Page Physics

1 1st Year : Common to all Branches

June : 2016 (CBCS)

Note : Max. marks : 60
Attempt any five questions. All questions carry equal marks.

Q.1 (a) Explain Maxwell’s equations in differential and integral forms.

Ans. Maxwell’s equations in differential and integral forms :
Maxwell’s Equation

Time varying field Static field

(or dynamic field)

Point form Integral form

Point form Integral form (or differential form)
(or differential form)

Maxwell’s equations for dynamic Fields :

Differential (or Point) Form Integral Form Remarks
   Gauss’s law for electric
  D  v 
s
D  d S   v dv
v field
   Gauss’s law for
 B  0  B  dS  0
s magnetic field
  Faraday’s law of
 B   B 
 E  
t  L E  dl  s t d S electromagnetic
induction
 
  D     D   Ampere’s law
  H  Jc 
t
 L H  dl  s  c t  d S
J 

Maxwell’s Equations for Static Fields :

Differential (or Point) Form Integral Form Remarks
  
  D  v 
s
D  d S   v dv
v
Gauss’s law

   Nonexistence of
 B  0  B  dS  0
s
magnetic monopole
Conservative nature of
  
 E  0 
L
E  dl  0 electrostatic field and
Kirchoff’s law
     
 H  J 
L
H  dl   J  d S
s
Ampere’s law

Q.1 (b) Obtain the divergence of following function.


f ( r )  3 xiˆ  2 y 2 ˆj  6 z 3 kˆ

Ans. Given : f ( r )  3 xiˆ  2 y 2 ˆj  6 z 3 kˆ
Formula :

The divergence of f is given by,
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2 1st Year : Common to all Branches

 f f y f z
 f  x   …(i)
x y z

Where, f x , f y , f z  Component of vector f in the direction of x , y , z respectively.
Calculations :
From equation (i), we get
   
  f  (3x)  (2 y 2 )  (6 z 3 )
x y z

  f  3  4 y  18 z 2 Ans.
Q.2 (a) Explain the construction and working of a He‐Ne laser with energy level diagram.
Ans. He‐Ne laser : Helium Neon laser was the first successful gas laser. It is a four level laser.
He‐Ne laser is a gas laser in which a mixture of He‐Ne gases is used. The reason is that some of
excited energy state of He are very close to excited state of Ne gas. He‐Ne lasers have many industrial
and scientific uses, and are often used in laboratory demonstrations of optics. Its usual operation
o
wavelength is 6328 A , in the red portion of the visible spectrum.

Perfectly Reflective Partially Reflective

mirror mirror

He + Ne Laser
Beam

Discharge
Electrodes
Fig.1 : He‐Ne laser
Its main parts are :
1. Working substances : The active medium of He‐Ne gas laser is a mixture of He and Ne gases in
the ratio 10 : 1 at low pressure 1 Torr.
2. Resonant cavity : It is a discharge tube of length nearly 50 cm and diameter 1 cm with its ends
perfectly plane and parallel. The left end of tube is a perfect reflector while right end is a partial
reflector.
3. Exciting source : Population inversion is achieved by electric discharge.
Construction : It consists of a long discharge tube filled with He‐Ne gases. One end of tube is
provided with a perfect reflector and other end with a partial reflector. The pumping of gas mixture
is done by electric discharge.
An electric discharge is produced in the gas by electrodes outside the tube connected to a source
of high frequency alternating current.
Principle and working : The energy level diagram of He‐Ne laser is shown in figure.
1. When the power is switched ON, the e  from the discharge collide and pump the He and Ne
atoms to metastable states 20.61 eV and 20.66 eV respectively above their ground state.
Transition : F1  F2 Absorption.
2. Some of the excited He atom transfer their energy to Ne atom in collision with 0.05 eV of
additional energy.
Since the purpose of the He atom is to excite Ne atom and achieving a population inversion
in the Ne‐atom.
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Energy transfer from, He  Ne .

