The subtraction of the numbers a and b, denoted for all n ∈ N. There is no natural number n for
by a − b, is the number that when added to b gives which S(n) = 0.
a. Sufficient cause If x is a sufficient cause of y, then
For example, 5 − 3 = 2, because 3 + 2 = 5. the presence of x implies the subsequent occur-
The result of the subtraction is called difference. rence of y.
Read also «Difference». It should be mentioned that if y can be caused by
Subtangent Given the graph of y = f ( x ), and a more causes, it cannot be said that the occurrence
tanget line to it at P( x, f ( x )), the subtangent to of y is due exclusively to x, particularly when y
the curve at P is the projection on the x axis of has been observed but not yet x.
the tangent from the point of tangency P to the
Sufficient condition If p is a sufficient condition
point Q, where the tangent intersects the axis x.
for q, then if p is true, it follows that q is true (but
If α is the angle that the tangent makes with the x
if p is false it does not mean that q has to be false,
axis, then:
although it can be).
| xP| dy For example, a sufficient condition for a quadri-
tan(α) = = lateral to be square is that it be regular: if it is
| Qx | dx
square, it is a regular quadrilateral, and if it is
where dy/dx is the derivative of y = f ( x ) evalu- regular, the quadrilateral is a square.
ated at x.
Sum (Arithmetic) (1.) Operation between num-
y y = y(x) bers that expresses the total amount equivalent to
the combination of them.
(2.) Result of adding two numbers.
f (x)
P 1234 Addend S
+ 5678 Addend
6912 Sum
The symbol + is called plus sign and is read plus.
(Algebra) Binary operation between mathemat-
α ical objects (polynomials, algebraic expressions,
x vectors, matrices, etc.) that somehow generalizes
Q x
arithmetic addition.
499
Sum rule–Supplementary angles
Sum rule (Set theory) The cardinality of the union y x 4 y 4
of two sets A and B is: + =1
3 2
n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n( B) − n( A ∩ B)
Read also «Inclusion-exclusion principle». 1
(Probability) In probability, the sum rule to cal-
culate the probability P ( A ∪ B) of the occurrence x
of at least one of the two events A and B, is: −1 1
P ( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B) − P ( A ∩ B) −1
That is, the probability that at least one of the
events A and B will occur is equal to the prob-
ability of the occurrence of A plus the probability
of the occurrence of the event B minus the proba-
bility that A and B occur simultaneously. The superellipse is also known as «Lamé curve».
Read also «Multiplication rule». If a = b = 1, then a Fermat curve is obtained.
(Combinatorics) If there are a possible ways to do
something (a first thing) and b ways to do a sec- Supergolden ratio Two numbers p and q are in su-
ond thing, then there are a + b different ways to pergolden ratio if:
do exactly one of the two things. s s
√ √
3 29 + 3 93 3 29 − 3 93
Summation The summation of the terms of a se- 1+ +
quence ai is equal to the sum of all the terms of p 2 2
=ψ=
the sequence from i = 1 to i = n. The summation q 3
is denoted with the sigma notation:
n
where ψ ≈ 1.465571231876768 is the only real root
∑ a i = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + a n of the equation: x3 = x2 + 1.
i =1 Read also «Golden number».
and is read: the summation of ai from i = 1 to n.
Suplement of an arc The supplement of an arc is
For example, the summation of the first 100 natu-
the difference between an arc of 180◦ and the
ral numbers is:
given arc.
100
∑ i = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + · · · + 100 = 5 050
i =1
s
Read also «Sigma notation».
Superellipse Curve whose equation in rectangular a
coordinates is:
x n y n
+ =1
a b
where n > 0, and a, and b are the lengths of the
semi-axis of the curve.
If n = 1 a rhombus is obtained.
S The case n = 2 corresponds to the ellipse. If, in
addition, a = b, a circumference is obtained.
If n > 2 the curves are called hiperellipses, and if In the figure above, the arc s is the supplement of
n < 2 they are called hipoellipses. the shown arc a.
For example, for n = 4, with a = 3, and b = 2,
corresponds to the equation: Supplementary angles Two angles are supple-
mentary if the sum of their measures is equal to
x 4 y 4
+ = 1, the measure of a straight angle. In other words, if
3 2 the sum of two angles equals 180◦ (that is, π rad),
and its graph is shown below. then the angles are supplementary angles.
500
Supremum–Surface integral
1
β
α −1
−1
0 S
If two angles are supplementary, it is said that one 1
is the supplement of the other. 1 y
R
Supremum The smallest quantity that is greater
than or equal to each of the quantities in a given x
set.
The plural of supremum is suprema. Read also «Differential of surface area».
The opposite of supremum is infimum. The surface integral can also include a vector field
Surface (1.) Geometric object consisting of a ⃗F. In this case, x⃗F · n̂ dS
two-dimensional space (having length and width
only). S
The plane is a surface whose direction remains
where ⃗F ( x, y, z) = M ı̂ + N ȷ̂ + P k̂, is a vector field
constant. In this sense, the surface is a general-
whose components are defined over all the points
ization of the plane.
on the surface S, n̂ is a unit vector and normal to
An example of a surface is the graph of a function
the differential of surface area dS.
of two variables z = f ( x, y).
z z = f (x, y)
n̂ F~
1
dS
−1 0 −1 y dy
1 y
1 dx dA
x
x
Colloquially, the word area is used as a synonym
for surface. Since n̂ is a unit vector, ⃗F · n̂ is the component of
(2.) Boundary of a solid. ⃗F in the perpendicular direction to the differen-
Surface area Number of unit squares that can fit tial of surface area dS. If ⃗F represents the flow of
on a surface. some substance across the surface S, the surface
For example, the surface area A of a sphere of integral gives the amount of substance across the
radius r is: surface per unit of time. That is why this integral
A = 4 π r2 is also known as flux integral.
Read also «Area», «Unit square», and «Surface of
revolution». z S
x
Surface integral A double integral of the form: 1
g( x, y, z) · dS
−1
S −1
0
where z = f ( x, y), is a function of two variables, 1 y
1 R
whose graph represents the surface on which the
integration is performed and dS is the differential
of surface area. x
501
Surface of revolution–Symmetric difference
Some authors write d⃗S = n̂ dS in the integrand to z
simplify the notation.
Read also «Flux integral».
Surface of revolution Surface that is generated z = f (y)
when a curve rotates around a fixed axis called
axis of rotation, which is in the same plane as the
curve.
y
Each point of the curve describes a circumference x
that is in a plane perpendicular to the axis of ro-
tation, whose center is on the axis of rotation and
with a radius equal to the distance from the point
considered to the axis of rotation. Surjective function A function is surjective if each
The area S of the surface of revolution generated element of its range corresponds to at least one
when the graph of the function z = f ( x ) from element of its domain. √
x = a to x = b is rotated around the x axis, sup- For example, the function y = x is a surjective
posing that f ( x ) > 0 in the interval [ a, b], is: function.
Survey Instrument that allows an investigation of
Zb q one or more characteristics of a population.
S = 2π f (x) 1 + [ f ′ ( x )]2 · dx Most of the time, a survey consists of a series of
a questions that are asked through an interview,
which can be carried out in person, by phone,
by post, by email or by electronic means (inter-
where f ′ ( x ) is the derivative of the function y = net forms, etc.)
f ( x ).
Syllogism Logical argument based on deductive
reasoning to infer a conclusion by applying the
information contained in two premises (proposi-
z tions) that are assumed to be true.
z = f (x)
For example,
• All animals require food.
• The cat is an animal.
• The cat requires food.
x Note that the first premise is a proposition of a
y
general order, the second is a particular propo-
sition (the cat is an animal), and the third is the
conclusion.
Symmetric (Property) It is said that a relation R
If the curve does not intersect the axis of rotation,
defined for two mathematical objects a, b that are
the length of the curve is L, and the distance from
elements of the set S is symmetric if a R b implies
S its centroid to the axis of rotation is ȳ, then the
area S of the surface of revolution is:
b R a for all a, b ∈ S.
For example, if a and b represent lines in the same
plane, the relation a ∥ b, is symmetric, because
S = 2 π ȳ L a ∥ b implies b ∥ a.
If a relation is not symmetric, it is said to be anti-
symmetric.
Read also «Pappus’s theorems». Read also «Antisymmetric».
When the graph of the function z = f (y) rotates
around the y axis, a surface like the one shown Symmetric difference Let A and B be any two sets.
below is generated. The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted as
502
Symmetric difference quotient–Symmetric matrix
A∆B, is the set whose elements belong to A or B, y
but not both. y = f (x) = x2
A∆B = ( A − B) ∪ ( B − A)
Read also «Difference of sets».
Symmetric difference quotient Given the function
y = f ( x ), its symmetric difference quotient is the
average of the average rates of change of y = f ( x )
in the intervals [ a − d, a] and [ a, a + d].
x
1 f ( a + d) − f ( a) f ( a) − f ( a − d)
+ = A function f is symmetric about the origin if
2 d d
f (− x ) = − f ( x ) (if it is an odd function.)
f ( a + d) − f ( a − d) For example, the function: y = x3 is symmetric
=
2d about the origin.
(Multivariable calculus) It is said that a function
of 2 variables z = f ( x, y) is symmetric with re-
spect to the variables x and y if f ( x, y) = f (y, x )
Symmetric distribution A frequency distribution for all pairs ( x, y) that are in the domain of the
is symmetric when a vertical line can be drawn function.
in such a way that this line divides the graph of That is, if exchanging these variables in the func-
the frequency distribution into two parts that are tion yields the same function, then the function is
(approximately) one the reflection of the other. symmetric with respect to these variables.
For example, the function
Frequency cos( x + y) · sin( x + y)
z= p
1 + x 2 + y2
500
is a symmetric function, because if you substitute
400 x for y and vice versa, wherever y occurs you sub-
stitute x instead, the same function is obtained.
300
cos(x + y) · sin(x + y)
z= p
200 1 + x2 + y 2
1
100
y
−1
0 1
A B C D E F Class −1 0
1
x
Symmetric element The symmetric element of the Symmetric matrix A square matrix A of dimen-
number a is the number − a. sion n × n is symmetric if its transpose is equal to
S
In other words, symmetric element is synonym of itself:
opposite element (with respect to the origin). AT = A
The elements of a symmetric matrix satisfy: aij =
Symmetric function (Analysis) A function f is a ji . For example, the matrix:
symmetric about the y axis if f (− x ) = f ( x ) (if
it is an even function.) 1 1 7
For example, the vertical parabola with vertex at A= 1 3 2
the origin: y = x2 is symmetric about the y axis. 7 2 5
503
Symmetric number–System of equations
is symmetric because: That is,
1 1 7 x3 − x2 − 8 x + 12 4
AT = 1 3 2 =A = x2 + 0 x − 8 +
x−1 x−1
7 2 5
All eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix are real The number obtained at the term corresponding
numbers. to the remainder of the division, equals the value
The eigenvectors of a symmetric matrix form a set that is obtained in the evaluation of the polyno-
of orthonormal vectors. mial at x = r.
Read also «Transpose of a matrix». In the given example, if f ( x ) = x3 − x2 − 8 x + 12,
then, f (1) = 4.
Symmetric number Synonym of opposite number. Read also «Remainder theorem».
Read also «Opposite number».
System of differential equations A system of dif-
Symmetric property The symmetric property of
ferential equations is a set of differential equa-
equality says that if one quantity is equal to an-
tions that includes n equations involving m func-
other quantity, then the second quantity is equal
tions and their derivatives.
to the first quantity. Mathematically,
For example,
If a = b, then, b = a.
x1′ = x1 + x2
Read also «Equality».
x2′ = − x1 + 5 x2
Symmetry Property presented by some geometric
figures that consists of a correspondence in the is a 2 × 2 system of first order differential equa-
shape, size and sequence of the parts that com- tions (two differential equations with two un-
pose it with respect to a line or point. known functions, x1 and x2 .)
Read also «Axis of symmetry». The solution of the system of differential equa-
tions is the set of functions x1 , x2 , · · · , xm , such
Synthetic division Division between polynomials that substituting into the system of differential
performed so that only the coefficients are writ- equations all reduce to true equalities.
ten omiting the variables. The procedure to apply For example, the solution of the system of differ-
the synthetic division is shown below. ential equations:
Step 1: Write down the coefficients of the divi-
dend, in deacreasing order in powers of x, and x1′ = x1 + x2
for those powers that do not appear in the poly- x2′ = 4 x1 + x2
nomial write down a zero.
Step 2: Sustitute r instead of the divisor x − r. is:
Step 3: Write down the main coefficient of the
x1 (t) = c1 e3t + c2 e−t
dividend in the quotient.
Step 4: Multiply r times the last term of the coef- x2 (t) = 2 c1 e3t − 2 c2 e−t
ficient of the quotient obtained and write down
where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants.
the product under the following coefficient of
the polynomial.
System of equations Set of several equations that
Step 5: Add up the last product obtained and the must be solved simultaneously. The solution of
S corresponding coefficient of the dividend poly-
nomial.
the algebraic system of equations is the set of val-
ues that reduce all equations to true equalities.
Step 6: Repeat steps 4 and 5 until the coefficients For example, the system of linear equations:
are depleted.
x + y = 10
For example, x3 − x2 − 8 x + 12 divided by x − 1,
x−y= 2
applying synthetic division, is shown below:
1 −1 −8 12 1 has a solution x = 6, y = 4, because substituting
1 0 −8 these values into the equations reduces each one
1 0 −8 4 to a true equality.
504
System of inequalities–Systematic sample
A system of three linear equations with three un- are other types of equations (differential, integral-
knowns is: differential, vector, etc.) A system of equations of
x+y+z= 5 a certain type (differential, vector, etc.) is formed
x−y+z= 1 by two or more equations of the corresponding
x + y − z = −3 type.
and its solution is x = −1, y = 2, z = 4. Read also «Solution» and «Model».
This system of equations can be written in matrix
System of inequalities Set of several inequalities
form as:
that must be solved simultaneously. The solution
1 1 1 x 5 of the system of inequalities is the set of values
1 −1 1 y = 1 that satisfy all the inequalities simultaneously.
1 1 −1 z −3
This notation is used when the system of linear y
2
equations is to be solved using the matrix inverse
+
10 x − y > −2
x
of the coefficient matrix of the system.
=
9
y
Read also «Inverse matrix».
8 x + y < 12 +4
The above system of equations can also be ex- = x/3
7 y
pressed as an augmented matrix:
6 −x + 3 y < 12
1 1 1 5 5
1 −1 1 1 4
y
1 −1 −3
=
1 3 x − y > −2
−
x + y < 12
x
2
+
This form of representation is used when the
−x + 3 y < 12
12
1
system of equations is to be solved by applying x
the Gaussian elimination method (or the Gauss- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Jordan method).
A system of linear equations may:
For example, the figure above shows the solution
i. Have exactly one solution. of the following system of inequalities:
ii. Have no solution. x − y > −2
iii. Have infinitely many solutions. x + y < 12
− x + 3 y < 12
Read also «Cramer’s rule».
Systems of equations are classified according to Read also «Feasible region».
the type of equations that compose it. In the given
example, the system of equations is linear, since Systematic sample Sample in which individuals
all the equations that compose it are linear. have been tagged with a number for identifica-
If the equations that make up the system of equa- tion. In this way, a member can be chosen using
tions are not linear, algebraic methods are used a random number generator.
to solve them (substitution, elimination, etc.) that It is not recommended to use this type of sam-
are based on the properties of numbers and the pling when regular patterns occur in individu-
properties of equality. als due to the way in which their numbering was
It is worth mentioning that in mathematics there done.
505
S
506
T
Table Array of data in the form of rows and y = f ( x ) · g ( x ).
columns. The terms of the result are obtained by multiply-
For example, the following table collects the in- ing the sign found in the i −th row by the term in
formation related to the ages of the people who the third column in the same row by the term in
reside in a town. the fourth column of the next row (i + 1).
For example, to compute
Range Quantity Z
x3 · e− x · dx
0 – 10 250
11 – 20 1 200
define f ( x ) = x3 (the algebraic function), and
21 – 30 2 500
g( x ) = e− x , and write in the table the succes-
31 – 40 1 225
sive derivatives of f ( x ) until zero is obtained, and
41 – 50 850
the corresponding antiderivatives of g( x ), as indi-
51 – 60 750
cated below.
61 – 70 425
71 – 80 250 i sgn f (i ) ( x ) g(−i) ( x ) Term
81 – 90 37 0 + x3 e− x
91 – 100 13 1 − 3 x2 −e− x − x3 e− x
2 + 6x e− x −3 x 2 e − x
In statistics, tables and graphs are often used to 3 − 6 −e− x −6 xe− x
identify patterns in data and to better understand 4 + 0 e− x −6 e − x
how two or more variables are related.
Read also «Histogram» and «Matrix». The result is obtained by concatenating the terms
of the last column. Therefore,
Tabular method Artifice that is used to simplify Z
the procedure when applying the technique of in- x3 · e− x · dx = − x3 e− x − 3 x2 e− x
tegration by parts. This method can be applied
when the integrand consists of the product of an −6 xe− x − 6 e− x + C
algebraic function f ( x ) by a transcendental func-
It is worth mentioning that this artifice is not al-
tion g( x ).
ways applicable. If in the successive derivatives
The method consists of writing the following in
of f ( x ) zero is never obtained, another method of
a five-column table: the first column indicates
integration must be found.
the index of the derivative or antiderivative, in
Read also «Integration by parts».
the second column the sign of the term, in the
third column the successive derivatives of f ( x ), Tabulate Arrange data in table form, in rows and
in the fourth column the successive antideriva- columns, according to the information that can be
tives of g( x ), and in the last column the term extracted from the data.
of the result of the antiderivative of the function For example,
Tangent
Person Income ($) Age (years) (Trigonometry) The tangent of the angle α is:
Aaron 8 800 25 sin(α)
Benjamin 9 500 29 tan(α) =
cos(α)
Carlos 10 250 31
Daniela 14 700 33 In a right triangle, the tangent of a positive angle
Eunice 19 890 35 less than 90◦ is defined as the ratio of the length
of the opposite leg to the length of the adjacent
Tangent (Plane geometry) The tangent to a curve leg.
Opposite leg
is a straight line that is in the same plane as the tan(α) =
curve and that touches the curve at only one of its Adjacent leg
points.
Opposite leg
e
T us
en
p ot
Hy
r
Ta
ng
e nt
α
C Adjacent leg
The following figure shows the representation of
the value of the tangent of the angle θ in the unit
circle.
The point T where the tangent line touches the y
circle is called point of tangency.
To draw a tangent line to a circle at a point P,
from the center C of the circle draw a line ℓ that
passes through P and C. With center at P and 1
with a radius less than the radius of the given cir-
cumference, draw two arcs that cut the line ℓ. Let
Q and R be the intersections of the line with the
arcs. tan(θ)
With the same radius greater than | PQ|, leaning
first on Q and then on R draw intersecting arcs
on both sides of ℓ. The intersections that were
obtained are two points through which the tan-
gent line to the circumference given by the point θ
x
P passes. 1
In analytic geometry, the slope m of the line pass-
ing through the points P( x p , y p ) and Q( xq , yq ) is
equal to the tangent of the angle that it forms with
Q the x axis:
P ∆y yq − y p
m= =
∆x xq − x p
T R
Read also «Derivative» and «Characteristic Trian-
C `
gle».
(Analysis) The tangent function, denoted by y =
tan( x ) is defined as:
sin( x )
y = tan( x ) =
cos( x )
508
Tangent line to a curve–Tangent vector
Because of the way the tangent function is de- Tangent line to a curve If ⃗r (t) is a curve and
fined, its graph has asymptotes at the points ⃗r ′ (t0 ) , ⃗0, the equation of the tangent line to ⃗r (t)
where cos( x ) = 0. That is, the graph of the at the point ⃗r (t0 ) is:
tangent function has asymptotes at the points
x = (k + 1/2) π, for any integer k. ⃗l (t) = ⃗r (t0 ) + (t − t0 ) ⃗r ′ (t)
The tangent function is a periodic function with
period T = π.
The range of the tangent function is the set of all For example, if ⃗r (t) = cos√ (t) ı̂ + sin(t√
) ȷ̂, and
real numbers. t0 = π/4, then, ⃗r (π/4) = ( 2/2) ı̂ + ( 2/2) ȷ̂,
and the equation of the tangent line to ⃗r (t) is:
y
*√ √ +
y = tan(x) 2 2 π
⃗l (t) = , + t− ⟨− sin(t), cos(t)⟩
2 2 4
"√ #
2 π
= − t− sin(t) ı̂ +
2 4
1 "√ #
2 π
+ + t− cos(t) ȷ̂
2 4
x
π 1 π π 3π
−
2 2 2
−1 y
~r(t) 1
~l(t)
x
The derivative of the tangent function is: O 1
d[tan(v)] dv dv
= sec2 (v) · = 1 + tan2 (v) ·
dx dx dx
And the antiderivative of the tangent function is:
Z
tan(v) · dv = ln | sec(v)| + C
Tangent vector A vector that has the same direc-
(Geometry) A plane is tangent to a surface at
tion as a tangent line to a curve and has its initial
point P if (in the neighborhood of P) the plane
point at the point of tangency of the tangent line
touches the surface at P only.
with the curve.
If the equation of the curve is
z = f (x, y)
⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
1 P
then a vector tangent to ⃗r (t) is given by its deriva-
−1
tive:
⃗r ′ (t) = x ′ (t) ı̂ + y′ (t) ȷ̂ + z′ (t) k̂
T
−1 0
1 1 y
A unit tangent vector to ⃗r (t) is:
x
⃗r ′ (t)
Read also «Equation of the tangent plane». T̂ =
∥⃗r ′ (t)∥
509
Tautochrone curve–Taylor series
z Taylor series The Taylor series of a given function
y = f ( x ) about the point x = a is:
∞
f (i ) ( a )
f (x) = ∑ i!
( x − a )i
T̂
i =0
~r(t)
f ′ ( a) f ′′ ( a)
1 = f ( a) + ( x − a) + ( x − a )2 + · · ·
1! 1!
where i! is the factorial of the number i, f (i) ( a)
−1 −1
represents the i −th derivative of the function y =
1 y
1 f ( x ) evaluated at x = a, and the derivative of or-
x der zero is: f (0) ( a) = f ( a).
y y = f (x)
Read also «Vector function», «Velocity», and T4 (x)
«Frenet’s trihedron».
T3 (x)
Tautochrone curve A plane curve through which T2 (x)
the time it takes for an object to slide without
friction in uniform gravity to its lowest point is T1 (x)
independent of its starting point on the curve.
The parametric equations of this curve are:
x (t) = r (t + sin(t))
y(t) = r (1 − cos(t))
x
y
2r
r Equivalently,
x h ′ h2 ′′
r πr 2πr f ( x + h) = f ( x ) + f (x) + f (x) + · · ·
1! 2!
hn (n)
+ f (x) + · · ·
n!
