Food analysis

All food should be safe to eat whether in restaurants or grocery stores.

We all expect that there shouldn’t be any harmful pathogens or dangerous levels of
microorganisms in food and raw materials and that the food is always the same
texture and consistency. Food analysis confirms that all food is safe and of high
quality before it reaches customers.

Why is food testing/analysis important?

Food analyses as analytical procedures are provided only by accredited laboratories,
to provide information about a wide variety of different characteristics of food –
including composition, structure, physico-chemical properties, and sensory
attributes.
All of this information is important to determine because:

1. To ensure food safety

Ensuring that produced food is safe for both customers and manufacturers, is the
most important part of food analysis. Can you imagine that the food you bought
from a store or a restaurant, is toxic or harmful for you or can cause a foodborne
illness?
Food is unsafe for the customers when it contains:
# harmful microorganisms (e.g., Listeria, Salmonella)
# toxic chemicals (e.g., pesticides, herbicides)
# extraneous matter (e.g., glass, wood, metal, insect matter)

Food manufacturers have to do everything possible to protect consumers from these

threats. For that, it is highly important to develop a Hazard Analysis and Critical
Control Point plan (HACCP plan) where you need to identify the processes that may
cause problems (hazard analysis), assign critical control points, and determine
corrective action when a problem is identified. The developed HACCP plan needs to
be introduced to all of your team members periodically.

2. To ensure the food is according to regulations and standards

Governmental regulations are designed to maintain food quality through the whole
supply chain. Also, they help to ensure the food manufacturing industry provides
consumers with foods that are wholesome and safe and informs consumers about
the correct quality information.
Local governmental institutions have worked out a number of voluntary and
mandatory standards concerning the composition, quality, inspection, and labeling
of specific food products when performing food analysis.

3. Quality control
It’s well-known that the food industry is a highly competitive sector, where product
development plays an important role in profit and market-sharing. Everybody wants
their products to be the most delicious, desirable, highest quality, and least
expensive. At the same time, products need to be safe, nutritious and to meet all
food safety standards. Keep in mind that all of the final products consistently need to
have the same properties, i.e. appearance, texture, flavor, and shelf life.
To ensure that food manufacturers take their business seriously, they:
Analyze the raw materials they use when preparing their products and when
standards are not met the manufacturer rejects the material.
Monitor food properties during processing. This helps to improve the overall quality
of food and produce less waste
Characterize and analyze the final product.

4. Research and development of the food industry

During recent years, significant changes have been made regarding the preferences
of consumers for foods that are healthier, higher quality, and lower cost. Food
businesses must respond rapidly to these changes in order to remain competitive
within the food industry.
Food manufacturers and government laboratories routinely complete food testing to
ensure that they do not contain harmful substances and that the production facility
is operating according to their HACCP plan. All food analysis must always be
performed by an accredited laboratory where scientists and specialists work.

What are the most common food analyses?

As there are a number of different analyses and techniques available, it’s necessary
to select the most appropriate one. The analysis selected depends on the property
to be measured, the type of food to be analyzed, and the reason for carrying out the
analysis. The most common way to find out is to contact a local food safety expert
who will give recommendations or use a HACCP building software that gives
suggestions according to your company’s profile.

Here are the most common food analyses:

Water testing
As water is the main ingredient in the product you are manufacturing and is also
used when washing dishes, it can be a potential source of microbiological and
chemical hazards. That’s why it’s crucially important to analyze your water before
you start with your food business and regularly after a concrete time period.

Nutritional analyses
Accurate nutritional analysis is essential to ensure you comply with labeling
regulations and retailer specifications. The reason is that consumers can make
informed choices about their diet. Allergens in food products and beverages are a
serious and increasing concern. Nutritional labels state the total calorific value of the
food, as well as total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrate, dietary
fiber, sugars, protein, vitamins, calcium, iron, etc.
Understanding nutritional content is also an intrinsic part of new product
development and quality control.
Authenticity
It’s important to test the authenticity of certain food components to ensure that
consumers are not the victims of economic fraud and that competition among food
manufacturers is fair.

