Lesson 1: Introduction to Food Technology ▪ It involves all operations which are primarily

designed to assure the safety and shelf-life of the

What is Food Science and Technology? product.
Food Science
- Study of the physical biological, and Importance of Food Preservation
chemical make up of food. ▪ Overcome inappropriate planning in
- Causes of food deterioration agriculture.
- The concept underlying food processing ▪ Produce value-added products.
Food Technology ▪ Provide variation in diet.
- Application of food science to selection “ Food preservation lies at the heart of food
- Preservation processing, packaging, science and technology, and it is the main purpose of
distribution, and use of safe food food processing.“
Food Industry
▪ It is the basic and important to every nation. Food Processing
▪ Plays a crucial role in public health, food ▪ Refers to the procedures or food preparation
safety, food security, social development, and nutrition. steps needed to change the food source to a form in
▪ Major concerns of food industry: which it will be presented to the enduser.
▫ Product quality ▪ It is used to transform raw ingredients into
▫ Health marketable food products
▫ Sanitation issues
Food Processing Categories
Food Industry Components Primary Food Processing
▪ Agriculture: process of producing food, feed, ▪ The conversion of raw materials to food
fiber, and other desired products. commodities
▪ Food Processing: makes some food available ▪ The first step taken to change a food source to
all year round food (e.g., slaughtering of animals, milling of grains).
▪ Food Distribution: includes transporting, ▪ The immediate postharvest procedures (e.g.,
storing, and marketing food products to consumers. sorting, trimming, washing, pre-cooling)
▪ Regulation: restrictions imposed by Secondary Food Processing
government authority ▪ The process of using ingredients produced
▪ Financial Services: includes insurance and through primary food processing to create ready-to-eat
credit to facilitate food production and distribution. foods.
▪ Research and Development: research on any ▪ The everyday process of creating food from
aspect of food industry produces relevant information ingredients that are ready to use.
about that sector. ▪ Described as cooking methods
▪ Marketing: primary vehicle for promoting Tertiary Food Processing
information about food. ▪ The commercial production of what is
commonly called processed food.
▪ “Processed foods’’ refer to food products
manufactured through tertiary processing.

Importance of Food Processing

Aims of Food Industry ▪ Achieve preservation by reducing risk of
▪ To extend shelf life of the product. spoilage.
▪ To increase variety in the diet by providing a ▪ Increases the food supply.
range of attractive sensory characteristics of food ▪ Increases shelf-life of food.
▪ To provide nutrients required for health ▪ Make more varieties of food.
▪ To generate income for the manufacturing ▪ Decreases the wastage of food.
company ▪ Food preservation decreases dietary
inadequacies.
Food Preservation
▪ Refers to all measures taken to prevent food
spoilage
Food ▪ Sugar dissolves in water and when heated
▪ Any substance, whether processed, semi- forms a syrup. When the solution is supersaturated and
processed, or raw, which is intended for human heated, crystallization occurs.
consumption; ▪ When high concentration of sugar is used, it
▪ Includes drink, chewing gum and any acts as preservatives by binding moisture, e.g. jams,
substance used in the manufacture, preparation or jellies, etc.
treatment of “food”;
▪ Does not include cosmetic or tobacco or Carbohydrates & Pectin and Gums
substances used only as drugs. -Codex Alimentarius ▪ Responsible for holding the plant cells
▪ The foods we eat are derived from plants and together.
animals, both terrestrial and aquatic. ▪ It forms colloidal solutions when extracted in
▪ Food materials follow a developmental hot water and contributes to the viscosity of the
process, e.g. fruit – immature, full maturity, ripening, products to which they are added, therefore used as
senescence and finally spoilage. thickeners and stabilizers in food preparations.
▪ Foods are a complex mixture of many different ▪ Pectin gel in the presence of an appropriate
chemical components. amount of sugar and acids, e.g. fruit jellies.
▪ Foods provide 6 types of nutrients – water,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals. Carbohydrates Celluloses and Hemicelluloses
▪ All components of food are chemically ▪ The fibrous parts of fruits and vegetables; not
reactive. Interaction with each other can result in soluble in hot and cold water.
beneficial or disastrous effect on food quality. ▪ These softens as the water trapped in their
tissues is released and used in cooking and processing,
Constituents of Food thus there is a decrease in volume especially in leafy
WATER vegetables
▪ It is the major constituent of most foods
▪ Fruits and vegetables contain large quantities Proteins
of water in proportion to their weight. ▪ Present in foods from plant and animal
▪ The presence of moisture is critical in the ▪ All proteins are first denatured.
textural properties of food but is often responsible for ▪ Protein denaturation is the loss of the higher
its microbial, enzymatic and chemical deterioration. structural features caused by disruption of hydrogen
bonding and the non-covalent forces that hold it
CARBOHYDRATES together.
▪ Provide much of energy in our diets
▪ Important carbohydrates found in food are: Fats & Oils
Carbohydrates, Starches, Sugars, Pectins and Gums, ▪ Occur as components of plant and animal
Celluloses and Hemicellulose foods.
▪ Room temperature: Oils are liquid; Fats are
Carbohydrates & Starches solid
▪ Major components of cereals, millets, dals, ▪ When foods containing fats are heated, the fat
roots, tubers and sago. has a tendency to separate from the food
▪ Bland in taste not readily soluble in cold water ▪ Oils and fats can be used as cooking medium.
but absorb water when soaked in cold water. Since these have higher boiling point than water, the
▪ When a starch and water mixture is heated, it food is cooked quicker in the fat.
becomes translucent and forms a paste. ▪ Fats have shortening power, it makes the
product crunchy (baked products) and its presence in
Carbohydrates & Sugars meat tenderizes it.
▪ About 5-11% are present in ripe fruits, malted ▪ Fats and oils become rancid in air (oxidized),
beverages and in milk water (hydrolysis) and enzymes.
▪ Sucrose, the sugar used in many food
preparations are manufactured (extracted) from sugar
cane or sugar beets.
▪ It is sweet and usually used for its sweetening
power.
Vitamins ▫ Milk browns due to the reaction of
▪ Vitamins are organic compounds present in sugar with amino acids during heating
small amounts in foods. ▫ Browning of starch in roasting
▪ Vitamins in F&V may be destroyed or lost in
several ways between harvesting and consumption. Lesson 2: Spoilage Mechanisms of Food
▪ Water soluble vitamins are mostly affected by Food Spoilage
processing. They are easily oxidized and affected by The original nutritional value, texture, flavor of
heat. the food is damaged due to the microorganisms that
▪ The loss of thiamin is 10-25% while vitamin C break down food, thus the food become harmful to
is about 30-35% in normal cooking. people and unsuitable for consumption
Food Deterioration
Fat Soluble Vitamins Occurs due to chemical changes in food which
 Vitamin A sometimes alters the quality of food. This may be over
 Vitamin D ripening causing changes in sugar contents to starches
 Vitamin E or tissues breakdown due to enzymes.
 Vitamin K
Water Soluble Vitamins Spoiled Food
 Vitamin C ▪ Foods which look harmful and unfit to eat.
 Vitamin B Complex ▪ It has an unattractive color, smell, taste and
appearance.
Minerals
▪ Classified into: Classification of Food Based on Ease of Spoilage
▫ Macro Minerals (g/kg) – calcium, phosphorus, • Stable or Non-Perishable Foods
potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium ▪ Foods which do not spoil unless handle
▫ Trace Minerals (mg/kg) – iron, zinc, copper, carelessly
manganese, iodine, molybdenum ▪ Can last for many months to years
▪ Minerals include those elements, which • Semi-Stable or Semi-Perishable Foods
normally form salts and are converted to ash on ▪ If properly handled and stored, they will
exposure to high temperature (about 550°C). remain unspoiled for a fairly long period
▪ There is no loss of minerals in the normal ▪ Can last for few weeks to months
cooking process.
▪ If water is discarded, a small fraction of water-
soluble mineral is lost. • Non-Stable or Perishable Foods
▪ This group includes most of our important
Flavors and Aromas daily foods that spoil readily unless special preservative
▪ Describes the complex and interacting set of methods are used
sensations experienced when food is consumed ▪ Can last for hours to days
▪ Can be modified or enhanced the natural
flavor of food during preparation and processing When does food spoilage begin?
▪ Natural products contain many aroma ▪ Fruits and vegetables are harvested or picked
chemicals. ▪ Eggs are laid
▪ Fish is caught
Pigments ▪ Animals are slaughtered
▪ Contribute to a variety of colors; affected by ▪ Milk is drawn from the milking animal
any method of food preparation.
▪ The plant pigments are: Causes Food Spoilage
▫ Chlorophyll- green Microbiological Contamination
▫ Carotenoids – orange, red, yellow ▪ There are three types of microorganisms that
▫ Flavonoids - yellow cause food spoilage:
▫ Anthocyanins – red, blue, purple, Yeast:
other dark colors ▪ Their growth causes fermentation which is the result
▪ Other color changes during cooking: of yeast metabolism. There are two types of yeasts true
yeast and false yeast
 ▫ True yeast metabolizes sugar producing ▫ pepsin begins to break down the proteins of
alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. This is known as the organs, weakening the tissues and making them
fermentation. more susceptible to microbial contamination soon after
▫ False yeast grows as a dry film on a food the slaughter
surface, such as on pickle brine. False yeast occurs in
foods that have a high sugar or high acid environment. Autoxidation
Moulds: ▪ The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids is
▪ grow in filaments forming a tough mass which autocatalytic; that is, it proceeds by a free radical chain
is visible as ‘mould growth’. reaction.
▪ Moulds form spores which, when dry, float ▪ Free radicals contain an unpaired electron
through the air to find suitable conditions where they (represented by a dot in the molecular formula) and,
can start the growth cycle again. therefore, are highly reactive chemical molecules. These
products result in the development of rancid off-flavors.
Both yeasts and moulds can thrive in high acid foods like ▪ In addition to promoting rancidity, the free
fruit, tomatoes, jams, jellies and pickles. Both are easily radicals and peroxides produced in these reactions may
destroyed by heat. Processing high acid foods at a have other negative effects, such as the bleaching of
temperature of 100°C (212°F) in a boiling water canner food color and the destruction of vitamins A, C, and E.
for the appropriate length of time destroys yeasts and ▪ This type of deterioration is prevalent in fried
moulds. snacks, nuts, cooking oils, and margarine.

