JEXPERIMEN?.» a Mere bridge ond hence determine the specie yy, b ng 0 OBJECTIVE: | J To find the resistance of a given wire using, its material. APPARATUS: sch specific resistance is t0 Be determined), a theostt, (of which speci cid accumulator/battery eliminator, screy bat ti ‘A metre bridge, about Im long wire ( ee resistance box, jockey, one way key, a galvanometes connecting wires, sand paper and a metre scale. fection when resistance introduced in the ist . THEORY: 4 'c up shows 777 than the unknown resistance, If the galvanometer of the metre bridge set Lcit box is R and the jockey is at position B such that AB = L cl R(L00-L) xe However, If we interchange the positions of X and R then ae ** 0) x determine th , in il is can determine i Thus knowing R, radius r and length L’ of the wire wih resistance X, We © Specific resistin the given wire. Reine Bot) nooo Rep) mx M Specific resistance of the wire p = Tr a’(100-L)R 5 ¢ gE }+$— 1 + +1001) __ PROCEDURE: | 1, Connect the right circuit as per the circuit diagram. — e 2. Make the ends of the connecting wires free of insulation. E K Fig. 2.1: Circuit diagram 3. Make all connections tight. 4, Remove plug from the plug key and tight all the plugs in the resistance box. 5. Press the jockey at both ends of the Im wire, if deflection in the galvanometer is opposite direction tka connections are right.6. Press the jock ey nearly in the 7 Middle of the wir resistance in the vert ach he, ite (between 39 em mark and 70cm mark) and aus 7. Now move the j jockey and i ee *Y and obtain exact no deflection in the galvanomete, note this postion ofthe jockey on 8. Repeat the above stey PS four/five times b ing di is y introducing different resistances in the resis x. OBSERVATIONS: =—e7 Length of the given wire 8 of unknown resi Radius of the given wire = i" — . cm TABLE FOR DETERMINATION OF RESISTANCE OF THE GIVEN WIRE 1 x z = [ | 4 Mean value of the resistance wire x=21*%+%*%it%s _ CALCULATION: ‘Specific resistance of the material of the given wire mX Qe = Where, r= radius of the cross-section of the experimental wire. L’= Length of the experimental wire. X = resistance of experimental wire. w Percentage of Error in the value of p Standard value (Po) = ani QemOBJECTIVE: / _— ‘To compare the e.m.fs of two given primary cells using potentiometer. APPARATUS: Ne / two different primary cells (one Daniel and one Lechlanche cel), af keys, one two ways key, a galvanometer,arheostat (~20 0), aresistaney A 10 wire potentiometer with sliding jockey, accumulator/battery eliminator, two one way keys, one two box (0-1000 2 range), a voltmeter (0-5V), connecting wires and a sand paper. 7 Potentiometer: It is a device which is used to measure voltages (potential difference/emf) accurately. 40 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 SAORI Fig. 4.1: Potentiometer THEORY: If the main circuit provides a constant potential gradient K= + across the length of the wire and one primary cell of emf E, shows a null deflection in galvanometer for length L, and the other cell of emf E shows null deflection for length L, then the two primary cells may be compared using: Bu E, lyPROCEDURI Aey en aw 10. UL. 12, 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. Fig. 4.2: To compare the e.m.ts of two primary cells using potentiometer. Measure the terminal potential difference across E, E and E, and ensure that E > E, and E > E,, ‘Make connections of the circuit as shown in the diagram (Fig.4.2). The negative terminals ofall the three cells E, E, and E, are connected to the positive terminal A of potentiometer. The negative terminal of battery E, through rheostat and one way key K, is connected to terminal B of the potentiometer. The negative terminals of E, and E, are connected to the extreme terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ of the two ways key. The common terminal ‘c’ of the two ways key, through resistance box RB and galvanometer G is connected to the jockey of the potentiometer. The key Ky is connected across the resistance box RB. Tight all the connections. Insert plug in K,,, remove plug from K;. Introduce 100 © resistance in resistance box by removing corresponding plug. Adjust rheostat for minimum resistance. Insert plug between gap a c. there should not be plug in gap b and c, press the jockey near end A of the potentiometer wire and note the direction of deflection. The deflection in two situations should be in opposite direction. ‘Similarly, removing plug from a c and inserting it in b ¢, repeat above steps and check that you have both side deflection with E, in circuit. Insert plug key in gap ac. Touch the jockey along potentiometer wire at different position on this wire at which the galvanometer needle pointer shows no deflection. Record the length of the potentiometer wire from end A to this position. Shift the position of plug in two ways key from ac to bc and Tepeat above steps to find balance length L, for cell E,.naif det ini uot tend aid Ce ery. ‘d ing Wi jon method, the resistance of 80 RS G=R-S FORMULA USED: 1. Using half defen where, R the resistance connected in series with the galvan ere, R= * Ge the shunt resistance: I oe 2, The figure of merit wife’) = The deftecton produced Ex erof of the cell battery : ‘The resistance ‘connected in series sistance of the galvanomeler Where, G= PROCEDURE: ‘A Galvanometer Res! 1 Draw a neat and clean circuit dia 2, Take out plugs from connect them as per circuit diagram. 