Microbiological testing
This is done against potentially harmful food-borne micro-organisms, including
pathogens like; Campylobacter (a food-borne pathogen and is a major cause of food
poisoning), Salmonella, E.coli, and Listeria, along with spoilage organisms such as
yeasts and molds.

Food allergen testing

The accurate and reliable detection of allergens ensures the safety and quality of
your products and processes, verifies food properties for labeling to avoid product
recalls, and ultimately protects your brand image.
The most common allergens that are tested:
Cereals containing gluten
Crustaceans like prawns or crab
Eggs
Fish
Soybeans
Milk
Peanuts and other nuts including almonds, hazelnuts, and walnuts.
Sulfur dioxide and sulfites are used as preservatives in food products like sausages
and dried fruits.

Shelf-life testing
Food manufacturers need to determine the use by or best before dates for all of
their products to meet governmental regulations and to keep their consumers safe.
By performing shelf life analyses, you can define accurate dates for your products,
ensuring that the quality remains acceptable. Accurate and reliable shelf-life testing
reduces the risk of product recalls and helps to improve your products together with
increasing profitability.
Product physical testing
Physical properties of food to be checked are aspects such as color, structure,
texture, rheology and interfacial properties, and composition.

Importance of food analysis

1. Provides information about a wide variety of different characteristics of food,
including composition, structure, physicochemical properties, and sensory attributes.
2. Helps in better quality assurance of the product.
3. Identifies contamination and allergens.
4. Assists consumers in making product choices based on the nutritional analysis and
composition.
5. Adheres to the laws related to food composition.
 SAMPLING OVERVIEW

Most empirical research based on surveys or interviews is based on sampling. The

sampling method implies selecting a small group from a larger group of
individuals/items to represent the whole.

What is Sampling?

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of people or social phenomena to be

studied from the larger universe.

The main objective of sampling is to draw inferences about the larger group based
on information obtained from the small group. The main way to achieve this is to
select a representative sample. A sound representative sample should reflect all
variables that exist in the population.

The term ‘population’ refers to all those who could be included in the survey. A
variable is any characteristic on which people or groups differ. A variable is a set of
mutually exclusive attributes of a sample unit: sex, age, employment status, etc. The
elements of a given population may be described in terms of their attributes on a
given variable. Variable is closely associated with the term sampling frame. The
sampling frame lists all units in the population from which the sample will be
selected.

The sampling method is less expensive and less time-consuming than the census
technique. It is convenient to administer a sample method as the small sample units
can be easily manageable. The sampling method is also useful for the intensive and
elaborate study of selected units. The main assumption behind the sampling
technique is that though socio-legal phenomena are complex, there appears
dominant unity in diversity, and it is possible to draw a representative sample. But
the choice of the unit should be clear, unambiguous, and definite. Moreover, the
sample unit must be adequate in size to be reliable.

However, to be reliable, the choice of sample units should be made with due care,
and the subject matter under the survey should be homogenous.

The main advantages of the sampling method are:

1. It can facilitate the estimate of the characteristics of the population in a much

shorter time than would be possible otherwise.

2. It is also less expensive as only fewer people need to be interviewed.

However, the sampling method also has some disadvantages:

1. The possibility of biases in selecting units, leading to false conclusions.

Biasness occurs when the decisions of the researcher about whom to sample are
influenced too much by personal judgments, prospective respondents’ availability, or
his implicit criteria for inclusion. A biased sample does not represent the population
from which the sample was selected.

The use of sampling methods also requires the knowledge of sampling and the
selection of appropriate samples. Moreover, if the units under sampling are liable to
change, it isn’t easy to maintain homogeneity.

Definition of Sampling

Sampling is a statistical procedure of drawing a small number of elements from a

population and drawing conclusions regarding the population.

What is Population in Research Sampling?

A population (also called a universe) is the total collection of all the population
elements, each of which is a potential case.

What is Sample Size?

Sample size refers to the number of units contained in a sample, while population
size is the number of units that constitute the population.

The population characteristics about which the inferences are made are called
parameters.

For a given sample design, an estimator is a method or formula for estimating the
value of the parameter.