The tautochrone curve is also known as isochrone
curve. The remainder of the Taylor series up to the n−th
term is:
hn (n)
Taxicab number Synonym of Hardy-Ramanujan f ( x + θn)
number. n!
Read also «Hardy-Ramanujan number». If a = 0 the Taylor series reduces to the Maclaurin
series.
Taylor polynomial The polynomial function Read also «Serie de Maclaurin».
Some examples of Taylor series around x = 1 are:
T y=
∞
∑
f (i ) ( a )
( x − a )i
1 1
ln( x ) = ( x − 1) − ( x − 1)2 + ( x − 1)3 + · · ·
i =0
i! 2 3
2
x ( x − 1 ) ( x − 1)3
obtained by calculating the Taylor series of a e = e ( x − 1) + + +···
2! 3!
given function, is the Taylor polynomial.
Read also «Taylor series». where n! is the factorial of n.
The Taylor series cannot be applied to a function
510
Telescoping sum–Tera-
y = f ( x ) if at the point x = a the function or Step 2: Express with the symbol M the numerical
any of its successive derivatives is undefined or value of said quality.
its value is infinite. Step 3: Properly divide the whole into infinitely
Telescoping sum Addition that has the property many parts (each one infinitely small) so that
that consecutive terms of a series cancel each the quality required for the whole can be calcu-
other out, leaving only the final and initial terms. lated for each part.
For example, Step 4: Point out a generic part that represents
all the (infinitely many infinitesimal) parts into
∞ ∞
1 1 1 which the whole has been divided.
∑ n ( n + 1) ∑ n n + 1
= −
n =1 n =1 Step 5: Express with the symbol dM the magni-
1 1 1 tude of the quality of that generic part.
= lim 1− + − +···
N →∞ 2 2 3 Step 6: Express M as the sum of Rall dM’s, by
1 1 means of a definite integral: M = R dM.
+ −
N N+1 Step 7: Calculate the exact value of dM.
1 1 1 1 Step 8: Express dM in the form r ( x ) · dx.
= lim 1 + − + + − + +···
N →∞ 2 2 3 3
Step 9: Express M as a definite integral:
1 1 1 Z Z b
+ − + − M= dM = r ( x ) · dx.
N N N+1 R a
1
= lim 1 − =1 Finally, the definite integral is calculated to obtain
N →∞ N+1 the numerical value of M.
Read also «Convergent series». This process for establishing the integral makes
use of infinitesimals and their algebraic proper-
Telescoping product Product of a succession of ties.
factors, most of which cancel and the product The ten-step rule was first published in section 4.4
simplifies to a few factors. of the book titled Calculus with infinitesimals, by
Read also «Telescopic sum». Soto, A.E. (2020), where it is named as the deca-
logue for the establishment of a definite integral.
Ten (1.) Group of ten things.
For example, a ten of roses is a group of ten roses. Tenth (1.) A tenth is equivalent to one of the parts
(2.) Name given to the digit in the second posi- of a whole that has been divided into ten parts of
tion from the decimal point, from right to left. the same size.
For example, in the number 1976, the tens digit is
the digit 7.
Ten-step rule Ten-step procedure for setting up
a definite integral that consists of recognizing a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
whole (for example, a solid) and dividing it ap- 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
propriately, so that in each part the quality (arc
length, area, volume, surface area, mass, hydro-
static force, etc.) that you want to calculate of the
whole can be computed. The mentioned quality
Read also «Fraction».
is calculated for a generic part (which represents
(2.) In a number with decimals, the tenths digit is
all the parts), and through a definite integral, the
the digit to the right of the decimal point.
value of the quality of each of the parts is added.
For example, in the number 1.73205, the digit 7
The ten-step rule for establishing a definite inte-
gral is stated below.
corresponds to the tenths.
√
T
Step 0: Recognize the problem (of the quantifica- Theodorus’ constant The number 3 ≈
tion of a quality of a whole) as the type of prob- 1.7320508075688772935 is known as Theodorus’
lem that is solved through a definite integral. constant.
Step 1: Point out the whole from which some Tera- Prefix indicating 1012 . It is abbreviated with
quality will be calculated. the capital letter T.
511
Tercile–Tetrahedron
For example, one teraliter is equal to one tril- sides of another triangle, then the triangles
lion liters (one million million liters). That is, are similar.
1 TL = 1, 000, 000, 000, 000 = 1012 L.
Furthermore, if △1 , △2 and △3 , are triangles (or
Tercile Terciles (also tertiles) are values that divide polygons) in the plane, then,
the data of a distribution in increasing order into
3 parts, of approximately the same number of • △1 ∼ △1 .
data.
• If △1 ∼ △2 , then, △2 ∼ △1 .
The elements of the first tercile T1 are the data of
the lowest 33.3%; the second tercile T2 is formed • If △1 ∼ △2 and △2 ∼ △3 , Then, △1 ∼ △3 .
by the data between the 33.3% and the 66.6% of
the distribution, and the elements of the third ter- Here △1 ∼ △2 indicates that the triangle (or poly-
cile are the highest 33.3% of the distribution. gon) △1 is similar to the triangle (or polygon) △2 .
Term Algebraic expression consisting of a constant
that multiplies one or more variables, each one Tetragon Synonym of quadrilateral
raised to some non-negative integer power. The term tetragon is deprecated.
For example, 3 x2 y5 is a term. Read also «Quadrilateral».
Polynomials are the sum of one or more terms.
Monomial is understood as a synonym of term. Tetrahedrally diminished dodecahedron Polyhe-
Read also «Monomial» and «Polynomial». dron that has 32 faces, of which 8 are in the shape
of an equilateral triangle and 24 are in the shape
Tessellation Covering of the plane by polygons of a quadrilateral (all congruent to each other). It
such that each point of the plane is covered by also has 30 vertices and 60 edges.
only one polygon and that two polygons touch
only on their sides.
This polyhedron is also known as tetrahedrally
stellated icosahedron.
The tessellation is also known as tiling.
Read also «Parallelogon». Tetrahedron Geometric solid that has 4 faces in the
shape of an equilateral triangle. It also has 12
Test for similarity of triangles edges and 4 vertices.
• (AA) If two angles of two triangles are con-
gruent to two angles of another triangle,
then the triangles are similar.
T • (SAS) If an angle in one triangle is congru-
ent to an angle in another triangle and if the
lengths of the sides of that angle are propor-
tional to those of the other triangle, then the
triangles are similar.
• (SSS) If the lengths of the sides of one tri-
angle are proportional to the lengths of the
512
Tetrakis cuboctahedron–Tetrated dodecahedron
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its Tetrakis hexahedron Polyhedron has 24 faces in
area A are: the shape of an isosceles triangle. It also has 14
√ vertices and 36 edges.
2 3
V= a
12
√ 2
A= 3a
The regular tetrahedron is a regular pyramid with
a triangular base.
If it is a non-regular tetrahedron with vertices at
points P( x, y, z), P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ), and
P3 ( x3 , y3 , z3 ), then its volume V is:
x y z 1
1 x1 y1 z1 1
V=
6 x2 y2 z2 1
x3 y3 z3 1
−→ −→ −→
where V > 0 if the vectors PP1 , PP2 , PP3 , form a
right system. If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
z
P 32 3
V= a
9 √
16 5 2
A= a
3
The tetrakis hexahedron is a Catalan solid whose
dual polyhedron is the truncated octahedron.
P3
P1
y Tetrakis snub cube Polyhedron with 56 faces, of
x P2
which 24 are isosceles triangles and 32 are equi-
lateral triangles. It also has 30 vertices and 84
Read also «Right hand rule». edges.
The regular tetrahedron is a platonic solid.
Read also «Regular polyhedron».
Tetrakis cuboctahedron Polyhedron with 32 faces,
of which 24 are isosceles triangles and 8 are equi-
lateral triangles. It also has 18 vertices and 48
edges.
T
Tetrated dodecahedron Polyhedron with 28 faces,
of which 12 are mirror-symmetric pentagons and
16 are equilateral triangles. It also has 28 vertices
and 54 edges.
513
Tetration–Theory
It is fulfilled that
a b c
= ′ = ′
a′ b c
This theorem can be stated equivalently as fol-
lows: If a line is drawn parallel to any of its sides in
a triangle, a triangle is obtained that is similar to the
given triangle.
This theorem is also known as intercept theorem,
basic proportionality theorem, and side splitter theo-
rem.
(2.) If A, B and C are points on a circumference of
diameter AC, then the triangle △ ABC is a right
triangle.
Tetration Operation on positive real numbers con-
sisting of iterated exponentiation.
For any positive real number a, and a number B
n ∈ N,
···
aa
an a = a a
the base a is raised n times to the power a, where
the highest level is evaluated first. C A
For example,
22 4 Theorem proposition requiring proof.
a 4 2 = 22 = 22 = 216 = 65 536 For example, There is exactly one circle passing
through three non-collinear points, is a geometry
Note that this is not the same as evaluating first theorem.
at the lowest level:
Theorem of the power of a point If P is a point on
22 2
22 , 42 = 162 = 256 the plane, and a fixed circumference with center
4
at O is given, then for any stright line ℓ passing
That is, 2(3 ) is not equal to (23 )4 . through P cutting the circumference at A and B,
By convention, it holds AP · PB is constant, independently of the
a0 a = 1 position of the line ℓ.
Tetration is not considered an elementary opera-
tion.
D C
Thales’ theorem (1.) If several parallels are cut by
two secants, the segments determined in one se- O
cant are proportional to those determined in the P
other secant. B
For example, the following figure shows several A
parallel (vertical) lines cut by two secants.
Read also «Power of a point».
B D F H
b c S Theory Systematically organized knowledge that
a
T R is applicable in solving problems and in explain-
ing the nature or behavior of a wide variety of
phenomena.
a′ b′ c′ In mathematics, theory is built to prove theorems.
P Q
That is, in mathematics the theory consists of a set
A C E G of definitions of mathematical objects (numbers,
vectors, etc.), operations with those objects, ax-
AB ∥ CD CD ∥ EF EF ∥ GH
ioms and defined relations between said objects,
514
Third–To divide a segment
and from all this, are deduced, applying the rules Titanic prime number A prime number that has
of logic, results (theorems) applicable to the math- at least one thousand digits when written in the
ematical objects defined at the beginning. decimal number system.
For example, the number: 10999 + 7 is a titanic
Third When we divide a whole into three equal
prime number.
parts, each of them is one third of the whole.
To aproximate To give a value close to another.
For example, we can approximate the value of the
1 1 1 number π = 3.141592654 · · · as 3.1416
3 3 3 The symbol ≈ denotes approximation and reads:
is approximately√equal to.
For instance, 2 ≈ 1.4142, is read: the square root
of 2 is approximately equal to 1.4142.
Read also «Fraction». Read also «Significant figure», «Accuracy», «Error»,
and «Iterative method».
Third-degree equation Polynomial equation of
degree three,
To divide Procedure used to calculate the number
a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 = 0
of times that one quantity contains another.
where a3 , 0. For example, when we divide 36 by 4, we get 9.
The discriminant This tells us that the number 4 fits 9 times within
36 (because 36 = (9)(4)).
∆ = 18 abcd − 4 b3 d + b2 c2 − 4 ac3 − 27 a2 d2 It is not possible to divide by zero.
allows us to identify the following cases: Basically when we divide n ÷ d, we look for a
number q such that n = q · d. If n , 0 and d = 0,
• If ∆ < 0, the equation has a real root and two then there is no number q such that n = (q)(0),
complex roots. because any number multiplied by zero equals
• If ∆ = 0, the equation has multiple roots, zero.
with all its roots real. On the other hand, if n = 0 and also, d = 0,
• If ∆ > 0, the equation has three different real then there exists infinitely many values q such
roots. that n = (q)(0). Since the solution of the divi-
sion does not exist when n , 0 and d = 0, and it
Read also «Cubic equation» and «Vieta’s formulas». is not unique when n = 0 and d = 0, division by
zero is said to be undefined.
Thousands The digit that is in the fourth position
from the decimal point, from right to left, is said
to be in the position for the thousands digit. To divide a segment (Plane geometry) Given a
For example, in the number 1 976, the thousands segment with end points at A and B, to divide
digit is the digit 1. the segment into n equal parts means to find n − 1
equally spaced points between its end points.
Thousandth (1.) A thousandth is equivalent to one In the following figure the segment AB has been
of the parts of a whole that has been divided into divided into 5 congruent segments (that is, into 5
a thousand parts, all of the same size. equal parts).
(2.) In a number with decimals, the thousandths
digit is the digit in the third position to the right
of the decimal point.
For example, in the number 1.23456, the digit 4
corresponds to the thousandths digit.
T
Tijdeman’s theorem The Diophantine equation
ym = x n + 1
has only a finite number of solutions x, y, m, n in
the set of integer numbers. A B
515
To divide an angle–Toroidal curve
(Analytic geometry) The coordinates of the point Tolerance error The tolerance error E is the max-
P( x, y) that divides the segment with end points imum allowable distance between the estimated
at P1 ( x1 , y1 ), and P2 ( x2 , y2 ), in the proportion value of the parameter of a population and the
λ = P1 P/PP2 are: value of the estimated parameter. For a con-
fidence level c, the tolerance error is calculated
x1 + λ x2 y1 + λ y2 with:
x= y=
1+λ 1+λ E = zc √
σ
n
y
where σ is the standard deviation of the distribu-
P1 P1 P
y1 λ= tion from which the estimated value is calculated
P P2 and n is the population size.
If n ≥ 30 the sample standard deviation can be
y P used instead of the population standard devia-
P2 tion.
y2 The tolerance error is also known as error range.
Read also «Confidence interval».
x
O x1 x x2 Tonne Unit of mass equivalent to 1 000 kilograms.
If λ = 1 the formulas to compute the midpoint
( x̄, ȳ) are obtained. Toroidal polyhedron Polyhedron having the ap-
proximate shape of a torus.
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
x̄ = ȳ =
2 2
y
P1
y1
P
ȳ
P2
y2
x
O x1 x̄ x2
If λ < 0 it is said that an external division of the Read also «Torus».
segment is to be made.
Toroidal curve A curve whose points lie on the
To divide an angle Given an angle, to divide it in
surface of a torus.
n parts it means to draw n equal angles between
its sides.
z
For example, by dividing the angle α = 45◦ into
5 parts, we get 5 adjacent angles (one to the next
one), so that the initial angle share its sides with
the first and the last angles.
T
y
Read also «Toroidal spiral».
516
Toroidal spiral–Total order
Toroidal spiral Helix whose points are on the sur-
face of a torus, and whose parametric equations
are:
x (t) = (r sin(n t) + R) cos(t)
R r
y(t) = (r sin(n t) + R) sin(t)
z(t) = r cos(n t)
for 0 < t < 2 π, where R is the major radius of the
torus, r is its minor radius, and n is the number
of turns that the spiral makes in a complete turn
The major radius R is the distance from the center
of the torus.
of the torus to the center of the circular tube and r
z is the minor radius (the radius of the circular tube
that forms the body of the torus).
The surface area S and the volume V of the torus
are:
S = 4 π2 r R
y V = 2 π 2 r2 R
x The equation of the torus in Cartesian coordinates
is:
2
Read also «Torus» and «Helix». x 2 + y2 + z2 + R2 − r 2 = 4 R2 x 2 + y2
Torricelli’s trumpet Synonym of Gabriel’s horn.
Read also «Gabriel’s Horn». The parametric equations of the torus are:
Torsion The torsion τ of a curve at the point P is a x (θ, φ) = [ R + r cos(θ )] cos( φ)
scalar quantity that quantifies the deviation of the y(θ, φ) = [ R + r cos(θ )] sin( φ)
curve from a flat curve at one of its points, and is
defined as: z(θ, φ) = r sin(θ )
⃗
db
τ= for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 π and 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2 π.
ds
where ⃗b is the binormal vector, and s is the arc Total differential The total differential of the func-
length parameter. tion w = f ( x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ), of n variables, is:
The torsion of the curve measures the speed of
rotation of the binormal vector at each point. ∂f ∂f ∂f
dw = · dx1 + · dx2 + · · · + · dxn
If C : ⃗r (t) is the parametric equation of a curve ∂x 1 ∂x 2 ∂x n
whose curvature is not zero on a given interval
If d⃗x = ⟨dx1 , dx2 , · · · , dxn ⟩, the total differential
a ≤ t ≤ b the torsion τ of C in the given interval
may be represented as:
is:
(⃗r ′ ×⃗r ′′ ) ·⃗r ′′′
τ= dw = ∇ f · d⃗x
∥⃗r ′ ×⃗r ′′ ∥2
where ⃗r ′ is the derivative of ⃗r, ⃗r ′′ is the second where ∇ f is the gradient of f .
derivative of ⃗r, ⃗r ′′′ is the third derivatiuve of ⃗r, Read also «Gradient» and «Dot product».
and ⃗r ′ ×⃗r ′′ is the cross product of ⃗r ′ and ⃗r ′′ .
Some authors denote torsion with T.
Read also «Binormal vector».
Total order Binary relationship between the ele-
ments of a set X given that it has the following T
properties, for any a, b, c in X.
Torus Closed curved surface that is generated by
rotating a circumference of radius r around an • If a ≤ b and b ≤ a, then a = b.
axis coplanar with the circle, and at a fixed dis- • If a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.
tance R > r from a fixed point called center of the
• Either a ≤ b, or b ≤ a.
torus.
517
Trace–Trace curve
Trace (Geometry) The trace of a point that satisfies mension, the following is true:
certain conditions is the locus of all points that
Tr( A + B) = Tr( A) + Tr( B)
satisfy those conditions.
For example, the circumference is the trace of a Tr(c A) = c Tr( A)
point that moves on a plane at a distance r from a Tr( AB) = Tr( BA)
fixed point C.
Besides,
Tr( A) = Tr A T
That is, the trace of A is equal to the trace of the
transpose of A.
Trace curve A trace curve of the function z =
r f ( x, y) is the graph of the function that is obtained
C by substituting x = c (a constant instead of x), or
y = c (a constant instead of y). The value of the
constant must be in the domain of the respective
variable of the given function.
Geometrically, a cut curve is the trace of the graph
of the function z = f ( x, y) with the plane x = c,
In this sense, trace is synonymous with locus.
(Multivariable calculus) Intersection of a locus
(for example, a surface) with a plane.
z
z
z = 9 − x2 − y 2
y
x x=
c
x+y =2
or y = c.
y z
x
The figure above shows the trace generated by
cutting the graph of the function z = 9 − x2 − y2
T with the plane x + y = 2.
(Linear algebra) The trace of the square matrix A
x
y
of dimension n, denoted by Tr( A), is equal to the
sum of the elements of its main diagonal.
Tr( A) = a11 + a22 + · · · + ann c
=
y
For two square matrices A and B of the same di-
518
Tractrix–Transcendental curve
Note that when substituting x = c in the function The tractrix spiral polar tractrix.
z = f ( x, y) a function of one variable is obtained:
z = f (c, y). Similarly, when you substitute y = c Trajectory Path or route that follows a point or the
into the function, you get a function that depends center of mass of a moving body.
on the variable x only: z = f ( x, c). The curve C corresponding to a trajectory is de-
fined in terms of a vector function:
Tractrix Pursuit curve with a constant distance
from the pursuer (point of tangency on the pur-
suit curve) to the pursued (the intersection be- C : ⃗r (t) = ⟨ x (t), y(t), z(t)⟩
tween the tangent to the pursuit curve and its
asymptote). where t is a real parameter, x (t), y(t) and z(t) are
The equation of the tractrix in rectangular coordi- continuous functions for the domain of t, known
nates is: as the component functions of the trajectory.
y q
x = a sech−1 − a2 − y2
a ~ z
r(t)
Its parametric equations are:
x (t) = a (t − tanh(t))
y(t) = a sech(t)
1
for t ≥ 0.
~r(
t)
y −1 −1
y
1 1
a x
x For example, the trajectory of a point moving in
a a
the xy plane on the unit circle centered at the ori-
gin, turning counterclockwise, is:
Read also «Pursuit curve».
The tractrix is the envelope curve of the catenary.
Read also «Catenary».
C: ⃗r (t) = ⟨cos(t), sin(t)⟩
When the tractrix is rotated about its asymptote,
a pseudosphere is obtained. That is, x (t) = cos(t), and also y(t) = sin(t) are
Read also «Pseudosphere». the components of the trajectory of the referred
The tractrix is also known as equitangential curve. point. Since the point moves in the xy plane, the
component z(t) = 0 for all t.
The tangent line at the point ⃗r (t0 ) to the given
Tractrix spiral Spiral whose parametric equations path C is:
are:
⃗τ (t) = ⃗r (t0 ) + (t − t0 )⃗r ′ (t)
x (t) = a cos(t) cos (t − tan(t))
y(t) = a cos(t) sin (t − tan(t)) where ⃗r ′ (t) = ⟨ x ′ (t), y′ (t)⟩ is the derivative of
for 0 ≤ t < π/2. ⃗r (t).
Read also «Vector function» and «Trangent vector».
y
Transcendental curve A curve is transcendental if T
it cannot be written in the form:
x
P( x, y) = 0
where P( x, y) is a polynomial of finite degree in
the variables x and y.
519
Transcendental function–Transformation
A curve that is defined as a combination of tran- Transcendental term Term that contains exponen-
scendental functions and polynomials of finite de- tial, logarithmic and/or trigonometric expres-
gree is a transcendental curve. sions of some variable(s).
Some examples of transcendental functions are: For example, ln x2 + 1 is a trascendental term.
∞
xi
ex = ∑ i!
{−∞ < x < ∞} Transfer principle Principle that states that each
i =0 proposition valid in the set of the real numbers is
∞
(−1)n x2i+1 also valid for the set of the hyperreal numbers.
sin( x ) = ∑ (2 i + 1) !
{−∞ < x < ∞} This principle is a theorem proven by Abraham
i =0
∞
Robinson in his non-standard analysis.
(−1)n x2i
cos( x ) = ∑ (2 i ) !
{−∞ < x < ∞} Transfinite number An ordinal number greater
i =0
than any finite natural number is a transfinite
number.
In this sense, transfinite is a synonym of infinite.
Transcendental function A function that cannot be
The smallest transfinite ordinal number is ω, and
expressed in terms of a finite number of alge-
it represents the cardinality of the set of natural
braic operations of addition, subtraction, multi-
numbers.
plication, division, power, and root extraction of
polynomials. Transformation In mathematics, a transformation
For example, the natural exponential function is an operation on some given mathematical ob-
y = e x , trigonometric functions y = sin( x ), y = ject (number, function, etc.) that returns another
cos( x ), y = tan( x ), and the natural logarithm mathematical object (not necessarily of the same
function y = ln( x ) are transcendental functions. nature as the initial one).
Read also «Taylor series» and «Trascendental term». For example, the function y = x2 transform the
numbers x multiplying them by themselves and
returning x2 for each given value x.