Fungal Spoilage Maillard Reaction

Microbiological Contamination Bacteria: ▪ takes place between reducing sugars (simple
▪ grow under a wide variety of conditions. They monosaccharides capable of carrying out reduction
generally prefer low acid foods like reactions) and the amino group of proteins or amino
▪ to destroy bacteria spores in a relatively short acids present in foods.
period of time, low acid foods must be processed for ▪ lead to a darkening of color, reduced solubility
the appropriate length of time at 116°C (240°F) in a of proteins, development of bitter flavors, and reduced
pressure canner. nutritional availability of certain amino acids such as
▪ Eating spoiled food caused by bacteria can lysine.
cause food poisoning. ▪ The rate of this reaction is influenced by the
Control of Microbial Contamination water activity, temperature, and pH of the food
▪ kill or to reduce the growth of microorganisms product.
by: ▪ Non-enzymatic browning causes spoilage
▫ application of heat during the storage of dry milk, dry whole eggs, and
▫ removal of water breakfast cereals.
▫ lowering of temperature during storage ▫
reduction of pH Light-Induced Reaction
▫ control of oxygen and carbon dioxide ▪ includes the destruction of chlorophyll,
concentrations resulting in the bleaching of certain vegetables; the
▫ removal of the nutrients needed for growth. discoloration of fresh meats; the destruction of
riboflavin in milk; and the oxidation of vitamin C and
Chemical Deterioration carotenoid pigments
Enzymatic reaction ▪ using packaging material that prevents
▪ Enzymes exposure to light is one of the most effective means of
▫ are chemicals, mainly composed of proteins present in preventing light-induced chemical spoilage.
all food
▫ speed up chemical changes Moisture Loss
▫ Stop their activity when they are heated above 70 oC ▪ mostly occurs in fruit and vegetables which
▪ Example: Enzyme pepsin contain large amounts of water.
▫ found in the stomach of all animals ▪ Fruits and vegetables continue to respire after
▫ involved in the breakdown of proteins during harvesting and therefore lose water through their
the normal digestion process. leaves and skin.
 ▪ Such water could be replaced from the soil Rancidity: Hydrolytic
through the roots when not harvested. ▪ Fatty acids formed through hydrolysis of the
lipid(fat) by the water which it contains. Some of the
▪ The water retains the structures of the cells of liberated fatty acids are volatile, and some have very
the plants and makes them look fresh. After harvesting, unpleasant odors and flavors
there is no way that the lost water can be replaced so
the vegetable or fruit shrinks in size, becomes limp and Rancidity: Oxidative
its skin becomes wrinkled and leathery. ▪ The oxidation of acylglycerols which occurs in
▪ Moisture loss occurs in other foods like meat, air, without the presence of enzymes, is called
fish, cheese, due to evaporation of water from the autoxidation. Among the products of autoxidation are
surface. hydroperoxides, ROOH. These have no taste, but they
decompose easily to form aldehydes, ketones and acids,
Physical & Other Factors which give oxidised fats and oils their rancid flavours.
Infestation ▪ It can be slow down by addition of
▪ Invasions by insects and rodents, which antioxidants.
account for huge losses in food stocks.
Lesson 3: Food Poisoning
Low Temperature Injury What’s the Difference?
▪ the internal structures of the food are Food Poisoning
damaged by very low temperature -caused by the ingestion of preformed toxins,
▪ Symptoms include: chemicals, heavy metals or other substances
▫ surface discoloration, dull or smokey colour, Food-borne Disease
▫ subepidermal tissues reveal dark-brown -an infection or intoxication that results from
streaks, ▫ failure to ripen, consumption of food contaminated with viable
▫ flesh browning Chilling injury results from microorganisms of their toxins
exposing some foods to temperatures below 13°C (56°F)
for a few hours to a few days, depending on cultivar, What’s the Difference?
maturity, and temperature. Food Infection - ingestion of live bacteria which multiply
and establish in the intestinal tract Food Intoxication -
Types of Food Decay ingestion of toxins formed by bacteria that multiplied in
Putrefaction the food item
▪ Biological decomposition of proteins, with the
production of ill-smelling and tasting products, Major Foodborne Diseases
associated with anaerobic (no oxygen present) ▪ Usually infectious or toxic in nature
conditions. ▪ Diarrhea is the acute, most common
symptoms of FBD, but other serious complications
Fermentation include kidney and liver failure, brain and neural
▪ chemical changes in organic substances disorders, reactive arthritis, cancer and death
produced by the action of enzymes called ferments, ▪ May lead to long-lasting diseases and death
produced by minute organisms such as molds, bacteria,
and yeasts. ▪ Most commonly due to unsafe food handling
▪ For example, lactase, a ferment produced by and preparation
bacteria usually found in milk, causes the milk to sour ▪ People on-the-go opt for convenience foods
by changing lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid. due to lack of time resulting to higher risk of getting
FBDs
▪ Example of unsafe foods:
▪ Uncooked foods of animal origin
Rancidity: Microbial ▪ Fecal-contaminated fruits and
▪ Like all food components, fats undergo vegetables
deteriorative changes with time, which result in ▪ Raw shellfish containing marine
undesirable flavors and odors. These changes in fats are biotoxins
given the term "rancidity".
Risk of Severe Consequences ▪ Muscle weakness
 Children (<1 year old) ▪ Respiratory failure
 Elderly
 Immunocompromised Clostridium perfringens Prevention:
 Pregnant Women ▪ Do not consume canned foods with
Foodborne Diseases: Emerging Public Health Problem bulging/dented lids
AGENT ▪ Properly can foods following recommended
1. Changes in microorganisms procedures
• constant evolution of new pathogens • ▪ Follow strict hygienic practices
development of antibiotic resistance  The spores germinate at: a) 12°C-60°C b) 43°C-
• changes in virulence of known pathogens 47°C (optimal) Symptoms: 1. Diarrhea and
HOST abdominal pain within 6-24 hours
2. Growing population of the elderly and the Prevention
immunosuppressed ▪ Cook foods thoroughly to recommended
• susceptible to severe foodborne disease temperature and keep warmer than 60°C or cooler
3. Mobility of populations than 5°C.
• Travellers, refugees and immigrants exposed ▪ Leftovers should be reheated to at least 74°C
to unfamiliar hazards before serving.
ENVIRONMENT ▪ Any food that has been left out too long may
4. Globalization of the food supply be dangerous to eat, even if it looks okay.
• Pathogens inadvertently introduced into new Campylobacter spp.
geographical areas ▪ Gram-negative, microaerophile, spiral-shaped
5. Increase in consumption of food prepared organism
outside the home ▪ Grows best at 37°C-42°C
• Growing numbers are potentially exposed to ▪ Freezing reduces their number
the risks of poor hygiene ▪ Zoonosis; contamination from feces during
slaughtering
▪ Foodborne transmission via undercooked
meat(poultry), meat products and milk
Foodborne Diseases Outbreak ▪ Contaminated water or ice
a. The observed number of cases of a particular Symptoms:
disease exceeds the expected number ▪ Bloody diarrhea
b. The occurrence of two or more cases of a ▪ Abdominal pain
similar foodborne disease resulting from the ▪ Fever
ingestion of a common food ▪ Headache
▪ Nausea
Microorganisms that cause FBDs (Characteristics, ▪ Vomiting
associated food items, signs and symptoms, prevention) Prevention:
Clostridium botulinum ▪ Cook poultry products thoroughly
• Gram-positive, spore-forming, anaerobic, rod- ▪ Proper hygiene practices
shaped organism ▪ Prevent cross-contamination in the kitchen by
• Causative agent of botulism using separate cutting boards for foods of animal origin
• Botulism – serious paralytic disease caused by and other foods
a neurotoxin (botulinum toxin) produced by C. ▪ Do not drink unpasteurized milk or untreated
botulinum surface water
• Foodborne botulism - associated with canned Escherichia coli Six pathotypes:
foods 1. Enterohemorrhagic
Symptoms: 2. Enterotoxigenic
▪ Double/blurred vision 3. Enteropathogenic
▪ Drooping eyelids 4. Enteroaggregative
▪ Slurred speech 5. Enteroinvasive
▪ Difficulty in swallowing 6. Diffusely adherent
▪ Dry mouth
Transmission via fecal-contaminated food or water ▪ Beef ▪ Poultry
Symptoms (EHEC): ▪ Milk ▪ Eggs ▪ Vegetables
▪ Stomach cramps Symptoms:
▪ Bloody diarrhea ▪ Diarrhea ▪ Abdominal cramps ▪ Fever
▪ Vomiting Salmonella typhi
▪ Diarrhea ▪ Causes typhoid fever (only in humans) ▪
Prevention: Transmission via ingestion of food/beverage
▪ Proper hygiene practices contaminated with S. typhi (carriers)
▪ Cook meats thoroughly (at least 70°C) ▪ Avoid Symptoms:
unpasteurized milk and other dairy products ▪ High fever
▪ Avoid swallowing water when swimming in ▪ Body weakness
lakes, ponds, streams or swimming pools ▪ Abdominal pain
