TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ Tensor and Tensor

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ
TJ

TJ
Algebra
TJ

TJ
TJ

TJ
TJ

TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

by
TJ TJ TJ TJ
Dr. Tariq Jamil

1
 References
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Ottosen, N.S. and Ristinmaa, M.,
TJ2005. The Mechanics
TJ of Constitutive
TJ TJ TJ

Modeling. Elsevier.
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

2
 Tensor
• Tensors, defined mathematically, are simply arrays of numbers, or functions, that transform according to certain rules
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
under a change of coordinates.

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

• Zeroth-Order Tensors (Scalars) e.g. pressure of gas = P

TJ TJ TJ TJ
• A scalar is a single function (i.e., one component) which is invariant under changes of the coordinate systems.
TJ TJ
Such quality needs only one number to define,TJ TJ to write. Thus no suffix is
that has no particular arrangement TJ

needed to locate that single number. These quantity are called as zero order tensor or zero dimensional array.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

• First-Order
TJ Tensor (Vectors) e.g. Force F
TJ= [Fx Fy Fz] TJ TJ

• Second-Order Tensor e.g. Stress 𝜎11 𝜎12 𝜎13 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧 𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑧
𝜎 = 𝜎21 𝜎22 𝜎23 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧 = 𝜎𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑧
𝜎31 𝜎32 𝜎33 𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑧𝑥 𝜎𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧𝑧
3
 INDEX NOTATION, VECTORS, AND TENSORS
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

•TJVector has a magnitude andTJ direction that is measuredTJ with respect to a chosenTJcoordinate system TJ
• Alternative description is to give three scalar components
• NotTJevery set of 3 scalar components
TJ
is a vector TJ TJ
• Essential extra property of a vector is its transformation properties as coordinate system is rotated
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• 3 scalar quantities vi(i=1,2,3) are scalar components of a vector if they transform according to:
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• A tensor (2nd rank) is defined as a collection of 9 scalar components that change under rotation of
axes according
TJ to: TJ TJ TJ

4
 INDEX NOTATION RULES AND COORDINATE ROTATION

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

• Key to classifying scalars, vectors, or tensors is how their components change if the
coordinate axes are rotated to point in new directions
• A scalar (temperature, density, etc.) is unchanged by rotation – it has the same value
in any coordinate system, which is a defining characteristic of a scalar
• Vectors and tensors change with rotating coordinate system
5
  T11 T12 T13 
 
Tij =  T21 T22 T23 
TENSOR COMMENT T T 
 31 32 T33 

 T11 T21 T31 

 
T ji =  T12 T22 T32 
TJ TJ TJ  T TTJ T  TJ
 13 23 33 
• Tensors are often displayed as a matrix
TJ TJ TJ Qij = Q ji TJ TJ

• The transpose of a tensor is obtained by

ij = − R ji
TJ
interchanging TJ
the two indicies, so the TJ
R TJ

TJ
transpose of Tij is T
TJ ji TJ TJ TJ
Tij = (Tij + T ji ) + (Tij − T ji )
1 1
2 2
• TJTensor Qij is symmetric if TJ
Qij = Qji TJ TJ TJ
• Tensor is antisymmetric if it is equal to the  2+4 3+ 2  2−4 3− 2
negative of its transpose, Rij = -Rji  1   1 
TJ TJ TJ
1 2 3  2 2  TJ 2 2 
  4+2 5 +1   4 − 2 5 −1 
• Any arbitrary tensor Tij may be  4 0 5 =  0 + 0
 2 1 3  2 2   2 2 
decomposed into sum of a symmetric   2+3 1+ 5   2−3 1− 5 
tensor and antisymmetric tensor  3   3 
 2 2   2 2 

 1 2 3   1 3 2 .5   0 − 1 0 .5 
     
 4 0 5 =
  3 0 3 +
  1 0 2  6
 2 1 3   2 . 5 3 3   − 0 .5 − 2 0 
     
 Tensor
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Tensors were conceived in 1900 by Tullio Levi-Civita and Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro,
•TJTensor is the mathematical
TJ tool used to express physical
TJ quantities. TJ TJ