3. When an excited Ne atom passes from metastable state at 20.66 eV to an excited state of 18.70 eV,
o
it emits a photon of wavelength 6328 A . This photon travels through the gas mixture and if it is
moving parallel to the axis of tube, is reflected back and forth by the mirror‐ends until it
o
stimulates an excited Ne atom and causes it to emit a 6328 A photon in phase with stimulating
photon.
The stimulated transition from 20.66 eV to 18.70 eV level is the laser transition.
Helium
Neon atom
atom Collisions E4 Metastable state
20.61 eV 20.66 eV o
F2 6328 A
Metastable
state E3 Excited state
18.70 eV Spontoneous
emission
E2 Metastable state

Absorption
Radiation less
transition

Ground Ground E1
F
state 1 state
Fig.2 : Energy level diagram of He‐Ne laser
The process is continued and a beam of coherent radiation becomes sufficiently intense.
Transition : E4  E3 Stimulated emission.
20.66 eV  18.70 eV (Laser transition)
4. The Ne atom passes from the 18.70 eV level, spontaneously to a lower metastable state emitting
incoherent light.
Transition : E3  E2 Spontaneous emission.
5. Finally the Ne atom comes down to the ground state through collision with the tube walls. This
transition, from lower metastable state E2 to the ground state E1 is radiation‐less transition.
Transition : E2  E1 radiation‐less transition.
Since the E2 of neon is a metastable state then there is possibility of atoms in the level E2
getting re‐excited again to higher level E3 . If this happens then it may disturb the population
inversion at the level E4 .
This can be protected by reducing the diameter of the tube (i.e. narrow tube) so that atoms
in the energy state E2 follow the transition directly to the lower energy level E1 mainly through
the collision with the walls of tube instead of exciting atoms from the level E2 to the level E3 .
Q.2 (b) Give four major properties of a laser light.
Ans. Characteristics of laser : The abbreviation of laser is Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. Laser is a quantum electronics device which produces intense, monochromatic and
coherent beam of light.
A laser beam has the following important characteristics :
1. Directionality : The laser emits light only in one direction while a conventional light source emits
light in all direction. The width of laser beam is extremely narrow and hence a laser beam can
travel to long distances without spreading.
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2. Monochromaticity : It means that all the laser rays have same wavelength and frequency when
they are emitted from the same source. Laser light is almost perfectly mono‐chromatic.
3. Coherence : A conventional light source such as incandescent lamp or a natural source such as
sun produces incoherent light since they emit random wavelength light waves with no common
phase relationship. On the other hand, the waves emitted by a laser source will be in phase and
are of same frequency. Therefore, light generated by a laser is highly coherent.
4. Divergence : Light from conventional sources spreads out in the form of spherical wave fronts
and hence it is highly divergent. The divergence or angular spread of the laser beam is extremely
small. The little divergence that exists in it arises out of the wave properties of light.
When the light issue out from the front mirror, it undergoes diffraction because the
semitransparent mirror acts as a circular aperture. Accordingly, it spreads out and the angular
spread is given by,
  (1.22 ) / d
Where, d = Diameter the front mirror.
Q.3 (a) Derive the expression for numerical aperture of a step index optical fiber.
Ans. Numerical aperture :
Fig. shows a light ray incident on the fibre core at angle 1 to the fibre axis which less than the
acceptance angle for the fibre  a .
Air (n0)
n2

n1
q1 A C
q2 f f

B n2

Fig. : The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fibre in
air at an input angle less than the acceptance angle to the fibre
The rays enters fibre from a medium (air) of refractive index n0 and the fibre core has a refractive
index n1 which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index n2 . Assuming the entrance face
at the fibre core to be normal to the axis, then considering the refraction at the air‐core interface and
using Snell’s law given by,
n0 sin 1  n1 sin 2 …(i)
Considering the right‐angled triangle ABC indicated in figure, then

   2 …(ii)
2
Where,  is greater than the critical angle at the core‐cladding interface. Hence equation (i) becomes
n0 sin 1  n1 cos  …(iii)
Using the trigonometric relationship sin   cos   1, equation (iii) may be written as,
2 2

n0 sin 1  n1 1  sin 2  
1/ 2
…(iv)
When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered,  becomes equal to the critical angle
for the core‐cladding interface and is given by,
n
sin c  2
n1
Also in this limiting case 1 becomes the acceptance angle for the fibre ( a ) . Combining these
limiting case into equation (iv) gives,
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5 1st Year : Common to all Branches