Transcendental law of homogeneity Postulate (Linear algebra) A transformation T from Rn to
stated by Leibniz in his version of infinitesimal Rm is a rule that assigns to each vector ⃗u of an n
calculus which states that if x is a finite quantity dimensional space, another vector ⃗v = T (⃗u) of a
and dx is an infinitely small quantity compared vector space of dimension m.
to x, then The vector ⃗v is the image of ⃗u under the transfor-
x + dx = x mation T, and the set whose elements are all the
images under the transformation T, is the range
In general, if dx is a first-order infinitesimal, then of T.
The set of vectors of the space Rn is the domain
dx + (dx )2 + (dx )3 + · · · + (dx )k = dx of T, and the set of vectors of the space Rm is the
codomain of T.
where k ∈ N. In words, the sum of several dif- For example, let
ferentials of different order is equal to the lowest
order differential. 3 5
This is because if dx = 1/N, where N is an in- A= 1 2
finitely large quantity, −1 4
1 dx and ⃗u = ⟨2, 1⟩ T . So,
(dx )2 = (dx )(dx ) = dx · =
N N
3 5 11
2
T That is, (dx )2 is infinitely small compared to dx.
Read also «Leibniz’s postulates».
T (⃗u) = A ⃗u = 1
−1
2
4
1
= 4
2
Transcendental number Irrational number that is In this case, T is the transformation that A causes
not the root of a polynomial equation with ratio- upon each vector ⃗x = ⟨ x1 , x2 ⟩ T of the two-
nal coefficients. dimensional space and the range is the set of
For example, the number e is a transcendental vectors ⃗y = ⟨y1 , y2 , y3 ⟩ T of the three dimensional
number. space.
520
Transformation matrix–Transverse axis
Transformation matrix Matrix representing a then,
change of base.
Read also «Change of base». a11 a21 ··· am1
a12 a22 ··· am2
Transitive property Property consisting in that if AT = .. .. .. ..
. . . .
a ∼ b, and also b ∼ c, then, a ∼ c.
For example, equality exhibits the transitive prop- a1n a2n ··· amn
erty, because if a = b, and also b = c, then, a = c.
If A is a matrix of dimension m × n, and B is an-
Read also «Equality».
other matrix of dimension n × p, then,
Translation Motion of a geometric object such that T
each one of its points moves in the same direction, i. AT =A
the same distance, without rotation, reflection, or T
ii. ( AB) = B T A T
change in size.
In the following figure, a translation to the right iii. If A and B have the same dimension,
of the triangle △ ABC has been made to get the
triangle △ A′ B′ C ′ congruent to the first one. ( A + B)T = AT + BT
−1 T
C C′ iv. If det( A) , 0, then A T = A −1 .
B B′
Transversal A line is a transversal if it intersects
A A′ two coplanar straight lines at two different points.
The translation of an object consists of changing
the coordinates of each of its points P( x, y, z) into
Q( x − a, y − b, z − c). The object undergoes a po-
sition change of the coordinates of all its points in
( a, b, c), with respect to the origin.
A given xyz coordinate system can be trans-
formed by applying the translation formulas:
x ′ = x − a, y′ = y − b, z′ = z − b.
z z0
c • If two lines are cut by a transversal, then
the interior angles on the same side of the
transversal are supplementary.
y0
• If two lines are cut by a transversal, then the
x0
alternate interior angles are congruent.
y
a b
x Two coplanar lines cut by a transversal are par-
allel if and only if the corresponding angles are
congruent.
Transpose of a matrix The transpose of the matrix
Read also «Alternate angles», «Corresponding an-
A = [ aij ] of dimension m × n, denoted by A T , is
gles» and «Alternate angles».
the matrix of dimension n × m which is obtained
by writing the rows of A as columns, in the same
order.
If a transversal is perpendicular to one of two par-
allel lines, then it is also perpendicular to the sec- T
ond.
If Read also «Parallel» and «Perpendicular».
a11 a12 · · · a1n
a21 a22 · · · a2n
Transverse axis In a hyperbola, the transverse axis
A= . .. .. ..
.. . . . is a line segment that has its ends at the vertices
am1 am2 · · · amn of the hyperbola.
521
Trapezium–Trapezoid
Trapezohedron Polyhedron having 2 n deltoid-
y shaped faces. It also has 2 n + 2 vertices and 4 n
edges.
The n−gonal trapezohedron can be constructed
with an n-sided base antiprism and two n-sided
Transverse axis
x base pyramids, such that the equatorial faces of
the antiprism lie in the same plane as the corre-
sponding faces of the pyramids.
The two vertices of the trapezohedron where the
edges of n deltoids coincide are called polar ver-
tices.
A tetragonal trapezohedron (n = 4) is shown in
The transverse axis of the hyperbola is perpendic- the figure below.
ular to the conjugate axis and passes through its
midpoint.
Read also «Equation of the hyperbola».
Trapezium A quadrilateral with no parallel oppo-
site sides.
The trapezium is an irregular quadrilateral.
It is worth mentioning that in British English a The cube is a trigonal trapezohedron. Their faces,
trapezium is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair being square, are also diamond-shaped and are
of parallel sides. considered deltoids.
Read also «Trapezoid». The trapezohedron is the dual polyhedron of an
antiprism with a base of n sides.
Trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron Polyhedron The trapezohedron is also known as n−sided an-
formed by 12 faces, of which 6 are rhombuses tibipyramid and as n−sided deltohedron.
and 6 are trapezoids. It also has 14 vertices and The trapezohedron is an isohedral figure.
24 edges. Read also «Deltoid» and «Isohedral figure».
Trapezoid A quadrilateral with exactly one pair of
parallel sides.
T
B
This solid can be used to fill the space using iden- Of the parallel sides, the longest, denoted by B, is
tical copies of it, so that parts of those copies do called the major base, and the shortest, denoted
not overlap onto each other and without leaving by b, is called the minor base. The height of
gaps. the trapezoid (h) is the distance between its two
522
Trapezoidal rule–Trefoil knot
bases. y
The area of the trapezoid is:
(b + B) · h
A=
2
and its perimeter is calculated by adding the ∆Ai
lengths of its sides.
The median of a trapezoid is the segment paral-
lel to the bases that is equidistant from them. Its x
a x1 x2 ··· b
length is equal to the average of the lengths of the
bases of the trapezoid.
D C And the approximate value of the area of the re-
gion (the approximate value of the definite inte-
gral) is obtained as
P Q
n −1 n −1
f ( x i ) + f ( x i +1 )
A= ∑ ∆Ai ≈ ∑ 2
· ∆x
i =0 i =0
A B
Equivalently, the approximate value of the defi-
In the figure above, the segment PQ is the median nite integral can be obtained by the following ex-
of the trapezoid ABCD. pression:
It is worth mentioning that in British English, a
trapezoid is a quadrilateral with no parallel sides. Zb
Read also «Trapezium». A= f ( x ) · dx
a
Trapezoidal rule Numerical method to calculate ∆x
the approximate value of the definite integral: ≈ [ f ( a) + 2 f ( a + ∆x ) + 2 f ( a + 2 ∆x ) + · · · + f (b)]
2
Zb
A= f ( x ) · dx where ∆x = (b − a)/n, and n is the number of
a parts into which the interval [ a, b] was divided.
for a function y = f ( x ) that is positive on the in-
terval ( a, b). Tree diagram Graph showing the relationship be-
The method consists in dividing the interval [ a, b] tween various components by categories or levels
into n subintervals of length ∆x = (b − a)/n. For in the form of a tree.
each endpoint of the subintervals,
x0 = a Root
x1 = x0 + ∆x = a + ∆x
Father Mother
x2 = x1 + ∆x = a + 2 ∆x
.. .. Son Daughter
. .
xn = xn−1 + ∆x = a + n ∆x = b
compute yi = f ( xi ). The approximate value of
the area ∆Ai of each region corresponding to each Trefoil knot Curve in three-dimensional space
T
subinterval [ xi , xi+1 ] is obtained by calculating the whose parametric equations are:
area of the trapezoid with vertices at the points
( xi , 0), ( xi+1 , 0), ( xi+1 , f ( xi+1 )), ( xi , f ( xi )): x (t) = sin(t) + 2 sin(2 t)
y(t) = cos(t) + 2 cos(2 t)
f ( x i ) + f ( x i +1 )
∆Ai ≈ · ∆x z(t) = sin(3 t)
2
523
Triad–Triakis tetrahedron
This solid is obtained by adding a regular trian-
gular pyramid to each of the faces of the regular
Triad An ordered trio of values. octahedron. If the length of the shortest edge is a,
For example, (2, 3, 4) is a triad. √
then the length of the longest edge is (1 + 1/ 2) a,
and its volume V and its area A are,
Triakis icosahedron Polyhedron with 60 triangu- √
3
lar faces. It also has 32 vertices and 90 edges. V= + 2 a3
2
q √
A = 3 7 + 4 2 a2
The triakis octahedron is a Catalan solid and it is
the dual polyhedron of the truncated cube.
Triakis tetrahedron Polyhedron with 12 triangular
faces. It also has 8 vertices and 18 edges.
This solid is obtained by adding a regular trian-
gular pyramid to each of the faces of the reg-
ular icosahedron. If the length of the shorter
edge is√a, then the length of the longer edge is:
(15 + 5) a/10, and its volume V and its area A
are,
1 √ If the length of the shortest edge is a, then the
V= 19 + 13 5 a3 length of the longest edge is 5 a/3, and its volume
4r
1 √ V and area A are:
A=3 173 − 9 5 a2 √
2
T The triakis icosahedron is a Catalan solid and is
V=
25 2 3
36
√
a
the dual polyhedron of the truncated dodecahe- 5 11 2
A= a
dron. 3
The triakis tetrahedron is a Catalan solid and is
Triakis octahedron Polyhedron with 24 triangular the dual polyhedron of the truncated tetrahedron.
faces. It also has 14 vertices and 36 edges.
524
Trial–Triangle inequality
Trial Experimentation and observation of a ran- where A is the area of the triangle.
dom event. The area A of the triangle with vertices at the
The trial is also known as experiment. points ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ) is:
Read also «Experiment».
x1 y1 1
Triangle Three sided polygon. 1
A= x2 y2 1
The height of a triangle is the vertical line to one 2
x3 y3 1
side (the base) that passes through the vertex op-
posite it. A triangle is classified according to the length of
The figure below shows a triangle with altitude of its sides as:
length h and sides of lengths a, b and c, where b
• Scalene: if all its sides have different lengths.
is the length of the base.
• Isosceles: if two of its sides have the same
length.
• Equilateral: if its three sides have the same
length.
a
h
c
And according to their angles as:
• Acute: if all its angles are acute.
• Rectangle: if it has a right angle.
b
• Obtuse: if it has an obtuse angle.
The perimeter P, the semi-perimeter s and the The sum of the interior angles of a triangle equals
area A of the triangle with sides of lengths a, b, c 180◦ . Because of this, a triangle cannot have two
and height h are: right angles, nor can it have two obtuse angles.
The measure θ of an exterior angle of the triangle
P=a+b+c
is equal to the sum of the measures α and β of the
a+b+c
s= two nonadjacent interior angles of the triangle.
2
bh
A= C
2
β
The area A of the triangle can be calculated from
the lengths of its sides (a, b, c) using Heron’s for-
mula: q
A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
α θ
where s is the semiperimeter of the triangle. A B
The radius r of the circle inscribed in the triangle
can be calculated using the formula:
The measure of the exterior angle of a triangle is
r
(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) greater than the measure of any of the interior an-
r= gles not adjacent to the referred exterior angle.
s
The triangle is the polygon that can be con-
where a, b, c are the lengths of the sides of the tri- structed with the minimum number of sides.
angle and s is its semiperimeter. Read also «Law of cosines», «Law of sines», «Law of
From the semiperimeter s and the radius r of the tangents», «Height», «Median», «Mediatrix», «Bisec-
circumference inscribed to the triangle, the area tor», «Circumcenter», «Incenter», «Baricenter», and
A of the triangle can be calculated, using: «Orthocenter». T
A = rs Triangle inequality In a triangle lying in a plane,
the sum of the lengths of two of its sides is always
The radius R of the circumcircle of the triangle greater than the length of its third side.
can be calculated using: Algebraically, if A, B and C are the lengths of the
abc sides of any triangle lying in the plane, then the
R= following three inequalities hold:
4A
525
Triangle wave–Triangular hebesphenorotunda
The triangular bipyramid is obtained by symmet-
A+B>C A rically joining two regular tetrahedra on one of
B
their faces.
B+C> A
If the measure of all its edges is a, its volume V
A+C>B and its area A are:
C √ 3
2a
V=
√6
Triangle wave Periodic curve defined by: 3 3 a2
A=
2
t 1 t
x (t) = 2 − + The triangular bipyramid is a Johnson solid.
p 2 p
for t ≥ 0 where ⌊t⌋ is the floor function and Triangular cupola 8-sided polyhedron, of which
p is the period of the function. Its graph is a one is a hexagon, 3 are quadrilateral, and 4 are
polygonal line that crosses the horizontal axis at triangles. It also has 9 vertices and 15 edges.
t = 0.25, 0.75, 1.25, 1.75, etc.
x(t)
t
0 1 2 3 4 5
−1 If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V, its
area A, and its height H, are:
has maximums at t = 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, etc., and mini-
5
mums at t = 0, 1, 2, etc. V= √ a3
3 2
√ !
Triangular (1.) Characterized by the triangle. 5 3
(2.) Divide a region of the plane into triangles to A= 3+ a2
2
facilitate the calculation of its area. √
Read also «Triangulation». 6
H= a
3
Triangular bicupola Solid obtained by joining two
triangular cupolas at their bases. The triangular cupola is a Johnson solid.
Read also «Triangular ortobicupola» and «Triangular
Triangular gyrobicupola Synonym of cuboctahe-
gyrobicupola».
dron.
Triangular bipyramid Polyhedron that has 6 faces Read also «Cuboctahedron».
in the shape of an equilateral triangle. It also has Triangular hebesphenorotunda Polyhedron that
5 vertices and 9 edges. has 20 faces of which 13 are equilateral triangles,
3 are squares, 3 are regular pentagons, and one is
a regular hexagon. It also has 18 vertices and 36
edges.
526
Triangular matrix–Triangular orthobicupola
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√ !
5 7 5
V= + a3
2 6
A = k a2
Read also «Gaussian sum».
where The sum of the reciprocals of all triangular num-
r q bers is:
1 √ √
k = 3+ 1308 + 90 5 + 114 75 + 30 5
4 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + +··· = 2
1 3 6 10 15
The triangular hebesphenorotunda is the only
Johnson solid that has polygon faces with 3, 4, because:
5, and 6 sides.
∞ ∞
1 2
Triangular matrix A square matrix A = [ aij ] of di- ∑ n (n + 1)/2 ∑ n (n + 1)
=
mension n × n is an upper triangular matrix if n =1 n =1
∞
aij = 0 for i > j. 1 1
=2 ∑ −
In words, a square matrix is an upper triangular n =1
n n+1
matrix if all of its elements below the main diag-
1 1 1
onal are zero. For example, = 2 lim 1− + − +···
N →∞ 2 2 3
2 5 −7 1 1 1
0 3 9 + −
2 N N+1
0 0 1 −4
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 7 = 2 lim 1 + − + + − + +···
N →∞ 2 2 3 3
A square matrix A = [ aij ] of dimension n × n is a 1 1 1
+ − + −
lower triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i < j. N N N+1
In words, a square matrix is a lower triangular 1
matrix if all of its elements above the main diag- = 2 lim 1 − =2
N →∞ N+1
onal are zero. For example,
This result is due to Leibniz.
8 0 0 0
7 4 0 0
Triangular orthobicupola Polyhedron that has 14
5 2 3 0
faces of which 8 are equilateral triangles and the
−1 9 −5 1 other 6 are squares. It also has 12 vertices and 24
edges.
The determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to
The triangular orthobicupola is obtained by join-
the product of the elements on its main diagonal.
ing two triangular cupolas by their respective
hexagonal bases.
Triangular numbers Sequence of numbers
generated from triangular arrays of points:
{1, 3, 6, 10, · · · }. Triangular numbers are obtained
by adding the points that are contained in the
triangle. That is, we can calculate the n−th trian-
gular number using the Gaussian sum formula:
T
n · ( n + 1)
Sn =
2
For example, the fifth triangular number (n = 5)
is:
(5)(6) 30
S= = = 15
2 2
527
Triangular region–Triaugmented hexagonal prism
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√
5 2 3
V= a
3
√
A = 2 3 + 3 a2
The triangular orthobicupola is a Johnson solid.
Triangular region Plane figure consisting of a tri-
angle and its interior.
The triaugmented dodecahedron is obtained by
adding a pentagonal pyramid on three of the non-
C
adjacent faces of the dodecahedron.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
5 √
V= 7 + 3 5 a3
8 s
3 15 √ q √
A= 10 + 3 5 + 75 + 30 5 a2
2 2
A B
The triaugmented dodecahedron is a Johnson
solid.
Triangulation Method for calculating the coordi- Triaugmented hexagonal prism Polyhedron that
nates of a point from plotting triangles using has 17 faces of which 12 are equilateral triangles,
known point coordinates. 3 are squares, and two are regular hexagons. It
also has 15 vertices and 30 edges.
y
|B P | P
B
|
P
|A
x
A
The triaugmented hexagonal prism is obtained
Triangulation serves as the basis for calculating by adding a square pyramid to three nonadjacent
distances and areas on the plane. equatorial faces of a regular hexagonal prism.
When angles and distances are used to calculate If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
T the coordinates of points through the application
of trigonometry, triangulation is also called trilat- 1 3 3
√ !
eration. V= √ + a3
2 2
√
Triaugmented dodecahedron Polyhedron with 24 A = 3 + 6 3 a2
faces, of which 15 are equilateral triangles and 9
are regular pentagons. It also has 23 vertices and The triaugmented hexagonal prism is a Johnson
45 edges. solid.
528
Triaugmented triangular prism–Tridiminished icosahedron
Triaugmented triangular prism Polyhedron that where
has 14 faces in the shape of an equilateral triangle. q r
It also has 9 vertices and 21 edges. √ √
k = 90 5+2 5+3 5 5+2 5
The triaugmented truncated dodecahedron is a
Johnson solid.
Trichotomy Given any two real numbers a, b, one
and only one of the following is satisfied:
i. a < b ii. a = b iii. a > b
The triaugmented triangular prism is obtained by
adding a pyramid with a square base to each of Tridecagon Polygon that has 13 sides.
the equatorial faces of the right triangular prism.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√ !
1 3
V= √ + a3
2 4
√
7 3 2
A= a
2
The triaugmented triangular prism is a Johnson
solid.
Read also «Deltahedron».
Triaugmented truncated dodecahedron Polyhe-
dron formed by 62 faces, of which 35 are equi-
lateral triangles, 15 are squares, 3 are regular
pentagons and 9 are regular decagons. It also has Tridiminished icosahedron Polyhedron that has 8
75 vertices and 135 edges. faces of which 5 are equilateral triangles and the
other three are regular pentagons. It also has 9
vertices and 15 edges.
The tridiminished icosahedron is obtained by re-
moving three pentagonal pyramids from an icosa-
hedron, so that three adjacent pentagonal faces
are obtained.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area
A, and its circunradius R are:
√ !
5 7 5
V= + a3
8 24
s
The triaugmented truncated dodecahedron is ob- 1 15 √ q √ 2
A= 10 + 3 5 + 75 + 30 5 a
tained by adding a pentagonal cupola on three
non-adjacent decagonal faces of the truncated do-
2 2
T
decahedron.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
a
V ≈ 92.0118 a3 R= s
2
1 √
2− √
A= 60 + 35 3 + k a2 5
4
529
Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron–Trigonometric function
x
−1 1
−1
The tridiminished icosahedron is a Johnson solid.
Tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron Polyhe-
dron with 32 faces, of which 3 are regular
decagons, 9 are regular pentagons, 15 are squares, Trigon Synonym of triangle.
and 5 are equilateral triangles. It also has 45 ver- The word trigon is deprecated.
tices and 75 edges. Read also «Triangle».
This geometric solid is obtained by removing
three pentagonal cupolas from a rhombicosido-
decahedron. If the length of its edges is a, its vol-
ume V and its area A are: Trigonometric angles Angles whose magnitude
can be expressed in the form m π/n, where m
V ≈ 34.6432 a3 and n are integer numbers, for which the values
1 √
2 of the trigonometric functions of said angles can
A= 60 + 30 k a
4 be written as a combination of arithmetic opera-
where tions up to square roots.
√ q √ For example,
k = 400 + 177 5 + 3975 + 1770 5
π √
5−1
sin =
10 p4
π √
25 − 10 5
tan =
10 p 5
π √
2+ 2
cos =
8 2
Trigonometric function The trigonometric func-
T The tridiminished rhombicosidodecahedron is a
Johnson solid.
tions are defined as a generalization of the
trigonometric ratios for angles of any magnitude.
The trigonometric functions are the functions sine
Trifolium Polar rose with three petals whose para- (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), secant (sec), cose-
metric equations are: cant (csc), and cotangent (cot).
The following figure shows a geometric represen-
x (t) = a cos(3 t) cos(t) tation of the trigonometric functions of the angle
y(t) = a cos(3 t) sin(t) θ in a unit circle.
530
Trigonometric identity
y y
cot(θ)
1 2
1 y = tan( x )
θ)
c(
cs x
( θ) π π 3π
tan(θ)
2
s ec sin(θ)
2
−1
θ
x
cos(θ) 1
Some properties of the trigonometric functions
The domain of the sine function (y = sin( x )) are listed below.
is the set of real numbers (R) and its range is
y ∈ [−1, 1]. It is a periodic function with period • sin(−θ ) = − sin(θ )
2 π. Its graph is below.
• sin( φ) = cos(θ )
• sin(α) = sin(θ )
y • cos(−θ ) = cos(θ )
• cos( φ) = sin(θ )
1 y = sin( x )
3π • cos(α) = − cos(θ )
2
x
were φ = 90◦ − θ, and α = 180◦ − θ.
π
2
π 2π
−1 Read also «Sine», «Cosine», «Tangent», «Secant»,
«Cosecant», and «Cotangent».
Trigonometric identity Identity involving trigono-
The domain of the cosine function (y = cos( x )) metric functions.
is the set of real numbers (R) and its range is Some frequently used trigonometric identities are
y ∈ [−1, 1]. It is a periodic function with period below.
2 π. Its graph is below.
• sin2 ( x ) + cos2 ( x ) = 1.
• tan2 ( x ) + 1 = sec2 ( x ).
y
• cot2 ( x ) + 1 = csc2 ( x ).
1 y = cos( x ) • sin( x + y) = sin( x ) cos(y) + cos( x ) sin(y).
π
x • cos( x + y) = cos( x ) cos(y) − sin( x ) sin(y).
π 3π 2π
2 tan( x ) tan(y)
T
2
−1 • tan( x + y) = .
1 − tan( x ) tan(y)
• sin(2 x ) = 2 sin( x ) cos( x ).
The domain of the tangent function (y = tan( x )) • cos(2 x ) = cos2 ( x ) − sin2 ( x ).
is the set of all real numbers except the values 2 tan( x )
k π + π/2, for k ∈ Z. Its range is the set of all real • tan(2 x ) = .