3. Take out plug from 10 kQ gap of HRB thus introducit resistance of 10 KQ in the circuit plug in key K,- 4, Adjust the value of resistance in HRB box so as to get full scale Rensanael in galvanometer. Note and record the resistance R I ails in HRB and deflection @ in galvanometer. 1. Now close ke} ju is i js anectly a ae and ast resistance in low resistance box * istance by Half Defection Method: gram as shown in the fig.(6.1)- keys. Arrange the necessary apparatus and a ing a high anometer is 8 tion method and sect igh resistance box (010990) i ator, a hi in by meter with the galvanometer. $s Fig. 6.1. Circult dlagram for determinin, resistance of galvanometer eal using half deflection method ‘S’ so that the deflection in the galvanome:6, Note value of resistance in $ and the deflection 0/2. 7. Repeat the experiment at least four more times by adjusting resistance R, to obtain deflection in galvanometer equal to some even number of divisions and then introducing S to reduce this deflection to half the original value. 8, Record the observations as per value. © m she B. Figure of Merit of the Galvanometer 1, The circuit diagram in fig. (6.2) when compared with fig. (6.1) shall make it clear that it is the same circuit with plug K, out. 2, Therefore, we can pool out data for the determination of figure of ‘merit from the table. Only we need to know the emf of the battery oe S which we can measure with the help of accurate voltmeter. Cireult diagram for the determination of igure of merit of a galvanometer. Fig OBSERVATIONS: TABLE FOR DETERMINATION OF GALVANOMETER RESISTANCE AND FIGURE OF MERIT 1 2s 3. 4. 5. ‘Mean value of G Mean value of figure of merit, k = RESULTS: 1. The resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method, G = 2. The figure of merit of the galvanometer, k = .. Amp/division PRECAUTIONS: 1. Allthe connections must be tight. 2. The resistance box to be used in series should have very high resistance as compared to G and that which is to be used in parallel should have low resistance. 3. Use a freshly charged battery so that its emf may remain constant throughout the experiment or use battery eliminator to remove this problem. 4, The deflection in galvanometer should be large and in even number of divisions. SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. The emf of battery may change during the experiment. 2. Plugs in resistances boxes may not be tight and may have contact resistance. Aldiv.OBJECTIVE: To find the frequency of the A.C. mains with a sonometer. APPARATUS: A sonometer with non-magnetic wire, a horse shoe magnet, a step down transformer (220V-6 V), screw gauge, slotted weights, hanger and a metre scale. THEORY: A current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. If the conductor carries alternating. current, the direction of the force gets reversed after every half cycle and the wire oscillates with frequency of AC. For a wire of length ‘L’ and mass per unit length ‘m’ under a tension 'T, the frequency ‘f of the vibration of the wire isgiven by eo 2 220 cay Caaseaae_] 2 Fig. 8.1: Experimental set up for determinig frequency of AC mains with sonometer. PROCEDURE: 1, Set up the apparatus as shown in fig.(8.1). 2. Place the horse shoe magnet in the middle of the wedges. |. Suspend a suitable weight, about Ikg from the hanger and switch on the AC supply.at wire begins to vibrate with large ampli, re vibrates ina single 100p. TO test the ena ey 4 ioe magnet should be adjusted so thar net itis j, °P ing “4. Adjust the position ofthe wooden wedges A and Bsothi inthis case vesonates with AC supply. Ensure that tie 07 ‘it until it flies off. The horse sh “of wedges initially when the distance beg MEE hen nig 1 paper rider on the wire and adj middle of the wedges 5. Measure the resonating length AB by adjusting position. increasing. Also repeat the process when the distance 'S Increase the load by half kg each time and repeat steps 4 values of suspended weight. 's mass using a sensitive physical balance 6 five different observations for different vs 7, Take a suitable length (about Im or 2m) of the wire, find i ' decreasing. 