• In mathematics, a tensor is an algebraic object that describes a (multilinear) relationship between

TJ TJ TJ TJ
sets of algebraic objects related to a vector space.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Tensors are important in physics because they provide a concise mathematical framework for
formulating and solving physics problems in areas such as mechanics (stress, elasticity, fluid
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
mechanics, moment of inertia, ...), electrodynamics (electromagnetic tensor, Maxwell tensor,
permittivity, magnetic susceptibility, ...), or general relativity (stress–energy tensor, curvature tensor,
... ) andTJothers. TJ TJ TJ

7
 Tensor
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Equations governing 3D mechanics problems can be quite lengthy, short hand notation called index
notations.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• ∑xi =x1 + x2+ x3
• σ𝑖𝑛=1 𝑎𝑖TJ _anxn 1≤ i ≤ n
𝑥𝑖 =a1x1 +a2x2+a3x3+_ _ _ _ TJ TJ TJ
• In tensors above expression can be written as
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• aixi 1≤i≤n
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

8
 Continue…
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Order/rank of tenser depends on how many separate entities are necessary to describe the
matrix and varies according to 3n.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• 30 = 1 scalar
TJ TJ TJ TJ
• 31 = 3 vector (𝐹റ = Fxi + Fyj + Fzk )
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

•TJThis terminology is suggestive.

TJ Why stop at rank 1?
TJ Why not go onto rank 2,
TJrank 3, and so TJ
on.
• Dyad: Tensor
TJ TJ and two directions – 3TJ
of rank 2. (magnitude 2 = 9 components) e.g. Stress
TJ

• Triad: Tensor of rank 3. (magnitude and three directions – 33 = 27 components)

• Etcetera…

9
 Continue…
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Tensors are the notations which are used to represent a scalar, vector or matrixes. (may have
columns, rows and tubes; 3-way tensors have 3 modes N×M×K dimensions)
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

• Equations
TJ
governing 3D mechanics
TJ
problems can be quite lengthy,
TJ
short hand notation called
TJ
index
notations.
TJ • ∑xi =x1 + x2+
TJx3 TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Algebric expression → σ𝑖𝑛=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑥𝑖 =a1x1 +a2x2+a3x3+_ _ _ _ _anxn 1≤ i ≤ n
• In tensors
TJ
above expression can be TJ
written as simply → aixTJi 1≤i≤n TJ
• (if the limits of index is not defined, than by default it would be considered as n=1,2,3

10
 Index notation
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• There are two types of index
TJ • Free TJ TJ TJ TJ

• Dummy
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• A free index occurs once and only once in each and every term in an
TJ equation TJ TJ TJ TJ

• A dummy or summation index occurs twice in a term

TJ TJ TJ TJ

i.e aijxj → ‘i‘ is free index and ‘j’ is a dummy index

11
 Another way to write a vector is in Cartesian form:

x = x î + yĵ + zk̂ = ( x, y, z)
TJ The coordinates
TJ x, y and z canTJalso be written as x1, x2TJ
, x3. Thus the TJ
vector can be written as

TJ TJ
x = ( x1, x 2 , x 3 ) TJ TJ TJ

TJ or as TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ x = ( x i ) ,TJi = 1..3 TJ TJ

or in index notation, simply as

TJ TJ  TJ TJ TJ
x = xi
TJ
where i is understoodTJto be a dummy variable TJ
running from 1 to 3. TJ

Thus xi, xj and xp all refer to the same vector (x1, x2 and x3) , as the
index (subscript) always runs from 1 to 3.