1 − tan2 ( x )
numbers (R). Its grah is below.
531
Trigonometric number–Trigonometric substitution
Trigonometric number Irrational number ob- Note that the cosine of an angle θ is equal to the
tained by calculating the sine or cosine of a ra- sine of the complement of θ, the cotangent of θ is
tional number that is a multiple
√ of π (radians). equal to the tangent of the complement of θ, and
For example, the number 2/2 is is a trigono- the cosecant of θ is equal to the secant of the com-
metric number, because: plement of θ. The prefix co in cosine, cotangent and
π √ cosecant is due this property.
2
sin = Read also «Cofunction».
4 2 The following figure is a geometric representation
of the trigonometric ratios in the unit circle.
Trigonometric polynomial Function of the form:
n
a0
T (x) = + ∑ ( ak cos(k x ) + bk sin(k x )) y
2 k =1
where a0 , ak , bk are real coefficients, and n is the
degree of the trigonometric polynomial (if | an | + cot(θ)
1
|bn | > 0).
In complex variable, the trigonometric polyno-
mial is defined as:
θ)
n c(
cs
T (x) = ∑ ck e ikn
θ)
tan(θ)
k=−n c(
se
sin(θ)
where:
a k − i bk k≥0 (with b0 = 0)
2 ck =
a − k − i b− k k<0 θ
x
cos(θ) 1
Trigonometric ratio The trigonometric ratios are
the ratios of the lengths of the sides of a right
triangle.
The six trigonometric ratios are: sine (sin), cosine From this figure, applying the Pythagorean the-
(cos), tangent (tan), cosecant (csc), secant (sec), orem it is very easy to deduce the following
and cotangent (cot). trigonometric identities.
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
r y 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ
θ
x Read also «Pythagorean identities».
y y r
• sin θ = • tan θ = • sec θ =
r x x
Trigonometric substitution Anti-derivation tech-
x r x
nique that consists of a change of variable using
• cos θ = • csc θ = • cot θ =
r y y
a trigonometric function that often simplifies the
integrand.
The following table gives the values of the The substitutions listed in the following table are
trigonometric ratios of some notable angles. usually suggested.
T θ sin θ cos θ tan θ
0◦ 0 √1 0√
If the integrand includes: Define:
30◦ 1/2
√ 3/2
√ 1/ 3 √
2 2
45◦ 1/
√ 2 1/ 2 √1 √a − u u = a sin(ϕ)
60◦ 3/2 1/2 3 2
√a + u
2 u = a tan(ϕ)
90◦ 1 0 ∞ u2 − a2 u = a sec(ϕ)
532
Trigonometry–Trihedron
Sometimes these substitutions help to calculate an Being defined in relation to a right triangle, the
antiderivative even if the radical does not appear. trigonometric ratios can only be calculated for
For example, to calculate: values of angles between 0 and 90◦ .
Z The trigonometric functions generalize to the
e x · dx trigonometric ratios for any value of the angle
1 + e2x and they are:
Let: u = e x , so that du = e x · dx. Using this change
of variable, ✓ sine (sin) ✓ secant (sec)
Z Z ✓ cosine (cos) ✓ cosecant (csc)
e x · dx du
= ✓ tangent (tan) ✓ cotangent (cot)
1 + e2x 1 + u2
Now a trigonometric substitution can be applied.
If u = tan(ϕ), then du = sec2 (ϕ) · dϕ. Conse- The inverse trigonometric functions are:
quently,
✓ arcosine (arcsin)
Z Z Z
e x · dx du sec2 (ϕ) · dϕ
= = ✓ arcocosine (arccos)
1 + e2x 1 + u2 tan2 (ϕ) + 1
Z ✓ arcotangent (arctan)
= dϕ = ϕ + Ĉ
Read also «Trigonometric function».
By definition, u = tan(ϕ). Solving for ϕ it is ob-
tained: ϕ = arctan(u). Writing the variable ϕ in Trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron Polyhedron
terms of u in the result, and then in terms of x, it with 62 faces, of which 12 are regular pentagons,
is obtained: 30 are squares, and 20 are equilateral triangles. It
Z also has 60 vertices and 120 edges.
du This geometric solid is obtained by rotating 36◦
= = arctan ( u ) + C̃
1 + u2 three pentagonal cupolas.
Z x
e · dx x If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
= arctan (e ) + C
1 + e2x area A are:
Read also «Antiderivative», «Change of variable», √ q √ 2
and «Completing the differential». A = 30 + 5 3 + 3 25 + 10 5 a
Trigonometry Branch of mathematics that deals 1 √
V= 60 + 29 5 a3
with the study of triangles, the proportions be- 3
tween their sides and angles, the trigonometric
ratios, the trigonometric functions, their proper-
ties, and their applications.
Based on the following right triangle:
r y
θ
x T
the trigonometric ratios are:
y y r The trigyrate rhombicosidodecahedron is a John-
✓ sin θ = ✓ tan θ = ✓ sec θ =
r x x son solid.
x r x
✓ cos θ = ✓ csc θ = ✓ cot θ = Trihedron Solid angle formed by three planes.
r y y
533
Trillion–Triple integral
z where n is a non-negative number, all the possi-
ble combinations of i ≥ 0, j ≥ 0 and k ≥ 0 are
selected such that i + j + k = n in the summation,
and x, y and z are algebraic expressions repre-
senting real numbers.
For example, for n = 2,
11
( x + y + z)2 = x2 + 2 xy + y2 + 2 xz + z2 + 2 yz
The trinomial theorem is also known as the trino-
y
mial expansion.
x Read also «Binomial formula» and «Multinomial
theorem».
Triple Triple of a quantity is the result of multiply-
ing that quantity by 3.
For example, the triple of 10 is 30 since 3 × 10 =
30.
Triple integral The triple integral of the function
Trillion In the short scale, one trillion equals one w = f ( x, y, z) in the region Q of the xyz space is
million million. That is,
y y
denoted as:
1 000 000 × 1 000 000 = 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 f ( x, y, z) · dV = f ( x, y, z) · dx · dy · dz
Q Q
In the long scale (in British English) a trillion is
the number formed by a 1 followed by 18 zeros. where Q is the domain of integration, dV =
dx · dy · dz represents the differential of volume,
1 000, 000′ 000, 000′ 000, 000 = 1018 dx is the differential of the variable x, with re-
spect to which the first integration is done, dy is
That is, a trillion is equal to a million billion in the differential of the variable y, with respect to
the long scale used in British English. which the second integration is done, and dz is
It is worth mentioning that in American English the differential of the variable z, with respect to
the short scale is used, and one trillion is the num- which the last integration is performed.
ber formed by a 1 followed by 12 zeros. I.e., one Each definite integral is calculated successively
trillion is equivalent to a billion (1012 ) in the short one after the other, considering the rest of the
scale. variables as constants.
The order of the integration variables can be
Trinomial Polynomial that has 3 terms.
changed, but in general that also changes the
For example,
corresponding limits for each successive integral.
1 + x5 − x11
Note that a trinomial does not necessarily have to
be of degree two. z = f (x, y)
The square of a trinomial can be calculated using
the following formula:
( x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2 xy + 2 xz + 2 yz
T Read also «Notable product».
Trinomial theorem The expansion of the trinomial dV
x + y + z raised to the n−th power is given by: c
a d
y
n b
( x + y + z) = ∑
n
xi y j zk R
i,j,k i, j, k x
i + j+k=n
534
Triple scalar product
Read also «Iterated integral». may be computed by means of:
The limits are chosen so that the sum of the dif-
ferentials covers the domain of integration Q in wx wy wz
its entirety. ux uy uz
If the integrand is a function in cylindrical coordi- vx vy vz
nates, the geometric interpretation of the double Hence the interchange of any two vectors in the
integral is still volume, but in this case, the differ- operation results in a change of sign in the result
ential of volume is: dV = r · dz · dr · dθ. (because of the properties of the determinants).
Any cyclic permutation of the factors does not al-
z ter the triple scalar product.
z + dz The absolute value of this result is equal to the
z volume of the parallelepiped whose edges coin-
cide with the vectors ⃗u, ⃗v, and w
⃗.
dV = r · dz · dr · dθ z
θ ~u × ~v
r y
r + dr
θ + dθ w
~
x θ
For setting up a triple integral in spherical coor-
~v
dinates the differential of volume is:
dV = ρ2 sin ϕ · dρ · dϕ · dθ y
z
ρ sin φ dθ
x
ρ dφ
~u
The base of said parallelepiped is the parallelo-
gram formed by the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v. The area
of the base is ∥⃗u × ⃗v∥. The height of the paral-
dφ lelepiped is the component of w⃗ perpendicular to
φ the base, and it is:
w · (⃗u × ⃗v)|
|⃗
ρ θ ∥⃗u × ⃗v∥
ρ + dρ y
So the volume of the parallelepiped is:
x θ θ + dθ
V = (area of the base)(height)
w · (⃗u × ⃗v)|
|⃗
The triple integral can be interpreted as the mass = (∥⃗u × ⃗v∥)
of the solid bounded by the integration region Q ∥⃗u × ⃗v∥
whose density is w = f ( x, y, z) , supposing that w · (⃗u × ⃗v)|
= |⃗
f ( x, y, z) ≥ 0 for every point in Q. The result is a positive number if the vectors ⃗u, ⃗v,
Triple scalar product Scalar that is the result of
⃗ times
calculating the dot product of the vector w
⃗ form a right system, or negative if it is not.
w
Read also «Right hand rule». T
the vector ⃗u × ⃗v: If the vectors ⃗u, ⃗v and w
⃗ are coplanar, the triple
scalar product is zero.
⃗ · (⃗u × ⃗v)
w ⃗ · (⃗u × ⃗v) = 0
w
Given ⃗u = ⟨u x , uy , uz ⟩, ⃗v = ⟨v x , vy , vz ⟩, and w ⃗ = The triple scalar product also known as mixed
⟨wx , wy , wz ⟩, the triple scalar product w ⃗ · (⃗u × ⃗v) product, box product, and as scalar triple product.
535
Trirectangular tetrahedron–Truncated cone
Trirectangular tetrahedron Tetrahedron with a tri- to the center of the rotating circle.
hedron whose faces form right angles. If the rotating circumference is internal to the
fixed circumference, the trochoid is called a hy-
D potrochoid and its parametric equations are:
x (t) = ( R − m R) cos(m t) + h cos(t − m t)
y(t) = ( R − m R) sin(m t) − h sin(t − m t)
where R, r, m, h are defined as mentioned before.
A
y
B C R = 3.0
r = 2.25
If the edges of the trirectangular tetrahedron that h = 2.25
form right angles to each other measure a, b and
c, then its volume is:
1
V= abc
6
x
Trivial Problem with an obvious result, or that is
very easy to solve.
Trivial solution Solution to a problem that is so
obvious that it does not require a procedure.
For example, the trivial solutions of the equation:
x n + yn = zn , for any integer value n are: x = 0,
y = 0, z = 0.
(Linear algebra) The trivial solution of the homo- Trough On a sine curve, a trough is each one of the
geneous system of linear equations: lowest points in its trajectory.
On the other hand, the crest corresponds to each
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n = 0 of the highest points of its trajectory.
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n = 0
.. .. .. .. Trough
. . . . Crest
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn = 0
is: x1 = x2 = · · · = xn = 0.
Solutions other than the trivial solution are
known as non-trivial solutions.
Trochoid Curve generated by the trace of a fixed
point on a circumference (called generatrix) that
rotates, without slipping, on a fixed circumfer-
ence, which it touches tangently. Truncated cone Solid obtained when cutting a
If the rotating circumference is external to the cone with two planes perpendicular to the axis
fixed circumference, the trochoid is called epitro- of the cone.
choid and its parametric equations are: The height of the truncated cone is the distance
T x (t) = ( R + m R) cos(m t) − h cos(t + m t)
between its circular bases (which are parallel).
Its volume V, the surface area Stotal , and the con-
y(t) = ( R + m R) sin(m t) − h sin(t + m t) vex (lateral) area Slateral are:
π 2 2
where R is the radius of the external circle, r is the V = r + rR + R
3
radius of the turning circle, m = R/r, is known as
Stotal = π r2 + R2 + s(r + R)
the module of the trochoid, and h is the distance
from the point whose trace generates the trochoid Slateral = π s(r + R)
536
Truncated cube–Truncated cylinder
where q Truncated cuboctahedron Polyhedron formed by
s= ( R − r )2 + h2 26 faces, of which 8 are regular hexagons, 6 are
regular octagons, and 12 are squares. It also has
is the slant height of the truncated cone. 48 vertices and 72 edges.
R
r
The volume V of the truncated cone can also be
calculated using the formula:
√
b+B+ bB ·h
V=
3
where b and B represent the area of the bases and If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and
h is the height of the truncated cone. its area A are:
The truncated cone is also known as conical frus-
tum.
Read also «Conicity». √
V = 22 + 14 2 a3
Truncated cube Geometric solid obtained by trun- √ √
cating a cube, whose faces are 6 regular octagons A = 12 2 + 2 + 3 a2
and 8 equilateral triangles. The truncated cube
also has 24 vertices and 36 edges.
The truncated cuboctahedron is also known as
Great rhombicuboctahedron, Rhombitruncated cuboc-
tahedron, Omnitruncated cube and as Beveled cube.
The truncated cuboctahedron is an Archimedean
solid.
Truncated cylinder Solid obtained as a portion of
a right circular cylinder when it is cut with an in-
If the length of all its edges is a, its volume V and clined plane.
its area A are: The volume V, surface area A and lateral area
√ 3 Alateral of the truncated cylinder are:
V=
21 + 14 2 a
3
T
√ √
A = 2 6 + 6 2 + 3 a2 V = π r2"h
r #
( h + h ) 2
1 2
The truncated cube is also known as truncated hex- A = π r h1 + h2 + r + r 2 +
ahedron. 4
The truncated cube is an Archimedean solid. Alateral = 2 π r h
537
Truncated dodecahedron–Truncated icosidodecahedron
h2
h1
This geometric solid is obtained by truncating the
12 vertices of an icosahedron, so that each edge of
the icosahedron is cut by a third of its length at
The truncated cylinder is also known as cylindrical each end.
frustum. If the length of the edges of the truncated icosa-
hedron is a, its volume V, its area A, and its cir-
Truncated dodecahedron Polyhedron formed by cunradius R are:
32 faces, of which 20 are equilateral triangles and
12 are regular decagons. It also has 60 vertices 1 √
and 90 edges. V= 125 + 43 5 a3
4s
The truncated dodecahedron is generated by √ q √
truncating the vertices of a dodecahedron so that A = 3 5 65 + 2 5 + 4 75 + 30 5 a2
the regular pentagons become regular decagons
q √
and equilateral triangles are obtained at each ver- 1
tex of the dodecahedron in the truncation process. R= 58 + 18 5a
4
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are: The truncated icosahedron is an Archimedean
s
√ q √ 2 solid.
A = 5 3 61 + 24 5 + 4 15 + 6 5 a
5 √ Truncated icosidodecahedron Polyhedron formed
V= 99 + 47 5 a3 by 62 faces, of which 30 are squares, 20 are regu-
12
lar hexagons, and 12 are regular decagons. It also
has 120 vertices and 180 edges.
T The truncated dodecahedron is an Archimedean
solid.
Truncated icosahedron Polyhedron that has 32
faces, of which 12 are regular pentagons and 20
are regular hexagons. It also has 60 vertices and
90 edges. If the length of its edges is a, its volume V, its area
538
Truncated octahedron–Truncated rhombicuboctahedron
A, and its circunradius R are: Truncated regular pyramid The portion of a regu-
√ lar pyramid that lies between the base of the pyra-
V = 95 + 50 5 a3 mid and a plane parallel to the base.
s ! The lateral faces of the regular truncated pyramid
√ q √ are equal isosceles trapezoids.
A = 30 1 + 2 4 + 5 + 15 + 6 5 a2
q √
1
R= 31 + 12 5
2
If all Archimedean solids are constructed with
equal edge length, the truncated icosidodecahe-
dron turns out to be the largest.
Read also «Archimedean solids».
The slanted height l is the height of one of its lat-
Truncated octahedron Polyhedron that has 14
eral faces.
faces, of which 8 are regular hexagons and the
The lateral area of the regular truncated pyramid
other 6 are squares. It also has 36 edges and 24
is:
vertices. ( p + P) · l
A=
2
where p is the perimeter of its upper base and P
is the perimeter of its lower base.
The volume of the regular truncated pyramid is:
√
b+B+ bB ·h
V=
2
where B is the area of the upper base, b is the area
of the lower base, and h is the height of the regu-
lar truncated pyramid, and equal to the distance
between its bases.
The regular truncated pyramid is also known as
frustum of a regular pyramid.
The truncated octahedron is obtained by truncat-
ing the vertices of an octahedron. Truncated rhombicuboctahedron Polyhedron
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its with 50 faces, including 24 isosceles trape-
area A are: zoids, 12 mirror-symmetric octagons, 8 regular
√ hexagons, and 6 regular octagons. It also has 96
V = 8 2 a3 vertices and 144 edges.
√ 2
A = 6 + 12 3 a
The truncated octahedron is an Archimedean
solid.
Truncated pyramid The portion of a pyramid that
is obtained by cutting a pyramid with a plane.
This solid is also known as truncated small rhom-
Read also «Frustum of a pyramid». bicuboctahedron.
539
Truncated rhombic triacontahedron–Truncated triakis octahedron
Truncated rhombic triacontahedron Polyhedron Truncated tetrakis hexahedron Polyhedron that
that has 42 faces of which 12 are regular pen- has 38 faces, of which 6 are squares, 8 are regular
tagons and 30 are hexagons. It also has 80 vertices hexagons, and 24 are mirror-symmetric hexagons.
and 120 edges. It also has 76 vertices and 108 edges.
The truncated rhombic triacontahedron is ob-
tained by truncating the vertices of the rhombic
triacontahedron. Likewise, this solid can be ob-
tained from the regular dodecahedron by cham-
fering its edges (replacing them with hexagons,
but keeping the vertices of each edge), which is
why it is also known as chamfered dodecahedron.
Truncated triakis tetrahedron Polyhedron with 16
faces, of which 12 are pentagons and 4 are
hexagons. It also has 28 vertices and 42 edges.
The truncated rhombic triacontahedron is the
dual polyhedron of the pentakis icosidodecahe-
dron.
Truncated tetrahedron Polyhedron with 8 faces, of
which 4 are regular hexagons and 4 are equilat-
eral triangles. It also has 12 vertices and 18 edges.
If the length of its edges is a, its volume V and its
area A are:
√
23 2 3
V= a
√12
A = 7 3 a2
The truncated tetrahedron is obtained by truncat-
ing all the vertices of the tetrahedron.
This solid is obtained by truncating the vertices
of order 6 of the triakistetrahedron. If the length
of the longest edge
is a,then the length of the
√
shortest edge is 3 + 3 a/5, and its volume V
is:
1 √ √
T V=
20
111 2 + 50 6 a3
Truncated triakis octahedron Polyhedron with 30
faces, of which 24 are mirror-symmetric pen-
The truncated tetrahedron is an Archimedean tagons and 6 are regular octagons. It also has 56
solid. vertices and 84 edges.
540
Truncation–Truth table
Truncation error The difference between the exact
value x and the approximate value x̂ obtained by
using a numerical method.
The truncation error occurs because numerical
methods use approximate values to represent ex-
act quantities.
For example, in the Maclaurin series correspond-
ing to the exponential function:
x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
ex = 1 + x + + + + + +···
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
if you decide to use only the first 4 terms to eval-
uate that function, a truncation error is made.
Read also «Rounding error» and «Truncate».
This solid is obtained by truncating the vertices
of order 8 of the triakis octahedron. If the length Truth function A function whose domain is a set
is√a, then
of the longest edge
p
the length
√
of the of truth values and whose range is a truth value
shortest edge is 2 − 2 + 10 − 7 2 a, and (true/false).
its volume V is: Truth table Table that indicates the truth values of
√ q √ logical expressions such as negation, conjunction,
V = 26 − 2 + 8 10 − 2 a3 disjunction, implication, etc., being the possible
values T (true) or F (false).
For example, the truth table for negation is as fol-
lows:
Truncation (Arithmetic) Approximation of a value
omitting decimals from a specific one. p ¬p
For example, truncating the value of π to ten-
T F
thousandths gives: π = 3.1415.
F T
Notice that the decimal digits after the ten-
thousandths have been omitted.
The truth table for the conjunction is:
(Geometry) Operation performed upon a poly-
hedron that consists in replacing vertices by poly-
gons in such a manner that a new polyhedron is p q p ∧ q
obtained. T T T
For example, the truncated tetrahedron is ob- T F F
tained by replacing the vertices of the tetrahedron F T F
by equilateral triangles in such a way that its equi- F F F
lateral triangles become regular hexagons.
The truth table for the disjunction is:
p q p ∨ q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
The truth table for the implication is: T
p q p ⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
541
Tuple–Type II error
Read also «And», «Not», and «Or». The first pairs of twin primes are: (3, 5),
(5, 7), (11, 13), (17, 19), (29, 31), (41, 43), (59, 61),
Tuple A tuple is a finite sequence of elements. Tu- (71, 73), (101, 103).
ple elements are often separated by commas and The proof that the list of prime-twin numbers is
enclosed in parentheses. infinite or finite is still an open problem.
If n ∈ Z, with n > 0, a n−tuple is an ordered list
of n elements. Twisted cubic Curve in space whose parametric
Two n−tuples ( a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) and (b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ) equations are:
are equal, if an only if,
x (t) = t
a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , · · · , an = bn y ( t ) = t2
z ( t ) = t3
Read also «Vector».
Turing machine A Turing machine is an abstract z
machine that manipulates symbols on a magnetic
tape of infinite length, according to certain rules.
The head of the machine is positioned over a loca- t, t2 , t3
tion on the tape and reads the content of the cell
at that location. Based on this information, and a
user-defined algorithm, the machine makes some
decision (write a symbol to that location, delete 1
the contents of the cell, move the tape forward y
or backward, etc.), and continues the algorithmic 1 1
process until finished.
x
Twelfth-centile The Twelfth-centile (12th-centile)
are values that divide the data of a distribution
ordered in increasing order into 12 parts, of ap- Type I error A type I error is made when a null
proximately the same number of data. hypothesis that is true is rejected.
Read also «p−percentile» and «Quartile». The probability of making a type I error in a hy-
pothesis test is denoted by α and is called signifi-
Twelfth (1.) Ordinal number corresponding to the cance level.
twelfth place. For example, consider the case of tossing a coin
For example, in a marathon, the runner who fin- ten times. What is expected is that it will land
ishes in 12th place is the number twelve in order roughly the same number of times face and tails.
among the finishers. If after the ten tosses, it is observed that 10 heads
Read also «Ordinal number». and no tails were obtained, you suspect that the
(2.) A twelfth is one of the parts of a whole that coin is skewed (the coin is not fair) so that in each
has been divided in twelve parts all of the same toss, the probability of obtaining heads is not the
size. same as that of obtaining tails. However, it is pos-
sible, even though both probabilities are equal, to
get 10 heads and no tails. The probability of ob-
taining this result with a fair (unbiased) coin is
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1/210 . If we claim that the coin is skewed, and in
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 fact it is not, then we have made a type I error.