5 to get the resonating length. Record a J, ast fou, OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS: eee SM Length of the wire, L = secens OM [Mass per unit length of the wire,m = M/L=.. gm/em TABLE FOR RESONATING LENGTH ‘Mass of the wire, M Mean RESULT Calculated frequency of AC mains, f= . Actual frequency = % erroriad PRECAUTIONS: . : 1. The wire should be of uniform thickness and there should be no kinks in the wire. 2, The horse shoe magnet should be placed in the middle of the wedges. 3. The tension should not be too large so that the wire is not stretched beyond its elastic limit. 4. The sonometer wire should be non-magnetic. 5. The magnet should not touch the wire. 6. The wedges should have sharp edges, SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. Actual tension is different from the applied tension due to friction in the pulley. 2. Non uniformity of wire and kinks in it, 3. Pulley may not be frictionless.in iron core. OBJECTIVE: To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or without a APPARATUS: liminator, a resist An AC ammeter and voltmeter, a DC ammeter and voltmeter, an AC source, a battery e! sistance bo, plug keys, an induction coil or choke, a step down tranformer (~ 12 V) with taping (0-6 V, 50 Hz), an iron cory ang connecting wires. THEORY: Inductor: A hollow cylindrical col of copper wire consisting of large number of turns is known as an inductor coil or choke, Thy symbol of an air cored inductor is shown in the figure (1.1). VOSS Fig. 1.4 The resistance of an inductor and conductor in d.c. circuit is defined as the ratio of the potential difference developed across its ends and the current flowing through it, mathematically, Resi ® Me esistance = le Where, V4, = de voltage across inductor and I,, = direct current through inductor. Reactance: Reactance of an inductor or inductive reactance is defined as the opposition to flow of alternative current. offered by it. It is denoted by X,, which is equal to wL, where L is the inductance of the coil and w = 2nv where vis the frequency of a.c. Impedance: Impedance of an inductor or induction coil is defined as the total effective opposition to flow of current offered by a coil of resistance R and inductance L in ac. circuit, mathematically, " Impedance (Z) = [R?+X,? = JR? (aL)PROCEDURI J, Measurement of resistance of an induction coll without soft iron core. jon coll without soft Iron core. lectrical measuring Fig.1.2: Measurement of resistance of an induct 1. Make electrical connections according tothe circuit diagram and find least count of alll instruments 2. Connect the induction coil in parallel to d.c. volimeter. 3. The connections should be clean and tight. 4. Now adjust the value of battery eliminator to 2 volt and put the plug in key K- 5. Observe and record the d.c ammeter and d.c. voltmeter readings, two more setting of battery eliminator. 6. Repeat the experiment for at least IL. Measurement of resistance of an induction coil with soft iron core: Fig.1.3: Measurement of resistance of an induction coll with soft iron core: 1. Now insert the soft iron core fully inside the induction coi steps (1) to (6) of first part. 2. Repeat the experiment in IIL, Measurement of impedance of an induction coil without soft iron core: evens Travan ca AC riomter juction coil without soft iron core. Fig.1.4: Measurement of impedance of an indi .ccording to the circuit diagram. a step down transformer and a.c. voltmeter as shown in figure. 1. Make electrical connections a 2. Connect the induction coil, a.c. ammeter, 3. Repeat steps (1) to (6) of first part.TV. Measurement of impedance of an induction coll with soft iron core. Fig.1.5: Measurement of impedance of an induction coll with soft Iron core. 1. Now introduce the soft iron core fully inside the induction coil. 2. Repeat steps (1) to (6) of procedure in first part again. OBSERVATIONS: 1. The least count of d.c. ammeter 2. The least count of d.c. voltmeter = MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE OF AN INDUCTION COIL WITHOUT SOFT IRON Core R,+R,+R, Mean R = — ee Ohm MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE OF AN INDUCTION COIL WITH SOFT IRON CORE | S.No: Voltmeter ‘Ammeter : _ Reading _ Reading a Q 0 7» +++MEASUREMENT OF a IMPEDANCE, OF AN INDUCTION Cor. WITHOUT SOFT IRON CORE - Voltmeter Ammeter | ° Impedance of induction coil = Readi ue Reading without soft iron core 7 — Vas Ine eee Do _—} ° 2. 3. MEASUREMENT OF IMPEDANCE OF AN INDUCTION COIL WITH SOFT IRON CORE ene: “Voltmeter _ Ammeter | Impedance of induction col | | Reading _ Reading with soft iron core Z' = Vme OS ae Oe ae ¥ 7 =. | Zs Ls Zs Mean Z’ = 2tZet, +2) Ohm RESULTS: 1. Resistance of given coil without soft iron core, R= 2. Resistance of given coil with soft iron core, R’ 3. Impedance of given coil without soft iron core, 4. Impedance of given coil with soft iron core, 2’ Q a Q Q CONCLUSION: 1. Inde. circuit, an inductor has ohmic resistance only insertion of soft iron core does not affect its ohmic resistance, 2. Inan ac. circuit, the impedance of given coil impresses an insertion of soft iron core. PRECAUTIONS: 1, All the connections should be clean and tight. 