An estimate is the numerical value of the estimator obtained from the sample. Bias is
a term that refers to how far the average value of the estimator lies from the
parameter

Types of Sampling

Two types of sampling are;

1. Probability Sampling

 Simple Random Sampling

 Stratified Random Sampling

 Systematic Sampling

2. Non-Probability Sampling
 Judgement of Purposive Sampling

 Quota Sampling

1. Probability Sampling

It refers to a sample that has been selected using random selection so that each unit
in the population has a known chance of being selected.

In other words, individual units are chosen from the whole group, not deliberately
but by some mechanical processes.

Thus, probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling.’

Probability sampling is instrumental when researchers want precise, statistical

descriptions of large populations- for example, the percentage of unemployed
populations or plans to vote for candidate X, etc.

Thus, probability sampling is used in large-scale surveys. Probability sampling has the
advantage of eliminating human biases in sampling. The sample error in this method
can be kept to a minimum.

Probability sampling enhances the representativeness of sampling and provides for

generalization from a sample to the population.

There are three types of probability sampling methods (1) Simple Random
Sampling, (2) Stratified Random Sampling and (3) Non-Probability Sampling.

1.1) Simple Random Sampling

This is the basic form of a probability sample. In this random sample, each
population unit has an equal probability of inclusion in the sample.

The key steps of devising a simple random sample include defining the population,
deciding on sample size, and selecting the mechanical process.

Generally, in this type of sampling, the units composing a population are assigned
numbers.

Then a set of random numbers is generated and the units having those numbers are
included in the sample. Simple random sampling is free from bias and is generally
more representative.

1.2) Stratified Random Sampling

Random sampling will likely, by chance, include a higher proportion of one group of
people than there should be for it to be truly representative.
To avoid this problem, stratified random sampling is employed. Stratified random
sampling is employed when the population from which a sample is drawn does not
constitute a homogenous group.

Thus, stratification means grouping the units composing a population into

homogeneous before sampling. In this type of sampling, the population is stratified
by criteria, and then the selection is made through simple random sampling from the
resulting strata.

In other words, under this method, the population is divided into several
subpopulations that are individually more homogenous than the total population.

Then the selection is made from each stratum to constitute a representative sample.

The stratified random sampling ensures that the resulting sample will be distributed
similarly to the population in terms of the stratifying criterion.

Stratified sampling can ensure greater representativeness of the sample if the

stratification process is based on objective criteria.

1.3) Systematic Sampling

In systematic sampling, the population is listed so that its order can uniquely identify
each population element.

The list of elements in the population is usually ordered randomly concerning the
trait to be measured. In this sense, it is also equivalent to simple random sampling.

However, here sample is selected at every sampling interval.

Typically, simple random sampling requires a list of elements. When such a list is
available, researchers usually employ systematic sampling.

For instance, if the list contains 10,000 elements and the researcher wanted a
sample of 1,000, he should select every tenth element for his sample.

2. Non-Probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling means a sample that has not been selected using a random
method. In this method, units for the sample are selected deliberately by the
researcher.

Thus, in non-probability sampling, the researcher purposely chooses the particular

population units with certain characteristics for constituting a sample because such
units will represent the entire population.
There are two main types of non-probability sampling are (1) Judgement of
Purposive Sampling and (2) Quota Sampling.

2.1) Judgement of Purposive Sampling

In the judgment of purposive sampling, the researcher selects the units to form his
sample on his own judgment.

The essence of this method is that the researcher, presumably having sufficient
knowledge about the population and its elements, uses his experience to select a
sample that will be the most useful or representative.

This technique is useful in cases where the whole data is homogeneous, and the
researcher has full knowledge of the various aspects of the problem.

2.2) Quota Sampling

This combines judgment and probability procedures. Here, the population is

classified into several categories based on judgment, assumption, or previous
knowledge.

First, people are selected globally: gender, age, class, locality, etc.

For instance, in conducting research, the researcher may need to know what
proportions of the population are male and what proportion are female, what
proportions of each gender fall into various age categories, educational levels, ethnic
groups, etc.

Quota sampling aims to produce a sample that reflects a population in terms of the
relative proportions of people in different categories.