Type I error is also known as false positive.
T Type II error A type II error is made when a null
hypothesis that is false is not rejected.
Read also «Fraction». The probability of making a type II error in a hy-
pothesis test is denoted by β.
Twin prime Two prime numbers p, q are twin For example, consider the case of tossing a coin
primes if their difference is 2. ten times. What is expected is that it will land
For example, the numbers 29 and 31 are twin roughly the same number of heads and tails. If af-
primes, since the difference 31 − 29 = 2. ter the ten tosses, it is observed that 5 times heads
542
Type II error
and 5 times tails were obtained, you suspect that times heads and 5 times tails. The probability of
for each toss, the probability of obtaining heads is obtaining this result with a skewed (unfair) coin
the same as that of obtaining tails (the coin is fair, is not zero. If we claim that the coin is not biased,
or it is unbiased). However, it is possible, even and in fact it is, then we have made a type II error.
though both probabilities are different, to get 5 Type II error is also known as false negative.
543
T
544
U
Ulam spiral Arrangement of the natural numbers Notice that the value of the number 1 does not de-
in a spiral shape, highlighting the position of the pend on its position, so the unary number system
prime numbers to see the pattern that they form. is not a positional number system.
100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91
Unary operation An operation is unary if it re-
quires exactly one argument to perform.
65 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 90
For example, the square root is a unary operation.
66 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 56 89
√
67 38 17 16 15 14 13 30 55 88 25 = 5
68 39 18 5 4 3 12 29 54 87
Read also «Arity».
69 40 19 6 1 2 11 28 53 86
70 41 20 7 8 9 10 27 52 85 Undecidable A statement is undecidable when it
is not possible to prove whether it is true or false,
71 42 21 22 23 24 25 26 51 84
based on a given axiomatic system.
72 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 83
For example, Euclid’s fifth postulate, which states
73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 that through a point outside a given line only one
parallel line can be drawn, is undecidable using
To build the Ulam spiral, start with the number only the remaining axioms of Euclidean geome-
1 in the center of a grid, to its right write the try.
number 2, above it the number 3, to the left of
Undefined An algebraic expression is said to be
it the number 4, and continue including consec-
undefined when no value can be assigned to it.
utive natural numbers forming a spiral. Once all
For example, when dividing 27/9, the assigned
the desired numbers have been written, highlight
value is defined as 3, because (3)(9) = 27. But
in a different color the squares where the prime
10/0 is undefined because there’s no value k such
numbers are.
that (k)(0) = 10.
Read also «Sieve of Eratosthenes».
A function y = f ( x ) is undefined at x = x0 is that
Unary number system Base 1 numbering system, value is not in its domain.
in which the number zero is represented by zero For example, the function y = ln( x ), is undefined
ones (without any symbols, this is an empty for any x ≤ 0.
string of numerals) and the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc.,
are represented by one one, two ones , three ones, Underdetermined system A system of equations
etc., respectively. is an underdetermined system if it has more un-
knowns than equations.
• 1 =1 . • 4 = 1111 . For example,
10 1 10 1
• 210 = 111 . • 510 = 111111 . x + y + z = 10
• 310 = 1111 . • 610 = 1111111 . x−y+z=2
Undulation point–Unit hyperbola
Read also «System of equations». their union is: A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}.
The following Venn diagram represents the union
Undulation point Given a function y = f ( x ), an of the sets A and B.
undulation point of said function is the value
x = xc for which f ′′ ( xc ) = 0 and also the sign of A B
f ′′ ( x ) before and after x = xc remains the same.
In other words, the undulation point is an inflec-
tion point of the function for which the concavity
of the graph of the function is the same before
and after said inflection point.
For example, consider the function y = x4 . Since
A∪B
f ′ ( x ) = 4 x3 the point x = 0 is a critical point (for
f ′ (0) = 0.) Also, since f ′′ ( x ) = 12 x2 , the point
The union of sets obeys the commutative prop-
x = 0 is an inflection point (for f ′′ (0) = 0 as well.)
erty:
Moreover, observe that f ′′ ( x ) is non-negative, in-
A∪B = B∪A
dicating that the concavity of the graph of the
function never changes, thus x = 0 is an undu- as well as the associative property:
lation point of the function y = x4 . A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
Read also «Inflection point».
The distributive law of the union of sets is:
Unequal Two quantities a, b are unequal if they are
not equal. This is denoted as a , b. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
This condition indicates that two quantities are Read also «De Morgan’s laws».
different (i.e., not equal) and this is represented
using the symbol ,. For example, Uniqueness Condition of being unique.
When it is said that it is required to show the
1 , 0. uniqueness of a solution, it means that we must
prove that there are no other solutions than the
In mathematics we usually use the words distinct given one, or that all solutions are included in the
and different as synonyms of unequal. first one.
Uniform density A continuous random variabe X Unit cube Cube with edges of length 1.
has uniform density (or uniform distribution), if
and only if, its probability density is given by: z
1
for α < x < β 1
f (x) = β−α
0 otherwise.
The mean of the uniform density is:
α+β
µ= y
2 x 1
1
The variance of the uniform density is:
The volume of the unit cube is 1 [u3 ], where u is
1
σ2 = ( β − α )2 the unit of measurement (centimeter, etc.)
12
Unit fraction A fraction is unitary fraction if its
numerator is 1 and its denominator is a positive
Union The union of the sets A and B is the set whole number.
whose elements are all the elements that are in A For example, 1/7, is a unit fraction.
U and all that are in B.
For example, considering the sets:
Read also «Egyptian fraction».
Unit hyperbola Hyperbola whose equation in rect-
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9} angular coordinates is:
B = {2, 3, 5, 7} x 2 − y2 = 1
546
Unit of measurement–Unknown
y where ∥⃗v∥ represent the magnitude of the vector
x
=
⃗v: q
=
−
y
x
∥⃗v∥ = x12 + x22 + x32
1 In a three-dimensional space, the unit vectors
pointing in the direction of the coordinate axes
x, y, and z, respectively, are:
x
F 0 −1 1 F ı̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩
−1 ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩
k̂ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩
vz
The asymptotes of this curve are: y = x, as well
k̂ ~v
as y = − x. Its vertices are√at V ′ (−1, 0), √ and at
V (1, 0). Its foci are on F ′ (− 2, 0), and F ( 2, 0). v̂
vy
y ̂
Unit of measurement Quantity established to vx ı̂
make measurements of a physical nature.
x
For example, the kilogram is the unit of measure
established by the International System of Mea-
surements for mass. Unit Unit is the quantity that is taken as a measure
of comparison with respect to all of its kind.
Unit ratio Ratio in which one of the quantities is The number 1 is called an arithmetic unit, since it
unity. serves as a measure of comparison of numbers.
For example, 1/3 or, 6/1. The unit of distance in the International System
of Measurements is the meter.
Unit square Square with sides of length 1. Read also «International System of Units».
y Universal quantifier In logic, a universal quanti-
fier is a constant denoted by ∀, read as for all,
1 which is used as a logical connective.
For example,
∀ x ∈ R : x + [− x ] = 0
is read: for all real number x, it is satisfied that the
x
1 real number x plus its negative equals zero.
Universe The set that contains all the elements that
The area of the unit square is 1 [u2 ] (a square are relevant to a discussion or in the solution of a
unit), where u represents the unit of measure particular problem.
used (centimeter, mile, etc.) The universe is denoted by U.
For example, if you are solving a problem involv-
Unit vector Vector with magnitude equal to unity. ing the students in a school, the universe is the
The unit vector is denoted using the hat notation set of all the students in said school.
(û) instead of the arrow notation (⃗u) for the vec-
Unknown Literal symbol whose value is un-
tor.
Given the vector ⃗v = ⟨ x1 , x2 , x3 ⟩ different from known. U
zero (⃗v , ⃗0), a unit vector v̂ is: For example, in the system of equations:
x + y = 10
x1 x2 x3
v̂ = , , x−y=2
∥⃗v∥ ∥⃗v∥ ∥⃗v∥
547
Untouchable number
the unknowns are x and y. Unknowns and variables are denoted using the
In an equation f ( x ) = 0 the literal x is consid- last letters of the alphabet: t, u, v, x, y, z, etc.,
ered unknown, because essentially the expression while the constants are denoted by the first ones:
in words asks for the value (or values) of x that a, b, c, etc.
makes the equality true. On the other hand, in
the function y = f ( x ) the literal x is considered a Untouchable number A positive integer that can-
variable because it can be assigned different val- not be expressed as the sum of all proper divisors
ues (all those that are in the domain of the func- of any positive integer.
tion) and the corresponding value of y may be For example, the numbers 2, 5, 52 and 88 are un-
computed in each case. touchable numbers.
548
V
Vacuity Condition or property of being empty. where k, m, n are nonnegative integers.
When something about the empty set is to be To give evidence that this identity is actually ful-
proved, which follows from it being empty, it is filled, consider a box with m white spheres and n
said to be proved by vacuity or emptiness or for black spheres. k spheres are drawn from this box.
being null. The number of different ways to extract them is:
For example, the set ∅ is a subset of any other
set A, by vacuity, since there is no element of the m+n
empty set that is not in the set A. k
In set theory, vacuity is used as a synonym of
empty and null. But this is equal to the number of different ways
The term vacuity is deprecated. Currently, mathe- you get i white spheres (out of a total of m) and
maticians use emptiness and less frequently null. k − i black spheres (out of the n), which is:
Read also «Subset».
k
m n
Valid affirmation Synonym of logical truth. ∑ i k−i
i =0
Read also «Logical truth».
Valid formula A formula of a formal language is a Vanish In mathematics it is said that a quantity
valid formula, if and only if, it is true in each and vanish in a certain case (for example, at infinity)
every one of the possible interpretations in that if it is equal to zero.
language. For example, the function
Value (1.) Synonym of quantity that is represented 1
y=
by a number or a scalar. 1 + x4
(2.) The value of a variable is the amount that has
been assigned to it. vanishes at infinity.
(3.) The value of a function is the image returned
Vara Unit of distance used in the Spanish measur-
for a particular value assigned to its independent
ing system, equivalent to 0.84 meters.
variable.
A vara is equivalent to 2.76 feet (approximately
For example, the value of the function y = x2 , for
0.8412 meters.)
x = 2, is y = (2)2 = 4.
The literal translation of Vara into English is rod
or pole.
Vandermonde’s identity Identity that relates bino-
mial coefficients, expressed as: Variability A number indicating the degree of sep-
aration (lack of clustering) of the measured data
k
m+n m n around the sample or population mean.
=∑
k i =0
i k−i The most commonly used measures of variability
Variable–Variation of parameters
are range, variance, standard deviation, and the the symbol ∆. Thus, the variation suffered by the
interquartile range. variable x is denoted as ∆x (read as delta x.) The
The variability is also known as dispersion, scatter, variation of a variable when it changed from the
and spread. value x1 to the value x2 is: ∆x = x2 − x1 .
Read also «Range», «Variance», «Standard devia- For example, if x changed from x1 = 3 to x2 = 5,
tion», and «Interquartile range». the variation of x is: ∆x = 5 − 3 = 2.
Variation is also called change or increment.
Variable A quantity that changes its value. (2.) The variation of the continuous function
For example, the price of the US dollar in euros is y = f ( x ) in the interval [ a, b] is equal to the dif-
changing throughout the year, and it is therefore ference of the maximum values M = f (c), and
a variable. minimum m = f (d) of the function on that inter-
In the function y = f ( x ), the independent vari- val.
able is the variable into which we substitute the
values, usually x. On the other hand, the depen- y
dent variable is the value that the function takes, M
usually y. f (a)
In mathematics, variable quantities are repre-
sented by literals, generally using the last ones
of the alphabet (s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z). y = f (x)
Variance The variance of a random variable X is a f (b)
measure of the dispersion of the values that the
m
variable presents and is calculated as the average
of the squared deviations from the mean. x
a c d b
h i
σ2 = Var( X ) = E ( X − µ)2
The variation of y = f ( x ) in the interval [ a, b] is
By the properties of the expected value, M − m.
h i Variation of parameters A method to solve non-
Var( X ) = E ( X − µ)2 homogeneous second-order linear differential
h i equations
= E X 2 − 2 µ X + µ2
h i h i y′′ + p( x ) y′ + q( x ) y = g( x )
= E X 2 + E [−2 µ X ] + E µ2
h i where p, g and q are continuous functions of x. If
= E X 2 − 2 µ E [ X ] + µ2 the solution of the corresponding homogeneous
h i differential equation is known,
= E X 2 − 2 µ2 + µ2
h i yH ( x ) = c1 y1 ( x ) + c2 y2 ( x )
= E ( X )2 − µ2
the method consists in considering the arbitrary
constants c1 and c2 as continuous functions u1 ( x )
Read also «Moment about the mean», «Sample vari- and u2 ( x ), and to compute these functions so that
ance», «Population variance», and «Standard devia- the function:
tion».
y ( x ) = u1 y1 ( x ) + u2 y2 ( x )
Variance analysis Statistical test to analyze the dif-
ference between the means of two populations. be a solution of the non-homogeneous differential
Analysis of variance is used to (statistically) con- equation. To simplify the procedure, a very par-
firm an explanation based on measured data. ticular consideration is made, which is mentioned
It is a commonly used method for statistical infer- below.
ence aimed at comparing several samples. To solve the nonhomogeneous differential equa-
The analysis of variance is also known as tion, we must calculate the first two derivatives of
«ANOVA». y ( x ):
V Variation (1.) Change undergone by a variable. It y′ ( x ) = u1′ ( x ) y1 ( x ) + u1 ( x ) y1′ ( x )
is usually denoted by prefixing the variable with +u2′ ( x ) y2 ( x ) + u2 ( x ) y2′ ( x )
550
Varignon parallelogram–Vector
Here, to simplify the procedure, avoiding the ap- Read also «Varignon’s theorem».
pearance of second derivatives of the functions
u1 ( x ) and u2 ( x ), consider: Varignon’s theorem In any quadrilateral, the mid-
points of the sides are vertices of a parallelogram
u1′ ( x ) y1 ( x ) + u2′ ( x ) y2 ( x ) = 0 whose area is half the original quadrilateral.
so that:
C
y′ ( x ) = u1 ( x ) y1′ ( x ) + u2 ( x ) y2′ ( x ). R
D
Considering the second derivative of y( x ),
P Q
y′′ ( x ) = u1′ ( x ) y1′ ( x ) + u1 ( x ) y1′′ ( x )
+u2′ ( x ) y2′ ( x ) + u2 ( x ) y2′′ ( x )
A
S
And substituting and y′ y′′
in the differential B
equation, it is obtained after simplifying:
u1′ ( x ) y1′ ( x ) + u2′ ( x ) y2′ ( x ) = g( x ) In the figure above, the points P, Q, R, S are the
midpoints of the sides of quadrilateral ABCD, re-
The above equation and the consideration made:
spectively. The quadrilateral PRQS is a parallelo-
u1′ ( x ) y1 ( x ) + u2′ ( x ) y2 ( x ) = 0 gram.
form an algebraic system of equations in which Vector A n−tuple of ordered values.
u1′ ( x ) and u2′ ( x ) are the unknowns. Once this
system of equations has been solved, it is pos- ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ⟩
sible to calculate u1 ( x ) and u2 ( x ) directly by in-
tegration or using some method of solving first- where v1 , v2 , · · · , vn are the components of the
order differential equations. The solution ob- vector and n is its dimension.
tained from the non-homogeneous part of the dif- Some authors define the vector as a directed line
ferential equation is: segment because for n = 2, or n = 3, the vec-
tor can be represented as a directed line segment
yNH ( x ) = u1 ( x ) y1 ( x ) + u2 ( x ) y2 ( x ) (similar to an arrow) that goes from the origin to
The particular solution of the non-homogeneous the point with coordinates equal to the compo-
differential equation is the sum of the solution of nents of the vector.
the homogeneous equation plus the solution of
the non-homogeneous part: y
y p ( x ) = yH ( x ) + yNH
= c1 y1 ( x ) + c2 y2 ( x ) v2
⟩
+ u1 ( x ) y1 ( x ) + u2 ( x ) y2 ( x ) , v2
⟨ v 1
Read also «Method of undetermined coefficients». ⃗v =
Varignon parallelogram Given any quadrilateral θ
x
lying in a plane, the Varignon parallelogram is the v1
quadrilateral whose vertices are at the midpoints
of the given initial quadrilateral. The starting point of the vector is at the origin
and the ending point is at the point with coordi-
C nates (v1 , v2 ). The starting point of a vector is also
R
D known as its point of application.
The direction of the vector of dimension n = 2
Q can be defined for any non-zero vector, as the an-
P gle it makes with the horizontal axis and it is:
θ = arctan(v2 /v1 ).
The zero vector ⃗0 = ⟨0, 0⟩ has no defined direc-
V
A S B tion and its magnitude is zero.
551
Vector
Read also «Zero vector». Note that ⃗v + (⃗u − ⃗v) = ⃗u.
When the initial point of the vector is A( x A , y A ) The multiplication of the vector ⃗u by the scalar c
and its end point is B( x B , y B ), the vector is de- is:
noted by:
c ⃗u = ⟨c u1 , c u2 , c u3 ⟩
−→
AB = ⟨ x B − x A , y B − y A ⟩
The magnitude of the vector (or its length), de- Note that:
noted as ∥⃗v∥, is: q
q ∥c ⃗u∥ = c2 u21 + c2 u22 + · · · + c2 u2n
∥⃗v∥ = v21 + v22 + · · · + v2n q
= c u21 + u22 + · · · + u2n = c ∥⃗u∥
The vectors ⃗u = ⟨u1 , u2 , · · · , un ⟩, and ⃗v =
⟨v1 , v2 , · · · , vn ⟩ are equal, if and only if their cor-
responding components are equal: u1 = v1 , u2 = That is, if a vector ⃗u is multiplied by a scalar c, the
v2 , · · · , u n = v n . result is another vector with the same direction as
Let ⃗u = ⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩, and ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩ be two ⃗u, whose magnitude is c times the magnitude of
vectors. Then, ⃗u + ⃗v is: ⃗u. Both vectors ⃗u and c ⃗u point in the same direc-
tion if c > 0 and point in opposite directions if
⃗u + ⃗v = ⟨u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 ⟩ c < 0.
The result of the addition of two vectors is repre-
sented geometrically as the diagonal of the paral-
z
lelogram whose sides are the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v.
z c ~u
~v
~u
y
~u + ~v
y x
~u The dot product of the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v is:
x
The difference ⃗u − ⃗v is:
⃗u · ⃗v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
⃗u − ⃗v = ⟨u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 , u3 − v3 ⟩ The result of this operation is a scalar that is equal
Geometrically, the difference of the vectors is the to:
vector that has its initial point at the terminal
⃗u · ⃗v = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ cos(θ )
point of ⃗v and its terminal point at the terminal
point of ⃗u.
where θ is the smallest angle formed between the
z vectors ⃗u and ⃗v.
Read also «Dot product».
~u − ~v From this, the acute angle θ formed by the non-
~u
zero vectors ⃗u = ⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩, and ⃗v = ⟨v1 , v2 , v3 ⟩,
is:
~v ~u − ~v
⃗u · ⃗v
y cos(θ ) =
∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥
V = q
u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
q
x u1 + u22 + u23 v21 + v22 + v23
2
552
Vector
z z
~v
~u
)
(θ
θ
sin
~v
k
θ
k~v
y
y ~u
x
x
A mnemonic to remember the definition of the
cross product of two vectors is as follows:
Observe that if ⃗u is perpendicular to ⃗v, then
⃗u · ⃗v = 0. Also, ı̂ ȷ̂ k̂
⃗u × ⃗v = u1 u2 u3
⃗u · ⃗u = u21 + u22 + u23 = ∥⃗u∥2 v1 v2 v3
And from the above,
The cross product of the vectors ⃗u and ⃗v is:
s
2 2 2
u2 u3 u3 u1 u1 u2
⃗u × ⃗v = ⟨u2 v3 − u3 v2 , u3 v1 − u1 v3 , u1 v2 − u2 v1 ⟩ A= + +
v2 v3 v3 v1 v1 v2
The result of the cross product is a vector that is where A = ∥⃗u × ⃗v∥ = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ sin(θ ).
perpendicular to both ⃗u and ⃗v. Considering these definitions for operations us-
⃗ ∈ V , and for any scalars
ing vectors, for all ⃗u, ⃗v, w
a, b ∈ R, the following properties are satisfied.
z
• ⃗u + ⃗0 = ⃗u
~u × ~v
• 0 ⃗u = ⃗0
• a⃗0 = ⃗0
• If a ⃗u = 0, either, a = 0, or, ⃗u = ⃗0
• −1 ⃗u = −⃗u
~u • ⃗u + ⃗v = ⃗v + ⃗u
• (⃗u + ⃗v) + w
⃗ = ⃗u + (⃗v + w
⃗)
y • a (⃗u + ⃗v) = a ⃗u + a ⃗v
• ( a + b) ⃗u = a ⃗u + b ⃗u
• ( a b) ⃗u = a (b ⃗u)
x ~v where 0 ∈ R and ⃗0 is the zero vector, whose com-
ponents are all zero.
For two-dimensional or three-dimensional vec-
The magnitude of ⃗u × ⃗v may be computed using: tors the following notation is also used
∥⃗u × ⃗v∥ = ∥⃗u∥ ∥⃗v∥ sin(θ ) ⃗u = a ı̂ + b ȷ̂ + c k̂
to represent the vector ⃗u = ⟨ a, b, c⟩, where
This result is numerically equal to the area of the
parallelogram whose sides are the vectors ⃗u and ı̂ = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩, ȷ̂ = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ and k̂ = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩
⃗v, where ∥⃗u∥ is the length of the base of the paral-
lelogram and ∥⃗v∥ sin(θ ) is its height, being θ the are unit vectors on the coordinate axes x, y and z,
V
angle formed by ⃗u and ⃗v. respectively.
553
Vector analysis–Vector function
2 Vector field A vector field is a function ⃗F ( x, y, z)
that associates a vector to each point P( x, y, z) of
the space through:
1
⃗F ( x, y, z) = M ı̂ + N ȷ̂ + P k̂
k̂
−1
−1 where M, N and P are functions of x, y, z, and cor-
ı̂ ̂ respond to the components of ⃗F in the directions
1
1 y of the axes x, y, and z.