1/ 2
  n2 
n0 sin a   n12  n12  22  
  n1 
n0 sin  a   n12  n22 
1/ 2
…(v)
Equation (v), apart from relating the acceptance angle to the refractive indices, serves as the basis for
the definition of the important optical fibre parameter, the numerical aperture (N.A.). Hence the N.A.
is defined as,
N . A.  n0 sin a   n12  n22 
1/ 2
…(vi)
Since the N.A. is often used with the fibre in air where n0 is unity, it is simply equal to sin a .
The N.A. may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference  between the core
and the cladding which is defined as,
n12  n22

2n12
n1  n2
 for   1 …(vii)
n1
Hence combining equation (vi) with equation (vii) we can write
N . A.  n1 2  …(viii)
Sometimes another parameter n  n1  n2 is referred to as the index difference and n / n1 as the
fractional index difference. Hence  also approximates to the fractional index difference.
Q.3 (b) Obtain the V‐number and number of modes supported by a step‐index optical fiber having
core index 1.48, cladding index 1.46 and the source wavelength 1.2 m .
Ans. Given : Core refractive index n1  1.48 , Cladding refractive index n2  1.46 ,
Wavelength   1.2 m  1.2  10 6 m .
Formula :
Numerical aperture is given by,
N . A.  n12  n22 …(i)
Where, n1  Refractive index of core,
n2  Refractive index of clad.
Normalized frequency is given by,
d
V ( N . A.) …(ii)

Where, d  Diameter,
N . A.  Numerical aperture,
  Wavelength.
Number of modes is given by,
V2
N …(iii)
2
Calculations :
From equation (i), we get
N . A.  1.48 2  1.46 2  0.2424
For a standard step index optical fibre, core diameter  50 m.
From equation (ii), we get
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6 1st Year : Common to all Branches

 50  106
V  0.2424  31.73 Ans.
1.2  106
From equation (iii), we get
31.732
N  503 Ans.
2
Q.4 (a) Derive the expression for compton shift in a compton scattering process.
Ans. In 1992 Compton observed that when a monochromatic beam of X‐ray was scattered by matter, the
scattered beam contained radiation of two different wavelengths, one identical with the incident
radiation and the other of longer wavelength.
The change in wavelength depends on the angle of observation.
Compton shift :
The change in wavelength or frequency of a monochromatic X‐ray beam on scattering by matter is
known as Compton effect and the difference in wavelength is called Compton shift.
Assumptions :
(i) X‐ray radiation is quantized and may be regarded as a stream of photons. A single photon carries
an energy hf . The photons behave like true particles and have momentum like any mechanical
particle.
(ii) The electron in the atom of the target material is loosely bound and may be considered at rest
initially.
(iii) The phenomenon of scattering is due to an elastic collision between two particles, the photon of
incident radiation and the electron scatterer.
Compton effect theory :
During the collision it gives a fraction of energy to the free electron. The electron gains kinetic energy
and recoils. The process of recoiling of electron and scattering of photons is shown in Fig.1 In figure,
 is the scattering angle while  is the recoil angle.
d Energy hf ' hf 'sin q hf '
ere hf '
c att ton Momentum
S ho c q
Electron p
at rest hf 'cos q
Incident photon q Scattering angle q
f hf f
Energy hf
c
Momentum hf m v cos f
c Recoil
electron f
mv
m v sin f mv