Quota sampling is much quicker and cheaper than proper probability sampling.

Sampling With and Without Replacement

A sample may be drawn with replacement (SWR) or without replacement (SWOR).

Suppose the sample is taken with replacement from a population, finite or infinite.

In that case, the unit drawn is returned to the population, and the number of units
available for future drawing is not affected.

Consequently, the probability of drawing any remaining unit in successive selections

will remain unaltered.

In sampling without replacement, the unit drawn is not returned to the population in
subsequent drawings. Unlike sampling with replacement, the probability of drawing
any remaining unit in successive selections will be increased.
Sampling with replacement is sometimes referred to as unrestricted sampling. In
general, sampling with replacement is less precise than sampling without
replacement.

Intuitively, sampling with replacement seems rather wasteful.

In practice, almost all sampling is done without replacement since there is little
justification for studying the characteristics of the units, which have already been
included in the previous selection.

Sampling with replacement is of interest primarily for theoretical interest since the
formula for the variance and estimated variance of the estimators are often simpler
when the sampling is made with replacement than when it is made without
replacement.
 Food Sampling

Food products are analyzed for a variety of reasons, includingː

 to comply with legal and labeling requirements
 to assess product quality
 to determine nutritive value
 to detect adulteration
 for Research and Development purposes.
All food analysis and, by extension, all physical quality control—stems from obtaining
a portion or sample of a defined food production cycle and using this sample for
testing. Sampling is at the heart of quality monitoring. Proper sampling ensures that
quality control measurements are an accurate reflection of the overall quality of the
food product.
Although in the food industry, samples may be used for a wide variety of testing,
such as pesticide residue analysis or nutrient analysis for labeling, the principles
involved with sampling are the same for all testing. And samples in food industry
have special considerations that dictate how the samples are taken, stored, and
analyzed.
The analytical results obtained are dependent on the sampling technique used and
how the samples have been chosen. Errors may be produced by not understanding
the population as a whole or sampling a subset of the population that is not truly
representative of the whole.

Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling uses some form of random selection. In a random selection
method, the analyst must set up some process or procedure that assures that the
different units in the sample population have equal probabilities of being chosen. In
contrast, non-probability sampling is conducted when a representative sample
cannot be collected. The following are short descriptions of the various probability
sampling methods.

• Simple Random Sampling. This technique requires that each sample from the
population has an equal chance of selection. The user first defines the population
and then randomly selects from the entire population. There is a certain amount of
uncertainty, or variability, associated with the estimates made for the larger
population based on the smaller sample. This type of sampling is simple to apply and
the analysis of data is reasonably easy; however, the sample may not be
representative of the whole.

• Stratified Random Sampling. In this technique, the population is first divided into
non-overlapping sub-populations called strata. If sampling from the strata is simple
random sampling, the whole procedure is called stratified random sampling. It can
lower the error associated with population estimates by sampling separately within
each group and deriving estimates for the population from the individual groups.
Complicated data analysis can be required if the strata are not clearly defined.
• Cluster Sampling. In simple random sampling and stratified random sampling,
single subjects are selected from the population. In contrast, in cluster sampling the
subjects are selected in groups or clusters. This approach allows the user to
overcome the large costs and time associated with sampling a dispersed population.
Unlike stratified sampling, the clusters are thought of as being typical of the
population, rather than subsections. One problem with this sampling is that clusters
may not be representative of whole population.

• Systematic Sampling. With this technique, the user randomly chooses a starting
point within a sampling timeframe, and then takes samples at regular intervals. For
example, the start of a production run is sampled, and then samples are chosen at
some set interval, such as every tenth unit. This is more precise than simple random
sampling, as the samples are more evenly spread over the population. However, if
the samples have a periodic difference, the results can be misleading.

• Composite Sampling. This sampling technique is used to obtain samples from

items in bulk. Two or more samples are then combined to reduce the differences
between the samples.