2
For example, if M( x, y) = y2 − 0.25 x, N ( x, y) =
2 x2 − y, and P( x, y) = 0, then:
x
The notation ( a, b) is used for a point in the plane, ⃗F ( x, y) = y2 − x ı̂ + x2 − y ȷ̂
while ⟨ a, b⟩ is used for a vector. In this way the 4
notation indicates whether an object is a point or Note that the component in the direction of the
a vector. Depending on the author, a vector can z axis is zero, which indicates that this field has
be represented by ⃗v, v. components only in the direction of the x and y
If the components of the vector are written along axes. Its graphical representation is shown in the
a row, it is called row vector, but if written in col- following figure, where (for reasons of space) the
umn form it is called column vector. magnitude of each vector has been scaled to one
⟨⟩
v1 tenth.
v2
⃗v = .
.. y
F~ (x, y) = M ı̂ + N ̂
vn
Sometimes it is convenient to consider the row
vector of dimension n as a matrix of 1 × n, and
the column vector of dimension n as a matrix of
n × 1.
Read also «Matrix», «Linear transformation», and
1
«Change of base».
Vector analysis Application of the ideas of mathe- x
matical analysis to vector functions, scalar fields −1 1
and vector fields. The operations used to study
these mathematical objects are divergence, gradi- −1
ent, rotational, and Laplacian.
Vector analysis is also known as vector calculus.
Read also «Divergence», «Gradient», «Rotational»,
«Laplacian operator», and «Vector field».
Vector equation Equation of the form:
c1⃗v1 + c2⃗v2 + · · · + cn⃗vn = ⃗b Vector function A vector function is a function of
where ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn are vectors, and c1 , c2 , · · · , cn the form:
are scalars.
If the vector ⃗b can be generated as a linear combi- ⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
nation of the vectors ⃗v1 , ⃗v2 , · · · , ⃗vn , then the equa-
tion has a solution. Such solution can be com- where t is a parameter (t ∈ R), x (t), y(t) and z(t)
puted by means of the system of equations repre- are functions of a real variable t, ı̂, ȷ̂ and k̂ are the
V sented by the augmented matrix below:
h i
unit vectors on the coordinate axes x, y, z, respec-
tively, and ⃗r is a vector whose components at t are
⃗v1 ⃗v2 · · · ⃗vn | ⃗b x (t), y(t) and z(t).
554
Vector integral–Vector space
z If ⃗R(t) is a vector function suc that ⃗R′ (t) = ⃗r (t),
then, ⃗R(t) is an antiderivative of ⃗r (t). In mathe-
matical notation,
Z
~
r(t) ⃗r (t) dt = ⃗R(t) +⃗c
~r(t)
1
where ⃗c is an arbitrary constant vector.
−1 −1 If ⃗R(t) is an antiderivative of ⃗r (t), then,
y
1 1
Zb
x
⃗r (t) dt = ⃗R(b) − ⃗R( a)
a
The vector function ⃗r (t) is continuous at t = a, if
and only if, Read also «Antiderivative».
lim ⃗r (t) = ⃗r ( a)
x→a Vector integral Given the vector function:
For ⃗r (t) to be continuous at t = a it is required
that x (t), y(t) and z(t) be continuous at t = a.
⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
The derivative of the vector function ⃗r (t), is: where x (t), y(t), z(t), are continuous scalar func-
⃗r (t + ∆t) −⃗r (t) tions on the interval ( a, b), the (vector) indefinite
⃗r ′ (t) = lim integral of ⃗r (t) is the vector function:
∆t→0 ∆t
= x ′ (t) ı̂ + y′ (t) ȷ̂ + z′ (t) k̂ ⃗ = X (t) ı̂ + Y (t) ȷ̂ + Z (t) k̂
⃗R(t) + C
z where X ′ (t) = x (t), Y ′ (t) = y(t), and Z ′ (t) =
⃗ is a constant vector.
z(t), and C
~
r(t) If there is a vector function ⃗R that satisfies the
above, then ⃗r is said to be integrable.
∆
~r The (vector) definite integral of ⃗r (t) is:
∆t)
Zb
~r(t +
⃗r (t) · dt = ⃗R(b) − ⃗R( a)
)
~r(t
= X (t)|ba ı̂ + Y (t)|ba ȷ̂ + Z (t)|ba k̂
where a and b are the limits of integration.
1 Read also «Vector function» and «Definite integral».
−1 −1
y Vector product Synonym of the cross product.
x 1 1
Read also «Cross product».
Vector space A vector space V is a set whose ele-
If ⃗r (t) and ⃗s(t) are two differentiable vector func-
ments are vectors {⃗u, ⃗v, w⃗ , · · · }, for which the op-
tions, f (t) a differentiable scalar function, and c
erations of addition (of vectors, ⃗u + ⃗v) and scalar
an arbitrary constant, then,
multiplication (multiplication of a scalar by a vec-
d tor, a ⃗u) are defined satisfying the following prop-
• [⃗r (t) +⃗s(t)] = ⃗r ′ (t) +⃗s′ (t)
dt erties.
d
• [c⃗r (t)] = c⃗r ′ (t) i. For any ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ V , ⃗u + ⃗v ∈ V .
dt
d ii. If ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ V , then,
• [ f (t)⃗r (t)] = f ′ (t)⃗r (t) + f (t)⃗r ′ (t)
dt ⃗u + ⃗v = ⃗v + ⃗u
d ′ ′
•
dt
d
[⃗r (t) ·⃗s(t)] = ⃗r (t) ·⃗s(t) +⃗r (t) ·⃗s (t)
⃗ ∈ V,
iii. For any ⃗u, ⃗v, w V
′ ′
• [⃗r (t) ×⃗s(t)] = ⃗r (t) ×⃗s(t) +⃗r (t) ×⃗s (t) (⃗u + ⃗v) + w
⃗ = ⃗u + (⃗v + w
⃗)
dt
555
Vector subspace–Venn diagram
iv. There exists a vector ⃗0 ∈ V , such that for any is a set of vectors that serve as the description of
⃗u ∈ V , the magnitude of some variable quantity that is
⃗u + ⃗0 = ⃗0 + ⃗u = ⃗u measured to explain some phenomenon.
Read also «Vector field».
v. If ⃗u ∈ V , there exists a vector −⃗u, such that
⃗u + (−⃗u) = ⃗0 Velocity Vector whose magnitude is equal to the
speed of an object and the direction indicates (to-
vi. If ⃗u ∈ V , and a is a scalar, then, a ⃗u ∈ V . wards) where the motion is made for each instant
vii. If ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ V , and a is a scalar, then, t.
Given the position vector function ⃗r (t),
a (⃗u + ⃗v) = a ⃗u + a ⃗v
viii. If ⃗u ∈ V , and a, b are scalars, then, ⃗r (t) = x (t) ı̂ + y(t) ȷ̂ + z(t) k̂
( a + b) ⃗u = a ⃗u + b ⃗u where x (t), y(t) and z(t) are the components of
the position vector ⃗r (t) in the directions of the co-
ix. If ⃗u ∈ V , and a, b are scalars, then, ordinate axes, and ı̂, ȷ̂, and k̂ are the unit vectors in
a (b ⃗u) = a b ⃗u those directions, the instantaneous velocity vector
⃗v(t) is defined as the derivative of the function
x. For each vector ⃗u ∈ V , 1 ⃗u = ⃗u. ⃗r (t).
The set V = {0}, consisting of a unique el- d⃗r (t) ⃗r (t + ∆t) −⃗r (t)
ement, being the number (scalar) zero, is fre- ⃗v(t) = = lim
dt ∆t→0 ∆t
quently called the trivial vector space.
dx dy dz
It is also the trivial vector space to the vector space = ı̂ + ȷ̂ + k̂
dt dt dt
consisting in the set {⃗0}, whose unique element
is the zero vector.
To mention some examples of vector spaces, any z
set of points lying on some line that passes
through the origin is a vector space. ~v (t)
Similarly, the set of points that lies in any plane
passing through the origin is a vector space. ~a(t)
Another example of a vector space is the set of all ~r(t)
t)
polynomials with real coefficients of finite degree 1
~r(
less than or equal to n.
Vector subspace A non-empty set H of the vector −1 −1
space V is a subspace of V if the following prop- 1 y
1
erties hold.
x
i. If ⃗u, ⃗v ∈ H, then ⃗u + ⃗v ∈ H.
ii. If ⃗u ∈ H, then for any scalar a, a ⃗u ∈ H.
The velocity vector is a tangent vector to the path
Every vector subspace contains the vector ⃗0. In ⃗r (t).
the same way, every vector space V is a vector The instantaneous velocity of a particle at the in-
subspace of itself. stant t is a vector that indicates the speed and the
If H1 and H2 are two subspaces of the same vec- direction in which said particle will move if at
tor space, then H1 ∩ H2 is another vector sub- that instant all the forces acting on it cease to act.
space of V . Read also «Speed».
Vectorial Related to vectors.
For example, when in physics we speak of a vec- Venn diagram Diagram used to denote sets and
V torial (abstract) object we are meaning an object
whose nature is a vector.
the operations between them.
The Venn diagram corresponding to the union of
A vector field, for example, as a vectorial object the sets A and B is shown below.
556
Ventile–Vertical angles
A B Read also «Disjoint sets».
Ventile Ventiles are values that divide the data of
a distribution in increasing order into 20 parts, of
approximately the same number of data.
Read also «p−quantile» and «Decile».
A∪B Vercosine Trigonometric function denoted by
vercosin( x ), and defined by
The Venn diagram corresponding to the intersec-
vercosin( x ) = 1 + cos( x )
tion of the sets A and B is shown below.
The vercosine function is deprecated.
A B
Versine Trigonometric function denoted by
versin( x ), and defined by
versin( x ) = 1 − cos( x )
y
A∩B
The Venn diagram corresponding to the comple- 1
ment of the set A is shown below.
θ 1
A0 x
cos(θ) versin(θ)
The Venn diagram corresponding to the differ-
ence of the sets A and B is shown below. The versine function is deprecated.
A B Vertex Point of a geometric figure where two of its
sides or several (three or more) edges intersect.
Vertex
A−B
The Venn diagram corresponding to two disjoint
sets A and B (A ∩ B = ∅), is shown below.
Some figures that have vertices are polygons,
A B some of the conics (ellipse, parabola and hyper-
bola), polyhedra, etc.
Read also «Polygon» and «Polyehdron».
Vertical angles Two angles are vertical angles if the
prolongation of the sides of one are the sides of
V
A∩B the other.
557
Vertical bar–Viète’s formula
Since the graph shown is never cut by a vertical
line at two or more points, it corresponds to the
graph of a function.
x α
β Vieta’s formulas Given the quadratic equation:
a x2 + b x + c = 0, its roots r1 and r2 satisfy:
b c
r1 + r2 = − y r1 · r2 =
a a
The vertical angles (α and β) are congruent. For the case of the cubic equation:
Since α + x = 180◦ , and also β + x = 180◦ , it fol-
lows: a x3 + b x2 + c x + d = 0
α = 180◦ − x = β
its roots r1 , r2 and r3 satisfy:
What was to be shown.
Vertical angles are also known as vertical opposite
b
angles. r1 + r2 + r3 = −
a
Vertical bar Mathematical symbol consisting of a c
r1 · r2 + r1 · r3 + r2 · r3 =
vertical line (|) used to denote absolute value, a
(| − 5| = 5), to indicate the evaluation of a func- d
r1 · r2 · r3 = −
tion at a point a
ln( x ) ln(5)
=
x 5 5
Viète’s formula A formula to compute the value
to indicate an augmented matrix or a determi-
p q p
nant, √ √ √
2 2 2+ 2 2+ 2+ 2
= · · ···
7 5 π 2 2 2
= (7)(3) − (5)(1) = 21 − 5 = 16 ∞ π
1 3
= ∏ cos n+1
n =1 2
and in propositional logic as a constant that is
read as: such that, or that satisfy.
For example, This formula geometrically represents the ratios
of areas of inscribed regular polygons with num-
∃ x ∈ N | x2 + 1 = 50 ber of sides 2n and 2n+1 respectively, in a unit
circle, starting at n = 2.
is read: there exist a natural number x that satisfy:
x2 + 1 = 50.
Vertical line test Criterion to verify if a graph cor-
responds to a function. For this, vertical lines are
drawn along the graph. If at least one vertical
line intersects the graph at two or more points,
then the graph does not correspond to that of a
function.
x
V
558
Vinculum–Viviani’s theorem
Vinculum A mathematical symbol consisting of a b a
horizontal line written above a mathematical ex-
pression and used to indicate that the expression a
is considered to be an entity.
For example, AB is used to indicate the segment
whose endpoints are at points A and B. b
Similarly, it is used in some cases with some
known standard meaning in mathematics. c2
For example, to represent a fraction in decimal
notation, b
1
= 0.16 a b
6
Read also «Perigal dissection».
the symbol 6 indicates that the digit 6 is repeated
infinitely many times. This is equivalent to writ-
Viviani’s curve Curve obtained as the intersection
ing: 0.166666 · · · .
of a sphere with a circular right cylinder that is
tangent to the sphere and that passes through its
center.
The parametric equations of this curve on a
sphere of radius r are:
Visual proof Proof through a figure that illustrates
a mathematical theorem. x (t) = r cos2 (t)
The visual demonstration uses only figures, and, y(t) = r cos(t) sin(t)
in general, it is not considered rigorous, and it is z(t) = r sin(t)
not a widely accepted either. It only serves edu-
cational or outreach purposes.
For example, a visual proof of the Pythagorean
theorem is shown below.
b b2
Viviani’s theorem Given an equilateral triangle
△ ABC in the plane and a point P inside the trian-
gle, the sum of the perpendicular distances from
P to the sides of the triangle is equal to the height
of the triangle.
a a2
In the following figure, the sum r + s + t is equal
to the length of the height of the equilateral trian-
V
a b
gle △ ABC.
559
Volume–Volume integral
C C
s r P
P
A B A B
Build equilateral triangles with vertex at P, such From this figure, it is evident that the sum of the
that each one has on of its sides upon one of the perpendicular distances from the point P to the
side of the triangle △ ABC. sides of the equilateral triangle △ ABC is equal to
the length of its height.
C Volume Portion of space occupied by a body. Its
units are measured in liters, or cubic units of
length, such as cubic centimeter (cm3 ).
If volume is calculated as the product of three
P lengths, the lengths are assumed to be in the same
unit.
The unit for volume in the International System
of Units is the cubic meter (m3 ).
Bodies in 3 dimensions (whose volume is
nonzero) have length, height, and width (where
A B none of these is zero).
z
Clockwise, rotate 120 degrees the equilateral tri-
angle with one of its sides upon the segment AC,
to get the following figure.
Height
C
y
x
Length th
Wid
P
Read also «Cuboid» and «Solid of revolution».
Volume integral Triple integral of the form:
y
A B f ( x, y, z) · dV
Q
Now, conterclockwise rotate 120 degrees the equi- where dV = dx · dy · dz is a differential of volume,
V lateral triangle with vertex at C and whose base
is the segment passing through the point P. With
Q is the region of three-dimensional space where
the integral is calculated, and f ( x, y, z) is a func-
this, the following figure is obtained. tion defined for every point in Q.
560
Volume integral
z = f (x, y) The differential of volume can be written in other
coordinate systems, such as spherical or cylindri-
cal coordinates.
Read also «Differential of volume» and «Triple inte-
gral».
dV
a c d
y
b
R
x
V
561
V
562
W
Wallace-Simson line If from a point P perpendic- Wallis product Product used to calculate the value
ulars are drawn to the sides (or their extensions, of π as the product of infinitely many factors such
if necessary) of a triangle that is in the plane, as:
the feet of the perpendiculars are collinear, if and
only if, the point P is in the circumcircle of the ∞ ∞
π 4 n2 2n 2n
triangle. =∏ 2
=∏ ·
2 n =1 4 n − 1 n =1
2n−1 2n+1
C
Read also «Leibniz formula» (Geometry).
P
Wedge Polyhedron formed by two triangles and
three trapezoids. It also has 5 faces, 9 edges and
B 6 vertices.
If the feet of the perpendiculars to the sides of the
triangle are colinear, the line that passes through
them is the Wallace-Simson line.
Wallis’ number The Wallis’ number is the only
root of the equation:
x3 − 2 x − 5 = 0
Read also «Trapezoid» and «Polyhedron».
The approximate value of said root is:
x ≈ 2.0945514815423265914823865405793030
The cubic equation x3 − 2 x − 5 = 0 was used Weierstrass’ theorem If the function y = f ( x ) is
by John Wallis to exemplify the use of Newton’s continuous in the finite and closed interval [ a, b],
method. The root he obtained was evidently then y = f ( x ) has an absolute maximum M and
x ≈ 2.09455. an absolute minimum m in [ a, b].
Weighted arithmetic mean–Wilson’s theorem
y an expression whose definition is made in such a
M = f (c) way that its interpretation is unique.
A = f (a) For example, a set is well-defined if it is possible
to determine whether or not any particular object
(concrete or abstract) is an element of that set.
y = f (x)
If the expression or the object is not well-defined,
it is said to be an ambiguous object or an ambigu-
B = f (b) ous or ill-defined expression.
m = f (d) It is worth mentioning that ill-defined does not
mean
√ undefined. For example, the function y =
x x is undefined for x < 0 (for negative values of
a c d b
the argument of the function, it returns no values
for the dependent variable). This does not mean
In the figure shown, at the point x = c the func- that such a function is ambiguous or ill-defined.
tion has an absolute maximum in [ a, b], and at
x = d the function has an absolute minimum in
[ a, b]. Well ordered set Non-empty set, fully ordered, so
that any subset has a minimum element in that
Weighted arithmetic mean The weighted arith- ordering.
metic mean of the values x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , with Read also «Total order».
weights w1 , w2 , · · · , wn , respectively, is:
Well-ordering principle The well-ordering princi-
w1 x 1 + w2 x 2 + · · · + w n x n ple claims that a (nonempty, finite-cardinality)
xp =
w1 + w2 + · · · + w n subset of an ordered set contains an element that
is the least of all.
For example, suppose that you buy 3 kg of For example, the set {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} has an element
tomato, each kilogram at $12.00, 7 kg of onion, that is the smallest of all (0).
each kilogram at $8.00 and 5 kg of potatoes, each
kilogram at $14.00. The average price per kilo- Whitney umbrella Ruled surface whose paramet-
gram of what has been purchased is calculated ric equations are:
with the weighted average, and in this case it is:
x (u, v) = u · v
(3)(12) + (7)(8) + (5)(14) y(u, v) = u
xp =
3+7+5 z(u, v) = v2
162
= = 10.8
15
z
In this case the weighted average represents the
price per kilogram of all items. For this rea-
son, the total number of kilograms purchased (the
sum of the kilograms of each product) is written
in the denominator.
If the sum of the prices is considered in the de-
nominator, the result is the weighted average that x y
represents the number of kilograms purchased
for each dollar invested, considering all the prod-
ucts purchased. In rectangular coordinates, its equation is:
The weighted average is also known as weighted
mean. x 2 − y2 z = 0
The formula for calculating the weighted mean is The Whitney umbrella is an example of a conoid.
the same as the one used to calculate the mean Read also «Conoid» and «Ruled surface».
with grouped data.
Wilson’s theorem A positive integer p is a prime
Well-defined In mathematics, a mathematical ob- number if and only if,
ject is well-defined if it does not give rise to am-
W biguities. Similarly, a well-defined expression is ( p − 1)! ≡ −1 mod p
564
Wronskian determinant
In words, if 1 is added to the product of all inte- Wronskian determinant is:
gers from 1 to p − 1, and a multiple of p is ob-
tained, then p is a prime number, and vice versa. y1 y2 ··· yn
It is known that Leibniz proved this theorem in y1′ y2′ ··· y′n
W [ y1 , · · · , y n ] = .. .. .. ..
the year 1682, but it has been attributed to John . . . .
Wilson since 1770. ( n −1) ( n −1) ( n −1)
y1 y2 ··· yn
where all functions and their respective succes-
Wronskian determinant Given the homogeneous sive derivatives are evaluated at t0 .
linear differential equation of order n, If this determinant is nonzero, then there exists a
set of n different solutions y1 (t), y2 (t), · · · , yn (t),
of the given differential equation.
a0 (t) y + a1 (t) y′ + a2 (t) y′′ + · · · + an (t) y(n) = 0
A set of solutions y1 (t), y2 (t), · · · , yn (t), for which
the wronskian determinant is nonzero, is a fun-
if y1 (t), y2 (t), · · · , yn (t) are n different solutions damental set of solutions of the given differential
of the differential equation, the corresponding equation.
W
565
W
566
X
x (Arithmetic) Letter (X) that represents the num- Read also «Function».
ber 10 in Roman numerals. (2.) Letter used to represent the name of the first
(Algebra) Letter frequently used in algebra to axis of the Cartesian coordinate system in two
represent an unknown or a variable. and three dimensions.
In calculus, variables are represented by the last
letters of the alphabet (s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z), while z
constants are represented using the first letters of
the alphabet (a, b, c, d, e, etc.) 2
Depending on the context, the letter r can be con-
sidered a constant (for example, when it repre-
sents the radius of a circle that is not changing 1
size) or as a variable (for example, when it repre-
sents the distance from the origin to a point that −1
is moves in space). −1
(Analytic geometry) (1.) When considering the
function y = f ( x ), the letter x represents the in- 1
1 y
dependent variable, while y represents the depen- 2
dent variable. 2
x
X 568
Y
y (1.) When considering the function y = f ( x ), the z
letter y represents the dependent variable, while
x represents the independent variable. 2
Read also «Function».
In a function of two variables z = f ( x, y), both x
and y are considered independent variables while 1
z is the dependent variable. In this case it is as-
sumed that there is no relationship between the −1
variables x and y. That is, they are independent −1
one of the other.
(2.) Letter used to represent the name of the sec- 1
1 y
ond axis of the Cartesian coordinate system in 2
two and three dimensions. 2
x
Year One year is the time it takes for the earth to
go around the Sun in its translational motion and
is approximately 365.2425 days.
The calendar year (of 365 days) is divided into 12
months.
For calculations in financial mathematics, the year
is considered to have 365 days.
570
Y
Z
Z The set of integers is defined as the natural num- z
bers, zero, and the natural numbers with a nega-
tive sign. 1
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }
An integer is any element of the set of integers. −1 0 −1 y
All natural numbers are also integer numbers. 1 1
x
The integer numbers are also known as whole
numbers.
Read also «Natural number». Z transform (1.) The two-sided transform Z of a
discrete time signal x [n] is:
Z Letter that is used to represent the name of the ∞
third axis of the Cartesian coordinate system and X (z) = Z { x [n]} = ∑ x [ n ] z−n
n=−∞
is used to extend 2-dimensional space (the xy
plane) to 3-dimensional space (xyz). where n is an integer number and
z = A eiϕ = A (cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ))
z √
where i = −1.
(2.) The one-sided transform Z of a discrete-time
2 signal x [n] is:
∞
1
X (z) = Z { x [n]} = ∑ x [ n ] z−n
n =0
where n is an integer number and
−1
−1 z = A eiϕ = A (cos(ϕ) + i sin(ϕ))
√
1 where i = −1.