(a) Geometry of Compton scattering (b) Components of momentum

before and after collision
Fig.1
Before collision :
(i) Energy of incident photon  hf
hf
(ii) Momentum of incident photon 
c
(iii) Rest energy of the electron  m0 c 2 , where m0 is rest mass of the electron.
(iv) Momentum of rest electron  0
After collision :
(i) Energy of scattered photon  hf '
hf '
(ii) Momentum of scattered photon 
c
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(iii) Energy of the electron  m c 2 , where m is the mass of the electron moving with velocity v .
(iv) Momentum of recoil electron  m v , where v is the velocity of electron after collision.
m0
and m …(i)
 v 2 
 1  2 
 c 
Energy of the system (photon‐electron) before collision  hf  m0 c 2
Energy of the system after collision  hf ' m c 2
According to the principle of conservation of energy,
Energy before collision = Energy after collision
hf  m0 c 2  hf ' m c 2 …(ii)
Again, using the principle of conservation of momentum along and perpendicular to the direction of
incident, we get
Momentum before collision  Momentum after collision
hf hf '
0  cos   m v cos  …(iii)
c c
In the perpendicular direction,
hf '
00  sin   m v sin  …(iv)
c
From equation (iii),
m v c cos   hf  hf ' cos  …(v)
From equation (iv),
m v c sin   hf 'sin  …(vi)
Squaring equations (iv) and (v) and then adding, we get
(cos 2   sin 2 ) m 2 v 2 c 2  ( hf  hf 'cos ) 2  ( hf 'sin ) 2
m 2 v 2 c 2  h 2 f 2  2 h 2 f f 'cos   h 2 f ' 2 cos 2   h 2 f ' 2 sin 2 
m 2 v 2 c 2  h 2 f 2  2h 2 ff 'cos   h 2 f ' 2 (cos 2   sin 2 )
m 2 v 2 c 2  h 2 [ f 2  f ' 2  2 ff 'cos ] …(vii)
From equation (ii), we get
m c 2  h ( f  f ')  m0 c 2
Squaring m 2 c 4  h 2 ( f 2  2 f f ' f ' 2 )  2 h ( f  f ') m0 c 2  m02 c 4
…(viii)
Subtracting equation (vii) from equation (viii), we have
m 2 c 4  m 2 v 2 c 2  2 h 2 ff '(1  cos )  2 h( f  f ') m0 c 2  m02 c 4
m2 c 2 (c 2  v 2 )  2h 2 ff '(1  cos  )  2 h ( f  f ') m0 c 2  m02 c 4
From equation (i) putting the value of m , we get
m02 c 2 2 2
(c  v )  2 h 2 f f '(1  cos )  2 h ( f  f ') m0 c 2  m02 c 4
v2
1 2
c
i.e., m02 c 4  2 h 2 ff '(1  cos )  2 h ( f  f ') m0 c 2  m02 c 4
 2 h ( f  f ') m0 c 2  2 h 2 ff '(1  cos ) …(ix)
f f' h
or  (1  cos )
ff ' m0 c 2
1 1 h
or   (1  cos ) …(x)
f ' f m0 c 2
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Equation (x) shows that f '  f as h, m0 , c are the constants with positive values and the maximum
value of cos   1 . This shows that the scattered frequency is always smaller than the incident
frequency.
From equation (x), we have
c c h
  (1  cos )
f ' f m0 c
h
or    '   (1  cos ) …(xi)
m0 c
Where,  is change in wavelength.
The change in wavelength due to scattering is called as Compton effect.
From equation (xi) it is seen that,
(i) The wavelength  ' of the scattered photon is greater than the wavelength  of the incident
photon.
(ii)  is independent of the incident wavelength.
(iii)  has the same value for all substances containing free electrons.  only depends upon the
angle of scattering.
(iv) When   0, cos   1
    '   0 or  '  
which shows that no scattering occurs along the direction of incidence.

(v) When   , cos   0
2
h
Compton wavelength     c
m0 c
6.62  10 34 o
c  31 8
 0.0242 1010 m  0.0242 A
9.1×10 ×3×10
o
h
(vi) As   (1  cos )  0.0242(1  cos ) A
m0 c
Maximum value of
cos   1 i.e., when   180
0

o
  max  0.0484 A
This means that Compton effect can be detected only for those radiations whose wavelength is not
o
greater than a few A .
Q.4 (b) Explain Heisenberg Uncertainty principle.
Ans. Uncertainty principle : In 1927, German physicist Werner Heisenberg provided an interesting
addition to the meaning of the wave particle concept. He stated a very important principle, known
as the uncertainty principle.
The principle can be stated as follows :
“It is impossible to determine the exact position and momentum of a particle simultaneously.”
The uncertainty principle is expressed by the relation
x  p  
When we consider a group consisting of very large number of harmonic waves of continuously
varying frequencies, the product of the uncertainties comes to
1
x  p  
2
h
Where,  
2
x  Uncertainty in determining the position of particle,
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p  Uncertainty in determining the momentum of particle.