Sample Preparation
Food samples can exhibit a large variability. It is usually necessary to make samples
homogeneous before they are analyzed. Several devices have been developed for
homogenizing or blending food samples. The type used depends on the properties of
the food being analyzed.
Reducing particle size in samples is the first step to achieving homogenization. There
are numerous types of mills, based on their mode of action: burr, hammer, impeller,
cyclone, impact, centrifugal, and roller. Hammer mills are used to grind cereals, oil
meals, and most dry foods. Ball mills are used for small samples; the sample is placed
in a container half-filled with balls, which produces an impact-grinding action as the
container rotates constantly. Chilled ball mills can be used to grind frozen samples,
thereby reducing chemical changes in the sample.
For sample preparation of moist samples, various slicing and blending devices can be
used. In tissue grinders, which are used for small samples of soft material, the
sample is forced through two concentric cylinders. In colloid mills, the sample
suspension is pumped through a gap between two surfaces until the particles are
disintegrated by shear.
For microbiological and other sterile sampling needs, systems that blend or
homogenize samples in the sampling bag or container are available. With such
systems, there is no need to clean the equipment between samples. The user can
produce homogenized samples continuously without any cross contamination. After
use, the sterile bag is simply discarded. These systems use a mechanical action in
which contoured paddles apply pressure to the sample bag, effectively washing out
microorganisms. Bacteria are extracted from most food samples in about 30 sec.
Besides bacterial sampling, these systems can blend many materials which cannot be
handled by conventional blenders.
Problems with Food Samples
Food samples present special problems to the analyst. The analyst must ensure that
food samples do not undergo any significant changes in their properties from the
time when the sample is taken to the time when the actual analysis is conducted.
• Enzymatic Action. One of the general problems in many food sample preparation
procedures is enzymatic action after sampling. If the analyst is seeking to determine
total content of compounds such as sugars, lipids, or groups of proteins, the sample
should be prepared in a manner to inactivate any enzymes that may cause changes.
There are several treatments for enzymatic inactivation. They depend on the sample,
desired results, and type of enzyme.
• Lipid Protection. In foods, especially high-fat foods, lipids may be a problem. High-
fat foods may be difficult to grind and may need to be frozen. Unsaturated lipids may
be altered by various oxidation reactions. Exposure to light, elevated temperatures,
oxygen, or pro-oxidants can increase the rate at which these reactions proceed.
Consequently, it is usually necessary to store samples that have high unsaturated
lipid contents under nitrogen or some other inert gas, in dark rooms or covered
bottles, and at low temperatures. Antioxidants may be added to retard oxidation if
they will not interfere with the analysis.
• Microbial Growth and Contamination. Microorganisms are present in most foods
and if not controlled can alter the composition of the sample. Freezing, drying, heat
treatment, and chemical preservatives (or a combination) are often used to control
the growth of microbes in foods. The preservation methods used are determined by
the storage conditions, time, and analysis to be performed.
• Physical Changes. Several physical changes may occur in a sample, e.g., water may
be lost due to evaporation or gained due to condensation; fat or ice may melt or
crystallize; and structural properties may be disturbed. Physical changes can be
minimized by controlling the temperature of the sample, and the forces that it
experiences.

Automated Sampling Systems

Several systems have been developed to assist in sample preparation. These include
liquid handling systems and sample processors.
Liquid handling systems provide rapid and reproducible liquid handling through
automated pipetting and dispensing. Pipetting sequences and protocols that are
carried out manually can be transferred to the systems. Typically, programming
controls the testing of the liquid volumes, the pipette tip type, and the tubes used.
Robotic sample processors can carry out complex laboratory automation tasks in
combination with other analytical instruments. Applications for the sample
processors include full automation of direct-inject Karl Fischer analyses,
potentiometric titrations, and environmental sample testing. These processors can
test large numbers of sample.
 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF FOODS

The proximate composition of foods includes moisture, ash, lipid, protein, and
carbohydrate contents. These food components may be of interest in the food
industry for product development, quality control (QC), or regulatory purposes.
Analyses used may be rapid methods for QC or more accurate but time-consuming
official methods.