2, Least count of all instruments should be determined before the start of experiment. 3. Soft iron core must be insisted fully inside the induction coil. 4, Close the key only when you are taking observation, 5. The ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper.OBJECTIVE: To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit. APPARATUS: THEORY: __ Imeter is always connected in paraileljand an(ammeter is always con ‘afracross-which potential difference is to be estimeted. Two resistors In an electrical circuit a across two points of a ¢ series or in parallel combination in the circuit. PROCEDURE: 1. Draw a circuit diagram as shown below: eatery 11-6}. ARR — A battery of two primary cells, two resistors, a voltmeter, an ammeter, a rheostat, one way key and connecting wires. RR WW v \Votumetor Fig. 4.1: Series combination of two resistors. peer kay rosa 1[_ ww Fig. 4.2: Parallel combination of two resistors.shown in the circuit diagrams. need note that the current should enter at the positive termina op meter should increase or decrease simultaneously when th sy tions should be checked again. © conn, a 1 2. Connect all electrical components as 43, Test the connections by closing the key 4. Thereadings of the ammeter and the vol ‘are made properly otherwise the connect CONCLUSION: ‘As the circuit is working properly the given components have been assembled correctly. PRECAUTIONS: 1. While connecting different electrical components make tight connections. 2. In the circuit always connect the ammeter in series and the rheostat and the voltmeter in parallel to th 3. Ammeter and voltmeter should be connected such that the — ‘mera a curent enters at their positive and leaves fry see 4. The ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned properly with the sand paper.OBJECTIVE: To find the value of v for different value of u in case of a concave mirror and to find its focal length. APPARATUS: An optical i Shale mane copy three uprights with provisions for lateral movement, mirror holder, two pins, a knitting needle and THEORY: ‘The focal length fof a concave mirror is related to the object distance u and image distance v by the mirror formula, 1g uw fe, Feat oo fei The Cartesian sign convention should be used for proper sign of u, v and f according to which u and v as well as Sf are negative. Fig. 1.1: To determine the focal length of concave mirror. PROCEDURE: 1. Place the mirror upright near the one end of the optical bench and two other uprights having lateral movernents. 2. Note the position of the index mark on the base of mirror upright keep the object pin at a position so that its tip and pole of the mirror are on the same horizontal line and are separated by a distance equal to the length of the given knitting needle. 3, Note the position of the index mark of the object pin upright on the bench.Note the difference in posit Repeat the above steps to fin ¢ at the object pin at distance of nearly 4/5 times Put the image pin at a distance of more than double ® nro ims To differentiate between the two pins nee _ — )s Use side ways motion screw to make the tips coIne . ea a ie Move the ae ‘side ways and see that there is no parallax between the image pin the image of the ins forward or backward. | ‘ 11. Keep on moving your head and see wheter the parallax is removed hil the oineide and they will appear to be coinciding for all position © tier seeds 12. Note the positions of mirror, object pin and the image pinche 2 5 aa i i 2 ime a\ 1 13, Change the postion ofthe object pin by a distance 5-6 em eon Sad pa adjust the image pin to remove the parallax and record atleast 4-5 sets 1d the index correction "8 Din proximate focal length. | small piece of paper On the tip one o the pi, Beenawe parallax is removed, the j PS wi OBSERVATIONS: “Approximate focal length of the concave mirror Mean of focal length RESULT: ‘The focal length of the concave mirror is PRECAUTIONS: 1. The pole (centre) of the mirror and the tips of the pins should be at the same height. 2. ‘The uprights should be vertical. 3, Parallax must be removed from tip to tip. 4, The eye should be atleast 30 cm from the image pin. SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. The pins may not be in the same horizontal level. 2. Parallax may not be removed correctly.