12
 𝒂𝟏
• a = 𝒂𝒊 = 𝒂𝟐
TJ
𝒂𝟑TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• In matrix notations we are restricted to work with one- and two-dimensional arrays. This is not
the case in index notation, for instance ,
TJ TJ TJ TJ
eijk = 3×3×3 = 27 components 4 i,j,k = 1,2,3
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
dijkl = 81 Components
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝑩𝟏𝟏 𝑩𝟏𝟐 𝑩𝟏𝟑
B = 𝑩𝒊𝒋 = 𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝑩𝟐𝟐 𝑩𝟐𝟑
𝑩𝟑𝟏 𝑩𝟑𝟐 𝑩𝟑𝟑

13
 Summation Convention
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• An important convention is index notation is the so-called summation convention, which states that
if an index is repeated twice then a summation over this index is implied. An example, the produce
TJb a , where the index i is TJ
repeated twice means TJ TJ TJ
i i

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

14
 Example
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Expand yi = airxr
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
y1 = a11x1 + a12x2+ a13x3
y2 = aTJ21x1 + a22x2+ a23x3 TJ TJ TJ
y3 = a31x1 + a32x2+ a33x3
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

15
 Examples
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Expand aiixk
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ
aiixk =a11xk +a x +a33xk
TJ 22 k TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

Expand aijxk (1≤ j ≤ 4)

TJ TJ TJ TJ

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 
Scalar multiplication: let  be a scalar and A = Ai be a vector.
Then 
A = Ai = (Ai , A 2 , A3 )
TJ is a vector.
TJ TJ TJ TJ

Dot or scalar product of two vectors results in a scalar:

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
 
A • B = A1B1 + A 2B2 + A3B3 = scalar
TJ TJ TJ TJ
In index notation, the dot product takes the form
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
  3 3 3
A • B =  AiBi = AkBk = ArBr =
TJ TJ i=1 k =1 TJ r =1 TJ TJ

Einstein summation convention: if the same index occurs twice, always

TJ sum over that index.TJ So we abbreviate to TJ TJ
 
A • B = AiBi = AkBk = ArBr

There is no free index in the above expressions. Instead the indices are
paired (e.g. two i’s), implying summation. The result of the dot product
is thus a scalar. 17
 Magnitude of a vector:
2  
A = A • A = Ai Ai
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
A tensor can be constructed by multiplying two vectors (not scalar
TJ product): TJ TJ TJ TJ

 A1B1 A 2B1 A 3B1 

TJ TJ
 TJ
 TJ

TJ
A B = ( AiB j ) ,i = 1..3, j =TJ1..3 =  A1B2
TJ i j
A 2B2 ATJ3B3  TJ
A B A 2B3 A 3B3 
 1 3
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Two free indices (i, j) means the result is a second-order tensor

TJ
Now consider the expression
TJ TJ TJ
Ai A jB j
This is a first-order tensor, or vector because there is only one free
index, i (the j’s are paired, implying summation).
Ai A jB j = ( A1B1 + A 2B2 + A 3B2 )( A1, A 2 , A 3 )
18
That is, scalar times vector = vector.
 Kronecker delta ij

 1 0 0
1 if iTJ= j   δ11 =TJδ22 = δ33 = 1
TJ TJ
ij =  = 0 1 0 TJ

0 if i  j   δ12 = δ13 = δ23= δ21 = δ31 = δ32=0

TJ TJ
0
 TJ 0 1  TJ TJ

• Since there are two free indices, the result is a second-order tensor,
TJ TJ TJ TJ
or matrix. The Kronecker delta corresponds to the identity matrix.
TJ • ItTJ
is used in tensor calculus
TJ to annihilate-non-diagonal
TJ terms TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Example:
ExpandTJ δijxixj TJ TJ TJ

δijxixj = δ11x1x1 + δ12x1x2 + δ13x1x3 + δ13x1x3 + δ21x2x1 + δ22x2x2 + δ22x2x3 + δ31x3x1 +

δ32x3x2 + δ33x3x3 + δ11x1x1 + δ22x2x2 + δ33x3x3
= (1) x12+ (1) x22+ (1) x32
= x12+ x22+ x32
= δijxixj = xix1 or xjxj 19
TJ
A useful
TJ
manipulation in tensorTJnotation can be used to TJ
change an index TJ
in an expression:
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
iju j = ui
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ
This manipulation works because TJ the Kronecker delta TJ= 0 except when TJ
ij
i = j, in which case it equals 1.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