Considerable information about a food sample can be gained through a general

analysis of its main components—moisture, crude fat, crude protein, ash, and crude
fiber. The determination of the percentages of these components is termed
a proximate analysis. In some cases, a proximate analysis may be all that is required
and the more sophisticated instrumental methods discussed. For example, a
proximate analysis is usually sufficient to establish the general category of foodstuff
to which a particular sample belongs and the similarity of a particular food sample to
materials previously reported in the literature.

Proximate analysis is a type of scientific inquiry done to determine the

approximate amounts of substances within a material. This is utilized by different
types of scientists to study such things as animal feed, coal, and bio-fuels. The
process of proximate analysis is complicated and often involves either extraction or
remote sensing to determine the varying amount of substances within one material,
though different methods are used for different materials. This information can be
used to create quality controls for various materials, ensure that they do not contain
hazardous chemicals, and determine whether they are healthy enough to be
consumed by humans or animals.

This system of analysis divides the food into six fractions: moisture, ash, crude
protein, ether extract, crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract. The moisture content is
determined as the loss in weight that results from drying a known weight of food to
constant weight at 100 degrees C. This method is satisfactory for most foods, but
with a few, such as silage, significant losses of volatile material may take place.

The ash content is determined by ignition of a known weight of the food at 550°C
until all carbon has been removed. The residue is the ash and is taken to represent
the inorganic constituents of the food. The ash may, however, contain material of
organic origin such as sulphur and phosphorus from proteins, and some loss of
volatile material in the form of sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur
will take place during ignition. The ash content is thus not truly representative of the
inorganic material in the food either qualitatively or quantitatively.

The crude protein (CP) content is calculated from the nitrogen content of the food,
determined by a modification of a technique originally devised by Kjeldahl over 100
years ago. In this method, the food is digested with sulphuric acid, which converts to
ammonia all nitrogen present except that in the form of nitrate and nitrite. This
ammonia is liberated by adding sodium hydroxide to the digest, distilled off and
collected in standard acid, the quantity so collected being determined by titration or
by an automated colourimetric method. It is assumed that the nitrogen is derived
from protein containing 16 percent nitrogen, and by multiplying the nitrogen figure
by 6.25 (i.e. 100/16) an approximate protein value is obtained. This is not ‘true
protein’ since the method determines nitrogen from sources other than protein,
such as free amino acids, amines and nucleic acids, and the fraction is therefore
designated crude protein.

The ether extract (EE) fraction is determined by subjecting the food to a continuous
extraction with petroleum ether for a defined period. The residue, after evaporation
of the solvent, is the ether extract. As well as lipids it contains organic acids, alcohol
and pigments. In the current official method, the extraction with ether is preceded
by hydrolysis of the sample with sulphuric acid and the resultant residue is the acid
ether extract.

The carbohydrate of the food is contained in two fractions, the crude fibre (CF) and
the nitrogen-free extractives (NFE). The former is determined by subjecting the
residual food from ether extraction to successive treatments with boiling acid and
alkali of defined concentration; the organic residue is the crude fibre.
When the sum of the amounts of moisture, ash, crude protein, ether extract and
crude fibre (expressed in g/kg) is subtracted from 1000, the difference is designated
the nitrogen-free extractives. The crude fibre fraction contains cellulose, lignin and
hemicelluloses, but not necessarily the whole amounts of these that are present in
the food: a variable proportion, depending upon the species and stage of growth of
the plant material, is contained in the nitrogen-free extractives. The nitrogen-free
extractives fraction is a heterogeneous mixture of all those components not
determined in the other fractions. It includes sugars, fructans, starch, pectins,
organic acids and pigments, in addition to those components mentioned above.

What is the importance of proximate analysis?

Proximate analysis is a series of laboratory tests and techniques used to determine

the approximate composition of various components in a sample of a substance,
often related to food, fuels, or agricultural products. The importance of proximate
analysis lies in its ability to provide essential information about the composition and
quality of these substances. Here are some key reasons why proximate analysis is
important:

Quality Control: Proximate analysis helps ensure the quality and consistency of
products. By determining the composition of key components like moisture, fat,
protein, carbohydrates, and ash, producers can monitor and control product quality,
making adjustments as needed to meet specific standards and customer
expectations.