▪ Prevent cross-contamination in food ▪ Headache
preparation ▪ Loss of appetite
▪ Flat, rose-colored rash
Listeria monocytogenes Prevention:
▪ Gram-positive, facultative anaerobe, rod- ▪ Proper hygiene practices
shaped organism ▪ Cook poultry, ground beef and eggs thoroughly
▪ Can grow and multiply in some foods in the ▪ Avoid cross-contamination during food preparation
refrigerator
▪ At risk groups for severe infection: Shigella spp.
1. Pregnant women (miscarriage or ▪ Gram-negative, facultative anaerobe, rod-
stillbirth) shaped organism Four species of Shigella:
2. Older adults ▪ S. dysenteriae ▪ S. boydii
3. Immunocompromised people ▪ S. flexneri ▪ S. sonnei
Associated with: Transmission via:
▪ Uncooked meat and vegetables ▪ Ingestion of food/beverage contaminated with
▪ Unpasteurized milk and cheeses feces from infected person
▪ Cooked or processed foods (post-processing ▪ Contaminated hands that touch the food or
contamination) Sources: mouth
▪ Commonly found in soil and animals ▪ Exposure to feces through sexual contact
Symptoms:
▪ Fever Symptoms:
▪ Muscle aches ▪ Bloody diarrhea
▪ Diarrhea and other gastrointestinal symptoms ▪ ▪ Fever ▪ Abdominal pain
Invasive infection for “at risk” individuals ▪ Tenesmus (a painful sensation of needing to
Prevention: pass out stools even when bowels are empty)
▪ Cook meat and poultry thoroughly
▪ Store opened processed foods in the refrigerator not Prevention:
more than 1 week ▪ Proper hygiene practices
▪ Do not drink raw/unpasteurized milk ▪ Avoid swallowing water from ponds, lakes or
Prevention: any untreated water
▪ Cook meat and poultry thoroughly ▪ Strictly follow food and water precautions
▪ Store opened processed foods in the when travelling internationally
refrigerator not more than 1 week
▪ Do not drink raw/unpasteurized milk Staphylococcus aureus
▪ Gram-positive cocci
Salmonella spp. ▪ Commonly found in the skin and in the nose
▪ Gram-negative, facultative anaerobe, rod- ▪ Has the ability to produce several types of
shaped organism toxins
▪ Transmission is via eating foods contaminated ▪ Food workers are a direct source of
with animal feces contamination by handling foods without washing their
Associated foods: hands
 ▪ S. aureus is halophilic; toxins are heat resistant ▪ Preparation of raw pork intestines may be particularly
and fast acting risky
▪ Foods at high risk of S. aureus contamination Symptoms: ▪ Fever ▪ Abdominal pain
are those that are hand-made and do not require ▪ Bloody diarrhea
cooking Prevention:
Symptoms: ▪ Nausea ▪ Dry heaving ▪ Vomiting ▪ Stomach ▪ Avoid eating raw or undercooked pork
cramps ▪ Diarrhea ▪ Consume only pasteurized milk or milk products
▪ Proper hygiene practices
Prevention: ▪ Proper hygiene practices ▪ Avoid cross-contamination in the kitchen
▪ Do not prepare or serve food for others if you have
wounds or skin infections in your hands Hepatitis A
▪ Keep kitchens and food-serving areas clean and ▪ Liver infection caused by Hepatitis A Virus
sanitized ▪ Keep foods >60°C or <4°C Transmission via:
▪ Person-to-person contact
Vibrio spp. ▪ Contaminated food/beverage
▪ Gram-negative, curved-rod shape organism Symptoms: ▪ Fever ▪ Fatigue ▪ Loss of appetite ▪ Nausea
▪ Naturally found in estuarine or marine environments ▪ Vomiting ▪ Abdominal pain ▪ Dark urine ▪ Clay-colored
▪ Two distinct categories of infection: bowel movements ▪ Joint pain ▪ Jaundice (a yellowing of
▫ CHOLERA ▫ VIBRIOSIS the skin or eyes)
Prevention: ▪ Proper hygiene practices
Cholera ▪ Vaccination
▪ Acute diarrheal illness caused by Vibrio cholerae
▪ Found in water or food sources contaminated by feces Norovirus
of infected persons ▪ Causes “stomach flu”
Symptoms: ▪ Profuse watery diarrhea (“rice watery” ▪ Transmission via:
stool) ▫ Touching surfaces contaminated with norovirus the
▪ Vomiting ▪ Leg cramps putting your fingers in your mouth
▪ Rapid loss of water leading to dehydration and shock ▫ Having contact with someone infected with the virus
▪ Prevention: Proper hygiene practices, wash fruits and
Vibriosis vegetables thoroughly, disinfected surfaces
▪ Caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio
vulnificus Rotavirus
▪ Transmission is due to exposure to seawater or ▪ Common in infants and young children
consumption of raw or undercooked seafood ▪ ▪ Transmission via fecal-oral route
Associated food: ▫ Seafood (particularly oysters) ▪ Prevention: Proper hygiene practices and vaccination
VIBRIOSIS
▪ Thoroughly cooking of seafood FOOD SAFETY: A PUBLIC HEALTH PRIORITY
▪ Avoiding exposure of open wound to warm seawater Food Safety: A Public Health Priority
▪ Avoid cross-contamination during food preparation 1. Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious
▪ Wear protective gears (e.g. gloves) when handling raw food is key to sustaining life and promoting good health;
seafood 2. Unsafe food containing harmful organisms or
chemicals causes > 200 diseases (from diarrhea to
CHOLERA cancer);
▪ Proper hygiene practices 3. Almost 1 in 10 people (approx. 600 million people)
▪ Drink and use safe water (boil it or treat it with fall ill after eating contaminated food and 420,000 die
chlorine / household bleach) every year, resulting in the loss of 33 million healthy life
▪ Cook foods thoroughly years (DALYs);
4. Children under 5 years of age carry 40% of the
Yersinia enterolitica foodborne disease burden, with 125,000 deaths every
▪ Gram-negative, rod shaped organism year;
▪ Major reservoir: Pigs
▪ Transmission via ingestion of raw or undercooked pork
products
5. Food safety, nutrition, and food security are ▪ the categories for thermal processes are:
inextricably linked. Unsafe food creates a vicious cycle Blanching
of disease and malnutrition, particularly affecting ▪ heat application that is primarily a pre-treatment prior
infants, young children, elderly and the sick; to other methods of preservation such as drying,
6. Foodborne diseases impede socioeconomic canning and freezing
development by straining healthcare systems and ▪ its major objective is to inactivate enzymes but it also
harming national economies, tourism and trade. drives off cellular gases and kill pathogens and some
spoilage microorganisms
Lesson 4: Food Preservation Principles & Processing Pasteurization
Methods ▪ named after Louis Pasteur
Food Preservation Principles ▪ is a mild heat treatment with the sole purpose of
Principle 1: Prevention or Delay of Autolysis destroying most of the spoilage microorganisms
▪ Autolysis in food may be prevented or delayed ▪ pasteurized foods requires a complementary method
by the destruction or inactivation of enzymes and by the to effect longer term preservation such as low
treatment and handling of food in such a manner so as temperature storage (chilling, freezing), acidification or
to inhibit the reactivity of chemically active molecules. the use of preservatives
Principle 2: Prevention or Delay of Microbial Activity ▪ applied to milk, fruit juices and other food products
▪ Spoilage of foods as a result of microbial Cooking
activity may be prevented or delayed by either: ▫  major objective of making food more palatable.
prohibiting the entry of microorganisms into the food ▫  kills many spoilage microorganisms and
physically removing them from food ▫ hindering their inactivate enzymes
growth and activity ▫ destroying them, if they are  it includes several techniques and forms of
already present to food. heating such as: baking, broiling, roasting
Principle 3: Control of Pest Activities grilling, boiling, frying, frying, stewing and
▪ Quality defects and losses in food caused by steaming
insects, rodents and birds may be controlled by  it can be categorized as a preservation method
adequate packaging and by instituting a sustained since cooked foods generally has longer shelf-
population control programme of such pests. life compared to raw foods.
Principle 4: Reduction in Physical Defects Sterilization
▪ The deterioration in food caused by the ▪ involves more severe heat treatment that destroys
physical phenomenon occurring during processing, pathogens and spoilage microorganisms
handling and storage may be reduced by the ▪ distinct types of sterilization:
development of optimal handling, processing and ▫ water bath sterilization ▫ steam pressure sterilization ▫
storage conditions aseptic processing
 water bath sterilization (processing at 100C) –
Food Processing Methods applied to acidic foods with pH 4.5 and below
Methods of Food Preservation  steam pressure sterilization (processing at 10
▪ Categories of Food Preservation Techniques Based on to 15 pound pressure to achieve heating at 116
the Mode of Action to 121C) – applied for low acid foods with pH
▫ Inhibition - slowing down or inhibiting chemical above 4.5 and water activity of above 0.85
deterioration and microbial growth  aseptic processing – ultrahigh temperatures
▫ Inactivation - directly inactivating bacteria, yeasts, typically at 135 to 140C
molds, or enzymes Temperature Reduction
▫ Indirect Approach (Avoid Recontamination) - before Chilling (Refrigeration)
and after processing ▪ is used to reduce the temperature of the food from