(OBJECTIVE: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between w and v or between Vu and 1/r~ APPARATUS: ‘An optical bench, three uprights, a convex tens, a lens holder, two pins, knitting needle and a metre scale. THEORY: ‘The focal length fof convex lens is related to the object distance and image distance v by the lens formula, fy ou If the Cartesian sign conventions are used, the object distance is found to be negative whereas the image distance and the focal length are found to be positive. fo determine the focal length of a convex lens. Fig. 2. PROCEDURE: 1. Tofind the rough idea about the focal length of the given convex lens, get a sharp image of a distant object (like tree or a tall building in front of the window of physics lab) on a wall or a screen. 2. Measure the distance between the lens and the wall. Record it as approximate focal length of a lens. 3, Place the lens holder near the middle on the optical bench of the two pin uprights on either side of the lens. 4. Adjust the leveling screws provided in the optical bench to make the lens vertical and in the same horizontal level. Ensure that the principal axis of the lens is parallel to the optical bench scale. _ Note the position of the index marks at the base of the lens upright. Record the position of the index marks of the object pin and the lens uprights on the bench.say wom, the correction in algeb ica, ly ition of the lens and the ‘object pin, forthe image distance DEIWe= the lens and the imag, oe proximate foal ene Adit he ei Pn eye closed and Tooking from the other side of tron be enlarged. len ihe image pin and the image of te ob Calculate the difference in the Pos added to the object distance. 4. Repeat the above steps to find the index correctiot early 1.5 0F2 th pins, equal to Keeping one aero the clear inverted image of (DE pin. It will appear (0 ove the eye sideways and soe nat is no parallax between sve the image needle forward OF backwards. the tips will coincide and they will appear to be moving the lens, the pin and the Jmage pin from the scale of optical bene, the lens and re-adjust the image Pin ty ‘a small distance away from together if you move gy, es 10. If pin were, m 11, When the parallax isremoved. sideways. 12. Note the position of the index marks of 13, Change the position ofthe object pin By record atleast five different sets of observation. OBSERVATIONS: cm CALCULATIONS: Calculated mean f = cm USING GRAPHS: Fromu-v yh: Usit it identi graph: Using suitable identical scale along the two axes, representing ‘u’ al : 'u’ along X-axis and ‘v’ alon f Yani sete dawag ‘graph. The graph is found to be hyperbolic. ‘making an 5° wi i . 1g an angle of 45° with X-axis, Draw PR perpendicular to OY and PQ perpendicular to OX’. 0Q+0R u = CM Then focal length f =1 a bw) - as) x € x = er aN, =e Fig.2.2 v Fig.23 a From (, Sy SraPht Convert u and v in metre using suitable and identical scales represent L along X-axis and 1 ; = along Y-axis, draw . yon ‘graph. The graph will be a straight line, RESULT: The focal length of given convex lens usi @ Calculated value of Gi) From u and v graph, f= . 11 Gi) From 7 vs 7 graph, f= ... PRECAUTIONS: 1. Tips of pins and the optical centre of the lens should be in the same horizontal plane. 2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip.% OBJECTIVE: / termine inti ism by plotting a graph between ¢p, 1¢ of minimum deviation for a given prism P ea incidence and ae of deviation and calculate the refractive index of the material ofthe prisms “Bey 1e paper, few drawing Pins, 8 PrOWactr, «hy, A - aK APPARATUS: ‘A drawing board, a glass prism, few alpins, two sheets of whit scale and graph sheet. THEORY: The graph between angle of incidence (i) and angle of deviation (8) is as shown in the figure (5.2). ‘The refraction index (1) of the material of prism is given by, Be PROCEDURE: 1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins. 2. Drawalline XX’ in the middle of the sheet parallel to its length. 3. Place the given glass prism on the sheet of paper so that its refracting surface is vertical. 4, Draw the boundary of the prism and mark it ABC. Now remove the prism. 5. Draw a normal to the line AB at F making an angle of 30° to the normal, EF will act as incident ray and replace the glass prism back to its original position. 6. Fix the two pins P and Q, line EF about 6 cm apart from each Fig. 5.2: Variation of angle of deviat of incidence. onwthange other. 7. See the images P and Q from the other refracting face. Its image would appear along P,, Qy. Fix alpins P, ang 2 Q such that their tips would cover the images of P, and Qy.Fig. 5:3: To determinethe angle of minimum deviation for a given prism. 8, Remove prism and join the points P, and Q, and produce P,Q, so that it meets the side AC its G, Draw a normal NGN; to AC at G and produce EF and GH which meets at points J. is 9. Repeat the experiment from 3 to 8 by taking different value of angle of incidence 30°, 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°, and measure corresponding angle of deviation each time. 10. Note angle of incident (i) and corresponding value of angle of deviation (8). 