20
 Example
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Expand and approximate δijaj
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
δijaj = δ11a1+ δ12a2 + δ13a3 + δ21a1 + δ22a2 + δ23a3 + δ31a1 + δ32a2 + δ33a3 + δijaj
δijaj = a1 + a2 + a3
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

21
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
• Practice problem Expand and proof Bijδjk = Bik
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ
• Properties:TJ TJ TJ TJ

𝜕𝑎𝑖
•
TJ = δij TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝜕𝑎𝑗
𝜕𝑥1
TJ TJ 𝜕𝑥1 TJ TJ
• as, =0 & =1
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥1

22
 Levi-Civita Tensor
Two dimensional
TJ 𝜖11 𝜖12 TJ 0 1 TJ TJ TJ
ϵij = 𝜖 𝜖22 =
21 −1 0
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

Three dimensional
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ  1 if TJi, j,k cycle clockwise:TJ1,2,3, 2,3,1 or 3,1,2 TJ TJ


ijl = − 1 if i, j,k cycle counterclockwise: 1,3,2, 3,2,2 or 2,1,3
TJ  TJ
otherwise TJ TJ TJ
 0
TJ TJ TJ TJ
Vectorial cross product:
 
AxB = ijk A jBk
One free index, so the result must be a vector.
23
 Example:
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑎22 = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21
TJ TJ of 2 x 2 matrix.
Determinant TJ TJ TJ

Suppose it is
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝑎1𝑖 𝑎2𝑗 = 𝑎11 𝑎21 + 𝑎11 𝑎22 + 𝑎12 𝑎21 + 𝑎12 𝑎22
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ Let say itTJ

is TJ TJ TJ

𝐴 =∈𝑖𝑗 𝑎1𝑖 𝑎2𝑗

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
= ∈11 𝑎11 𝑎22 + ∈12 𝑎11 𝑎22 +∈21 𝑎12 𝑎21 +∈22 𝑎12 𝑎22
TJ ∈12 = 1,TJ ∈21 = −1 TJ TJ

= 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21

Therefore, in tensor notations it is = ∈𝑖𝑗 𝑎1𝑖 𝑎2𝑗
Similarly, determinant of 3 x 3 matrix.
𝐴 =∈𝑖𝑗 𝑘 𝑎1𝑖 𝑎2𝑗 𝑎3𝑘
24
 Del or Nabla ∇ (w.r.t coordinate system):
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
➢ Del is not a specific operator
TJ ➢ Convenient
TJ mathematical notation
TJ for three operators TJ TJ
➢ Make equation easier to write and remember.
TJ
➢ Three possible
TJ
meaning TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ 1. Gradient:
TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓
grad f = ∇f = 𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
+ 𝑒
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
+ 𝑒
𝑑𝑧 𝑧
TJ TJ TJ TJ
• scalar field: Temperature distribution, pressure distribution)
• vector derivative of a scalar field.

25
 2. Divergence
TJ TJ 𝜕𝜈 TJ
𝜕𝜈𝑦 𝜕𝜈𝑧 TJ TJ
Dev 𝜈Ԧ =∇ . 𝜈Ԧ = 𝜕𝑥𝑥 + +
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

TJ ➢ Scalar field TJ TJ TJ TJ

3. Curl
TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑦 𝑒
TJ TJ TJ𝑧 TJ TJ
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Curl 𝜈=∇
Ԧ x 𝜈Ԧ =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
TJ TJ 𝜈𝑥 𝜈𝑦 𝜈𝑧 TJ TJ TJ
• Vector field
TJ TJ TJ TJ

26
 Laplacian Operator:
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ
Can be
TJ
applied for vector and scalar
TJ
field TJ TJ
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2 2
𝜕 2 ()
∆= 2 + 2 + 2 = 𝛻. 𝛻 = 𝛻 =
TJ 𝜕𝑥TJ 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 TJ𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖 TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