one processing temperature to another or to required
Heat Application storage temperature.
▪ Thermal Processing - generic term used for methods of ▪ The objective of cooling and chilling is to reduce the
preservation using heat to destroy microorganisms rate of biochemical and microbiological changes in
responsible for spoilage foods in order to extend the shelf-life of fresh and
processed foods, or to maintain a certain temperature
in a food process
Freezing  it is related to pickling (preparing food with
▪ Both methods apply temperatures that inhibit the brine, that is, salty water) and is one form of
growth of microorganisms as well as some enzymes curing
▪ At chilling temperatures, the water portion of a food  it is one of the oldest methods of preserving
remains in liquid state while at freezing temperatures, food
most of the water in food is converted to solid ice Salt
Water Activity Control  chemically known as sodium chloride (NaCl =
▪ Water activity is a critical factor that determines shelf- 40% Na, 60% Cl)
life  second to sugar as the most frequently used
▪ It may be the most important factor in controlling food additive by weight
spoilage  it is a crystalline seasoning that may or may not
▪ It also has an influence in determining the activity of be iodized and combined with anticaking
enzymes and vitamins in foods and can have a major material
impact on color, taste and aroma.  it should be added to food in small increments
Drying & Dehydration because of the potential to overwhelm the taste
▪ The amount of water is removed/reduced to such a buds when too much is added
low level that microorganism can no longer grow Types of salt used in food preparation:
Sugar Preservation a. sea salt – obtained from evaporated
▪ Sugar ties up the water content in the food to a level sea water
that will inhibit the growth of spoilage microorganisms b. rock salt – obtained from ancient sea
Concentration beds that have long dried up and are
▪ Involves the removal of water underground
Salting & Curing c. table salt – refined rock salt that is
▪ Salt is responsible for the reduction in water activity often fortified with iodine and contains
▪ Curing involves water activity control and acidity additives to prevent caking
control since curing may include some fermentation d. kosher salt – rock salt with no
reactions additives; preferred by professional chefs
because its large, flaky crystals that are picked
up easily with fingers
Acidity Control e. flavored salt – garlic, onion and
▪ pH is another critical factor for microbial growth celery salt mixtures
▪ use of acids to preserve food is practiced by all Functions of Salt in Foods
cultures throughout the world • Flavor enhancer • Binder • Texture enhancer • Color
a. Fermentation b. Pickling aid • Control agent • Preservative
Preservation Action of Salt
Chemical Preservation 1. Salt dries food. Salt draws water out of the food and
▪ chemical additives are used to preserve food, usually dehydrates it.
in conjunction with other methods such as 2. Salt kills microbes. High salt is toxic to most microbes
pasteurization, use of acids or storage at low because of the effect of osmolarity, or water pressure.
temperatures Methods of Salting Foods
▪ the common preservatives are: benzoates, sorbates, 1. Dry Salting
nitrate and nitrite, lactate, antioxidants  The food is buried or covered with
Control of Oxygen granular salt and left in a cool dry
▪ oxygen control through packaging can augment place
preservation, but cannot affect food preservation on its  As water will be drawn out into the
own salt it may be necessary to pour the
liquid that accumulates out.
LESSON 6 PRESERVATION BY SALTING/CORNING 2. Wet/ Brine Salting (Immersion in Concentrated
What is Salting or Salt curing or Corning? Brine)
 is the preservation of food with dry edible salt  A brine is prepared by dissolving salt in water,
(NaCl) the food is then placed in the brine and left in a
cool dry place
  It is possible to introduce new flavours to the produce a characteristic flavor, and give
food by adding spices to the brine. meat a pink or red color. Nitrate (NO3), in
3. Kench Curing the form of either sodium nitrate or
 Big, non-fatty fishes are split open and salted. potassium nitrate, is used as a source for
The salted spilt fishes are layered and the brine nitrite (NO2). The nitrite further breaks
that forms are allowed to drain off. down in the meat into nitric oxide (NO),
 This method is especially popular for large lean which then binds to the iron atom in the
fish species. center of myoglobin's heme group,
Examples of Salt-cured Foods preventing oxidation.
 Salted dried fish Curing Ingredients
 Corned beef Basic Ingredients
 Salted egg Salt
 Bagoong • Basic ingredients to all curing mixes
Spoilage of Salted Fish •It lowers water activity
 The most significant spoilage •Inhibit microbial growth
microorganisms are halophiles which •A flavoring material
require 10% salt for growth and exhibit pink •Increases the gel strength of sausage mixes
discoloration (pink spoilage) in the fish Sugar
• Added to curing mixture to balance flavor, it
LESSON 7 PRESERVATION BY CURING counters the harshness of salt
Curing • It has a softening effect by preventing the
•refers to various preservation and flavoring removal of moisture on the surface.
processes, especially of meat or fish, by the Nitrite (NO2)/Nitrate (NO3)
addition of a combination of salt, sugar and •Nitrite is an effective curing agent and nitrate
either nitrate or nitrite. is a source of nitrite
• salt-curing: curing with salt •Nitrite functions:
• sugar-curing: curing with sugar • Stabilizes the color of the lean tissues
• honey-curing: curing with honey • Contributes to the flavor of cured
• corning: application of pellets of salt called meat
corns • Inhibits the growth of bacteria
• wet-curing/pickling/brining: curing in a water • Retards the development of rancidity
solution or brine Salitre/Saltpeter/Potassium nitrate (KNO2)
• kippering: curing of fish • Disallowed by BFAD to be used in any cured
products because it is very easy to overuse
Chemical Action of Curing Prague Powder
 Salt inhibits the growth of spoilage-causing • Recommended instead of salitre as it contains
microorganisms by drawing water out of more ordinary salt than nitrite
microbial cells through osmosis. As the • The identification of curing salt as pink or light
unwanted bacterial population decreases, orange are safety measures to prevent overuse
other beneficial bacteria, primarily of the Prague Powder #1, Insta Cure, Modern Cure
Lactobacillus genus, come to the fore and • 6.25 % NaNO2
generate an acidic environment (around 4.5 • 93.75% salt, plus anti-caking agents •Used for all
pH). The sugar included in the cure is used curing other than dry
as food by the lactobacilli. This process is in •Usage: 100 g : 45 kg meat
fact a form of fermentation, and, in addition Prague Powder #2
to reducing further the ability of the • 6.25 % NaNO2
spoilage bacteria to grow, accounts for the • 4 % NaNO3
tangy flavor of some cured products. • 89.75% salt, plus anti-caking agents
Concentrations of salt up to 20% are • Mostly for dry curing
required to kill most species of unwanted • Meat products cured with Prague Powder #2 take a
bacteria. longer time to cure
 Nitrate and Nitrite compounds added to the • Usage: 1 t : 2 kg meat 100g : 45 kg meat
cure not only help kill bacteria, but also
Optional Ingredients • The meat is cured with the brine by injecting the brine
Phosphate using a meat pump or by soaking the meat for a specific
• Added to increase water-binding capacity and time.
consequently the yield of the finished product Combination Cure
• Used in most pumped meat Sodium Ascorbate and • This method combines the dry rub cure with injection
Erythorbate of brine solution.
• These reacts with nitrite to give nitric oxide, fastening • A combination cure is used for curing hams
the development of pink-red color in cured meat Sausage Cure Method
• Only sodium ascorbate and erythorbate are used in • The curing salt and spices are mixed with ground
practice since ascorbic acids reacts directly with nitrite meat.
Vitamin C (Sodium Ascorbic) Cured Meat Color
• Guarantee of a rapid and uniform reddening The active agent in curing is nitric oxide (NO) and is
• Reduction in the residual content of nitrite by more generated as follows:
than 50%, which means that the formation of (1) (2) (3)
physiologically unacceptable nitrosamines from free NaNO3 -----> NaNO2 -----> HONO -----> NO
nitrite is at the same time substantially prevented. 1. Sodium nitrate - is reduced to sodium nitrite by
Potassium Sorbate microorganisms such as Micrococcus spp. present on
•An anti-microbial agent, effective in inhibiting mold meats.
growth 2. Sodium nitrite - is reduced to nitrous acid in the
Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) presence of an acidic environment (fermentation).
•Used to enhance the flavor of meat products 3. Nitrous acid forms nitric oxide. Nitric oxide reacts
Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein with myoglobin (meat pigments) to form a red color.
•Added to many cured products particularly sausages Cure Accelerators
both emulsion and non-emulsion types to increase • Shortened the time required for a cured color to
protein content and yield develop
Carrageenan • speed up chemical conversion of nitric acid to nitric
• Function as gelling agents, stabilizers, texturants, oxide.
thickeners, and viscosifier • They also serve as oxygen scavengers, which slow the
Sodium and Potassium Lactate fading of the cured meat color in the presence of
•Use to extend shelf-life, protects meat flavor, and sunlight and oxygen.
control pathogenic bacteria • Some studies have indicated that cure accelerators
Spices have antimicrobial properties, especially for pathogens
•Includes a wide variety of true spices, herbs, and like E. coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes
vegetable bulbs Flavor of Cured Meats
• They determine specific unique characteristic of cured • Besides preservation, the process of curing introduces
meat products both a desired flavor and color. Cured meat flavor is
Meat Curing Methods thought to be a composite result of the flavors of the
• Curing is carried out at refrigeration temperatures (2.2 curing agents and those developed by bacterial and
– 4˚C). At colder temperature, meat will not cure enzymatic action.
properly. At warmer temperature it encourage growth • Salt • Sugar • Spices and Flavor Enhancers
of spoilage microorganisms. • Fermentation • Smoking
Dry Curing Post Processing of Cured Foods
• Applying the cure mix directly on meat • Cured meats can be consumed as is or undergo
• The blend of cure mix is rubbed on and into the meat further processing to achieve a final product
• The salt will extract water from the meat. • Smoking. The smoking process both preserves and
• It is important that this water is drained so there is as flavors food. Smoking for preservation (smoke cooking)
little liquid as possible in the container and smoking for texture and flavor. Ex.: hams, bacon
• Products that are dry cured: • Fermenting and drying. Some cured sausages are also
•Ham •Bacon •Tocino fermented and dried, e.g., salami and pepperoni
Brine Curing
• Also called sweet pickle cure
• Involves mixing the curing salt with water to make a
sweet pickle solution.
LESSON 16 FOOD SMOKING Smoking Meat and Poultry
Food Smoking • Thaw meat before smoking
• An ancient method of preserving food using wood • Marinate in the refrigerator
smoke. • Partial cooking
• When humans started farming, smoking was one of • Using a smoker
the few methods of preserving meat. • Chill promptly
• Smoke houses started to appear on farms, apart from • Preventing foodborne illness
the main building – due to smoke, and the fire risk. • Clean • Separate • Cook • Chill
• Smoked food is usually meat, sausages, fish or cheese,
but can also include eggs, vegetables and nuts. LESSON 8
Benefits of Smoking PRESERVATION BY PICKLING
• Wood smoke contains compounds such as phenols Pickling
that inhibit the growth of microbes that cause food to
spoil. Preserving foods in vinegar (or other acids).
• Salt, which is used to cure or brine prior to smoking,
draws the water out of the cells of the bacteria and kills
Preservative Action of Vinegar
them.
The preservative action of vinegar is
• Smoking is often more important to improve flavor
based upon its acetic acid content. Pathogenic
than the preserving properties of the smoke.
bacteria are rapidly destroyed in pickle
• It is a way of increasing their range and adding quality
and value to their products, which is what an increasing solutions containing three percent acetic acid
number of customers demand. and three and one-half percent salt.
Types of Smoking Vinegar is important as a preservative,
A. Cold smoking because it reduces the thermal death time of
 is the method used for preservation, often microorganisms and either inhibits or kills
referred to as 'real' smoking microorganisms, depending on the
 used as a flavor enhancer  Cold smoking concentration used. Vinegar works as a better
temperature: 20 to 30 °C (68 to 86 °F) for preservative than salt because its acetic acid
several hours to 3 weeks kills bacteria rather than just dehydrating as salt
 Cold smoking does not cook foods but foods does.
take on a smoked flavor Besides its preservative effect, the
 The smoked product is still 'raw' after cold acetic compounds function also as
smoking (e.g. Parma Ham or salami) sequesterant, acidulant and flavoring agent.
 Some cold smoked foods have to be cooked The USFDA recognizes these types of vinegar:
before eating. Food needs to be cured before 1. cider vinegar - is a type of vinegar made from
cold smoking. cider or apple must and has a pale to
B. Hot smoking medium amber color
 exposes the foods to smoke in a controlled 2. malt vinegar - also called alegar, is made by
environment malting barley, causing the starch in the
 Hot smoking temperature: 52 to 80 °C (126 to grain to turn to maltose
176 °F). The smoking time varies from minutes 3. cane vinegar - is made from syrup from
up to a few hours. sugar cane
 Foods are fully cooked, moist, and flavorful 2 4. wine vinegar – is made from red or white
 Prior to hot smoking, food is often cold smoked
wine, and is the most commonly used
for a period of time to support the drying
vinegar in Southern and Central Europe
process and enhance the flavor.
5. spirit vinegar – from distilled grain alcohol
C. Smoke roasting or smoke baking
 smoking combined with either roasting or
baking
 sometimes referred to as "barbecuing", "pit
baking", or "pit roasting
 Smoke roasting temperature: above 250 °F (121
°C)
 Vinegar must contain not less than 4 grams acetic • Use a 15% salt solution (60
acid per 100 ml. Salinometer brine) by preparing 150g of
pure salt and dissolving this in 850ml
Pickles water.
Foods soaked in • Prepare enough brine to cover the
solutions that help cucumber; should be completely
prevent spoilage submerged in the brine. At this brine
There are 2 categories of concentration, only the salt tolerant
lactic acid-forming bacteria will grow
Pickles:
while the spoilage bacteria will be
1. Pickles preserved in vinegar – e.g., relishes inhibited.
and ketchup c. Osmotic drying
2. Pickles soaked in brine solution to encourage • It is necessary to maintain the original
the growth of fermentative bacteria 15% salt in the soaking brine by simple
- e.g., kimchi, sauerkraut, cucumber dill adding more salt to the brine after the
pickles, burong mustasa first 24 hours of soaking as migration of
water from the cucumber to the
Classes of Pickles soaking brine due to the osmotic
1. Brined or cured pickles (fermented) pressure will lower the brine
• Hold vegetables in salt solution for concentration.
several weeks until cured. During this time, d. Pickling water
changes in color, flavor and texture takes place. • Soft water is best for pickling as
2. Fresh pack or unfermented pickles hardness of water (dissolved
• The vinegar in the recipe preserves the fruit or carbonates) will interfere with the
vegetables. pickling process. Better use distilled
• Papaya atchara is a classic example of water.
this type of pickle • Too much chlorine in the water can also
3. Relishes, Chutney and Ketchup interfere with fermentation. To avoid
• Combined chopped or pureed vegetables or this, allow tap water to stand overnight
fruits with vinegar, salt, sugar and spices before using.
• Chutney is described as a condiment made up of e. Fermentation
a mix of chopped fruits, vinegar, spices and • The salt-tolerant lactic acid bacteria
sugar cooked into a chunky spread. Most are cause natural fermentation
spicy-hot but always distinctively sweet-sour. It transforming natural sugars to lactic
is usually served to compliment curried foods. acid.
• Relish are usually chopped up crunchy pickled • The amount of salt in the brine is very
vegetables. important if fermentation is to go well
• Ketchup/ Catsup is either a tomato- a. too little salt – lets undesirable
based or banana-based condiment with added bacteria grow rapidly
vinegar, sugar, salt and spices. b. too much salt – slows down the
4. Fruit pickles fermentation process causing
• Whole or sliced fruit in a spicy sweet-sour syrup yeasts and molds to grow on the
surface of the brine
Cured or Fermented Pickles • After two weeks, pack the pickles in
1. Cucumber Pickle clean jars adding the salt stock in brine,
Process: process the jars in 10 mins-15 mins in
boiling water bath canner. This also
a. Cucumber selection stops the fermentation.
• Size: for gherkins (1 – 1 ½ inches); dill (4
inches)
b. Salting
2. Sauerkraut 4. Philippine Buro
Use freshly harvested firm heads of Makes use of mustasa, santol and green
cabbage (best between 24 – 48 hours after mangoes
harvest)
Mix very well the shredded cabbage with Santol and green mangoes are fermented in
non-iodized salt at the rate of 2.5 – brine; mustasa make use of hugas bigas as a
3.0% of the cabbage ( for every kilo, use source of additional fermentable
25-30 grams salt) carbohydrates.