11. Measure the angle of prism A from the marked boundary of the prism. OBSERVATIONS: Type of prism used = Equilatral glass prism ‘Angle of prism, A, A, +A, +A, ‘Mean value of the angle of prism, A ate’ = | S.No. Angle of incidence (i) ‘Angle of deviation (6) [+ 2, 3. 4. 5. = L CALCULATION: ion X-axis and angle of deviation, Son Y- axis. The graph comes Choose a suitable scale to plot angle of incidence. 1s shown in figure (5.2).Determine 5m from the graph and using the formula jt = calculate 1. 2 sin 2 RESULTS: 1. As the angle of incidence is increased gradually, the angle of deviation decreases, it further increases with the increases in the angle of incidence. becomes minj 5 minimum, a 2. Refractive index (j1) of the material of the prism PRECAUTIONS: 1. Angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°. 2. The alpins should have sharp tips and fixed vertically. 3. Use a sharp pencil to draw boundary of the prism and rays of light. 4 “S graph shouldbe fee hand smooth curve drawn to ensure that minimum number of pint on he ay, SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. The alpins may not be equally vertical/straight. 2. The tips of the alpins may not be on the same horizontal line. 3. Angles may not be measured correctly.( Ziocerve To determine refractiv. tive Index of glass slab using a travelling mi microscope. APPARATUS: A travelling microscope wit i pe with vernier scale, a glass slab, a white sheet of paper, a pen and a spirit level. spirit level THEORY: If an object placed i ium i pject placed in a denser medium is viewed from a rarer medium it appears to be at a depth less than the it a 3s than the real depth due to refraction of light. Refractive index of a di it puerto. We be, tay goes fo with respect to rarer medium is defined as the ratio of real depth to the pate ym air to glass, the refractive index of glass with respect to air. ie, Age (OF “Hy Real depth 7 Apparent depth ‘onside it je i 7 mnsider a Poin object be laced don the drawing board (say an ink dot) marked on apiece of paper and a wavelling — estat 3 the reading of the microscope be X,. Now ‘glass slab is placed on the dot marked on : paper and travelling microscope is again focused. Let the reading be X;. Now by Lycopodium powder is. sprinkled on the glass slab and travelling microscope is focused again on the Iycopodium powder. Let the reading be x Thus, the real depth = X, ~ X, ‘The apparent depth =X ~ Xp “*. The refractive index of the glass with respect to travelling microscope. 1 dark ink dot on it. Place it on the adjustment of PROCEDURE: 1. Arrange the travelling microscope (TM) on the table and level the base of 2. Focus the eye piece on the cross wires. Take a piece of white paper. Mark table vertically below the objective of the travelling microscope at the ink dot. All this is for the travelling microscope. 3, Remove the parallax between cross Wi ord the observation on the vertical scale of the microscope as X,. Repeat the above steps a A ire and the ink dot. Rec‘ 2 more times.travelling microscope again! DY ey i wr the ink dol. focus th soesewire and te ik Ot ODSTVE tg thy, [ ow sores ote the observation, wel the parallax is emoved Pe lass slab and record 638 Xe see lak powder on the UPP surface of sss slab. ad a very lie amount of the tube little above- Note the reading of the main scale and the Verne, ow focus om ink dot by ris « rahe traveling microscope: TMS reading gives us Xs cpservations in the observation table. Now pl 4 Spre 9. Note the OBSERVATIONS: OBEN ee ein | ‘No. [READING | READING READING x % Xe-% 1. 2. 3. tht EE ea lass slab with respect 10 aif Hye « ‘Mean value of the refractive index of, RESULT: ‘The refractive index of the 83 jven glass slab, H PRECAUTIONS: 1. The travelling microscope should be properly reveled, before taking the reading, ensure thatthe ink doUIycopodu particles are focused clearly. exactly vertical. 2. The microscope tube should be +) The screw should always be tumed along one direction only to avoid blacklash error. 4k The coinciding mark of the main sale and vernier scale should be read carefully. 5. The image of inkdot through te eas sale shouldbe focused sharply. SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. The ink dot may not be sharply focused. 2. Levelling of microscope should not be done properly. 