∆ 𝑓 = 𝛻 2 𝑓 = 𝛻. 𝛻 𝑓 = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓)
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

In tensor notation;
TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
∅,𝑖𝑖= = + +
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 𝜕𝑥3

27
 Expand:
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝐴𝑝,𝑞 𝐵𝑞 𝑝, 𝑞 = 1,2,3
TJ TJ 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴TJ1 𝜕𝐴1 TJ TJ
𝐴1,𝑞 𝐵𝑞 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 3
TJ TJ 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴2 TJ
𝜕𝐴 TJ
2
𝐴2,𝑞 𝐵𝑞 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵3
TJ TJ 𝜕𝑥TJ
1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥3 TJ TJ
𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴3
𝐴3,𝑞 𝐵𝑞 = 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 + 𝐵
TJ TJ 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥TJ2 𝜕𝑥3 3 TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

28
 1 0 0
Let’s say ෝ = 0 ෝ= 1 ෝ= 0
𝑒1 𝑒2 𝑒2
0 0 1
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
(i) Inner Product
Tensor
TJ 1 = m order, degree or
TJrank, Tensor2 = n order TJ TJ TJ

(Dimension of array)
TJ TJ TJ TJ
Tensor1.Tensor2 = m+n.2 order
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
In general,
TJ TJ TJ 𝑥1 𝑦1 TJ TJ
1 𝑇
1 1 𝑥2 𝑦2
ෝ.ෝ= 0 TJ 0 =[1 0 0]. 0 TJ=1×1 + 0×0 + 0×0 =1 TJ< : : > TJ
𝑒1 𝑒1
0 0 0 : :
𝑥𝑛 𝑦𝑛
𝑇
1 0 0
ෝ.ෝ= 0 1 =[1 0 0]. 1 = 1×0 + 0×1 + 0×0=0
𝑒1 𝑒1
0 0 0 xT.y =σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = x1y1……………. xnyn

29
 2) Outer Product
Tensor of m order, Tensor of n order} = (n+m) order tensor
• Two vectors having outer product resulted in second
order tensor.
𝒂 ×𝒃
=𝑨𝒊𝒋
TJ 𝒊 𝒋 TJ TJ TJ TJ

ෝ×ෝ = ෝ×ෝT
TJ 𝒆𝟏 𝒆𝟏 𝒆𝟏 𝒆𝟏 TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝑻
𝟏 𝟏
TJ = 𝟎 𝟎 TJ TJ TJ

TJ 𝟎 TJ𝟎 TJ TJ TJ

𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
TJ = 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 =TJ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 TJ TJ TJ
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
TJ TJ TJ TJ

In general
𝒂𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 ⋯ 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝒏
a×b = abT = : 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 … … . 𝒃𝒏 = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
: 𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝟏 ⋯ 𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒏
30
𝒂𝒏
 Solve
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝒂𝒊 =𝟐𝒊 + 𝟑𝒋 + 𝟒𝒌

TJ 𝒃𝒋 =𝟑𝒊 - 𝟒𝒋 - 𝟓𝒌 TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝟐
TJ = 𝟑 𝟑 − 𝟒 −𝟓 TJ TJ TJ
𝟒
TJ
𝟔 TJ−𝟖 −𝟏𝟎 TJ TJ TJ

= 𝟗 −𝟏𝟐 −𝟏𝟓
TJ 𝟏𝟐 −𝟏𝟔 −𝟐𝟎
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

31
 Trace and determinant

TJ 𝑡𝑟 (A) = σ𝑛𝑖=1
TJ 𝑎𝑖𝑖 =a11 +a22+a33 + ………+a
TJ nn TJ TJ

𝑡𝑟 (б) = б1 + б2 + б3 = 𝐼1
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
or
𝑟 (б) = бxx + бyy + бzz = 𝐼1
𝑡TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ
Here, 𝑡𝑟 isTJtrace TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

det()= Determinant
TJ TJ TJ TJ
𝐼3 = det(б) = б1б2б3
δii = δ11 + δ22 + δ33 = 3
(i = 1, 2, 3)