Pack firmly in a suitable ceramic or food Ingredients of Pickling Solution

grade plastic container. Water will be 1. Salt
drawn out of the cabbage as soon as the
Gives flavor to pickles, makes the product crisp
salt is added due to osmotic effects.
Sauerkraut is more sensitive to and acts as preservative.
temperature than cucumber fermentation. Use non-iodized pickling salt. Iodine may react with
The best temperature for fermenting starches causing discoloration or darkening.
sauerkraut is 15 – 21 C and the maximum
temperature is 25 C. 2. Vinegar
Sauerkraut will be fully fermented in about Use vinegar with at least 4% acidity. Too low
3-4 weeks (18- 21 C), 5-6 weeks acidity will not preserve the vegetable.
(below 15 C).
Use white vinegar for a lighter color vegetables
Pack the fermented cabbage and kept such as ubod, singkamas, radish, onions and
under refrigeration or may be frozen.
cauliflower.
3. Kimchi
3. Sweeteners
It is a traditional pickled vegetable in Korea
that has become popular in the Acts as preservative mainly by increasing the
Philippines. density of the pickle solution. It also adds
It is a spicy hot pickle due to the addition sweetness to the product.
of hot chili. White granulated sugar and brown sugars are
the sweeteners most often used in pickling.
The usual raw material is Chinese cabbage, White sugar will not add any color to
Chinese Pechay or sometimes Baguio the product; brown sugar may add a distinctive
petchay. flavor and color.
Other vegetables such as eggplant, 4. Firming agents
pumpkin flower, cucumbers, radishes, Use lime (apog) and alum (tawas) with
mustard leaves can be made as well. caution and if needed only.
There are 3 essential steps in making
5. Spices
kimchi:
a. salting of vegetables – salt Pickling spices is a variety mix of whole spices.
concentration of 2.5-3% by weight of
Common spices include: coriander, mustard,
the vegetable
peppercorns, dried hot pepper, cloves bay leafs
b. addition of spices – hot pepper, crushed
and others
garlic, green onions
c. fermentation – similar to sauerkraut; Use whole spices as powdered spices may
same temperature requirement applies darken and cloud the product.

In most cases, a pickling bag is used usually made

with gauze or muslin cloth where the whole spices
are packed. This is tied up at the open end to
prevent the spices from spilling out and placed in
 the vinegar mixture to steep. It is removed from the 4. failure to thoroughly wash products to be pickled
vinegar just before bottling.
5. not removing the scum that accumulates on curing
Pickling spices used in most Philippine brines
atchara usually consists of onions, garlic,
pepper, ginger, langkuas, which are all packed 6. using a weak brine or vinegar solution
with the atchara. 7. not keeping the pickles covered with brine
Pickling Solution Formulation throughout the curing process
May vary as desired. However, the vinegar is
8. using deteriorated ingredients such as decayed
standardized to assure a safe product.
spices, moldy garlic
1. Sweet-sour pickle
9. storing pickles at too warm a temperature
To prepare 1 liter, combine 445 grams
refined sugar with 555 grams vinegar (4.5% Other Problems with Pickles
acidity)
2. Sweet pickle 1. Shriveling
To prepare 1 liter, combine 500 grams Happens most often in very sweet or sour
refined sugar with 500 grams vinegar (4.5% pickles and in large whole cucumber pickles
acidity) Causes:
3. Sour pickle a. using salt, vinegar or sugar solution that is
To prepare 1 liter, combine 350 grams refined too strong at the beginning of the pickling
sugar with 650 grams vinegar (4.5% acidity) process b. overcooking

2. Hollow pickles
Do’s and Don’ts in Pickling Fruits and Vegetables
Common to cucumbers that stand for
1. Select your product
more than 24 hours before processing
3. Discolored pickles
Use only firm, fresh, unbruised fruits and
vegetables of the best quality. Maybe caused by iron from hard water or an
2. Check your equipment iron cooking utensil
Use a stove or clean container for Iodized salt ground spices, too much spice or
pickling. A glass jar or bottle container, enamel packing the spice bag in jars will darken pickles
ware or stainless steel may be used for cooked
pickles. 4. White sediment
3. Work quickly to conserve freshness Observed at the bottom of the jar; may be
Apply this method to avoid caused by anticaking agents in the salt or by
deterioration and avoid delaying of pickling. fermenting bacteria
4. Choose your method
Use modern pickles recipes. Taste the pickles 5. Blue, purple or blue-green garlic
before storing them in a cool and dry place. And May result from immature garlic or garlic that is
do not place them at direct sunlight to retain its not fully dry, from copper pans or from a high
taste. amount of copper in the water.
LESSON 9
Spoilage of Pickles
PRESERVATION BY FERMENTATION
Soft, slippery or slimy pickles are spoiled.
Possible causes of spoilage: insufficient heat
Fermentation
treatment
1. insufficient heat treatment is the “slow decomposition process of organic
2. poor jar seals substances induced by microorganisms, or by
complex nitrogenous substances (enzymes) of
3. failure to remove blossom ends plant or animal origin”
 it can be describe as a biochemical change, which is • Africa: palm wine vinegar
brought about by the • Philippines: coconut water vinegar
anaerobic or partially anaerobic oxidation of
carbohydrates by either microorganisms or
enzymes 3. Lactic acid fermentation –process by which sugar in
the food (lactose) is acted upon by lactic acid
also described as a process in which bacteria to produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide.
microorganisms change the sensory (flavor, odor,
etc.) and functional properties of a food to Lactose glucose + galactose
produce an end product that is desirable to the lactic acid Disaccharide enzyme
consumer. it is a preservation method not lactic acid bacteria
invented but rather discovered
Lactic acid fermentation is used throughout the
it is a relatively efficient, low energy preservation
world to produce specialty foods: Fermented
process, which increases the shelf-
vegetables: sauerkraut, pickled cucumbers,
life and decreases the need for refrigeration or
other form of food preservation technology radishes, carrots, and olives
Types of Fermentation • Fermented milks: yogurt, kefir, and cheeses
• Fermented/leavened bread: sourdough bread
1. Alcoholic fermentation – action of yeast to a given • Fermented meat: sausages
substrate containing sugar or any fermentable
carbohydrates to produce alcohol and carbon
dioxide under aerobic or semi-aerobic conditions. Benefits of Fermentation

C6H12O6 1. Removal of anti-nutritional factors

2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Many fruits and vegetables contain naturally
occurring toxins and anti-nutritional
Glucose yeast ethyl alcohol compounds. These can be removed or
+ carbon dioxide detoxified by the action of microorganisms
during fermentation (Ex. Removal of cyanide -
E.g., yeast bread, wines, beer, distilled cyanogenic glucoside in cassava)
liquors 2. Increase in livelihood
Africa –production of fermented cassava
products (Gari and Fufu)

Korea – production of fermented cabbage

(Kimchi)