4, Microscope tube may not be exactly vertical.OBJECTIVE: To draw the I-V characteristics curve of 3 pn junction in forward bias and reverse bias, APPARATUS: A p-n junction diode, a milliammeter, a voltmeter, a microammeter, a bettery of 6 volt for forward bias, a dy supply of 150 V for reverse bias, a theostat, one way key, connecting wires and sand paper. Povg, THEORY: [-Vcharateristics of a p-n type junction diode means the variation of current as a function of applieg Vohige forward biasing the current first increases very slowly about negligibly till the voltage across a certain Value ey? the threshold voltage or cut in voltage. Beyond this characteristics the diode current increase significantly even Pe a small increase in the diode voltage. In reverse biasing the current is very small ofthe order of microamperes. Iti called saturation curreny, ‘Voltmeter (V) Voltmeter (v) —@) “Op po mn _ ag J) 018) Rheosiat Rheosat {t+ AHL + (©) Rovers bias (8) Forward bias Fig. 8.1: Circuit diagram for studying |-V characteristics. PROCEDURE: FORWARD BIASING: 1. Draw a neat and labeled diagram as shown in figure. Ensure that to p-side and negative terminal to n-side of the p-n junction diode. 2. Determine the least count of voltmeter and milliammeter. 3. Introduce a suitable resistance with the help of rheostat to avoid excessive current flowing through the junction diode, Ensure that the milliammeter and voltmeter indicate zero treading. Positive terminal of the battery is connected4, Inot,slide the moving contact of potential divider ner the negative end ofthe batery- 5. siide the mons ‘contact gradually towards the positive end. The forward bias increases the forward voltage. 1 it small step of about 0.02 upto about 2V and note the voltmeter and milliammeter readings It com of the battery is tion diode. BIASING: 1, Draw a neat and labeled circuit diagram as shown in figure. Ensu od re the positive terminal ‘connected to n-side and negative terminal of the battery is connected to p-side of the p-n junct a, Deere he a coun of te voter and icant on zero vale of revere bias inset eves i eps and not corresponding voltmeter and microammeter readings. reverse voltage in small step5 suddenly rises fora particular volte. 4, The reverse curmet remains zero upto certain volta ‘This is known as break-down voltage. ene 5, Note the voltmeter and microammeter readings in tabular form. OBSERVATIONS: Forward bias Leat count of voltmeter Zero error of the voltmeter Least count of milliammeter= ‘Zero error of the milliammeter Reverse bias Least count of the voltmeter Zero error of the voltmeter = alelr|s | + Blele|~lole 4 | ml =GRAPHS: Forward bias characteristics, Forward current Reverse voltage (V) eet = Knee votage vA Zoner —* vw Forward voltage (V,) voltage Wott) = everse current y" Fig. 8.2: Characteristics curve for a p-n Junction (forward blasing and reverse biasing), RESULT: The I-V characterstics of a p-n junction is shown in figure (8.2) It does not obey Ohm's laws since the cur a straight line. eis PRECAUTIONS: 1. All connections should be tight. 2. Connecting wires and terminals must be cleaned properly. 3. Zero error must be noted properly, if any, and necessary zero correction should be applied. SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. Each time the pointers of milliammeter or microammeter may not be on a scale mark. 2. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose. 3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately measured.OBJECTIVE: To observe refraction and late ral di leviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab. APPARATUS: A rectangular glass slab, a drawi . & drawing board, a whi protractor and a pencil, '# Doard, a white sheet of paper, a half metre scale, drawing pins and alpins, THEORY: When a ray of light PO ac entering from air to casas anetdeat £29) falls on glas slab obliquely, it bends towards the normal at O while the emergent ray which is paralled to cy ime = ction OO (refracted ray) inside the glass. 0'Q ray is called of PS in the absence ofthe las sah ices” finident ay PO which wou ave proceeded in the decion The perpendicular shift in the path of the inci , Iteral displacement. Path of the incident ray, when it emerges out from the denser medium is known as InAOOE, ZO0OE Incident Rarer medium a Sin (i- 1) (air) or 4 = 00’ Sin (i—r) (lateral deviation) | 7 Ind ONO’, Thickness of glass slab (t) cues oe T= 00 00'= Gosr | 00’= ON’ Sec r=1 Sec x where 1 is the thickness of glass slab. a On putting the value of OO’ d=1Sec r Sin (i- r) Thus, the lateral displacement for a given angle of incidence is directly proportional to the thickness Fig 4.1: Refraction of ray of ight through a glass slab, of the glass slab.ROCEDURE: e + Arrange the glass slab in the middle of the paper placed on the drawing board and draw 2 boundary 5 2. Mark pint O on onesie RS ofthe boundary of ls lab, Draw a nomal at point, ine ling mr 3. Drawalline IO, which makes an angle 35° with the normal NN’, with the help of protractor This ay, ; the angle of incidence. ANgle ig cay 4. Fix the alpins A, and A, on the line 1O at the points A, and A in an upright position keeping a 1 Rees nodum (a minimum distance of 6-8 cm between them, AB 5. Place the glass slab on the board, _ 6. Look at the alpins through the other side PQ of Blass stay glass slide. See the image A, and A, of the alpins A, and A, respectively due to refraction. 