32
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ
Extra / Repeated
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

33
 
Vectorial cross product: Let C be given as
  
C = AxB
TJ
ThenTJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ  TJî ĵ k̂  î ĵ TJ k̂ TJ TJ
  
C = det A1 A 2 A 3  = A1 A 2 A 3 =
TJ  TJ  TJ TJ

 B1 B2 B3  B1 B2 B3
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
 î ĵ k̂  î ĵ   î ĵ k̂  î ĵ 
TJ
 TJ
    TJ
  TJ TJ
 A1 A 2 A 3   A1 A 2  −  A 1 A 2 A 3   A1 A2  =
     
TJ  B1 B2 B3  BTJ
1 B 2  B1 B2 B3 TJ B1 B2  TJ

(A 2B3 − A3B2 )î + (A3B1 − A1B3 ) ĵ + (A1B2 − A 2B1 )k̂

34
 Vectorial cross product in tensor notation:
Ci = ijk A jBk
TJ Thus for
TJ example TJ TJ TJ
=1 = -1 =0
TJ C1 = 1jk A jBk = TJ
123 A 2B3 + 132 A 3B2 + 111A1B1 +
TJ a lot of other terms
TJ that TJ
all = 0
TJ TJ = A 2B3 − A 3B2 TJ TJ

TJ i.e. theTJsame result as the otherTJslide. The same resultsTJare also TJ

obtained for C2 and C3.

TJ TJ  TJ TJ TJ
The nabla vector operator  :
TJ  TJ    TJ TJ
 = î + ĵ + k̂
x1 x 2 x 3
or in index notation

xi 35
 The gradient converts a scalar to a vector. For example, where p is
pressure,
 p p p
grad(p) = p = î + ĵ + k̂
TJ TJ x1
TJ x 2 x 3 TJ TJ
or in index notation
TJ TJ p TJ TJ TJ
grad(p) =
x i
TJ TJ TJ TJ
The single free index i (free in that it is not paired with another i) in the
TJ TJ
above expression TJ
means that grad(p) is a vector. TJ TJ


TJ The divergence
TJ converts a vector into aTJscalar. For example, where
TJ u TJ
is the velocity vector,
TJ TJ TJ TJ
 u1 u2 u3 ui uk
div(u) = + + = =
x1 x 2 x 3 xi x k
Note that there is no free index (two i’s or two k’s), so the result is a
scalar.
36
 
The curl converts a vector to a vector. For example, where u is the
velocity vector,
î ĵ k̂
TJ TJ
   
TJ
 
TJ TJ
curl(u) = xu = =
TJ TJ
x1 x 2 x
TJ 3 TJ TJ
u1 u2 u3
TJ  u3 u2 TJ  u1 u3   u2 TJ u1  TJ
 −  î +  −  ĵ +  − k̂
TJ TJ
 x 2 x 3   x 3 x1   x1 x 2  TJ
TJ TJ

TJ or in index notation,
TJ TJ TJ TJ

 uk
curl(u) = ijk
x j
TJ TJ TJ TJ

One free index i (the j’s and the k’s are paired) means that the result is a
vector

37
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ
TJ

TJ
TJ
Extra
TJ
TJ

TJ
TJ

TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ

38
 CEE 451G ENVIRONMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS
LECTURE 1: SCALARS, VECTORS AND TENSORS

A scalar has magnitude but no direction.