2. Acetic acid fermentation –alcohol produced from

Indonesia & Japan – production of fermented soybean
alcoholic fermentation is further acted upon by (Soy sauce)
Acetobacter bacteria to produce acetic acid or Japan – production of fermented soybean (Miso)
vinegar.
Latin America – production of fermented cereals,
C2H5O6 + O2 alcoholic drinks and fermented milk products
CH3COOH 3. Improving nutrition
+ H2O Fermentation can enhance the nutritional value
of a food product through increased vitamin
Bacteria acetic levels and improved digestibility.
acid + water Ex. Sorghum beer in Southern Africa – contains
high levels of riboflavin and nicotinic acid Palm
• Western Europe: apple cider vinegar and wine wine in West Africa – high in Vitamin B12 Pulque
vinegar, kambucha (fermented plant sap) in Mexico – high in
 thiamine, niacin & riboflavin Idli in India - high in They can be subdivided based on their products from
thiamine and riboflavin glucose fermentation:
4. Improving digestibility
Microorganisms contain certain enzymes such as Homofermenters produce lactic acid as the
major or sole products from glucose
cellulases, which are incapable of being
Heterofermentors produce equimolar amounts
synthesized by humans. Microbial cellulases
of lactate, carbon dioxide, and ethanol
hydrolyze cellulose into sugars which are then
readily digestible by humans.
2. Acetic Acid Bacteria
Pectinases soften the texture of foods and liberates
sugars for digestion. Acid tolerant, grow well at pH levels below pH
5.0, are Gram-negative, motile rods, and are
Fermented foods are often more easily digestible obligate aerobe
than unfermented foods.
5. Medicinal benefits Acetic acid bacteria consist of two genera:
Koumiss (fermented milk Acetobacter and Gluconobacter
product) in Russia – used to treat
The most desirable action of acetic acid bacteria is in
tuberculosis Pulque is felt to
have medicinal properties in Mexico the production of vinegar
The scientific basis for these The same reaction can also occur in wines, when
assertions: oxygen is available, and here the oxidation of
a. the lowering of pH inhibits the growth of alcohol to acetic acid is an undesirable change,
spoilage or poisoning bacteria and destroys giving the wine a vinegary off-taste.
certain pathogens
3. Yeasts
b. certain lactic acid bacteria (e.g.,
Lactobacillus acidophilus) and molds have Yeasts are widely distributed in natural habitats
been found to produce antibiotics and that are nutritionally rich and high in
bacteriocins. Add to this is the well carbohydrates, such as fruits and plant nectars
documented health effects of lactic acid
bacteria on the intestinal flora. The most beneficial yeasts in terms of desirable
food fermentation are from the Saccharomyces
Organisms Responsible for Food Fermentations family, especially S. cerevisiae.