The various applications of uncertainty principle are :
1. Determination of position of a particle by a microscope :
Observer

Microscope

Incident
Photon p p
Particle
Consider the case of the measurement of the position of a particle say electron in the field of
microscope. The resolving power i.e., the smallest distance between the two points that can be
just resolved by the microscope is given by,

x  …(i)
2sin 
Where  the wavelength of light is used,  the semi‐vertical angle of the cone of light and  x
is the uncertainty in determining the position of the particle.
In order to observe the electron it is necessary that at least one photon must strike the electron
and scatter inside the microscope. When a photon of initial momentum p  h /  , after scattering
enters the field of view of microscope, it may be anywhere within angle 2. Thus its x component
of momentum i.e., px may lie between p sin  and  p sin  . As the momentum is conserved in
the collision, the uncertainty in the x component of momentum is given by,
px  p sin   ( p sin  )
px  2 p sin 

h  h
px  2 sin   p    …(ii)
  
From equations (i) and (ii), we have
 2h 
 x   px   sin   h 
2sin   2
This shows that the product of uncertainties in position and momentum is of the order of Planck’s
constant.
For macroscopic object the uncertainty principle has no importance because for such object,
the position and momentum could always be determined simultaneously with absolute
accuracy.
2. Diffraction of an electron beam by a single slit :
Let us consider a narrow beam of electrons of momentum p passing through a narrow slit of
width y [shown in Fig.2], y is a measure of uncertainty in the position of electron. Diffraction
pattern will appear on the screen as shown in Fig.1. If we assume that the screen is far away
relative to the width of the slit, the first minimum of the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is
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obtained by putting n  1 in the equation ( d sin   n ) describing the diffraction pattern due to
single slit. Thus,
y sin   


y  …(iii)
sin 

Dy a Dp y
p pX

a
p
Dp
Fig.1 Fig.2
The moving electrons in the beginning have no component of momentum along y- axis, since
they are moving along x ‐axis. But at the slit they deviate from their original path to form a
pattern on the screen and hence have a component of momentum p sin  in the y- direction.
Now as the electron may be anywhere within the pattern from angle  to  , the y-
component of momentum of electron may lie anywhere between p sin  and  p sin  .
Obviously, the uncertainty in the y- component of the momentum of electron is,
p  p sin   ( p sin )  2 p sin 

2h
p  sin  …(iv)

From equation (iii) and (iv), we have
 2h
x p  sin   2h
sin  
which is in agreement with the uncertainty principle.
3. Non‐existence of electrons in the nucleus : The radius of the nucleus is of order  1014 m. If any
type of particle is to exist in the nucleus, the uncertainty in their position in the nucleus is given
by,
x  2 1014 m
 The uncertainty in the momentum of the particle in the nucleus is given by,
h 6.62  10 34
p x    5.2  10 21 kg m/sec
2π x 2π  2  10 14 m

Thus, the magnitude of the momentum of the particle in the nucleus must be at least of this order.
 The relativistic energy of an electron in the nucleus is given by,

E  m02 c 4  p 2 c 2

E  (9.1 1031 ) 2 (3  108 ) 4  (5.2  1021 ) 2  (3  108 ) 2

E  (6.7  1027 )  (2.4 1024 )

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E  1.56 1012 Joules [1eV  1.6  10 19 J]