Nutritional Information: In the context of food products, proximate analysis

provides critical nutritional information. It helps consumers make informed choices
about their diets by indicating the levels of essential nutrients like protein, fat,
carbohydrates, and dietary fiber. This information is often displayed on food labels.

Ingredient Labeling: Proximate analysis is used to accurately label food products,

informing consumers about the content of ingredients and nutrients. This is
especially important for people with dietary restrictions or allergies.

Food Safety: Determining moisture content is crucial for assessing the risk of
microbial growth in food products. Controlling moisture levels helps prevent spoilage
and ensures food safety.

Product Development: In research and development, proximate analysis is essential

for formulating new food products. Understanding the composition of raw materials
and ingredients helps manufacturers create recipes that meet specific nutritional
and taste profiles.

Quality Improvement: Manufacturers and producers can use proximate analysis to

identify areas for improvement in their processes. For example, if the analysis
reveals a high moisture content in a product with a long shelf life, adjustments can
be made to extend the product's stability.

Energy Content: In the case of fuels and energy sources, proximate analysis is used
to determine the energy content. This information is vital for assessing the efficiency
and suitability of fuels for various applications.

Feed Formulation: In the agricultural and livestock industries, proximate analysis of

feed ingredients helps formulate balanced and nutritious diets for animals,
optimizing their growth and productivity.

Environmental Impact: Proximate analysis of waste materials, such as sewage sludge

or biomass, helps evaluate their suitability for environmental applications like
composting or bioenergy production.

Regulatory Compliance: Proximate analysis is often required to meet regulatory

standards and compliance in various industries, ensuring that products meet safety
and labeling requirements.

Research and Innovation: Proximate analysis is fundamental in scientific research

across multiple fields, from food science and agriculture to environmental science
and materials engineering. It provides valuable data for experiments and studies.

Overall, proximate analysis plays a crucial role in ensuring product quality, safety,
and compliance with regulations, as well as providing consumers with accurate
nutritional information. It serves as a fundamental tool in various industries,
contributing to product development, process optimization, and scientific
advancements.

ERROR IN FOOD ANALYSIS

What is an Error?
Error is an action which means mistake but in analytical chemistry the difference
between the true value or a standard value and observed value is called error.
If we talk about error in our language, then we can say that any mistake is called
error, in the language of chemistry, error is the difference between a true value and
a standard value.
Example:- if a food susbstance contains 400mg of calcium and after analysis the
analyst observed 490 mg of calcium.
Then, absolute error ✓500-490= 10mg

Types of error
There are two main types of error:-
 Determinate error:- The error which is known to be analyst is called as
Determinate error.
 Indeterminate error:- indeterminate errors are often called accidental of
random error. They are related by a small difference in series of measurement
made by the same analyzed under identical conditions.
 Instrumental error
 Personal error
 Chemical error
 Error in methodology
 Indeterminate error

Sources of errors
1. Sample preparations
2. Error by analyst
3. Equipment problem
4. Calibration
5. Reporting error
6. Calculation error
7. Error in method selection
8. Sampling error
9. Laboratory environment
10. Error during transport

Methods of minimizing error

Error can be minimized by understanding the source and type of error. The
predictable errors can be minimized by correcting the directly whereas the under
predictable error can be minimized by following the standard protocols and good
laboratory particles strictly.
Some of the methods to minimized the errors are discussed as follows:-
1. Instrumental error:-
these errors can be minimized by checking properly the equipment used for the
analysis before starting of only analysis.
Proper calibration should be performed to ensure the performance of equipment’s.
Faulty equipment should be corrected by the experts and rechecked for accuracy of
the results. If the performance is not satisfied then a replacement should be done.
2. Personal error:-
skilled returns should be employed or the knowledge of the operators to perform
analysis is to be ensured pair to analysis. Regular reporting of analysis can be done.
3. Chemical error:-
standards chemical from authentic source with out impurities must be used for
analysis.
4. Error in methodology:-
these errors can be avoided by the following the standard method with proper
references.
5. Indeterminate error:-
Since indeterminate errors are not predictable, the entire procedure of analysis
should be carried out in a well planned warmer constituency all factors. which effect
the accuracy and precision of results.