1. Lactic Acid Bacteria They produce enzymes that favor desirable

chemical reactions such as the leavening of
LAB performs an essential role in the bread and the production of alcohol and invert
preservation and production of wholesome sugar.
foods
Ex. S. cerevisiae var. ellipsoideus, S. pombe, S.
The primary use of lactic acid in food industry is uvarum
as a preservative, an acidulant and a dough
conditioner. 4. Molds
Molds of the genus Penicillium are associated
Genera of LAB commonly used in food fermentation:
with the ripening and flavor of cheeses.
• Lactobacillus
The Aspergillus species are often responsible
• Lactococcus
for undesirable changes in foods
• Leuconostoc
• Pediococcus An even smaller number are used to make
• Streptococcus fermented soyfoods: the molds are Aspergillus,
• Weisella Rhizopus, Mucor and Neurospora species.
• Enterococcus
5. Starter Cultures obtained from fermentation of aguamiel or Century
Starter cultures may be pure or mixed cultures. plant; has 6 – 7% alcohol
8. Ulanzi (Bamboo wine): fermented bamboo sap
Using mixed starter cultures can reduce the obtained by tapping young bamboo shoots during
risks of bacteriophage infection and improve the the rainy season. It is clear, whitish drink with a
quality of the foods when the organisms are sweet and alcoholic flavor. Produced in Africa.
mutually beneficial. 9. Basi: it’s a sugarcane wine made in the Philippines
Food fermentations frequently involve a complex by fermenting boiled, freshly extracted sugar cane
succession of microorganisms induced by juice.
10. Muratina: alcoholic drink made from sugar cane
dynamic environmental conditions.
and muratina fruit in Kenya.
Fermentative microorganisms must be safe to 11. Jackfruit wine: produced from the pulp of ripe
eat even in high numbers and must produce jackfruit.
substantial amounts of the desired end 12. Tepache: light, refreshing beverage prepared from
product(s) maize consumed throughout Mexico.
13. Colonche: a sweet, fizzy beverage produced in
Mexico by fermenting juice of the fruits of prickly
 These are fermentation end product of some pear cacti
microorganisms: 14. Date wine: popular in Sudan and North Africa made
from dates.
• Saccharomyces: ethyl alcohol and carbon
15. Sparkling grape wine
dioxide
Products of Bacterial Fermentation
• Streptococcus and Lactobacillus: lactic acid
• Propionibacterium: propionic acid, acetic acid,
1. Dairy products cheddar cheese
and carbon dioxide
(Lactobacillus lactis) buttermilk (Lactobacillus
• Eischerichia coli: acetic acid, lactic acid, succinic
lactis) yoghurt (Streptococcus thermophiles)
acid, ethyl alcohol, carbon dioxide, and
kefir (Lactobacillus lactis) Yakult (Lactobacillus
hydrogen
bulgaricus)
• Enterobacter: formic acid, ethyl alcohol, 2,3-
Camembert cheese (Lactobacillus cremoris)
butanediol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and
Cottage cheese (Lactobacillus lactis)
hydrogen
• Clostridium: butyric acid, butyl alcohol, Stilton cheese (Leuconostoc sp)
acetone, isopropyl alcohol, carbon dioxide, and Swiss cheese (Propionibacterium)
hydrogen Limburger cheese (Brevibacterium linens)
 It is essential with any fermentation to ensure 2. Vegetable products sauerkraut (Leuconostoc
that only the desired bacteria, yeasts or molds mesenteroides, Lactobacillus brevis, Pediococcus
start to multiple or grow on the substrate. cerevisiae, Lactobacillus plantarum)
Products of Yeast Fermentation
olives (Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus,
1. Red grape wine Pediococcus, Streptococcus)
2. White grape wine various pickles (dill pickles, dry
3. Banana beer (Africa): made from banana mixed salted pickle, green mango pickle),
with sorghum flour and an orange kimchi Natto (Bacillus subtilis)
4. Cashew wine (Asia and Latin America):light yellow 3. Meat products
alcoholic drink with 6-12% alcohol Cervelat - smoked sausage made from a
5. Palm wine (West Africa) – variety of flavours from combination of pork and beef produced
sweet, sour and vinegary salami
6. Toddy (Asia, India and Sri Lanka): from fermented pepperoni
sap of coconut palm; 4 – 6% alcohol & has a shelf- 4. Sourdough breads is made by the fermentation of
life of 24 hours dough using naturally-occurring lactobacilli and yeast
7. Pulque: national drink of Mexico; milky, slightly
foamy, acidic and somewhat viscous beverage
Products of Mold Fermentation 3. Shoyu (soy sauce)
• a salty and brown liquid that is obtained by a
a. Tempeh - is a traditional soy product lengthy fermentation of soybean and wheat
originally from Indonesia; Rhizopus mixture.
oligosporus or Rhizopus oryzae • the soybeans and wheat are blended with a
b. Miso - is a traditional Japanese starter culture (Aspergillus oryzae). The mixture
seasoning produced by fermenting is then allowed to ferment for a few days in
soybeans with salt and the fungus large perforated vats. This culture, which is
Aspergillus oryzae. called Koji, is then transferred to fermentation
c. Soy sauce - is a condiment made from a tanks, where salt and water is added. This
fermented paste of boiled soybeans, mash, called moroni, undergoes a further
roasted grain, brine, and Aspergillus fermentation of 6 months. After this period, the
oryzae or Aspergillus sojae molds. mash is pressed to extract the shoyu.
d. Rice wine (Sake) - a Japanese rice wine • During the soy sauce fermentation process,
made by fermenting rice that has been enzymes produced by the mold break down the
polished to remove the bran; uses soy proteins. As a result, most naturally
Aspergillus oryzae.
fermented soy sauces contain no detectable
e. Roquefort cheese - a sheep
levels of gluten (<5ppm) and can be considered
milk blue cheese from the south of
as gluten-free.
France; uses Penicillium roqueforti.
• The taste and color of shoyu depends on salt
Soy Fermentation
concentration, fermentation temperature and
duration.
1. Natto • Shoyu is very popular in Asian countries
• a traditional Japanese food such as Japan and China. A major brand of
• Natto are soybeans that are fermented by naturally fermented shoyu is Kikkoman.
Bacillus subtilus natto bacteria. Bread fermentation
• Natto possesses an odour of ammonia as a During the fermentation process of bread, sugar is
result of the breakdown of amino acids by
converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The
Bacillus subtilis natto. During the natto carbon dioxide will form bubbles, which will be
fermentation viscous and sticky polymers
trapped by the gluten of the wheat causing the
(polyglutamic acid) are produced which makes bread to rise. Because the bread fermentation
the natto very slimy. Because of this odour and takes a short period, only small amounts of
appearance, natto is not so popular anymore. alcohol are formed, most of which will
• Some of the beneficial effects of natto evaporate during the bread baking process.
include prevention of heart attacks, cancer,
osteoporosis and intestinal infections. Natto
Yogurt fermentation
bacteria have a strong enzyme, which can • Yogurt is made by fermenting milk with friendly
dissolve blood clots. bacteria, mainly Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
Streptococcus thermophilus.
2. Miso
• Yogurt fermentation was invented probably by
• a traditional Japanese fermented soy product. accident by Balkan tribes thousands of years
• Miso is from koji mixed with rice, barley ago. Yogurt remained mainly a food of eastern
or soybeans. The miso is fermented and aged in Europe until the 1900s, when the biologist
wooden kegs. The lighter and sweeter types of Mechnikov created the theory that lactobacillus
miso are only fermented and aged during one bacteria in yogurt are responsible for the
to two months. The darker types of miso may unusually long lifespans of the Bulgar people.
be aged for up to 2 years and have a strong and • The milk sugar or lactose is fermented by these
salty taste. Japanese drink each morning a cup
bacteria to lactic acid which causes the
of miso soup, which is renowned to induce a characteristic curd to form. The acid also
health promoting effect for the consumer. restricts the growth of food poisoning bacteria.
 • During the yogurt fermentation some flavors LESSON 17
are produced, which give yogurt its DRYING/DEHYDRATION
characteristic flavor. Drying /Dehydration
• Yoghurt can easily be made at home using a live
yogurt as the starter culture.  food preservation process that consists of
removing the food’s water, which effectively
Magou fermentation inhibits the growth of microorganisms
 one of the oldest methods of food
• Magou is very popular in South Africa,
preservation
especially among the Bantu people.
Drying. General term applied to all methods of
• Magou is a lactic acid fermented porridge made
from maize. removing moisture in the food, by sun or
• To make magou, a 10 percent maize meal slurry
artificial heat
is cooked, cooled and inoculated with wheat
flour, which contains the bacteria lactobacillus
Dehydration. Drying by artificially produced heat under
delbreuckii cultures
Kefir fermentation controlled condition of temperature, humidity
• Kefir fermentation is similar to yogurt & air flow in a chamber.
fermentation. Yogurt is only fermented by
bacteria but kefir fermentation involves the Advantages of Dried and Dehydrated Foods
help of bacteria as well as yeasts. These yeast The principal reason for drying and dehydration is
produce some alcohol and carbon dioxide,
preservation. The other advantages are:
which gives kefir its typical fizzy aspect.
• Kefir is inoculated with special kefir grains.
a. Decrease in weight and bulk, thus
These grains are mixtures of bacteria and
yeasts in a matrix of proteins, lipids and making it easier to transport and
carbohydrates. Kefir fermentation is done at handle.
room temperature, which makes the process b. Convenience. Dried beverages such as
easier.
dried coffee, dried soup mixes, dried
• not everyone likes the taste of kefir.
Safety of Fermented food fruits are examples of very easy to use
• Fermented foods have a very good safety food products.
record, even in developing countries where
food is produced under poor hygienic c. Shelf stable. Dried foods can be kept at
conditions. ambient temperatures.
• Fermented foods are overgrown by desirable d. Once dried, the food can be
and edible microorganisms, thereby reducing
eaten as is, or can be rehydrated (have
the risk of contamination with pathogens such
as salmonella and Clostridium. water added), which changes its size,
flavor and texture.
Mechanism of Drying/Dehydration
All methods of drying involves a simultaneous
processes: getting heat into the food (heat transfer) and
getting the water out of the food (mass transfer). In
Drying it is important to complete the drying process in
the shortest possible time (maximize drying rates) while
minimizing losses in desirable product characteristics
such as color, flavor and nutritional value. The rate of 3. Commercial drying – include most important
types such as: conventional drying, vacuum
drying is affected by the following factors:
drying, osmotic drying and freeze-drying.
1. Humidity. With air as the drying medium, the a. conventional drying – uses heat to
drier the air the more rapid the rate of drying. evaporate water within kilns or drying
The dryness of the air which is expressed as rooms
the relative humidity, is the most important b. tray/cabinet drying – food is spread
factor in air drying. out thinly on trays and heating may
2. Surface area. Generally, food to be dried is cut be by an air current or by radiation
into small pieces or thin layer to speed both from heated surfaces
the transfer of heat and the loss of water from c. tunnel drying – food is placed on trays
the food. Smaller pieces provide larger surface or “cars”
area and more surface for water to escape. It d. spray drying–used to produce nonfat
also shortens the distance for both heat dried milk and some types of instant
transfer and water removal. coffee; can be used to dry liquid foods
3. Temperature. The greater the temperature e. roller /drum drying–the liquid
difference between the food and the heating food is poured over the very hot
medium the faster will be the transfer of heat surface of a drum dryer, resembling a
to food, The maximum drying temperature is large barrel; used for drying mashed-
determined by the kind of food being dried. potato flakes & Quick-cooking cereals
Losses in color and nutrients are also higher at 3. Vacuum drying – pulls the water out /
higher drying temperatures. dehydrates foods to very low moisture levels (1%
- 3%) through the use of a vacuum. Used for
4. Air velocity. Air in motion picks up the drying milk, orange juice, tomato paste and
moisture-laiden air from the drying food coffee.
surface preventing the saturation of the 4. Osmotic drying –not often used
surrounding air with the moisture from the commercially; the food is soak in high
food. concentration of syrup or sugar that osmotically
5. Ventilation/moist air outlet. Moisture laden draws water from the food being dried.
has has to escape from the drying chamber 5. Freeze-drying – the food is freeze first
otherwise the drying air will become saturated then placed it in a vacuum, where the ice
with moisture and can no longer pick up the sublimates to a vapor; yield the highest quality
moisture from the surface of the food. dried products however process is more costly.
6. Atmospheric pressure and vacuum. At a Stages of Drying
constant temperature, a decrease in pressure,
increase the rate of boiling. Water in heated When a food is dried, the rate of moisture removal is
vacuum chamber will lose moisture at a lower not consistent throughout. Two stages of the drying
temperature, or at a faster rate than it would process are distinguished, the constant rate period and
be in a chamber at atmospheric pressure. the falling rate period.
Methods of Drying & Dehydration a. Constant rate period. At the start of the
1. Sun-drying - traditionally carried out by drying process, the food material is still
the sun; drying takes a long time and exposes completely wet. The surface water quickly
foods to weather and to the action of insects; evaporates from the surface. This is quickly
use for drying nuts, grains, legumes, fish. replaced as more water molecules move to
2. Solar Drying – Solar drying is different the surface to replace that which had just
from sun drying. Solar drying uses equipment to been vaporized. This stage of the drying
collect the sun’s rays in a unit designed to process is aptly called the constant rate
ventilate moisture. The temperature is usually period of drying.
20-30 degrees higher than in open sunlight. b. Falling rate period. The highest rate of
drying is normally achieved during the
constant rate period. As drying proceeds
 the moisture content falls and the access of moisture from the under dried pieces to be
water from the interior of the food to the absorbed by the over dried pieces.
surface decreases the drying rate. As the Packaging - The most practical
moisture content decreases, the rates of packaging for dried food is Low Density
drying become very slow. The actual detail Polyethylene (LDPE) with thickness of at
of such drop in rates depends on the least .003inches (3 mil).
specific material and the conditions of the
drying process. This stage of drying is called
the falling rate period.
Types of Food to Dry

Practically all types of fresh fruits, vegetables, herbs,

meat and fish can be dried. Seeds, leafy vegetables and
herbs are probably the easiest to dry. The advent of
new drying technologies had made possible the
dehydration of practically all food items including juices
or liquid extracts like coffee and tea.
Case Hardening

Rapid dehydration is desirable. The higher the

temperature and the lower the humidity, the more
rapid the rate of dehydration will be, but if drying takes
place too fast, “case hardening” will occur. This means
that the cells on the outside of the pieces of food give
up moisture faster than the cells and inside. The surface
becomes hard, preventing the escape of moisture from
the inside cells. This will prevent the water in the inner
part of the piece from vaporizing, resulting in high
moisture, making it susceptible to spoilage.
Sulfur dioxide (either in sulfite solution
or sulfur dioxide gas) – often used in dried
fruit to preserve their natural color, prevent
spoilage and protect against loss of Vitamin
A & C.
Testing for Dryness:
a. can be determined by the required water
activity or moisture content
b. weighing – weight loss is assumed to be
water loss
c. squeezing a few pieces of the product
(no moisture left on your hand when you
open it)
 fruits: 4 – 10 hrs drying
 vegetables: 4 – 12 hrs drying
 herbs: 2-3 days (air-dried), 2-3
hrs (cabinet drying)
Conditioning / Sweating – process
where the dried products are placed in a
closed container lined with muslin or
cheesecloth for atleast 24 hrs to allow the