E  9.7 MeV
Thus, if the electron resides in the nucleus, it should have an energy of the order of 10 MeV.
However, electrons emitted during - decay have energies of the order of 3MeV to 4 MeV,
which varies widely from calculated value. Hence we conclude that electrons cannot reside in
the nucleus.
Q.5 (a) Derive the condition for maxima and minima in interference of light reflected from a thin film.
Ans. Consider a parallel‐side transparent thin film of thickness t and refractive index (  1) . A ray of
monochromatic light SA incident at an angle i is partly reflected along AR1 and partly refracted along
AB at angle r . At B it is again partly reflected along BC and partly refracted along BT1 , as shown
in figure. Similar reflections and refractions occur at C , D ,…..etc.
Reflected system : Now let us consider the reflected rays only. At points A, B, C ….only a small part
of light is reflected, the remaining portion is refracted.
S R1
R2
i N
i C Air
A M Glass
t
t m
rr
D
B Air
L
T2
T1

Fig. : Interference in thin films

Therefore, the rays AR1 and CR2 each having undergone one reflection, have almost equal
intensities. Rest of the rays can be ignored. Hence AR1 and CR2 rays are in a position to interfere.
So first, we will calculate the path difference between rays AR1 and CR2 . For this, draw CN and
BM perpendicular to AR1 and AC then,
Path difference,  = Path ABC in film – Path AN in air
  ( AB  BC )  AN …(a)
In right angled triangle ABM ,
BM
cos r 
AB
BM t
AB    BM  t 
cos r cos r
Where, t = Thickness of film and  ABM  r .
and AN  AC sin i
AN  ( AM  MC ) sin i  ( BM tan r  BM tan r ) sin i
AN  2t tan r sin i
sin r
AN  2t  sin i
cos r
sin r sin 2 r
AN  2t  sin r  2t  sin i   sin r 
cos r cos r
Therefore, using these values, path difference becomes,
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 t t  sin 2 r
Path difference,        2t [From equation (a)]
 cos r cos r  cos r
2t 2t sin 2 r
 
cos r cos r
2t 2t
 (1  sin 2 r )   cos 2 r
cos r cos r
 Path difference = 2t cos r …(i)
Since the ray AR1 suffers reflection at the surface of a denser medium, therefore, it undergoes a phase
change of  (or path difference of  / 2 ).
Hence the effective path difference between rays AR1 and CR2 is,

 2t cos r  …(ii)
2
Conditions of maxima and minima in reflected light :
The two rays will produce constructive interference if the path difference between them is an integral
multiple of  .

  2t cos r   n When, n = 0, 1, 2….
2

2t cos r  (2n  1) (Condition of maxima) …(iii)
2
When this condition is satisfied, then the film will appear bright in the reflected light.
The two rays will produce destructive interference if the path difference between them is an odd

multiple of ,
2
 
2t cos r   (2n  1) When, n = 0, 1, 2…….
2 2
2t cos r  n (Condition of minima) …(iv)
When this condition is satisfied, then the film will appear dark in the reflected light.
Q.5 (b) Enlist four differences between interference and diffraction.
Ans. Difference between interference and diffraction :
S. No. Interference Diffraction
1. This phenomenon is the result of This phenomenon is the result of
interaction taking place between two interaction of light between the
separate wavefronts originating from secondary wavelets originating from
two coherent sources. different points of same wave front.
2. The region of minimum intensity are The region of minimum intensity are
usually almost perfectly dark. not perfectly dark.
3. Interference fringes may or may not Diffraction fringes are not of the same
be of the same width. width.
4. All maxima are of same intensity. Maxima are of varying intensity.

Q.6 (a) Explain Hall effect and derive expression for Hall mobility.
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Ans. Hall effect : When a metal or a semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic
field B, a potential difference is produced in the direction normal to both the current and magnetic
field directions. This phenomenon is called Hall effect and potential difference developed is called
Hall voltage.
Hall effect measurements showed that it is the negative charge carriers namely electrons which
are responsible for electrical conduction in metals. It also showed that there exist two types of charge
carriers in semiconductors.
Importance : The importance of Hall effect is that it helps to determine the :
(i) Sign of charge carriers.
(ii) Charge carriers concentration.
(iii) Mobility of charge carriers if conductivity of the material is known.
(iv) Type of semiconductor.
Experimental determination of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient :
Let us consider an n‐type semiconductor in which the conduction is predominated by electrons.
Suppose an electric current I flows in the positive x‐direction and a magnetic field B is applied normal
to this electric field in z‐direction as shown in Fig. (a). A force, called the Lorentz force is exerted on
each electron which causes the electron paths to bend. As a result of this, the electrons accumulate
on one side of the slab and are deficient on the other side.
y
V
EH = H
d