1 y
2
z−value The z−value of a datum x represents the
2 number of standard deviations σ that x is away
x
from the mean µ, and is calculated with:
x−µ
In a function of two variables z = f ( x, y), both x z=
σ
and y are considered independent variables while
From this definition, it follows that:
z is the dependent variable.
x = µ+zσ
Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory–Zero
That is, to calculate the value of x that corre- i. a + 0 = a.
sponds to a given value of z, z is multiplied by the ii. a − 0 = a.
standard deviation σ, and the mean µ is added to
this result. iii. a + (− a) = 0.
iv. a · 0 = 0.
Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory Set theory based on
the following axioms. v. 0/a = 0, { a , 0}.
vi. a0 = 1, { a , 0}.
• Extensionality axiom: Two sets are equal if
they have the same elements. vii. 0a = 0, { a , 0}.
• Regularity axiom: Every non-empty set X where a is any real number.
contains a member Y so that X and Y are Properties (i) and (ii) are the property of the addi-
disjoint sets. tive neutral whereas property (iii) is the property
• Separation axiom: If P is a property and X is of the additive inverse of real numbers.
a set, then there exists a set Y: Regarding property (iv), to justify that a · 0 = 0 for
every real number, consider that a · 0 = a · (0 + 0)
Y = { x ∈ X : x satisfies the property P} because x + 0 = x for all x ∈ R, and also
a · 0 = a · 0 + 0 (by said axiom.) Therefore, ap-
• Axiom of pairing: If X and Y are sets, then
plying the distributive law,
there exists a set of which X and Y are ele-
ments. a · (0 + 0) = a · 0 + 0
• Axiom of union: the union over the elements a·0+a·0=a·0+0
of a set exists.
• Axiom schema of replacement: if f is a func- Comparing the expressions on both sides of the
tion with domain X, then f ( x ) (the image of equality, necessarily a · 0 = 0.
x) where x ∈ X is a subset of some set Y. Property (v) is justified by considering that
• Axiom of infinity: there exists a set I such 0 1
that ∅ ∈ I, and such that if X ∈ I, then the = 0· = 0
a a
set X ∪ { X } is also an element of I.
• Axiom of power set: for every set X there is by property (iv).
a set Y that contains every subset of X. To justify property (vi) observe that for all a , 0,
• Well-ordering theorem: for each set X there 1 a
exists a binary relation R such that each non- a 0 = a 1−1 = a 1 · a −1 = a · = = 1.
a a
empty subset X has an element that is the
minimum according to R. Property (vii) is justified using the definition of
multiplication as repeated addition.
Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel proposed Division by zero is undefined. For the sake of ar-
this set of axioms as the basis for a paradox-free gument, if k , 0 is some real number, and we look
axiomatic set theory. for a finite real value x such that
Zero Number denoted by the symbol 0, which k
represents the quantization of something null or =x
0
void.
For example, the cardinality of the empty set is it is required that x · 0 = k. But by property (iv)
zero. for any x ∈ R, x · 0 = 0, so the equality cannot
The number zero is neither negative nor positive; hold for k , 0.
it represents the boundary between positive num- On the other hand, if k = 0,
bers and negative numbers. 0
The number zero is considered an even integer, =x
0
because when it is divided by two, a remainder
equal to zero is obtained, which indicates that does not have a unique solution, since x · 0 = 0 for
zero is divisible by 2. any x by property (iv). Thus, it is not possible to
Read also «Even number» and «Odd number». give a unique finite value for the expression k/0
Some properties of the number zero are listed be- for any k.
low. Similarly, 00 is undefined.
572
Zero function–Zero vector
In propositional logic, the symbol 0 denotes a
truth value.
Some authors consider zero as an element of the
set of natural numbers. For example, Terence Tao Zero vector Vector of dimension n whose compo-
on page 15 of his work entitled Analysis I, men- nents are all zero:
tions «In some texts the natural numbers start at 1
instead of zero, but this is a matter of notational con- ⃗0 = ⟨0, 0, · · · , 0⟩
vention, more than anything.»
Zero function The zero function is defined as: Geometrically, the zero vector is represented by a
f ( x ) = 0 for all x ∈ R. Its domain is the set of all point (the initial point and the terminal point of
real numbers and its codomain is the set {0}. this vector are the same point), so it does not have
Informally, when we give the zero function a real a definite direction.
value, it always returns 0. The graph of the zero The magnitude of the zero vector is:
function in the xy plane is the x axis.
Zero matrix Array whose elements are zero. p √
∥⃗0∥ = 02 + 02 + · · · + 02 = 0=0
0 0 ··· 0
0 0 ··· 0
It is worth mentioning that the zero vector is not
0= . . .
.. .. . . ...
equal to the number zero, even if the zero vector
0 0 ··· 0 is of dimension one.
573
574
Appendix
Formulas from the elementary algebra
Exponent rules
• x m · x n = x m+n xm
• = x m−n
xn
• ( x · y)m = x m · ym
• x0 = 1 { x , 0}
• ( x m )n = x m·n 1
• = x −m
m xm
x xm √
• = m •
n
x m = x m/n
y y
Notable products and factorization
• x (y + z) = x y + x z
• ( x + y)2 = x2 + 2 xy + y2
• ( x + y)3 = x3 + 3 x2 y + 3 xy2 + y3
• ( x + y)( x − y) = x2 − y2
• ( x + a)( x + b) = x2 + ( a + b) x + a b
• x n − y n = ( x − y ) x n −1 + x n −2 y + x n −3 y 2 + · · · + x y n −2 + y n −1
For odd n,
• x n + y n = ( x + y ) x n −1 − x n −2 y + x n −3 y 2 − · · · − x y n −2 + y n −1
Logarithms
Let a, x be positive real numbers with a > 0, a , 1. The logarithm of x in the base a is the number of times
that the number a must be multiplied by itself to get x as a result.
loga x = y ⇔ ay = x
The function y = loga x is known as the logatithmic function base a.
The following immediately follows from the definition of a logarithm:
i. loga 1 = 0, since a0 = 1 ii. loga a = 1, since a1 = a
The most basic properties of logarithms are:
i. loga (u · v) = loga u + loga v iii. loga (un ) = n loga u
u logb x
ii. loga = loga u − loga v iv. loga x =
v logb a
From the properties of logarithms it follows:
575
1
i. loga = − loga (u), since loga (1) = 0.
u
ii. loga ( a x ) = x, since a x = a x
iii. aloga ( x) = x, since y = loga ( x ) ⇒ ay = aloga ( x) = x
These three properties allow us to simplify exponential and logarithmic expressions.
One way to explain the simplification of exponential expressions is to observe that in the last two cases
the base is repeated a:
loga ( a x ) = x ⇒ loga (a x ) = x
As a mnemonic rule, we can say that the base is canceled because it is repeated.
In the following case we can apply the same principle:
log ( x )
aloga ( x) = x ⇒ a a
=x
This can help you remember how to simplify logarithmic and exponential expressions.
Elementary geometry
Figure Perimeter (P) Area (A) Volume (V)
bh
Triangle a+b+c N/A
2
Rectangle 2b+2h bh N/A
Square 4l l2 N/A
Parallelogram 2 ( a + b) bh N/A
(b1 + b2 ) h
Trapezium a+b+c+d N/A
2
Circle 2πr π r2 N/A
Prism∗ N/A AB h
Cylinder N/A 2 π r h + 2 π r2 π · r2 · h
√ AB h
Cone N/A π r r 2 + h2
3
4 π r3
Sphere N/A 4 π r2
3
* With parallel bases.
Notation:
✓ a, b, c, d ⇒ length of sides.
✓ h ⇒ height.
✓ l ⇒ length of the side of the square.
✓ b1 , b2 ⇒ length of the bases.
✓ r ⇒ radius of the circular base.
✓ Ab ⇒ area of the base.
576
Analytic geometry
Elementary formulas
Distance between two points The length D of the segment PQ being P( x p , y p ) and Q( xq , yq ), is:
q
D= ( x q − x p )2 + ( y q − y p )2
Point of division The coordinates of the point M( xm , ym ) that divides the segment PQ with P( x p , y p ) and
Q( xq , yq ), in the ratio r are:
r xq + x p r yq + y p
xm = ym =
1+r 1+r
Middle point The coordinates of the middle point M ( x̄, ȳ) of the segment PQ with P( x p , y p ) and Q( xq , yq ),
are:
xq + x p yq + y p
x̄ = ȳ =
2 2
Slope The slope m of the line that passes through the points P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ), is:
y2 − y1
m=
x2 − x1
Condition for parallelism If m1 y m2 are the slopes of the lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 , then, m1 = m2 implies ℓ1 ∥ ℓ2 .
Condition for perpendicularity If m1 and m2 are the slopes of the perpendicular lines ℓ1 and ℓ2 (i.e.,
ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2 ), then,
1
m1 = −
m2
Angle between two lines If ϕ is the angle between the lines ℓ1 , ℓ2 , with slopes m1 y m2 respectively, then,
m2 − m1
tan(ϕ) =
1 + m1 · m2
Heron’s formula The area of the triangle with sides of length a, b, c, respectively, and semiperimeter p is:
q
A= p · ( p − a)( p − b)( p − c)
Note: The semiperimeter equals half the perimeter:
a+b+c
p=
2
Equation of the straight line
Point-slope form The line that passes through the point P( x1 , y1 ) with slope m.
y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
Two points form The line that passes through the points P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ).
y2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
x2 − x1
577
Slope-y ordinate form The line with slope m that meets the y axis at B(0, b).
y = mx+b
Symmetric form The line with intersections with the axis at A( a, 0) and B(0, b).
x y
+ =1
a b
General form
Ax+By+C = 0
where A and B are not simultaneously zero.
Normal form Useful to compute the distance from one point to a given line.
A B C
√ x+ √ y+ √ =0
A2 + B2 A2 + B2 A2 + B2
Distance from one point to a line D is the distance from P( x1 , y1 ) to the line ℓ : A x + B y + C = 0.
A x1 + B y1 + C
DPℓ = √
A2 + B2
Equation of the circumference
Standard form Center at the origin and radius r.
x 2 + y2 = r 2
Standard form Center at C (h, k) and radius r.
( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 = r 2
General form
x 2 + y2 + D x + E y + F = 0
If the center of the circumference is at C (h, k) and its radius is r, then
D = −2 h
E = −2 k
F = h2 + k 2 − r 2
Equation of the parabola
Standard form Vertical parabola with vertex at the origin.
x2 = 4 py
If p > 0 the parabola is concave up. If p < 0 the parabola is concave down.
Standard form Vertical parabola with vertex at V (h, k):
( x − h )2 = 4 p ( y − k )
If p > 0 the parabola is concave up. If p < 0 the parabola is concave down.
578
Standard form Horizontal parabola with vertex at the origin.
y2 = 4 px
If p > 0 the parabola is concave towards the right. If p < 0 it’s concave towards the left.
Standard form Horizontal parabola with vertex at V (h, k).
( y − k )2 = 4 p ( x − h )
If p > 0 the parabola is concave towards the right. If p < 0 concave towards the left.
Other formulas: Parabola with vertex at V (h, k ).
Parabola Vertical Horizontal
Latus rectum 4 | p| 4 | p|
Focus F (h, k + p) F (h + p, k)
Directrix y = k−p x = h−p
General Eqn. x2 + D x + E y + F = 0 y2 + D x + E y + F = 0
D −2 h −4p
E −4 p −2 k
F h2 + 4 pk k2 + 4 ph
Equation of the ellipse
Standard form Horizontal ellipse with center at the origin.
x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
Standard form Vertical ellipse with center at the origin.
x2 y2
+ =1
b2 a2
Standard form Horizontal ellipse with center at C (h, k).
( x − h )2 ( y − k )2
+ =1
a2 b2
Standard form: Vertical ellipse with center at C (h, k ).
( x − h )2 ( y − k )2
+ =1
b2 a2
Other formulas for the ellipse center at C (h, k).
✓ Length of the major axis: 2 a.
✓ Length of the minor axis: 2 b.
✓ Distance between the foci: 2 c.
✓ Relation among a, b and c: a2 = b2 + c2 .
✓ Excentricity: e = c/a < 1
579
Ellipse Vertical Horizontal
Latus rectum 2 b2 /a 2 b2 /a
Foci F (h, k ± c) F (h ± c, k)
Vertices V (h, k ± a) F (h ± a, k)
General Eqn. A x 2 + B y2 + D x + E y + F = 0
A a2 b2
B b2 a2
D −2 a2 h −2 b2 h
E −2 b2 k −2 a2 k
F a h + b2 k 2 − a2 b2
2 2 b h + a2 k 2 − a2 b2
2 2
Equation of the hyperbola
Horizontal hyperbola with center at the origin
x2 y2
− =1
a2 b2
Vertical hyperbola with center at the origin
x2 y2
− 2
− 2 =1
a b
Horizontal hyperbola with center at C (h, k)
( x − h )2 ( y − k )2
− =1
a2 b2
Vertical hyperbola with center at C (h, k)
( x − h )2 ( y − k )2
− + =1
a2 b2
Other formulas for the hyperbola with center at C (h, k) ✓ Length of the major axis: 2 a.
✓ Length of the minor axis: 2 b.
✓ Focal distance: 2 c.
✓ Relation among a, b and c: a2 = c2 − b2 .
✓ Excentricity: e = c/a > 1.
Hyperbola Vertical Horizontal
Latus rectum 2 b2 /a 2 b2 /a
Foci F (h, k ± c) F (h ± c, k)
Vertices V (h, k ± a) F (h ± a, k)
General Eqn. A x 2 + B y2 + D x + E y + F = 0
A b2 − b2
B − a2 a2
D −2 b2 h 2 b2 h
E 2 a2 k −2 a2 k
F b h − a2 k 2 − a2 b2
2 2 − b h + a2 k 2 − a2 b2
2 2
580
Trigonometry
Definitions
y r
✓ sin(α) = ✓ csc(α) =
r y r y
x r
✓ cos(α) = ✓ sec(α) =
r x
α y x
x ✓ tan(α) = ✓ cot(α) =
x y
Reciprocal identities
1 sin(α)
1) sin(α) = 4) tan(α) =
csc(α) cos(α)
1 cos(α)
2) cos(α) = 5) cot(α) =
sec(α) sin(α)
1
3) tan(α) =
cot(α)
Properties of the trigonometric functions
1) sin(α) = cos(90o − α) 3) tan(α) = cot(90o − α) 5) csc(α) = sec(90o − α)
2) cos(α) = sin(90o − α) 4) cot(α) = tan(90o − α) 6) sec(α) = csc(90o − α)
Pythagorean trigonometric identities
1) sin2 (α) + cos2 (α) = 1 2) sec2 (α) = 1 + tan2 (α) 3) csc2 (α) = 1 + cot2 (α)
Identities for the sum and difference of angles
1) sin(α + β) = sin(α) cos( β) + sin( β) cos(α) tan(α) − tan( β)
6) tan(α − β) =
1 + tan(α) tan( β)
2) cos(α + β) = cos(α) cos( β) − sin(α) sin( β)
3) sin(α − β) = sin(α) cos( β) − sin( β) cos(α) cot(α) cot( β) − 1
7) cot(α + β) =
cot(α) + cot( β)
4) cos(α − β) = cos(α) cos( β) + sin(α) sin( β)
tan(α) + tan( β) cot(α) cot( β) + 1
5) tan(α + β) = 8) cot(α − β) =
1 − tan(α) tan( β) cot( β) − cot(α)
Sum of trigonometric functions
α+β α−β α+β α−β
1) sin(α) + sin( β) = 2 sin cos 3) cos(α) + cos( β) = 2 cos cos
2 2 2 2
α−β α+β α+β β−α
2) sin(α) − sin( β) = 2 sin cos 4) cos(α) − cos( β) = 2 sin sin
2 2 2 2
581
Laws of sines and cosines
a b c a b sin(γ)
1) = =
sin(α) sin( β) sin(γ)
2
a c sin( β)
2) a2 = b2 + c2 − 2 b c cos(α) 5) A =
2
3) b2 = a2 + c2 − 2 a c cos( β) b c sin(α)
2
4) c2 = a2 + b2 − 2 a b cos(γ)
where A is the area of the triangle with sides a, b, c.
More trigonometric identities
α
1) sin(2 α) = 2 sin(α) cos(α) 2 tan
7) tan(α) = 2
α
2) cos(2 α) = cos2 (α) − sin2 (α) 1 − tan 2
2
2 tan(α) α α
3) tan(2 α) = 8) sin(α) = 2 sin cos
1 − tan2 (α) 2 2
α α
r 9) cos(α) = cos2 − sin2
α 1 + cos(α)
4) cos = 2 2
2 2 1 1
r 10) sin(α) sin( β) = cos(α − β) − cos(α − β)
α 1 − cos(α) 2 2
5) sin =
2 2 1 1
11) cos(α) cos( β) = cos(α − β) + cos(α − β)
s 2 2
α 1 − cos(α)
6) tan = 1 1
2 1 + cos(α) 12) sin(α) cos( β) = sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
2 2
Hyperbolic identities
1) cosh2 ( x ) − sinh2 ( x ) = 1 6) tanh( x ) · coth( x ) = 1
2) sech2 ( x ) + tanh2 ( x ) = 1
sinh( x )
7) tanh( x ) =
3) coth2 ( x ) + csch2 ( x ) = 1 cosh( x )
4) sinh( x ) · csch( x ) = 1
cosh( x )
5) cosh( x ) · sech( x ) = 1 8) coth( x ) =
sinh( x )
Rules for derivatives
The rules for the derivatives of functions are given below.
dc d(u · v) dv du
i. =0 v. = u· +v
dx dx dx dx
dx d(vn ) dv
ii. =1 vi. = nvn−1 ·
dx dx dx
du dv
d(u + v) du dv d u v· −u·
iii. = + vii. = dx dx
dx dx dx dx v v2
d(c · v) dv dy dy dv
iv. = c· viii. = ·
dx dx dx dv dx
582
dy 1
ix. =
dx dx
dy
Formulas to compute the derivative of trascendente functions.