7. Bring eye down in the horizontal plane slightly above the drawing sheet to look through the glass slab, 8. Now observe that all the four alpins Ay, Ay As, ‘A, must be in the same straight line when seen from the other side of the glass slab. 9. Remove the glass slab from the drawing sheet Fig. 4.2: Experimental arran Rotracted ry Ate depen ey & gement for Fetractio yn and remove the alpins Ay, Az, Ayand A, one by of ray of light through a glass slab, one. Draw a small circle around the alpins points. Join the holes made by alpins A, and A, by straight line and extended it to meet the boundary ’as in the ray diagram. PQ at same pig ). Measure and record the angle of refraction in the observation table. IL. Repeat the above experiment for angle of incidence 45°, 55° and 65° also and record the measuremen mi . i : it of refraction and angle of emergence respectively in observation table. ofa OBSERVATIONS: Least count of the protractor Least count of the metre scale cm "Angle of incidence (I) ae ___ Angle of refraction (*) (in degree) (in degree)RESULTS: 1, The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray and ig laterally displaced isplaced. 3, The lateral displacement increases with the thickness of the gal: e galss slab. pRECAUTIONS: 1, The drawing board must be made of some soft wood. lab of uniform thickn 2, Take glass sl ickness and rectangul: i 3, Alpins should be fixed vertically. Sie betas 4, The feet of the alpins (not their heads) should be in the same straight line. 5, The distance between the alpins should be about 6-8 cm, 6, The angle of incidence taken should be lie between 30° and 65°. 7. While fixing the alpins, the eye should be at a distance of 25 cm from the nearest alpins. SOURCES OF ERROR: 1, If the feet of alpins are not in the same straight line in the drawing board, an error takes place in the path of incident ray and emergent ray. 2, Error in measurement of angles.Physics Lab Manual-Xil_ 87 OBJECTIVE: To obtain a lens combination with the lenses. Specified focal length by using two lenses from the given set of APPARATUS: A set of lenses, lens holder with stand, white screen and a half metre scale THEORY: 1. A convex lens forms the real image of a distant ‘object at a distant equal to the focal length of the lens. lenses of | ; 2, Ifthe lenses of the focal length f, and f; are kept in contact then the combination behaves like a single lens of focal length F. ‘The focal length, F of combination is given by, bw ‘The power of the combination (P) of two lenses having powers, P, and P, is given by P=P,+P; since [r-3] or The unit of power is Dioptre. Convex or converging lens has positive power and concave or diverging lens has negative power. a Helser Fig. 8: Measurement of focal length of convex lens.length f= 10 cm from the given Set of lenses, the Poveorg. ey i I rerascomser rococo combination is pens 40D i0 ven eat of lenses is of focal length f,= 15 em, then its Irone lens is convex from the Bi a a the combination mist beP, = P—R, = +10—(46 67) =43 355 Now, the power of the second lens from Berd ens fom the combination must bef, = —- 333 7 *30cm ‘So, the focal length of the second | PROCEDURE: 4s | ; 1. On a opal bench arrange sreen on @ upright, which cosist of white cardboard and in second up, candle. 'gt fix, 2. In third upright fix a wire gauge and in fourth upright one convex lens of focal length 15 cm, 3, Arrange the uprights on the focal bench. 4, Light the candle and take the image of the illuminated wire gauge on the white cardboard 5. Measure the distance between the lens and screen where the sharp image of the wire gauge is formed, oN itas f= 6, In the similar manner find the f, =. 7. Now take both the lenses on the uprights in contact with each other. 8. Get a sharp image of the wire gauge from the ight of burning candle and measure its focal length, 9, Take this as the focal length of the combination as F = cm. OBSERVATIONS: 1. The focal length of first convex lens (f;) = 2. The focal length of second convex lens (f,) = 3, The focal length of combination of two lens having focal length f, and f,, F cm. CALCULATIONS: fih _ Focal length of combination of two lenses in contact given by F= 7 1*2- = ith eM, cm, Focal length of the combination experimentally F CONCLUSION: fi Focal length of combination of two lenses in contact given by F= 22 Fis verified theoretically and experimentally the error limits. 1 * /2 >RECAUTIONS: 1. The aperture of lenses should be same. 2. Lenses taken for activity should be thin. 3. Axes of lenses should be parallel to each other.