Jx
++++++++++++++
I
d Jx vx

x
Bz
B
z
Fig. (a) Schematic view of an n‐type semiconductor bar.
+++++++++++++
p-type F’ n-type F’
I I I FL I
+ FL
EH EH
F F
+++++++++++++
(b) (c)
Fig. The direction of magnetic force and Hall field
(b) in p‐type semiconductor (c) in an n‐type semiconductor
Thus, an electric field is created in the y - direction which is called the Hall field. In equilibrium
condition,
Hall force = Lorentz force
FH  FL
 qEH  vx Bz q …(i)
Where, vx is the velocity of the electrons, and q the electronic charge.
 EH  vx Bz …(ii)
As current density, J x   Nvx q
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Putting the value of vx from equation (ii) in the above equation, we get
NEH q
Jx  
Bz
 J x Bz J x Bz
N  …(iii)
qEH q(VH / d )
J x Bz d IB d
VH    z …(iv)
Nq NqA
Where, A is the area of cross‐section of end face.
If t is the thickness of the semiconductor specimen, A = dt and the above equation reduces to,
BI
VH   z …(v)
Nqt
Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is called Hall coefficient R H . Thus,
EH V /d Bz I
RH   H 
J x Bz J x Bz J x Bz dNqt
1 1
RH    …(vi)
Nq 
Where,  is the charge density.
In terms of Hall coefficient, Hall voltage is given by,
BI
VH  RH …(vii)
t
The sign of the Hall coefficient RH indicates whether electrons or holes predominate in the
conduction process.
Experimental determination of mobility :
The electron mobility is given as,

n 
N q
Hence,  n  RH 
Thus, the magnitude of  n can be determined if the conductivity  has been measured.
Hall angle :
The net electric field E in the semiconductor is a vector sum of E x (electric field component in x‐
direction) and EH (Hall field). It acts at an angle  H to the x ‐axis.  H is called the Hall angle.
Ex

E
EH
Fig. (d)
From Fig. (d),
EH
tan  H  …(viii)
Ex
VH Bz J x
As EH   …(ix)
d N q
Also Ex   J x …(x)
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Bz  1
 tan  H      
N q  
 tan H   RH Bz
The product  RH is designated as  n the mobility of electrons.
 tan H   n Bz
 H  tan 1 n Bz  …(xi)
In the above discussions it is assumed that all carriers travel with a mean speed vx . However, this
does not happen. As a result the value of RH gets modified. The appropriate value is
3  1 
RH    …(xii)
8  Nq 
Accordingly,
8
n  RH …(xiii)
3
Applications :
1. Magnetic field meter : The Hall voltage VH for a given current is proportional to B. Hence
measurement of VH measures the magnetic field B.
2. Hall effect multiplier : This instrument gives an output proportional to the product of two
signals. Thus, if current I is made proportional to one input and if B is proportional to the second
input, then Hall voltage VH is proportional to the product of the two inputs.
Q.6 (b) Explain V‐I characteristics of a photovoltaic cell.
Ans. Photovoltaic cell : A solar cell is nothing but a p‐n junction device based on the principle of
photoelectric effect. It directly converts light into electricity and, hence, is known as a photovoltaic
cell.
Description : Conventional silicon cells are thin wafers about 300 m thick 3 to 6 cm in diameter,
sliced from a single crystal of n‐type or p‐type doped silicon as shown in Fig.1.
Light

Metal electrode
on front side }
-0.2 mm n-type Si

-300 mm p-type Si External

load

Metal electrode
on back side
Fig.1 : Solar cell
A shallow junction is formed at one end by the diffusion of the other type of impurity. Metal
electrodes are made of Ti‐Ag solder and are attached to the front and back sides. The electrodes are
in the form of a metal grid with figures which permit sunlight to pass through it. On the back side,
the electrode completely covers the surface. An antireflection coating of SiO having a thickness of
about 0.1 m , is also put on the top surface.
V‐I characteristics of a solar cell :
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When radiation falls on a solar cell, it is absorbed and pairs of positive and negative charges, celled
electron‐hole pairs are created. The positive and negative charges are separated because of the p‐n
junction. The direct current thereby produced is collected by the metal electrodes and flows through
the external load.
The volt‐ampere characteristics of a solar cell are determined by connecting a decade resistance
box and a voltmeter as shown in Fig.2.
mA
Light