TJ An example
TJ is pressure p. TJ TJ TJ
The coordinates x, y and z of Cartesian space are scalars.
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
A vector has both magnitude and direction
Let î, ĵ, k̂ denote unit vectors in the x, y and z direction. The hat
TJ TJ TJ TJ
denotes a magnitude of unity
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

The position vector x (the arrow denotes a vector that is not a unit
TJ vector) is given
TJ as TJ TJ TJ


TJ
x = x î + yĵ + zk̂ TJ TJz TJ

x
k̂

î ĵ y
x
39
 LECTURE 1: SCALARS, VECTORS AND TENSORS

The velocity vector u is given as

 dx dx dy dz
u= = î + ĵ + k̂
TJ TJ dt dt dt
TJ dt TJ TJ

The acceleration vector a is given as
TJ  TJ
2
TJ TJ TJ
 du du dv dw d x d2x d2y d2z
a= = î + ĵ + k̂ = 2 = 2 î + 2 ĵ + 2 k̂
TJ dt dt dt TJ dt dt dt dt
TJ dt TJ

TJ The units
TJ that we will use in class
TJ are length L, time T,TJ
mass M and TJ
temperature °. The units of a parameter are denoted in brackets. Thus

TJ TJ
[x ] = L TJ TJ TJ
 −1
TJ TJ
[u ] = LT TJ TJ

[a ] = ? LT −2

Newton’s second law is a vectorial statement: where F denotes the
force vector and m denotes the mass (which is a scalar)
 
F = ma 40
 LECTURE 1: SCALARS, VECTORS AND TENSORS

The components of the force vector can be written as follows:


F = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fzk̂
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
The dimensions of the force vector are the dimension of mass times
TJ the dimensionTJacceleration TJ TJ TJ

[F] = [Fx ] = MLT −2
TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
Pressure p, which is a scalar, has dimensions of force per unit area.
The dimensions of pressure are thus
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
[p] = MLT −2 /(L2 ) = ML−1T −2
TJ TJ TJ TJ
The acceleration of gravity g is a scalar with the dimensions of (of
course) acceleration:

[g] = LT −2

41
 LECTURE 1: SCALARS, VECTORS AND TENSORS

A scalar can be a function of a vector, a vector of a scalar, etc. For

example, in fluid flows pressure and velocity are both functions of
position and time:
TJ TJ
 TJ    TJ TJ
p = p( x, t) , u = u( x, t)
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
A scalar is a zero-order tensor. A vector is a first-order tensor. A
TJ matrix is a second order
TJ tensor. For example, TJ consider the stress TJ

TJ
tensor
TJ
. TJ TJ TJ

  xx  xy  xz 
TJ TJ  TJ  TJ TJ
 =   yx  yy  yz 
  zy  zz 
TJ TJ  zx TJ TJ

The stress tensor has 9 components. What do they mean? Use the
following mnemonic device: first face, second stress
42
 LECTURE 1: SCALARS, VECTORS AND TENSORS
Consider the volume element below.
z

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

y
TJ TJ TJ TJ
x
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ Each of the sixTJfaces has a direction. TJ TJ TJ

For example, this face
TJ and this face TJ TJ TJ
are normal to the y direction

A force acting on any face can act in the x, y and z directions.

43
 LECTURE 1: SCALARS, VECTORS AND TENSORS
Consider the face below.
z

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

TJ TJ yy yz TJ TJ TJ

y
TJ TJ yx TJ TJ
x
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

The face is in the direction y.

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

The force per unit face area acting in the x direction on that face is the
TJ stress yx (first face, second
TJ stress). TJ TJ

The forces per unit face area acting in the y and z directions on that
face are the stresses yy and yz.
Here yy is a normal stress (acts normal, or perpendicular to the face)
and yx and yz are shear stresses (act parallel to the face) 44
 LECTURE 1: SCALARS, VECTORS AND TENSORS
Some conventions are in order
z

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

yx
TJ TJ yy yz TJ
yy TJ TJ
yz y
TJ TJ yx TJ TJ
x
TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ

Normal stresses are defined to be positive outward, so the orientation

TJ TJ TJ TJ TJ
is reversed on the face located y from the origin
TJ Shear stresses similarly
TJ reverse sign on the opposite
TJ face face are the TJ
stresses yy and yz.
Thus a positive normal stress puts a body in tension, and a negative
normal stress puts the body in compression. Shear stresses always put
the body in shear.`
45