d(sin(v)) dv d(arccot(v)) −1 dv
i. = cos(v) · x. = ·
dx dx dx 1 + v2 dx
d(cos(v)) dv
ii. = − sin(v) · d(arcsec(v)) 1 dv
dx dx xi. = √ ·
dx v v − 1 dx
2
d(tan(v)) dv
iii. = sec2 (v) · d(arccsc(v)) −1 dv
dx dx
xii. = √ ·
d(cot(v)) dv dx v v − 1 dx
2
iv. = − csc2 (v) ·
dx dx
d(ln(v)) 1 dv
d(sec(v)) dv xiii. = ·
v. = sec(v) tan(v) · dx v dx
dx dx
d(loga (v)) loga e dv
d(csc(v)) dv xiv. = ·
vi. = − csc(v) cot(v) · dx v dx
dx dx
d(arcsin(v)) 1 dv d( av ) dv
vii. = √ · xv. = av ln( a) ·
dx 1 − v2 dx dx dx
d(arccos(v)) −1 dv d(ev ) dv
viii. = √ · xvi. = ev ·
dx 1 − v2 dx dx dx
d(arctan(v)) 1 dv d(uv ) dv
ix. = · xvii. = v · uv−1 + ln(u) · uv ·
dx 1 + v2 dx dx dx
Table of antiderivatives
Elementary antiderivatives
Z Z Z
1. u · dv = uv − v · du 9. csc2 (u) · du = − cot(u) + C
Z
Z
u n +1 10. sec(u) tan(u) · du = sec(u) + C
2. un · du = +C ( n , 1)
n+1 Z
Z 11. csc(u) cot(u) · du = − csc(u) + C
du
3. = ln |u| + C Z
u
Z 12. tan(u) · du = ln | sec(u)| + C
u u
4. e · du = e + C Z
13. cot(u) · du = ln | sin(u)| + C
Z
au Z
5. au · du = +C
ln( a) 14. sec(u) · du = ln | sec(u) + tan(u)| + C
Z Z
6. sin(u) · du = − cos(u) + C 15. csc(u) · du = ln | csc(u) − cot(u)| + C
Z Z u
du
7. cos(u) · du = sin(u) + C 16. √ = arcsin +C
a2 − u2 a
Z Z u
du 1
8. sec2 (u) · du = tan(u) + C 17. = arctan +C
a2 + u2 a a
583
Z u Z
du 1 du 1 u−a
18. √ = arcsec +C 20. = ln +C
u u2 − a2 a a u2 −a 2 2a u+a
Z
du 1 u+a
19. = ln +C
a2 −u 2 2 a u−a
√
Antiderivatives containing a2 + u2
Z p
u p 2 a2 p
21. a2 + u2 · du =
a + u2 + ln u + a2 + u2 + C
2 2
Z p u 2 p a4 p
22. u2 a2 + u2 · du = a + 2 u2 a2 + u2 − ln u + a2 + u2 + C
8 8
Z √ √
a2 + u2 p a + a2 + u2
23. · du = a2 + u2 − a ln +C
u u
Z √ 2 √
p
a + u2 a2 + u2
24. · du = − + ln u + a2 + u2 + C
u2 u
Z p
du
25. √ = ln u + a2 + u2 + C
a2 + u2
Z
u2 · du up 2 a2 p
26. √ = a + u2 − ln u + a2 + u2 + C
a2 + u2 2 2
Z √
du 1 a2 + u2 + a
27. √ = − ln +C
u a2 + u2 a u
Z √
du a2 + u2
28. √ =− +C
u2 a2 + u2 a2 u
Z
du u
29. = √ +C
( a2 + u2 )3/2 a2 a2 + u2
√
Antiderivatives containing a2 − u2
Z p u
up 2 a2
30. a2 − u2 · du =
a − u2 + arcsin +C
2 2 a
Z p u 2 p a4 u
31. u2 a2 − u2 · du = 2u − a2 a2 − u2 + arcsin +C
8 8 a
Z √ 2 p
√
a − u2 2 2
a + a2 − u2
32. · du = a − u − a ln +C
u u
Z √ 2 u
a − u2 1p 2
33. a − u2 − arcsin
· du = − +C
u2 u a
Z u
u2 · du up 2 a2
34. √ =− a − u2 + arcsin +C
a2 − u2 2 2 a
Z √
du 1 a + a2 − u2
35. √ · du = − ln +C
u a2 − u2 a u
584
Z
du 1 p 2
36. √ =− 2 a − u2 + C
u2 a2 − u2 a u
Z
du u
37. 3/2
= √ +C
( a2 − u2 ) a2 a2 − u2
Z 3/2 u 2 p 3a4 u
38. a2 − u2 · du = − 2u − 5a2 a2 − u2 + arcsin +C
8 8 a
√
Antiderivatives containing u2 − a2
Z p u 2 p a4 p
39. u2 2u − a2
u2 − a2 · du = u2 − a2 − ln u + u2 − a2 + C
8 8
Z p u p 2 a2 p
40. u2 − a2 · du = u − a2 − ln u + u2 − a2 + C
2 2
Z √ a
u2 − a2 p
41. · du = u2 − a2 − a arccos +C
u u
Z √ √
u2 − a2 u2 − a2 p
42. · du = − + ln u + u2 − a2 + C
u2 u
Z p
du
43. √ = ln u + u2 − a2 + C
u2 − a2
Z
u2 · du up 2 a2 p
44. √ = u − a2 + ln u + u2 − a2 + C
u2 − a2 2 2
Z √
du u2 − a2
45. √ = +C
u2 u2 − a2 a2 u
Z
du u
46. 3/2
=− √ +C
( u2 − a2 ) a2 u2 − a2
Antiderivatives containing a + b u
Z
u · du 1
47. = 2 ( a + bu − a ln | a + bu|) + C
a + bu b
Z 2 h i
u · du 1
48. = 3 + ( a + bu)2 − 4a( a + bu) + 2a2 ln | a + bu| + C
a + bu 2b
Z
du 1 u
49. = ln +C
u( a + bu) a a + bu
Z
du 1 b a + bu
50. = − + 2 ln +C
u2 ( a + bu) au a u
Z
u · du a 1
51. = 2 + ln | a + bu| + C
( a + bu)2 b ( a + bu) b2
Z
du 1 1 a + bu
52. 2
= − 2 ln +C
u( a + bu) a( a + bu) a u
Z
u2 · du 1 a2
53. = a + bu − − 2a ln | a + bu | +C
( a + bu)2 b3 a + bu
585
Z √ 2
54. u a + bu · du = (3bu − 2a)( a + bu)3/2 + C
15b2
Z √
u · du 2
55. √ = 2 (bu − 2a) a + bu + C
a + bu 3b
Z
u2 · du 2 2 2 2
√
56. √ = 8a + 3b u − 4abu a + bu + C
a + bu 15b3
√ √
1 a + bu − a
Z √ ln √
√ +C ( a > 0)
du a a + bu + a
57. √ = r
u a + bu
2 a + bu
√ arctan +C ( a < 0)
−a −a
Z √ Z
a + bu √ du
58. · du = 2 a + bu + a √
u u a + bu
Z √ √ Z
a + bu a + bu b du
59. · du = − + √
u2 u 2 u a + bu
Z √ Z
2un ( a + bu)3/2 2na u n −1
60. un a + bu · du = − √ · du
b(2n + 3) b(2n + 3) a + bu
Z √ Z n −1
un · du 2un a + bu 2na u · du
61. √ = − √
a + bu b(2n + 1) b(2n + 1) a + bu
Z √ Z
du a + bu b(2n − 3) du
62. √ =− n − 1
− √
u n a + bu a ( n − 1) u 2a(n − 1) u n − 1 a + bu
Antiderivatives of trigonometric functions
Z
1 1
63. sin2 (u) · du = u − sin(2 u) + C
2 4
Z
1 1
64. cos2 (u) · du = u + sin(2 u) + C
2 4
Z
65. tan2 (u) · du = tan(u) − u + C
Z
66. cot2 (u) · du = − cot(u) − u + C
Z
1
67. 2 + sin2 (u) cos(u) + C
sin3 (u) · du = −
3
Z
1
68. cos3 (u) · du = 2 + cos2 (u) sin(u) + C
3
Z
1
69. tan3 (u) · du = tan2 (u) + ln | cos(u)| + C
2
Z
1
70. cot3 (u) · du = − cot2 (u) − ln | sin(u)| + C
2
Z
1 1
71. sec3 (u) · d(u) = sec(u) tan(u) + ln |sec(u) + tan(u)| + C
2 2
Z
1 1
72. csc3 (u) · d(u) = − csc(u) cot(u) + ln |csc(u) − cot(u)| + C
2 2
586
Z Z
1 n−1
73. sinn (u) · d(u) = − sinn−1 (u) cos(u) + sinn−2 (u) · du
n n
Z Z
1 n−1
74. cos (u) · d(u) = cosn−1 (u) sin(u) +
n
cosn−2 (u) · du
n n
Z Z
1
75. tann (u) · d(u) = tann−1 (u) − tann−2 (u) · du
n−1
Z Z
1
76. cotn (u) · d(u) = − cotn−1 (u) + cotn−2 (u) · du
n−1
Z Z
1 n−2
77. secn (u) · d(u) = tan(u) secn−2 (u) + secn−2 (u) · du
n−1 n−1
Z Z
1 n−2
78. cscn (u) · d(u) = − cot(u) cscn−2 (u) + cscn−2 (u) · du
n−1 n−1
Z
sin[( a − b)u] sin[( a + b)u]
79. sin( au) sin(bu) · d(u) = − +C
2( a − b ) 2( a + b )
Z
sin[( a − b)u] sin[( a + b)u]
80. cos( au) cos(bu) · d(u) = + +C
2( a − b ) 2( a + b )
Z
cos[( a − b)u] cos[( a + b)u]
81. sin( au) cos(bu) · d(u) = − − +C
2( a − b ) 2( a + b )
Z
82. u sin(u) · d(u) = sin(u) − u cos(u) + C
Z
83. u cos(u) · d(u) = cos(u) + u sin(u) + C
Z Z
84. un sin(u) · d(u) = −un cos(u) + n un−1 cos(u) · du
Z Z
85. un cos(u) · d(u) = un sin(u) − n un−1 sin(u) · du
Z
sinn−1 (u) cosm+1 (u) n−1
Z
− + sinn−2 (u) cosm (u) · du
n+m n+m
86. sinn u cosm (u) · d(u) =
Z
sinn+1 (u) cosm−1 (u) m−1
+ sinn (u) cosm−2 (u) · du
n+m n+m
Antiderivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
Z p
87. arcsin(u) · du = u arcsin(u) + 1 − u2 + C
Z p
88. arccos(u) · du = u arccos(u) − 1 − u2 + C
Z
1
89. ln 1 + u2 + C
arctan(u) · du = u arctan(u) −
2
Z √
2u2 − 1 u 1 − u2
90. u arcsin(u) · du = arcsin(u) + +C
4 4
Z √
2u2 − 1 u 1 − u2
91. u arccos(u) · du = arccos(u) − +C
4 4
587
Z
u2 + 1 u
92. u arctan(u) · du = arctan(u) − + C
2 2
Z Z
1 un+1 · du
93. un arcsin(u) · du = un+1 arcsin(u) − √ , n,1
n+1 1 − u2
Z Z
1 un+1 · du
n
94. u arccos(u) · du = un+1 arccos(u) + √ , n,1
n+1 1 − u2
Z Z
1 un+1 · du
95. un arctan(u) · du = un+1 arctan(u) − , n,1
n+1 1 + u2
Antiderivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions
Z Z
1 du
96. ue au · du = ( au − 1)e au + C 100. = ln |ln u| + C
a2 u ln u
Z Z
1 n Z
97. n au
u e · du = un e au − un−1 e au · du e au
a a 101. e au sin(bu) · du = ( a sin(bu) − b cos(bu)) +
Z a b + b2
C
98. ln u · du = u ln u − u + C
Z
e au
Z
u n +1 102. e au cos(bu) · du = ( a cos(bu) + b sin(bu)) +
99. un ln(u) · du = [(n + 1) ln(u) − 1] + C a2 + b2
( n + 1)2 C
Antiderivatives of hyperbolic functions
Z Z u
103. sinh(u) · du = cosh(u) + C 108. csch(u) · du = ln tanh +C
2
Z Z
104. cosh(u) · du = sinh(u) + C 109. sech2 (u) · du = tanh(u) + C
Z Z
105. tanh(u) · du = ln (cosh(u)) + C 110. csch2 (u) · du = − coth(u) + C
Z Z
106. coth(u) · du = ln |sinh(u)| + C 111. sech(u) tanh(u) · du = −sech(u) + C
Z Z
107. sech(u) · du = arctan |sinh(u)| + C 112. csch(u) coth(u) · du = −csch(u) + C
√
Antiderivatives containing 2 au − u2
Z p
u−a p a2 a−u
113. 2 au − u2 · du = 2 au − u2 + arccos +C
2 2 a
Z p
2
2u2 − au − 3a2 p 2
a3 a−u
114. u 2 au − u · du = 2 au − u + arccos +C
6 2 a
Z √
2 au − u2 p a−u
115. 2
· du = 2 au − u + a arccos +C
u a
Z √ √
2 au − u2 2 2 au − u2 a−u
116. · du = − − arccos +C
u2 u a
Z
du a−u
117. √ = arccos +C
2 au − u2 a
588
Z p
u · du a−u
118. √ =− 2 au − u2 + a arccos +C
2 au − u2 a
Z
u2 · du(u + 3a) p 3a2 a−u
119. √ =− 2 au − u2 + arccos +C
2 au − u2 2 2 a
Z √
du 2 au − u2
120. √ =− +C
u 2 au − u2 au
589
Laplace transform
1 a
✓ L {1} = ✓ L 1 − e− at =
s s (s + a)
( )
1
✓ L e at = e at − ebt 1
s−a ✓ L =
a−b (s − a)(s − b)
n! ( )
✓ L {tn } = , { n ∈ N}.
s n +1 e−t/a − e−t/b 1
√ ✓ L =
n√ o π −3/2 a−b (1 + a s)(1 + b s)
✓ L t = s
2
s sin(b) + a cos(b)
1 √ ✓ L {sin( a t + b)} =
✓ L √ = π s−1/2 s2 + a2
t
s cos(b) − a sin(b)
a ✓ L {cos( a t + b)} =
✓ L {sin( at)} = 2 s2 + a2
s + a2
sin( a t) a
s ✓ L = arctan
✓ L {cos( at)} = 2 t s
s + a2
a e−τs
✓ L {sinh( at)} = 2 ✓ L {uc (t − τ )} = (step with delay)
s − a2 s
s
✓ L {cosh( at)} = 2 ✓ L {δ(t)} = 1 (unit impulse)
s − a2
b ✓ L {δ(t − τ )} = e−τt (impulse with delay)
✓ L e at sin(bt) =
( s − a )2 + b2 1 s
✓ L { f (c t)} = F
s−a c c
✓ L e at cos(bt) =
( s − a )2 + b2 ✓ L { a f + b g} = a L { f } + b L { g}
2 as
✓ L {t sin( at)} = ✓ L ect f (t) = F (s − c)
( s2 + a2 )2
✓ L {uc (t) · f (t − c)} = e−cs F (s)
s2 − a2
✓ L {t cos( at)} = ✓ L y ′ = s L { y } − y (0)
( s2 + a2 )2
n! ✓ L y′′ = s2 L {y} − s y(0) − y′ (0)
✓ L tn e at =
( s − a ) n +1
Zt
1 −t/a 1 ✓ f (t − τ ) g(τ ) · dt = F (s) G (s)
✓ L e =
a 1+as 0
590
Greek alphabet
Uppercase Lowercase Name Some letters of the Greek alphabet appear in some
books with different typographic style, for exam-
A α Alpha ple: φ (phi), ε (epsilon), ϖ (pi), ϑ (theta), ϱ (rho) y ς
B β Beta (sigma).
Γ γ Gama
∆ δ Delta
E ϵ Epsilon
Z ζ Zeta
H η Eta
Θ θ Theta
I ι Iota
K κ Kappa
Λ λ Lambda
M µ Mu
N ν Nu
Ξ ξ Xi
O o Omicron
Π π Pi
P ρ Rho
Σ σ Sigma
T τ Tau
Υ υ Upsilon
Φ ϕ Phi
X χ Chi
Ψ ψ Psi
Ω ω Omega
591
List of mathematical symbols
The following list contains the most frequently used mathematical symbols for school mathematics.
✓ N → natural numbers ✓ ⇒ → implies
✓ Z → integer numbers ✓ ⇔ → if and only if
✓ Q → rational numbers ✓ ∨ → or (disjuntion)
✓ Q′ → irrational numbers ✓ ∧ → and (conjuntion)
✓ ¬ → not (negation)
✓ R → real numbers
✓ ↮ → exclusive or
✓ C → complex numbers
✓ ↓ → joint denial
✓ ∈ → belogs to
✓ T → true
✓ < → does not belong to
✓ F → false
✓ ∅ → empty set
✓ [ a, b] → closed interval
✓ ⊂ → is included ✓ ( a, b) → open interval
✓ ⊃ → includes ✓ + → sum
⊂
✓ → is not included ✓ − → difference (substraction)
⊃
✓ → does not include ✓ × → multiplication
✓ ⊆ → strictly included ✓ · → multiplication
✓ ∪ → union ✓ ÷ → division
✓ / → division
✓ ∩ → intersection
✓ ≡ → equivalent to
✓ \ → difference of sets
✓ ≡ → by definition
✓ − → difference of sets
✓ ≡ → congruent to
✓ U → universe
✓ = → equal to
✓ ν → cardinality
✓ , → unequal to
✓ n( A) → cardinality of the set A
✓ ≈ → approximately equal to
✓ ℵ → aleph ?
✓ = → is equal?
✓ ∴ → therefore de f
✓ = → equal by definition
✓ ∵ → because
✓ > → greater than
✓ ∀ → for all
✓ < → less than
✓ ∃ → exists
✓ ≥ → greater or equal to
✓ ∃! → there exists a unique ✓ ≤ → less or equal to
∃
✓ → there no exist ✓ ≫ → much greater to
✓ | → such that ✓ ≪ → much less to
✓ : → such that ✓ ∝ → proportional
592
✓ % → percent ✓ gcd( a, b) → greatest common divisor of a and b
✓ : → proportion ✓ lcm( a, b) → least common multiple of a and b
✓ ± → plus, minus ✓ ℜ(z) → real part of z
✓ ∓ → minus, plus ✓ ℑ(z) → imaginary part of z
√ ✓ arg(z) → argument of z
✓ → square root
√ ✓ z → conjugate of z
✓ 3 → cubic root
√ ✓ 7→ → maps to
✓ n → n−th root
✓ lim → limit
✓ a2 → a squared
✓ max → maximum
✓ a3 → a cubed
✓ min → minimum
✓ ab → a raised to the power b ✓ ∑ → summation
✓ a! → factorial of a ✓ ∏ → product
✓ a!! → semifactorial of a ✓ loga → logarithm in base a
✓ !a → subfactorial of a ✓ log → logarithm in base 10
✓ a(n) → ascending factorial of a ✓ ln → natural logarithm
✓ ( a)n → descending factorial of a ✓ f (x) → function f
✓ C (n, r ) → combinations of n in r ✓ exp( x ) → exponential function
✓ P(n, r ) → permutations of n in r
✓ sin( x ) → sine of x
✓ cos( x ) → cosine of x
n
✓ → combinations of n in r
r ✓ tan( x ) → tangent of x
✓ rad( p) → radical of p ✓ csc( x ) → cosecant of x
✓ |x| → absolute value of x ✓ sec( x ) → secant of x
✓ ⌊x⌋ → floor of x ✓ cot( x ) → cotangent of x
✓ sinh( x ) → hyperbolic sine of x
✓ ⌈x⌉ → ceiling of x
✓ cosh( x ) → hyperbolic cosine of x
✓ [x] → integer part of x
✓ tanh( x ) → hyperbolic tangent of x
✓ mq → square mean
✓ csch( x ) → hyperbolic cosecant of x
✓ mg → geometric mean
✓ sech( x ) → hyperbolic secant of x
✓ mh → armonic mean
✓ coth( x ) → hyperbolic cotangent x
✓ Mlog → logarithmic mean
✓ cas( x ) → cas function
✓ Mp → generalized mean
✓ arcsin( x ) → arcsine of x
✓ | → divisible by ✓ arccos( x ) → arccosine of x
✓ ∤ → not divisible by ✓ arctan( x ) → arctangent of x
✓ a mod b → a modulo b ✓ f −1 → inverse function of f
✓ ( a, b) → greatest common divisor of a and b ✓ f ◦g → function f composed into g
593
✓ δ( x ) → Dirac’s delta function ✓ Mij → minor i, j
✓ gd( x ) → Guderman’s function ✓ In → identity matrix of size n
✓ f [ x i , x i +1 ] → divided difference ✓ AT → transpose of the matrix A
✓ ∇h → backward difference ✓ adj( A) → adjoint of the matrix A
✓ ∆h → forward difference ✓ A −1 → inverse matrix of A
✓ δh [ f ]( x ) → central difference ✓ T (⃗v) → linear transformation of ⃗v
✓ ∆ → symmetric dyfference ✓ H → Hessian matrix
✓ ∆ → increment ✓ AH → Hermitian matrix
✓ d → difference of an arithmetic progression ✓ J → Jacobian matrix
✓ r → ratio of a geometric progression ✓ W [ y1 , y2 ] → Wronskian determinant
✓ ai → i −th term ✓ V → vector space
✓ Sn → partial summ (of a series) ✓ f′ → derivative of f
✓ x → arithmetic mean, average dy
✓ → derivative of y
dx
✓ ( a, b) → point with coordinates a and b
✓ ẏ → derivative of y
✓ ( x, y, z) → rectangular coordinates
d2 y
✓ (r, θ ) → polar coordinates ✓ → second derivative of y
dx2
✓ (r, θ, z) → cylindrical coordinates ✓ ÿ → second derivative of y
✓ (ρ, θϕ) → spherical coordinates d(n) y
✓ → n−th derivative of y
dx n
✓ ⟨ a, b⟩ → vector with components a and b Z
✓ ⃗u → vector (also u) ✓ y dx → antiderivative of y
✓ ⃗0 → zero vector Zb
✓ f ( x ) dx → integral of f ( x ) from a to b
✓ ∥⃗u∥ → magnitude of ⃗u
a
✓ û → unit vector Z
✓ → line integral along C
✓ λ → proper value C
I
✓ ⃗u · ⃗v → dot product (scalar product)
✓ → line integral on a closed path
✓ ⃗u × ⃗v → cross product (vector product) C
✓ T̂ → unit tangent vector
✓ → counterclockwise line integral
→
x
✓ N̂ unit normal vector C
a b ✓ → double integral
✓ → determinant
c d
y
✓ det( A) → determinant of A ✓ → triple integral
✓ aij → element i, j of the matrix A ✓ dx → differential of x
✓ A → matrix A ✓ dL → differential of arc length
✓ Aij → cofactor i, j ✓ dA → differential of area
594
✓ dS → differential of surface area ✓ s → slanted height
✓ dV → differential of volume ✓ s → semiperimeter
✓
∂z
→ partial derivative of z with respect to x ✓ b → base
∂x
✓ h → height
✓ fx → partial derivative of f with respect to x
✓ a → apotem
✓ ∇f → gradient of f
✓ A → area
✓ grad( f ) → gradient of f
✓ P → perimeter
✓ div(⃗F ) → divergence of ⃗F
✓ V → volume
✓ rot(⃗F ) → rotational of ⃗F
✓ L → length
✓ ∇2 f → Laplacian of f
✓ V → number of vertices
✓ L { f (t)} → Laplace transform
✓ F → number of faces
✓ F { f (t)} → Fourier transform
✓ E → number of edges
✓ Z { x [n]} → z−transform
✓ ℓ → straight line
✓ Z −1 { X (z)} → inverse z−transform
✓ AB → segment AB
✓ f ∗g → convolution of f and g −→
✓ AB → directed segment AB
✓ Γ(z) → gamma function ⌢
✓ AB → arc AB
✓ λ( x ) → lambda function ◦
✓ → sexagesimal degrees
✓ S( x ) → integral of Fresnel function (1) ′
✓ → minutes
✓ C(x) → integral of Fresnel function (2) ′′
✓ → seconds
✓ rect( x ) → rectangular function ◦C
✓ → centigrade degrees
✓ rampa( x ) → ramp function
✓ ◦F → Fahrenheit degrees
✓ sgn( x ) → sign function ✓ ∠ABC → angle ABC
✓ sinc( x ) → cardinal sine function ✓ ∡α → angle α
✓ u( x ) → Heaviside’s unit function ✓ △ ABC → triangle ABC
✓ ζ (s) → Riemann’s zeta function ✓ D ( P, Q) → distance from P to Q
✓ κ → curvature ✓ ⊥ → perpendicular
✓ ρ → radius of curvature ✓ ∥ → parallel
✓ c → conicity ✓ ∼ → similar to
✓ r → radius ✓ / → not similar to
✓ D → diameter ✓ π → ≈ 3.141592654 · · ·
✓ δ → angular diameter ✓ φ → ≈ 1.6180339887 · · ·
√
✓ r → inradius ✓ i → imaginary unit −1
✓ C → circunradius ✓ ∞ → infinity
✓ s → arclength ✓ f → frequency
595
✓ x → (sample) mean ✓ P( A| B) → probability of A given B
✓ µ → (population) mean ✓ P(t) → probability generating function
✓ x̂ → estimated value of x ✓ FDA → accumulated distribution function
✓ δ → deviation ✓ FDP → probability density function
✓ s → (sample) standar deviation
✓ cov( X, Y ) → covariance of X and Y
✓ σ → (population) standard deviation
✓ r2 → coefficient of determination
✓ σ2 → variance
✓ µk → k−th moment relative to µ(*)
✓ cv → variation coefficient
✓ µ3 → third moment relative to µ(*)
✓ Me → median of a distribution
✓ µ̃3 → Pearson asymmetry moment
✓ erf → error function
✓ F(X ) → distribution function ✓ ρ X,Y → Pearson correlation coefficient
✓ f ( x |y) → conditional distribution ✓ r x,y → (sample) Pearson correlation coefficient
✓ E[ X ] → expected value of X ✓ QED → what was to be proved
✓ P( X = x ) → probability that X = x ✓ QEA → which is absurd
596
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Illustrated Dictionary of Mathematical Concepts
Efraín Soto Apolinar. (2023)
Aprende Matemáticas. Mexico.
This Illustrated Dictionary of Mathematical Concepts provides precise definitions accessible
to a wide spectrum of readers. This book includes the most frequently used concepts of
elementary mathematics, ranging from primary, secondary, high school and university level,
corresponding to courses in the engineering areas. In particular, it includes terms from courses
in infinitesimal calculus, calculus of functions of several variables, linear algebra, differential
equations, vector calculus, finite mathematics, probability, and statistics.
This book contains 2628 defined terms and 1388 figures. The number of illustrations is greater
if the examples in each definition are considered as an illustration. In addition to the definition
of each term, where it was considered appropriate, related mathematical results, algebraic
properties of the defined mathematical object, its geometric representation, examples to clarify
the concept or the defined mathematical technique, etc., are included with the intention of
conveying the mathematical idea in different forms of representation (algebraic, numerical,
geometric, etc.)
The goal of the author of this book is to provide a reference source for school work, and at the
same time, to help the student to understand the definition of a mathematical term or to know
the most important results related to it.
A dictionary of mathematical terms can never be considered finished. Therefore, it is not
intended to cover all the terms in all branches of mathematics. However, this version is a very
complete one, and it should be considered an indispensable sample copy, both in the school
library and in the family library. This book will be very useful for students, teachers, tutors,
edutubers, authors, and even researchers in the area of mathematics, and its learning and
teaching, and anyone from the general public who wishes to improve their understanding of
mathematical ideas.
I am amazed
by the ability that mathematics has
to express profound thoughts
in the simplest way possible.
(Prof. Efraín Soto Apolinar)
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