P
RL V
N

Fig.2 : V‐I characteristics of a solar cell

A known intensity of light from a halogen is made to fall on it. The resistance values are
varied step by step and the corresponding voltages across the resistance box is measured using
a voltmeter. From the known values of V and R, the value of I is determined using the relation, I
= V/R. A graph is drawn between voltage and current is shown in Fig.3.
I
I
Isc
Power = –VmIm
Pmax Vm
Im V

Pmax
O V Im
Vm Voc
Fig.3 : Characteristics curve
The current I sc shown in Fig. 3 is obtained by short‐circuit in the two terminals of the solar cell
and this current is known as short‐circuit current. Similarly, voltage Voc is known as open‐circuit
voltage. The product of these two quantities gives the ideal power of the cell. The maximum
useful power is the area of the largest rectangle that can be formed in the V‐I curve. The
corresponding voltage and current are represented by Vm I m . The ratio of the maximum useful
power to the ideal power is called the fill factor. A typical value of the Voc , I sc and fill factor for a
silicon cell are respectively, 450 to 600 mV, 30 to 50 mA and 0.65 to 0.8.
Q.7 (a) Explain the liquid drop model for a nucleus and various energy terms therein.
Ans. Nuclear liquid drop model : This model was proposed by Neils Bohr in 1936. He pointed out the
strong, short‐range, attractive forces between the nucleons that are analogous to those acting between
the molecules of liquid. The surface molecules in a liquid drop are attracted by the inner molecules
thus generating the surface tension. This surface tension helps the liquid drop to take spherical shape.
He proposed almost similar phenomenon to nucleus. The two important properties of a nucleus, the
constant density and the constant binding energy per nucleon can be matched with the liquid drop.
Thus on the basis of Bohr’s liquid drop model the following conclusions may be drawn.
The similarities between the nucleus and a liquid drop are as follows :
1. In the stable state, the nucleus in shape, just like as liquid drop is spherical due to the symmetrical
surface tension forces.
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2. The force of surface tension acts on the surface of the liquid drop. Similarly there is a potential
barrier at the surface of the nucleus.
3. The density of a liquid drop is independent of its volume. Similarly, the density of the nucleus is
independent of its volume.
4. The molecules evaporate from a liquid drop on raising the temperature of the liquid due to their
increased energy of thermal agitation. Similarly, when energy is given to a nucleus by
bombarding it with nuclear projectiles, a compound nucleus is formed which emits nuclear
radiation almost immediately.
5. The nuclear forces are short range forces, similarly, as that of liquid, in which the intermolecular
forces are short range forces.
6. When a small drop of liquid is allowed to oscillate, it breaks up into two smaller drops of equal
size. The process of nuclear fission is similar in which the nucleus break up into two smaller
nuclei.
Q.7 (b) Differentiate between nuclear fission and fusion processes.
Ans. Difference between nuclear fission and fusion :
S. No. Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1. Nuclear fission is a process in which a Nuclear fusion is a process in which
heavy nucleus, after capturing a neutron two lighter nuclei combine to
splits up into two lighter nuclei of produce a heavy and stable nucleus.
comparable masses.
Example : Example :
92 U
235
 0 n 1  56 Ba 141  36 Kr 92  30 n 1  Q 41 H1  2 He 4  21 0  Q
2. The process is possible even at room The process is possible only at very
temperature. high temperature.
3. The links of the process are neutrons. The links of the process are protons.
4. Energy released by the fission of one Energy released by the fusion is about
nucleus of U 235 is about 200 MeV. 26.7 MeV.
5. Energy released per nucleon is 0.85 Energy released per nucleon is 6.67
MeV. MeV.
6. The fissionable substance is radioactive. The fusionable substance is not
radioactive.

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